Introduction:

Social Conflict is a global phenomenon. From Europe to America, Africa

to Asia, conflicts are common phenomena. Africa has experienced and is still
experiencing conflicts of grave proportions among several ethnic and religious
communities across the states. In West Africa, conflicts between farmers and
nomadic cattle herders have been a common feature of economic activities for
ages (Oli etal, 2018).The Nigerian state has witnessed series social conflict and
violence. These conflicts are such as the Biafran war, the Zaki Biam massacre,
the Odimassacre, the Niger Delta violence, operation Wetie, the Modakeke-Ife
war, Maitatsine religious uprising, the Fulani-Birom clashes in Jos, the Bauchi
religious riots, the Boko Haram terrorist activities, the Shiite group massacre in
Zaria and the recent Fulani herdsmen terrorist activities which pervades every
region of the country. These acts of conflicts have largely disrupted the state of
peace and development in the Nigerian state. In Nigeria, over the past
decade, with increasingly violent flare-ups spreading throughout central and
southern states; incidents have occurred in at least 22 of the country’s 36
states. The most recurrent among these crises involved the Fulani herdsmen
and farmers which, apart from the human casualties, has cost the nation over
27 billion dollars between 2012 and 2018 (according to UK – based Mercy Corp,
2018)
The cattle herders/farmers’ conflict in Nigeria has become so pervasive
and has led to loss of lives and properties. Many farmers and herders have lost
their lives and herds while others have experienced dwindling productivity in
their herds. In most of these encounters, citizens are regularly killed and the
destruction or loss of property leaves an already endangered populace even
poorer. There have been repeated and bloody clashes between the cattle
herdsmen and host communities for several years. These clashes according to
BBC (2016) have claimed thousands of lives within a period of twenty years. It is
further stated that in 2014, over 1,200 lives were lost which made these set of
people the world’s fourth deadliest militant group (Okoli and Atelhe, 2014).
North Central Nigeria continues to witness, almost on a regular basis,
violent clashes between and among her numerous ethnic nationalities. Farmers

1
and cattle herdsmen conflicts have become common occurrences in middle belt
states such as Benue, Plateau, Nasarawa, Kwara and Kogi states. According to
the scholar, in 2008, there were 31 reported cases of cattle herders/farmers
conflict while in 2009 the fatalities soared to 83 all occurring most primarily in
the north central states of the country. In 2010, it was also observed that the
occurrence of cattle grazing violence dropped to 39 fatalities with most of the
cases occurring in the north central but sad enough, in the following year, the
occurrence rose to 116 fatalities with the highest occurrence being in Plateau
state and the most sustained, lasting five days occurring in Benue State. In a
newspaper study of crisis in Nigeria between 2005 and February 2017 found
that conflicts over agricultural land use between farmers and herdsmen
accounted for 45 percent of all reported crises. In February 2016 there was an
attack on farmers in Benue State which according to reports killed some 300
people (BBC, 2016). According to one report, in 2016 over 2,000 people were
killed and tens of thousands displaced in Benue and Plateau states alone The
clashes between the farmers and herdsmen in the region had resulted to an
estimated death toll of approximately 2,500 people in 2017, these clashes are
becoming as potentially dangerous as the Boko Haram insurgency in the north
east (International Crisis Group ICG, 2017).
From the point of view of the vast extant literature and official
documents, the farmer/herder conflicts in North central have been engendered
by interplay of factors, prominent among which are: disputes arising from
claims and contestations regarding land ownership and use; struggles for
grazing/farm fields in the light of the diminution of arable land in the state;
destruction of farmlands/farm-crops by Fulani herd; provocation of parties –
farmers and herders alike – through trespass on cherished valuables; increasing
deprivation and livelihood crisis in the context of growing ecological resource
scarcity and lack; politicization of native/nomad differences through
mobilization of clannish, ethnic, religious, or other primordial sentiments;
increasing pressure on land and resources thereof as a result of rising
population; indigenization and sedentarisation of grazing communities in the
state; culture of criminal brigandage and opportunism among the youths of

