Angelomorphic Christology and The Book of Revelation

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Angelomorphic Christology and the Book of Revelation

Homann, Matthias Reinhard
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Angelomorphic Christology
and
The Book of Revelation
by Matthias Reinhard Hoffmann
A copyright of this thesis rests

No quotation
with the author.
from it should be published
his prior written consent
without from it
information derived
and
should be acknowledged.
Thesis submitted for the degree of PhD
Ii»
The University of Durham
Department of Theology
2003
13JUl 2004
Author: Matthias Hoffmann
Thesis Title: Angelomorphic Christology and the Book of Revelation
Abstract
Despite the prominence of God and Christ, the Book of Revelation also displays an
interest in angels. Certain passages of the Apocalypse (Apc 1: 13-20; 14:6-20: 19: 11-21)
provide visions of Christ in which he is described in almost angelic categories. This
thesis attempts to affirm Christ's in

identity these passages(which has occasionally
been challenged) and identifies such a portrait of Christ as a so-called angelomorphic
Christology (which is defined after an assessment of material concerning
angelomorphic and angel-Christology). Such a christological concept was deliberately
employed by the author of Revelation. The assumption of a Jewish as

source ai orlage
for Apc 14:6-20 is thus eliminated. Consequently, possible reasons for the inclusion of
an angelomorphic Christology are provided: Angelomorphic Christology is not regarded
as an isolated christological concept. In turn, the thesis compares angelomorphic
Christology with the prominent Lamb Christology of Revelation (especially Apc 5:
14: 1-5; 19:7-9). A comparison of these concepts reveals that both Lamb and
angelomorphic Christology serve the purpose of contrasting different functions of
Christ. The functions correspond with the implied perception of Christ by his followers
on the one hand and his opponents on the other. Accordingly, Christ appears to be an
eschatological juridical figure (described in angelomorphic patterns) to his opposition.
while he is perceived as salvific redeemer (in form of the Lamb) by those who believe
in him. Such a christological perspective draws on traditions from the Exodus narrative.
namely the features of the Passover Lamb and the Destroying Angel. Further, an
equality between God and Christ is established despite an angelomorphic portrait of

Christ: especially those passagesdescribing Christ as the Lamb put him on par with
God. But also within visions with an angelomorphic description of Christ, his status as
superior to angels and as an equal to God is displayed.

Declaration:
None of the material contained in this thesis has previously been submitted for a degree
in this or any other university.
Statement of Copyright:
The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be
published without their prior written consent and information derived from it should be
acknowledged.
l'
Parentibus
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank all the people who helped me in the past years and
contributed to writing this thesis.
First of all, I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor. Professor
Loren T. Stuckenbruck. Without his guidance, encouragementand outstanding patience
the preparation of this work would have been impossible.
Further, special thanks have to be given to Mr. Dipl. theol. Stefann Mann for his
invaluable help in the quest for literature and biographical details.
I would like to include Dr. JonathanAdams and especially Ms. Christine Lorenz
in my thanks for proof-reading this thesis and for their general support. Further
acknowledgement has to be given to Mr. Georgios Tzamtzis for his help in mastering
the computer, and to Mr. Frankie Chau for helping to print this thesis. I also thank Mr.
Georgios Semertzakis for insightful discussions and Dr. Tom Hulit for hints concerning
archaeology.
Most crucially, I would like to thank my parents, Helga and Reverend Reinhard
Hoffmann, for their moral and financial support, their encouragementand their interest
in this project. My gratitude is beyond what can be expressedin words.
August 2003 Matthias R. Hoffmann
Durham
'I
Hoc est Christum cognoscere, beneficia eius cognoscere, non eins naturas, modos
...
incarnationis contueri.
Philipp MELANCHTHON (1497-1560) - Loci communes, 1521
vii
Table of Contents
Abstract
Acknowledgments
List of Tables t;
Part A: Introduction
1. Introduction 1
1.1. The Problem 1

