HEREDITY AND VARIATION

Cells contain all the information they need to control their activities
coded as the genetic information in their genes. These genes are passed
on to new cells during cell division. Living organisms show variation
as much as this variation is passed on from one generation to the next
through genes.

1. What are the TWO types of cell division?

2. What is the importance of cell division?
3. How are characteristics of a generation passed to the other?
4. How can individuals of the same species and even siblings have
different characteristics?

Key Terms

-Heredity: The process by which characteristics are given from

a parent to their child through the genes.

-Variation: In biology, any difference between cells, individual

organisms, or groups of organisms of any species caused either by
genetic differences (genotypic variation) or by the effect of
environmental factors.

-Trait: A specific characteristic of an organism. Traits can be

determined by genes or the environment, or more commonly by
interactions between them. The genetic contribution to a trait is called
the genotype. The outward expression of the genotype is called the
phenotype.
-DNA: DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in
humans and almost all other organisms. Nearly every cell in a person's
body has the same DNA.

-Chromosomes: A threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein

found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in
the form of genes.

-Genes: A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of

heredity. Genes are made up of DNA.

-Alleles: An allele is a variant form of a gene. Some genes have a

variety of different forms, which are located at the same position, or
genetic locus, on a chromosome. Humans are called diploid organisms
because they have two alleles at each genetic locus, with
one allele inherited from each parent.
Cell Division

When a cell divides, chromosomes with their genes are passed genes are
passed on to the cells produced, known as daughter cells.

There are TWO types of cell division:

-Mitosis: Is the type of cell division that results in the formation of

TWO daughter cells, each with the same number (diploid) and kind of
chromosomes as the parent.

-Meiosis: Is the type of cell division that results in the formation of

FOUR daughter cells, each with half the number (haploid) of
chromosomes as the parent.
 Haploid describes a cell that contains a single set of chromosomes.
The number of chromosomes in a single set is represented as n,
which is also called the haploid number. In humans, n = 23.
Gametes contain half the chromosomes contained in normal
diploid cells of the body, which are also known as somatic cells.

 Diploid describes a cell that contain two copies of each

chromosome. Nearly all the cells in the human body carry two
homologous, or similar, copies of each chromosome. The
total number of chromosomes in diploid cells is described as 2n,
which is twice the number of chromosomes in a haploid cell (n).

5. In what type of cells would mitosis and meiosis occur?

Stages of Cell Division

Mitosis and Meiosis

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RHyZVmbiA78
1. Chromosomes become shorter and fatter. Each chromosome makes
an exact copy of itself, forming TWO chromatids joining at the
centromere.

2. The nuclear membrane breaks down and the chromosomes line up

along the middle of the cell.

3. Chromatids separate and move to the sides of the cell becoming

new chromosomes.

4. A nuclear membrane forms around each chromosome to make

TWO identical nuclei.
 5. The cytoplasm divides and the cell membrane develops down the
middle of the cell to divide into TWO identical cells (clones)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=micUPynqx9k

1. Each chromosome makes an exact copy itself, forming TWO

chromatids joined together by a centromere.
 2. Homologous chromosome come together and pieces of genetic
information are exchanged between chromatids (crossing over).
The chromosomes line up along the middle of the cell.

3. Homologous pairs separate and move to opposite sides of the cell

4. The cell split to form TWO daughter cells

5. The chromosome line up along the middle of the cell where

chromatid separate from each other

6. The nuclear membrane form around each group of chromosomes

forming FOUR new daughter cells with haploid number.

Importance of Meiosis and Mitosis

 Mitosis
-Increasing the number of cells in a particular tissue.
-Protection from harmful microorganism in case of a cut or wound.
-Replacing or repairing dead or inefficient cells in a tissue.
-To maintain the ratio of cytoplasm to nucleoplasm as well as
surface area to volume.

 Meiosis
-It is the most essential process in all sexually reproducing
animals.
-Maintain chromosomal number in zygote (diploidy of zygote).
 -Meiosis includes crossing over, resulting in genetic
recombination.
-Meiosis show a number of incidences of mutation (sudden
changes in genetic material).

Variation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VjlE5Qzl1S0

7. What is the meaning of the term variation in biology?

8. Does everyone in the class have the same eye colour or hair
colour?
9. Is everyone in the class of the same height? Justify your answers.

-Variation, in biology, any difference between cells, individual

organisms, or groups of organisms of any species caused either by
genetic differences (genotypic variation) or by the effect of
environmental factors.