2
both sides of the conflict divide; inefficient land use laws and administration;
politicization of the indigene-ship question; etc (Eje, 2017)
The impact of herdsman and farmers conflict in North central in
particular and Nigeria in general included destruction of crops and farm lands;
over grazing of economic plants; and destruction and pollution of sources of
water, ponds and fishery resources. The destruction has direct impact on the
peoples’ livelihood as their economic activities are tied to these environmental
resources like water, land (soil), vegetation (herbs, food and cash crops) and
fish. In some of the villages, sources of water for domestic purposes have either
been destroyed or polluted. The resultant effect of this is poverty. This therefore
informs the reaction of the affected communities to the invasion of the
herdsmen. The Fulani herdsmen saw these resources as common resources, to
which they could also lay claim and therefore refused to be restrained. This
reaction generated into conflicts, with its effects on agro-business and human
activities, as well as the sustainability of environment in terms of socio-political
and economic development (Bello, 2017).
CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATION
The term "conflict" has been variously conceptualized; however, the
multiplicity of the definition has always pointed at one direction; that conflict is
an enduring aspect of social existence. It is believed that wherever a community
of individual is found, conflict is basically a part of their experience. Thus, most
conflicts are social in character and usually arise as human beings pursue their
different survival and security needs. In this regard, Stagner (2018) defined
conflict as: a situation in which two or more human beings desired goals which
they perceive as being obtainable by one or the other but not yet by both; each
party mobilizing energy to obtain a goal, desire objective or situation and each
party perceive the other as a barrier or threat to such goal.
According to conflict theorist, conflict whether political, communal,
ethnic or religious are often influenced or motivated by disparity rather than
similarity among the people especially unequal ones. Karl Marx wrote in 1937 in
the communist manifesto “That the history of class struggle” in other words is it
agrarian, feudal or capitalist society; conflict is constant because of what he
called “class struggle” caused by class differences. Arguing from this perspective,

3
 one could say that conflict is inherent in human social relationships. Janowitz
sees conflicts as social phenomena “derived from a clash of goals, both personal
and social. Thus conflicts occur as a result of individual, groups and nations to
perpetrate their individual interest. Conflict has been defined by Weber (1971)
as any action that is oriented intentionally to carry out actors own wish against
the resistance of the other party or parties.
In the context of this assignment, conflict is defined as a situation of
struggle between and/or among opposing individuals, group, communities or
state over a certain desirable values arising from action of any of the parties in
the quest to realise or secure those values. The struggle includes tangible values
such as land, water and vegetal resources. When there is no superior force or
effective regulative mechanism to balance the struggle and thus prevent the
situation from becoming more intense. The parties involved employ physical
force or lethal the conflict result in injuries and damages as well as elimination
of opponent in the quest to secure values at stake.
Farmers-herders differences are not only seen as resources conflict but
are also sometimes represented as ethnic conflict involving the two groups.
Since farmers and herders groups have different values, custom, physical and
cultural characteristic, dispute between them are frequently characterized as
ethnic conflict (Tonah, 2006).
Theoretical Essay on the Nature and Causes of Social Conflict: Taking a case of
Cattle Herders/Farmers in North central Nigeria
Nature and Manifestation of Cattle Herders-Farmers Conflicts in North Central
Nigeria
The herders — farmers’ conflict in North Central Nigeria has become so
pervasive and has led to loss of lives and properties. Nweze (2005) also stated
that, many farmers and herders have lost their lives and herds while others have
experienced dwindling productivity in their herds. In most of these encounters,
citizens are regularly killed and the destruction or loss of property leaves an
already endangered populace even poorer.
Table 1: Cattle herders /farmers conflicts in North Central Nigeria (2013)
Date Place of Incident Number of
Death
4
 January 15 Farmers/fulani clash in Nasarawa state 10
January 20 Farmers /fulani clash in Nasarawa state 25
January 24 Fulani /farmers clash in Plateau state 9
February 7 Fulani/eggon clash in Nasarawa state 30
March 20 Clashes between fulani an Tarok, Jos, Plateau state 18
March 28 Clashes between fulani and farmer in Riyon, B/ladi, Jos, 28
Plateau state
March Clashes between fulani and natives in Bokkos areas of 18
29/30 Bokkos LGA Jos, Plateau state
March 30 Police killings in clashes between farmers and Fulani 6
April 3 Famers/fulani clashes in Guma LGA, Benue state 3
April 10 Clash between Fulani and Tiv farmers in Benue state 28
April 23 Fulani herders/Egbe farmers clash in Kogi state 5
May 4 Fulani/farmers clash in Plateau state 13
May 13 Fulani/agatu clash in Benue state 50
May20 Tiv / fulani clash at Benue-Nasarawa boarder 23
Total 266