1.2. The History of Research 6
1.3. The Problems of Definitions 22
(1) "Angels" and "Angelic" 25
(2) "Divinity" and "Divine" 26
(3) Angelic Christologies 32
(3a) Angel Christology 32
(3b) Angelomorphic Christology 33
Part B: Analysis of the Christology of the Apocalypse

2. The Christology of Apc 14 36
2.1. Christology of the Apocalypse and its Connection to Angels 36

2.2. The Christological Features of Apc 14 38
2.2.1. The Interpretive Problem of Apc 14:6-20 38
2.2.2. The Problem of the Phrase äXXo5 äyysA.o; 39
2.2.3. The Significance of Daniel 7: 13 43
2.2.4. Doubts concerning Apc 14:6-20 as a Literary Unit 50
2.2.4.1. The Structure of Apc 14:6-20 51
2.2.4.2. Demarcation of Apc 14:6-20 52
2.2.4.3. Problems Concerning a Literary Unity in Apc 14:6-20 52
2.2.4.3.1. Is Apc 14 a Literary Unit? 54
2.2.4.3.2. Linguistic Observations to Apc 14:6-20 57
a) Verse 14 57
Kai c118OV,Kai i86 57
vE(p>rXrl 58
6µotov ulov ävopdmou 59
Exwv ki tif; xc(paA,ýS aütov 6'&cpavov xpu(7ovv 60
6p9itavov öýv 61
b) Verse 15 61
äXXOSäyy£XOS 61
xpä40)v sv (pwv µcyäý n 61
A£picco/ 9Ept(yg6Sand ýrlpaivw / Ei;npäv9rl 62
TIXAevrl wpa 62
c) Verse 16 62
ffia v sari T )v y \' 62
...
6 xaGij tcvog 63
d) Verse 17 63
£x TOÜ vao TOO £ý' tb oOpav(Ü 63
e) Verse 18 64
T6 th tWYTijptov 64
Iii
s ovaia eni 64
spiry ov Toi, V&tpu(XST)1; 6cpnt ox) rq; YI1=KT/. 64
.
f) Verse 19
a,rlvog iov 9vµov rov Acoü 65
g) Verse 20 65
äxPt ticuvxaktvwv rcoviitncov
f, s
2.2.4.3.3. Conclusions from the Linguistic Observations 65
2.2.5. Hebrew Bible Traditions within Ape 14 66
2.2.5.1. Annotation to the Sources of the Apocalypse 66
2.2.5.2. Adaptation of Traditions within Ape 14: 14-20 67
2.2.6. Summary of the Observations 7
2.2.7. An Angel-Christology in Ape 14:6-20? 76
2.2.8. Ape 10: 1 and its Relevance for Christology 77
2.2.9. Angelomorphic or Angel-Christology? 87
2.2.10. Possible Christological Titles in Ape 14:6-20 93
2.3. The Relationship between Ape 14: 1-5 and Ape 14:6-20 98
2.3.1. The Twofold Harvest and its Meaning for Christology 106
2.3.2. Harvest Metaphors and Antithetical Imagery in Ape 14: 1-20 113
3. Lamb Christology in Relation to Angelomorphic Christology 118
3.1. Christological Aspects in Ape 4-5? 118