Types of Variation
-Gene (Inherited) Variation
-Environmental Variation

Inherited Causes of Variation

-Random assortment of the chromosomes from the parents during
meiosis; arrangement of chromosomes on the equator of spindles.
-Random fertilization; during fertilization, male and female gamete
fuses in random ways to create different combination of genes.
-Crossing over during meiosis; chromosome crossover and exchange
genes.
-Mutations: a change in the structure of a single gene such as creating
extra genes or duplicate a gene such as:
1. Down’s Syndrome: also known as trisomy 21, is a
genetic disorder caused by the presence of all or part of a third copy of
chromosome 21. It is usually associated with physical growth delays,
mild to moderate intellectual disability, and characteristic facial features.

2. Klinefelter syndrome (KS), also known as 47, XXY is

a syndrome where a male has an additional copy of the X chromosome.
The primary features are infertility and small poorly functioning
testicles. Often, symptoms are subtle and subjects do not realize they are
affected.

3. Antibiotic Resistance: https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=HdroY9UOG9k
4. Turners syndrome: a condition that affects only females, results
when one of the X chromosomes (sex chromosomes) is missing or
partially missing. Turner syndrome can cause a variety of medical and
developmental problems, including short height, failure of the ovaries to
develop and heart defects.

Examples of Inherited Variation in Humans:

  Eye Colour
 Hair Colour
 Skin Colour
 Lobed or Lobe-less Ears

 Tongue Rolling

Environmental Causes of Variation

Characteristics of animal and plant species can be affected by factors
such as:

 Climate
 Diet
 Accidents
 Culture
 Lifestyle
For example, you will become heavier if you eat too much food, and you
will become lighter if you eat too little. A plant in the shade of a big tree
will grow taller as it tries to reach more light.
Examples of Environmental Variation:

 Your language
 Your religion
 Flower colour in hydrangeas (these plants produce blue flowers
in acidic soil and pink flowers in alkaline soil)
Continuous and Discontinuous Variation
Some of the features of the different organisms in a species show
continuous variation, and some features show discontinuous variation.
Continuous Variation: A graded series of intermediate phenotypes falls
between the extremes within a population. Height in human beings, for
example, exists in continuous variation.

Human height is an example of continuous variation. It ranges from that

of the shortest person in the world to that of the tallest person. Any
height is possible between these values.
For any species a characteristic that changes gradually over a range of
values shows continuous variation. Examples of such characteristics are:

 Height
 Weight
If you record the heights of a group of people and draw a graph of your
results, it usually looks something like this:
Discontinuous Variation: A characteristic of any species with only a
limited number of possible values shows discontinuous variation.
Human blood group is an example of discontinuous variation. In the
ABO blood group system, only four blood groups are possible (A, B,
AB or O). There are no values in between, so this is discontinuous
variation.

Examples of such characteristics are:

 Blood Group
 Gender
 Eye colour
Genetic Engineering
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CfTnVx31pr0

Genetic engineering is the process of using recombinant DNA (rDNA)

technology to alter the genetic makeup of an organism. 
Genetic engineering is also called genetic modification or GM. It
involves modifying the genome of an organism by introducing
a gene from another organism to result in a desired characteristic.
Genetic engineering involves these STAGES:

1. Selection of the desired characteristic.

2. The gene responsible for the characteristic is 'cut out' of
the chromosome.
3. The gene is transferred and inserted into another organism.
4. Replication of the modified organism.

Advantages of Genetic Engineering

1. Faster Growth Rate: Animals and plants can be genetically

modified to promptly mature. For example, crops can be
engineered to increase crop yield. There are crops being
engineered to survive unfavorable conditions such as high heat or
low light.  This gives farmers the ability to expand beyond the
traditional locations and use the empty lands for other purpose.
 Animals can also be genetically modified to improve production.
Dairy cows can be engineered to produce more milk; sheep can
grow wool faster; and animals bred for their meat can be
engineered to grow bigger and faster.

2. Pest-Resistant and Extended Life: This genetic modification is

mainly executed in plants. The animal or plant ‘s genes are altered
to make them perdurable and resistant to pests and diseases. Plants
being cultivated can have built in pest repellents which help reduce
the need for harmful chemicals and other pesticides that cause
damage to the water supply. 

3. New Foods: Currently, we can create new types of plants and

animals by combining genes from different species. Scientists are
taking a potato or soybean and giving the crop more nutrients to
increase its value

Disadvantages of Genetic Engineering

1. Unfavorable Diversity: Genetically engineered species that reach
the wild can have a negative impact on the domestic species. Since
species that have been modified tend to be stronger, unmodified
species would soon disappear because of the introduction of
modified species. This would result in a decreased diversity.