Source: Okoli and Atelhe, (2014) cited in Sunday Trust, May 26, 2013 pp1
Table 2: Cattle herdsmen and Farmers conflicts from 2014-2015 in North
Central Nigeria
S/ LOCATION AND DATES CASUALTY AND CONFLICT RESO
N DESTRUCTION COMMITTEE
1 Agatu and Gwer Local More than 60 killed and many The army skeletally interfered.
Govt. Areas in Benue houses burnt, prompting Gov. Agatu community is constantly
th
State on Tuesday 25 Suswan to seek help from the up-dating their conflict
March, 2014. (two) days army. About 55 were killed at resolution scheme as at Nov.
after, at Gbajimba Gbajimba with many houses 4th, 2015
headquarters of Guma destroyed. Over 52,000
th
Local Govt Area. April 12 , internally displaced people at
2014-kula settlement in camp established by the
Gwer west L.G.A. Catholic Diocese of Makurdi,
2 were killed in Gwer West
L.G.A.
th
3 5 March, 2015 Riyan 10 people were killed with Irked by the upsurge of attacks
local govt. Area of Plateau more than 100 houses burnt and killings by the Fulani

5
 State herdsmen, most especially in
the middle belt, on Thursday
March 20th 2014, mandated it`s
committee on security,
Intelligence, Defence, Army
and Police affairs to investigate
the incidents
4 6th March 2015, Buwa Many people were killed and
village in Ibi Local Govt. many houses burnt
Area at 11:15 am Plateau
State
Sources: Jimmoh, 2017
Table 3: Herdsmen-Farmers Conflicts in Nigeria between January 2016 and May
2017.
S/ Place Date Immédiate cause (s) Death toll / casualties /
n degree of Destruction
A Incidences of 2016
1 Udeni Ruwa, January 6 Destruction of farm Between 12 and 38 people
Nasarawa state crops are killed and many
wounded.
2 Agatu, Benue State February 2 Reprisal attack 7 people were killed and the
community was thrown
into mourning.
3 Tom-Anyiin and February Clash between Fulani 10 person were killed and
Tom-Ataan 7 herdsmen and farmers the community was raided.
communities, Tombu
in Buruku LGA,
Benue State
4 Agatu, Benue State February
Reprisal attack against Between 300 and 500
24 & 28
the alleged killing of a persons were killed and
prominent Fulani man wounded. Others were
by the people of Agatu displaced.
in 2013
5 Mbaya-Tombo, Benue March Dispute and destruction Over 35 persons died and
State 7,8, 13 and of farm crops properties were destroyed.
17
6 Agatu, Benue State April 20 Policemen attacked Some people were injured
6
 and a policeman was
declared missing.
B Incidences of 2017
7 Ipiga village in January Grazed cattle and 15 persons were killed. A
ohimini LGA, Benue 24 destroyed farmlands bloody fight that took the
State lives of two of the
herdsmen and about 13 of
the villagers.
8 Mbahimin community, March Renewed hostilities No fewer than 10 person
Gwer East LGA, 2 between herdsmen and were killed.
Benue State farmers in Mbahimin
community
9 Tiv community, March 11 7 people were killed.
Mkgovur village in
bukuru LGA Benue
State
10 Adam Village, kwande March Herdsmen farm attack 1 killed, 1 injured, women
LGA Benue State 27 raped in their farms.
Source: Oli et al, 2018 as cited in Vanguard (2017, June 1st) and Kalu (2017, June,
3rd).
Causes of Herdsmen-Farmers Conflict in North Central Nigeria
Empirically, evidences have revealed various reasons for the continued
conflict between herdsmen and farmers in Nigeria. Some of the factors that
influence the conflict include;
Human Factor:
The damaging or intentional grazing on crops has been pointed out as the
most predominant cause of conflict between farmers and herdsmen (Adebayo &
Olaniyi, 2008). In a recent study, Adeoye (2017) found deliberate grazing of
cattle on crops, farmers’ encroachment on grazing reserves, water holes and
cattle paths and indiscriminate bush burning by herders as notable causes of
conflict between the groups in parts of North central Nigeria.
Similarly, Bello (2015) enumerated the major causes of herdsmen-farmers
conflict in Nigeria. He argued that destruction of crops by cattle and other
property (reservoirs, irrigational facilities and infrastructure) by the herdsmen
themselves are the main direct causes for conflicts cited by the farmers. Burning
7
of rangelands, fadama and blockage of stock routes and water points by crop
encroachment are important direct reasons cited by the herdsmen while
increasing rate of cattle theft which is often accompanied by violence,
antagonistic perceptions and beliefs among farmers and herdsmen could
compound conflict situation, especially due to failing institutions and fierce
competition for resources (Bello, 2015).
Ecological Factor:
The encroaching desert to the traditional abode of the pastoralists in the
Sahel region has been identified as a factor for the continued clash as herders
migrate southward where the grass is much lusher and often intrude into
spaces long claimed or cultivated by settled farmers (Olaniyan et al, 2015). In
Nasarawa State, the situation has been exacerbated by the phenomenon of
climate change which dynamics tend to have been aggravating natural resource
conflicts across the region (Okoli & Atelhe, 2014). Climate change and desert
encroachment have made southward movements even more inevitable and
confrontations with southern farming communities more frequent (Nwosu,
2017).
Blench (2006) attributes farmers-herders conflict to competition over
natural resources and over access to grazing and water resources and suggests
that, because herders now farm and farmers have herds, competition for the
same natural resources has increased. The semi-arid zone has always been more
populous than the Middle Belt, and the initial expansion of cultivation was in
this zone. As the pressure on arable land in the semi-arid zone increased, soil
fertility decreased and farmers were obliged to move to regions of uncleared
bush or to increase their holding size. As a consequence, more and more
farmers began to settle further and further south in the lightly settled sub-
humid zone, (Blench, 2006:8). Farmers and pastoralists who are the main
agricultural practitioners in Nigeria depend on water resources to sustain their
vocations. In recent times, access to water and grazing land have become more
competitive and has led to violent conflicts on a regular basis between farmers
and herdsmen. Jacobs (1980) noted that fresh water scarcity and insufficient
rainfall are causes of social conflict between famers and herders in Nigeria