3.1.1. Christological Aspects in Ape 4 119
3.1.2. Christological Aspects in Ape 5 126
3.1.2.1. The Significance of the Lamb 126
3.1.2.2. Christ as the Passover Lamb from Exodus 131
3.1.2.3. The Description of Christ as a Function of Perspective 134
3.1.2.4. Further Evidence for John's Use of Exodus Traditions 138
3.1.2.5. Christ as the Destroying Angel from Exodus? 139
3.1.2.6. The Destroyer in Ape 9: 11 142
3.1.2.7. The Arrangement of the Plagues in the Apocalypse 146
3.1.2.8. The Presentation of Magic in Exodus and the Apocalypse 147
3.1.2.9. Conclusion for the Use of Exodus Traditions in the Apocalypse 151
3.1.3. Status and Features of the Lamb 153
3.1.3.1. The Lamb and the Throne 153
3.1.3.2. The Standing Posture of the Lamb 158
Excursus One: Paradoxes in the Apocalypse as Means of Describing Christ 170
3.1.3.3. The Horns and the Eyes of the Lamb (Ape 5:6) 171
3.2. The Christology in the Hymnic Parts of Ape 4-5 175
3.2.1. The Reaction of the Elders and the Angels 175
3.2.2. The Relation between God and the Lamb in the Hymnic Parts 176
3.2.3. The Prerogatives in the Hymnic Parts 179
3.2.4. The Worthiness of God and the Lamb 188
3.2.5. The Application of the Ewigkeitsformel to God and the Lamb 192
3.3. Conclusion 193
4. The Christology in Apc 19 196
4.1. The Structure and Unity of Ape 19 196

4.1.1. Inner Unity of Ape 19: 1-21 196
4.1.2. Unity of Ape 19: 1-21 through Comparison with Ape 14 199
4.1.3. Unity of Ape 19: 1-21 through Comparison with Ape 1 203
4.1.4. Unity of Ape 19: 1-21 through Comparison with Ape 4-5 201
1.1.5. Summary 206
4.2. The Christology of Ape 19 206
4.2.1. A Christological Interpretation of Ape 19: 11-21 206
4.22.2. The Relationship between God and Christ in Ape 19 2.12
i\
4.2.2.1 The Names Attributed to Christ 21
4.2.2.2. Relationship between God, Lamb and Rider 219
4.2.2.3. The Worship and the Wedding 222
4.2.2.4. The Rider and the Lamb 226
4.2.3. An Angelomorphic Christology in Apc 19? 228
4.2.3.1. Christ and the Angels in Apc 19 228
4.2.3.2. The Role of the Angels in Apc 19 238
4.2.3.2.1. The Angel in Apc 19: 17 238
4.2.3.2.2. Angels as Part of the Heavenly Army in Apc 19: 14 240
4.2.3.2.3. The Angel in Apc 19:9-10 210
4.3. Conclusion 246
5. The Christology in Ape 1 249
5.1. The Structure and Unity of Apc 1 ?49

5.1.2. Parallels between Apc 1 and Apc 2-3 251
5.1.3. Parallels between Apc 1 and Apc 4-5 253
5.1.4. Parallels between Apc I and Apc 14 254
5.1.5. Parallels between Apc 1 and Apc 19 254
5.1.6. Underlying Hebrew Bible Traditions 256
5.1.7. Summary: Character and Composition of Apc 1 257
5.2. The Christology of Apc 1 258
5.2.1. A Christological Interpretation of Apc 1:9-20? 259
5.2.2. The Relationship between God and Christ in Apc 1 260
5.2.3. An Angelomorphic Christology in Apc 1? 265
Excursus Two: The Face like a Sun as an Angelomorphic Feature of Christ 268
5.2.4. The Relationship between Christ and Angels in Apc 1 272
5.3. The Unfolding of the Relationship between God, Christ and Angels 275
5.4. Conclusion 287
Part C: Conclusion
6. Conclusion 290
6.1. Different Aspects of Christology in Revelation? 290

6.2. A Reason for Employing an Angelomorphic Christology in Revelation? 292
6.3. A Subordinate Christology in Revelation? 294
6.4. How Elaborate is the Christology of Revelation? 295
6.5. Further Possible Topics for Research 297
Appendices 299
Al. Clarification of Linguistical Phenomena within Apc 14:6-20 300