2. Negative Side Effects: The goal of genetic engineering is to solve

an issue by transferring genes to the organism that will help
 combat the problem.  Sometimes, this can cause side effects.  For
example, you can modify a plant to need less water, but that would
make it intolerant to direct sunlight.

3. Risky Pathogens: Viruses and bacteria adapt to the environment.

If a bacterium cannot get through the natural repellent of the
genetically altered plant, there is a possibility that these viruses and
bacteria will grow stronger and more resistant negatively affecting
non genetically engineered plants/animals.

4. Less Nutritional Value: Concerns regarding the nutritional value

of the products stems from the fact that some products can grow
big and quickly at the cost of decreasing their nutritional value.

Uses of Genetic Engineering

-Improve the quality of food product such as the nutritional value.
-Improve yields of livestock and crops such as increasing yields or
growth rate.
-Protect agricultural crops against environmental threats such as
pathogens.
-Make organisms produce materials they do not usually produce such as
vaccines.
  In Medicine
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vribRyVQ6G8

The first successful products of genetic engineering were protein drugs

like insulin, which is used to treat diabetes, and growth hormone
somatotropin. These proteins are made in large quantities by genetically
engineered bacteria or yeast in large “bioreactors”. Some drugs are also
made in transgenic plants, such as tobacco. Other human proteins that
are used as drugs require biological modifications that only the cells of
mammals, such as cows, goats, and sheep, can provide. For these drugs,
production in transgenic animals is a good option. Using farm animals
for drug production has many advantages because they are reproducible,
have flexible production, are easily maintained, and have a great
delivery method (e.g. milk).

Synthetic Insulin: human insulin produced by recombinant DNA

technology.
Health, Ethical and Environmental Concerns

1. Health Concerns

 Allergens

There are potential consequences of changing the natural state of an

organism through foreign gene expression. Such modifications can alter
the organism's metabolism, growth rate, and/or response to external
environmental factors. These impacts affect not only the GMO itself, but
also the natural environment in which that organism proliferates.
Potential health risks to humans include the potential exposure to new
allergens in genetically modified foods, in addition to the transfer of
antibiotic-resistant genes to gut flora (Phillips, 2008, World Health
Organisation, 2014).

 Gene Transfer

Gene transfer of pesticide, herbicide, or antibiotic resistance to other

organisms not only increases risks to humans, but it could also cause
ecological imbalances, enabling previously innocuous plants to grow
uncontrolled, thereby promoting the development of disease among both
plants and animals. Although the possibility of horizontal gene transfer
between GMOs and other organisms cannot be denied, in reality, such
risks are considered to be quite low (Phillips, 2008, World Health
Organisation, 2014).
GM foods currently available on international markets have fulfilled
international safety standards and are unlikely to present risks for human
health. In addition, no effects on human health have occurred as a result
of consumption of such foods by the general population in countries
where they have been approved (World Health Organisation, 2014).

 Outcrossing

Migration of genes from GM plants into conventional crops or related

species in the wild (referred to as “outcrossing”), including the mixing
of crops derived from conventional seeds with GM crops, may indirectly
affect food safety and food security. Incidents exist where GM crops
approved for animal feed or industrial use were detected at low levels in
products intended for human consumption. Numerous countries have
adopted strategies to reduce mixing, including clear division of fields
within which GM crops and conventional crops are grown (World
Health Organisation, 2014).

2. Ethical and Religious Concerns

Ethical issues surrounding GM crops focus on our right to "play God,"
in addition to the introduction of foreign substances into foods that are
avoided for religious reasons. Some people maintain that altering nature
in such a way is intrinsically wrong, and others maintain that embedding
plant genes in animals, or vice versa, is immoral. Where GM foods are
concerned, those who feel strongly that the development of GM crops is
contrary to nature or religion have called for transparent labelling
guidelines so they can make informed decisions when making
purchases. Respect for consumer choice and assumed risk is as
important as having safeguards to prevent mixing of genetically
modified products with non-genetically modified foods (Phillips, 2008). 

3. Environmental Concerns
The environmental safety aspects of GM crops vary considerably
according to local conditions (World Health Organisation, 2014).
However, there are a number of environmental concerns associated with
GMOs. Specifically, there is potential for:

 A GMO to escape and introduce engineered genes into wild

populations;
 Persistence of the gene after the GMO has been harvested;
 Susceptibility of non-target organisms (e.g. insects which are not
pests) to the gene product;
 Stability of the gene;
 Reduction in the variety of other plants including loss of
biodiversity;
 Increased use of chemicals in agriculture