8
 The Institute for Peace and Conflict Resolution in conjunction with
United Nations Development Programme (IPCR-UNDP, 2012) traced the cause
of the conflict in Guma and Makurdi LGAs of Benue State to the material
needed for existence or survival which is the green of the land and fresh water.
As the pastoralists need this for grazing and drinking purposes; the Tiv farmers
at the same time need it for farming activities; thus they usually clash.
Ethno-Religious Factor:
Another major reason for the conflicts between farmers and pastoralist is
the ethno-religious dynamics of the social relations between these groups of
resources users. The ethnic dimension comes to play in the conflict between
two broad ethnic groups, the pastoralists who are majorly of the Fulani
extraction with an entirely different set of practices and way of life of the
sedentary farmers who are made up of a variety of ethnic groups (Blench 1984;
Shetimma and Tar, 2008). Language barrier and religious intolerance are also a
major colouration to the conflict. The indigenes of these North Central state are
predominantly Christians while the settlers are of the Islamic religion. Hence,
this often leads to escalation of conflict between pastoralist and farmers because
of the ethno-religious alignment of the herdsmen and farmers.
Political Factor:
Burton (2016) noted that government’s silence or negligence on the need
for increased grazing space has influenced the conflict. He also argued that the
request is not new as the Fulani herdsmen have previously called on the
government to rectify the situation. He maintained that there has been little
action on the part of the government to resolve these problems and some
quarters believe that it is just being politicized for selfish gains. The herdsmen
therefore have grown restless and their impatience has culminated into violent
actions.
Demographic Factor:
Nyong, (2010) observed that the expansion of population can be seen as a
cause of the herders-farmers conflicts in Nigeria. With the expansion of
population, the rate of food production would naturally increase and to meet
that increasing demand, it is natural for the farmers to encroach into marginal
lands that had been the traditional pasture routes for the cattle. This has