A2. Angels and a Scheme of Four Elements in Revelation? 302
A3. Wirkungsgeschichte of Apc 14 313
A4. Angels, Stars and Planets Meaning for Christology? 318
-a
A5. The Colours White and Gold in the Apocalypse 325
Bibliography "2
List of Tables:
Figure 1: Comparison between the OG Daniel Traditions of Daniel 7: 13 with 45

MT and Apc 1,7.13; 14: 14
Figure 2: Display of Hymnic Material from Apc 4 and 5 177
Figure 3: Scheme of Apc 4: 8 178
Figure 4: Table of References to Christological Attributes from Apc I in Apc 251
2-3
Figure 5: The Application of the Dreizeitenformel to God and Christ in Apc 1 262
Figure 6: Comparison between the Latin versions of Daniel 7: 13; Apc 1: 12- 315
13; 14: 14; Ascension of Isaiah 11:2
\1
Part A: Introduction
1. Introduction
1.1. The Problem
Apc 14
14 Kai F-Töov,-Kai i o-ÜvECp£'-X vxýj, xat F- t ti v vF- F- rlv xa81fl1 vov öµolov vlov
ävOpwicov, ixcwv aviov ßi£cpavov xplx oüv xai F-v ' xapi aviov
8pýiravov 0'410'.
15 rat' ?W oS ä YY Yr oS g xx
AkOEV toi v(XoI)xp(Xdc)v Ev (MVjý1 ä? ý1ti4 xa0l1µF-vw
Eni tifjc ve(prXric.
The Apocalypse of John displays a major interest in angels. This holds despite
the author's ultimate focus on God and Christ. Angels may be portrayed either as
accompanying God and Christ (e. g. Apc 5: 1-7,5: 11-13; 7: 11; 8: 1-5) or as acting
independently (e.g. Apc 7: 1-3,8: 6-13; 9: 1-2; 10:1-3). But the distinction between Christ
and angels is not always clear-cut and sometimes angelic and christological categories
cannot be differentiated. The passagequoted above offers one of the sharpestexamples
of such overlapping categories. Angels are mentioned alongside a figure designated as
"one like a son of man". The latter figure echoesthe same designation applied to Christ
in chapter 1: 13. Therefore, the identity of this figure in Revelation 14: 14 as Christ has
often been taken for granted.
This identification, however, is not unproblematic: Firstly, can it simply been
assumed that this figure is Christ if

and so, why? Do specific features or functions
attributed to "one like a son of man" reflect the author's own christological perspective?
Secondly, can one assume that the author has sharply distinguished between
Christology and angelology, so that identity can be so clearly defined? After all. the
author can draw on ideas normally found in angelophanic contexts when describing
1
Christ's function and appearance.a feature which seems obvious in some passages
(1: 12-20; 10:6; 14:14; 15:6; 16:15: 19:11-20). Thirdly-, if ww

e are correct in noting the
lack of a thoroughgoing attempt to differentiate between angels and Christ, is it possible
to infer that the author of Apocalypse regarded Christ as an angel in some sense? If so.
it has to be shown whether the author does this rather "carelessly" (assuming his
ultimate attempt to distinguish Christ from other heavenly beings) or if in this apparent
mixing we find an expression of his respective christological and angelological
convictions. It is therefore important to compare theophanic and angelophanic traditions
in the Hebrew Bible and early Jewish sourceswith the analogous statementson angels
and Christ within the Apocalypse.
An analysis of an overlapping of christological and angelic categories by the
author may probably not be carried through under the assumption that such a portrait of
Christ is aberrant or unusual; such a view would simply impose on Revelation (and the
NT) a more dogmatic understanding of Christology which has been predominant in
western (Roman Catholic and Protestant) church traditions. If parts of the Christology in
the Apocalypse seem to stand in tension with christological dogma, then the articulation
of such an inconsistency is in itself little more than the product of a certain confessional
belief and does not do justice to the special christological features preserved in the
Apocalypse (see also section 2.2.9. ).
Accordingly, the purpose of this thesis is to explore passageswithin Revelation
where an angelic portrait of Christ is provided and to confirm (or deny) Christ's
identity. Further, the given context of passageswhich contain a description of Christ in
angelic terms or categories has to be examined. Such an analysis, together with a
comparison of other christological features of the Apocalypse (as for instance with the
prominent Lamb Christology) might demonstrate the author's awarenessand intention
to include a Christology which is indebted to angelic categories.