9
therefore heightened struggle between livestock and agricultural production
which, more often than not, result in the escalation of conflicts. Hence, as
population grows, more land is being cultivated and less is available for posture;
forcing Fulani to migrate and tramp on crops cultivated by farmers.
Impact of Herdsmen-Farmers Conflicts in Nigeria
Clashes between cattle herders and crop farmers have been a major cause
of increasing violence and general insecurity in Nigeria. According to Abba &
Usman (2008) is that of food security. In all the states under consideration,
particularly Taraba and Benue states, the majority of those displaced are women
and youths who make up substantial part of the farming community, just like in
Nasarawa, Kaduna (Southern Kaduna) and Plateau States. The instability caused
by the incessant conflict, will likely lead to food shortages for the communities
that depend on subsistence farming. Conflicts resulting from the use of Fadama
land may also jeopardize huge financial investment by government, Africa
Development Bank and World Bank in the Fadama projects nationwide (Ardo
2004:6).
Similarly, Ofuoku and Isife (2009, p. 53) identified socio economic effects
of herders/farmers conflict to include;
Reduction in output and income of crop farmers as a
result of the destruction of crops by cattle and
indiscriminate bush burning. Many farmers lost part or
the whole of their crops. This meant reduced yield which
translated into low income on the part of the farmers
who take farming as a major occupation. This tends to
negatively affect their savings, credit repayment ability, as
well the food security and economic welfare of urban
dwellers that depend on these farmers for food supply.
This discourages the farmers and rural/agricultural
development.
Also, Adebayo and Olaniyi, (2008) noted that the impact of the herders-
farmers conflict has been observed to lead to the displacement of the farmers
from their places of origin. They have thus become Internally Displaced Persons
(IDPs) with a far-reaching impact on farming activities. Because the people

10
displaced are peasant farmers they often depend on others to give them land to
plant crops on a smaller scale than what they have cultivated before. This has
often led to low agricultural yield mainly to support their existence at a
subsistence level. Their economic well-being is thus tempered with because of
this conflict. Their cash crops production has reduced, their subsistence level
also has dropped.
Abass (2012) maintains that the socio-economic consequences of herders-
farmers conflicts are usually eminent. Conflicts between the crop farmers and
nomadic famers or grazers create some mistrust, tension and open
confrontations between the opposing groups. Reduction in income and output
of crop farmers occur as a result of indiscriminate bush burning and
destruction of crops by cattle which lead to either partial or total loss of crops
by the farmers. The effect on crop yield therefore has negative impact on the
affected farmer’s income with its summary impact on the overall agricultural
income. This tends to negatively affect farmer’s savings, credit repayment
ability, as well the food security and economic welfare of urban dwellers that
depend on these farmers for food supply, thus, farming and rural/agricultural
development is discouraged.
Lederach in Audu, (2013) further identified three different effects of
herders farmers conflict in a deeply divided society: Firstly, cohesion and
identity in a contemporary conflict tend to form within increasingly narrower
lines than those that encompass national citizenship. In a conflicting society,
people seek security by identifying with something close to their experience and
over which they have control. In today’s settings that unit of identity may be
clan, ethnicity, religion, geographic or regional affiliation, or a mixture of these.

Theoretical Framework
The paper assignment is anchored on conflict theories and Frustration-
Aggression Theory. The theories are suitable, relevant and best explain the
phenomenon leading to the prevailing issues of social conflicts between
herdsmen and farmers in North Central Nigeria.
Conflict Theory
The lead proponent of this theory is Karl Marx (1818-1883). He was a
victim of marginalization due to his revolutionary ideas and the misery of his
11
alienation was seen through his two radical most famous works: The Capital
and Communist Manifesto (Charles, 2005). Marx’s conflict ideology is “an
analysis of inequality under capitalism and how to change it through
confrontation” (Ritzer & Stepnisky, 2014:43). They argued that in capitalism,
there is an inherent conflict of interests between two opposing classes. Rex in
Kirby, Kidd, Koubel, Barter, Hope, Kirton, Madry, Manning and Triggs (1997:32)
submits that “the most basic cause of the conflict between two groups is usually
over access to material resources”. However¿, the basic tenet of the theory is
that two opposing groups in the society always struggle for limited or scarce
resources. Each group struggles to attain or acquire more resources and
because they are scarce, struggle ensues between them. Every group tries to
protect its own interest, thus blocking the progress of another in accessing that
(Idowu, 2017).
The land resources (such as farm lands, crops, grass/pasture, fresh water
etc.) are scarce in Nigeria and needed by both farmers and herdsmen for
sustainance of their various sources of livelihood. Conflict, however, would not
only occur between herders and farmers as both strive with another in pursuit
of these resources; but as either of the groups tries to intrude or exploit
another’s already secured and long acquired resources. Again, as the herders
who usually track miles without their wives or certain about grazing fields in
the various communities they visit, could possibly obtain sexual gratification
forcefully or have their cattle fed in farm crops and would normally face
confrontation for violation and destruction of crops. Similarly, conflict would
likely arise when farmers who are in need of arable farm lands encroach into
grazing reserves or criminals in the host communities try to steal cattle for
economic gains.
Frustration-Aggression Theory
This theory was originally conceived by Dollard and Miller (1939) but
later substantially refined by Berkowitz in 1969. The theory states that
aggression is an outcome or result of blocking or frustrating a person’s efforts
towards a certain goal (Dollard, 1939; as cited in Myers, 2007).
The theory further posits that frustration caused by interference in goal-
directed activity produces a ‘readiness’ for aggression which if ‘triggered’ can