In addition, it will prove useful here to have a closer look at some of the
important traditions in the Hebrew Bible (such as Dan 7:9.13: 9:2: Dan 10:5-6: Ezek
9: 2; Ex 12: 1-28) and early Jewish literature concerning angels which could have fed
ideas found in the Apocalypse in the NT in general- (e. g. 4 Ezra; I En.; 2 Bar.. Test.
-or
Levi) in order to find a possible common background against which such early
Christologies were being formulated.
The present thesis also proposes to refer to some other early Christian texts (like
Shepherd of Hermas [Sim. VII-IX], the Pseudo-Clementines [Rec. I-II], the Ascension
of Isaiah [9-12] or Justin Martyr [Apol. 1 6]) to prepare for a similar Christology to that
presentedin Apocalypse and, further, to assessthe significance of texts offering similar
christological concepts held in early Christianity. These and other sources reflect the
fact that there was not a fixed system of expressing the belief in Christ for early
Christians during the first two centuries. Although attempts were made in the church to
impose uniform systems of Christology, diverse christological dogmas continued to
the fourth ' We therefore, be if

persist after century. should not, surprised christologies
that include angelic descriptions of Christ continued to find expression as, for instance,
in Dionysius the Areopagite's Hierarchy of Heaven, especially chapter IV (5`h century).
Even nowadays the impact of angelological ideas on Christian belief (in general)
has aroused attention. We find a good example of this increasing interest in angels and
their importance for Christian belief in the systematic theological works by M.
WERNER and W. HÄRLE. In a chapter on "Die Wirksamkeit Gottes" in his Dogmatik
(1995) HARLE finds it necessary to include an excursus on angelology, presumably
3
because of an increased interest in the subject during the twentieth century. HARLE
1Cp. also GRILLMEIER: Christus,