12
result in aggressive response. According to Rationis (2014), the trigger could be
an insignificant element of behavior, such as a casual joke, gesture or mild
criticism which would normally be overlooked, but to the frustrated individual
who is already waiting for an opportunity to show his frustration it may
provoke aggressive response or reprisal. In application to this study, the goal or
aim of every farmer during planting season is to have bountiful harvest, then
sell the farm produce and make profits. On the other hand, the herdsmen would
always want to have well fed and healthy cattle and be able to make profits as
well. When any of these expectations was not realizable, either by the herd
(cattle) eating up and destroying the farmers’ crops or that the farmer
encroached on grazing reserves or use water reserved for cattle to irrigate their
farms, aggression would be triggered. Either of the parties that felt frustrated to
achieving their economic goals may decide to reprise as to show their
displeasure and as a result conflict will occur.
Furthermore, a clear readiness for aggression could be likened to the
Fulanis’ justification on why they attacked ten Agatu communities of Benue
State on February 10th 2016 and massacred hundreds of persons. According to
the leader of the Gan Allah Fulanis Association, the conflict was a reprisal attack
against the killing of their prominent son by the people of Agatu who stole his
cattle in April 2013 (Mayah, Tukur & Adebayo, 2016). This scenario depicts
three years of frustration or grudge against the Agatus and perhaps repeated
unsuccessful plots for attack, until the farmers’ reaction on crops destruction by
the herds triggered the aggression from the herdsmen.
Conclusion and Recommendations:
Based on the foregoing discussion, the paper concluded that, cattle
herders-farmers conflicts are not only pervasive, but also endemic and alarming,
which have impacted negatively not only on agro-business but also on national
security in North central part of Nigeria. It argued that the conflicts are caused
by a combination of factors such as crops damage by cattle, land encroachment,
inadequate grazing reserves, lack of access to water point and pollution of water
points, killing of stray cattle, cattle rustling, indiscriminate bush burning,
disregard to rules and regulations and so on. This study established that these
conflicts have far reaching effects on the people and polity such as destruction

13
of farms, burning of markets, loss of cattle and loss of crop yield, farm\job
abandonment, and above all it has negatively affected agro-business by
reducing the agricultural out-puts.
Based on the Findings of this paper, the following recommendations are
made to stem the rising cases of herders-farmers conflicts in Plateau State and
Nigeria in general.
Government should enact a law to provide for the establishment of ranches
(restricted grazing).
i. Government should establish cattle grazing fields in the six geo-political
zones of the country and out-law open grazing of cattle. This must be
done through due consultation, dialogue or appeal to some aggrieved
regions of the country which may oppose or resist the move.
ii. Government should intensify efforts in arresting, trial and persecution of
perpetrators of violence in Nigeria,
iii. The law enforcement agencies should be trained and equipped to combat
the rising and continuous spate of herders’-farmers’ clashes in the State.
The employment of intelligence gathering should be encouraged to nip
possible conflicts in the bud.
iv. The traditional rulers who are the custodian of culture of the people
should be adequately engaged in conflict resolution conflicts between
herders-farmers. They should be engaged in educating the people about
the importance of peaceful coexistence and the effects of violence on the
people with a view to preventing the eruption of conflicts. Also, their
involvement will facilitate the identification and reporting of residents
with criminal tendencies and disposition. Such information will enable the
police act on time in preventing an explosive tension or crisis.
v. There should be enhanced public information and education on the need
to respect the law. Such enlightenment should focus on propagating the
dangers of violence and the gains of peaceful co-existence within the
communities.

14
References:
Adeoye, N.O. (2017). Land use conflict between farmers and herdsmen in parts
of Kano, Yobe and Borno States of Nigeria: Nomads’ viewpoints. Ghana
Journal of Geography, 9(1), 127–151.
Abass, I.M. (2012). No retreat no surrender conflict for survival between the
Fulani pastoralist and farmers in Northern Nigeria. European Scientific Journal,
8(1), 331-346.
Audu, S.D. (2013). Conflicts among farmers and pastoralists in Northern Nigeria
induced by freshwater scarcity. Developing Country Studies, 3(12), 25-32.
Adebayo, O.O. & Olaniyi, O.A. (2008). Factors associated with pastoral and crop
farmers conflict in derived Savannah Zone of Oyo State,
Nigeria. Journal of Human Ecology, 23(1), 71-74.
Burton, G. (2016). Background report: The Fulani herdsmen. Project Cyma
Publication. November, pp.1-18.
British Broadcasting Corporation (2016): Report of Social Conflict in Africa:
Causes, Effects and Solutions.
Bello Adamu (2015): The Effect of Farmer-Pastoralist Violence on Income: New
Survey Evidence From Nigeria’s Middle Belt States. At The Economics of
Peace And Security Journal Vol. 10, No. 1
Eje, Thankgod Ibe (2017): Pattern and Impact of Conflicts between Farmers and
Herders in Riyom Local Government Area, Plateau State, Nigeria

15
Ezeonwuka I.F. and Austine Uchechukwu Igwe (2016): Emerging Challenges in
Nigeria’s National Security in the Twenty-First Century: The Fulani
Herdsmen Menace. At Asian Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies Vol.4,
Issue 5
International Crisis Group (2017): Herders against Farmers: Nigeria’s expanding
Deadly Conflict. Belgium: African Report
IPCR-UNDP. (2012). Project report on conflict mapping into incessant crises
between the Tiv farmers and the Fulani herdsmen in Guma and
Makurdi Local Government Areas of Benue State, Nigeria and multi-
stakeholders dialogue. Women Environmental Programme
(WEP) Publication, pp.1-72.
Jimmoh Jocob (2017) : Some Dimensions of Farmers'-Pastoralists' Conflicts in
the Nigerian Savanna. At Journal of Global Initiatives: Policy, Pedagogy,
Perspective
Karl Marx (1937): Communist Manifesto. Moscow: Progress Publishers

Marcy Corps (2018): Analysis of Dynamics of Cattle Herders/farmer conflicts in

Nigeria. Kaduna: Joyce Graphics
Mayah, E., Tukur, S. & Adebayo, H. (2016, March 19th). Exclusive: Why we
struck in Agatu - Fulani herdsmen. Premium Times.
Nweze, Y. S. (2005). Perspectives on nomads/farmers conflicts. A paper
presented at Zamfara State College of Education, Zamfara State,
Nigeria. September 14th– 16th.

Okoli, Al Chukwuma and Atelhe George Atelhe (2014): Nomads against Natives:
A Political Ecology of Herder/Farmer Conflicts in Nasarawa State, Nigeria. At
American International Journal of Contemporary Research Vol. 4 No. 2.
Oli, Nneka Perpetua etal (2018): Prevalence of Herdsmen and Farmers Conflict
in Nigeria. At International Journal of Innovative Studies in Sociology and
Humanities Volume: 3 Issue: 1
Ofuoku, A. U. & Isife, B. I. (2009). Causes, effects and resolutions of farmers-
nomadic cattle herders conflict in Delta state, Nigeria. International Journal
of Sociology & Anthropology, 1(2), 047-054.
Stagner John (2018): Understanding Herder-Farmer Conflicts in West Africa:
Outline of a Processual Approach. At Human Organization, Vol. 69, No. 2,
16
Tonah, S. (2006). Managing farmer-herder conflicts in Ghana’s Volta Basin.
Ibadana Journal of Social Sciences, 4(1), 33-45.

17