passim, or KELLY: Glaubensbekenntnisse, passim.
`' For the dating of Dionysius the Areopagite and the importance of the later Latin version cp. e.g.
HEUSSI: Kirchengeschichte, 147.
3 Cp. HARLE: Dogmatik, 296-300.
1
does produce evidence which presents angels as God's messengers,4 but wishes to
express caution when it comes to angelology as such. He argues against any
overemphasis on the importance of angels. and demands that angels and God be clearly
distinguished. Hence he states that angels may in no way be the object of religious
5
worship or veneration.
In addition HARLE emphasizes that the nature of angels ought not be allowed to
carry any weight when one attempts to understand their theological significance. On the
contrary he maintains that the literature from the period of "Altprotestantismus" and
"Lutheran Orthodoxy" had - in an attempt to reveal the essenceof angels according to
their nature - clouded their true meaning or even distorted it. According to HARLE the
is
significance of angels more to be rooted in relation to the functional expressions
6
"message" and "encounter", and presumably not in categories in which angels may be
understood as analogousto God.
HÄRLE's discussion concerning angels picked up on categories which were
being applied to Christology during the Protestant Reformation. The soteriological
function could overshadow nature in attempting to formulate Christology. The classic
formulation for this view was expressedby Philipp MELANCHTHON (1497-1560) in
his Loci communes edited in 1521: Hoc est Christum cognoscere, benejicia eins
cognoscere, non ... eius naturas, modos incarnationis contueri ("This is the way to
understand Christ, to understandhis good works, not ... his natures, to look at the mode
7
of his incarnation" ßj.
4 HARLE mainly points to an amount of biblical references and allusions to angels ýýithin the
Bekenntnisschriften der Evangelisch-Lutherischen Kirchen (BSLK). Cp. HARLE: Dogmatik, 297-298.
Additionally the traditional interest in angels may be seen in liturgical praxis like the invocation of angels
before the communion, the celebration of Michaelmas or even the naming of many churches after
Michael. For the increasing interest in angels and their meaning for modern theology see also STUBBE:
Wirklichkeit.
Cp. HARLE: Dogmatik, 298.
6 Cp. HARLE: Dogmatik, 298-299.
Cp. MELANCHTHON: Loci, 22-23.
4
This statement most clearly expresses the Christology of the Reformation:
Though adopting the doctrine of Christ's two natures from the old church without
modifications, the reformers framed their christologies with existential and
in
soteriological concerns view. It is not Christology itself that is the focus of interest.
8
but the works of Christ. A consideration of their nature has not generally played an
important role for the understanding of either Christ or angels in Protestant theology,
and may not be a decisive factor for differentiating them from each other.
It is therefore surprising that, even in Protestant theologies, the opposite view
9
could find expression. Differences between the natures of Christ and angels are
frequently discussed, especially in relation to categories such as "preexistence" or
"being created". This becomesclear if we have a closer look at the history of researchof
matters of angel-Christology, especially the debateswhich have emerged as a result of
the work of M. WERNER in his magnum opus Die Entstehung des christlichen Dogmas
10
(1941). The thesis of WERNER, as is well known, involved the claim that an angel-
Christology was the oldest form of early Christianity's way of expressing Christology.
In attempts to refute the views of WERNER, a consideration of natures played a
decisive role - an argument which drew on a medieval understanding of angelology, as
"
instanced in the categorical system of Thomas Aquinas. Scholars have asked whether
one can safely concur with WERNER that these ideas are already expressedwithin the
NT. Likewise, it has been assumedthat the development of christological dogma in the
church's history essentially came to an end at a certain time (Nicea) and that there
subsequently was no need to dispute issues which had already been settled. This
is
assumption quite dubious (see the example of Dionysius mentioned above). Finally.
8 Cp. e.g. POHLMANN: Dogmatik, 194. See also SCHWÖBEL: "Christology", 118-119 on the
relationship of the work and the person of Christ.
9 Cp. the following discussion
on WERNER, MICHAELIS and HARNACK in this thesis.
10WERNER: Entstehung,
esp. 302-388.
S
the vehemencewith which numerous scholars have sought to refute ' ER:NER's thesis
has, until recently. been accompanied by a categorical avoidance of relating Christ to
angelic beings. Not only among WERNER's opponents. but also in discussion of
Christology in general, any comparison of Christ and angels has frequently been
considered taboo (see especially the arguments of WERNER's opponents).
A question arises as to whether there are other criteria for distinguishing Christ
from the angels and whether we can find evidence in NT-literature in support of those
conclusions without referring to differences in nature. Initially, however, it is necessary
to have a closer look at the history of research concerning the relationship between
angels and Christology in order to identify and subsequently avoid certain mistakes
made up to now.
1.2. The History of Research
An overview of the history of research concerning the relation between
Christology and angelology within the NT is presented in a number of recent scholarly
discussions.12These overviews have tended to addressthe question of whether or not
the NT documents preserve features of either an "angel" or "angelomorphic"
Christology. What often goes ignored, however, are systematic-theological
underpinnings of the problem which may be observed in the history of interpretation.
Unfortunately, some recent treatments restrict themselves to describing other works in
" Cp. e. Summa theologiae. 1, Quest. 50-64 the Exposition the Angelic Salutation (Ave
g. or partly of
Maria), where angels are described in metaphysical categories.
12Cp. e.g. CARRELL: Jesus, 1-13, STUCKENBRUCK: Veneration, 5-14, HORBURY: .. k'.s.pianism.
122-152,KNIGHT: Disciples, 75-78 or FLETCHER-LOUIS: Luke-Acts, 1-10.
6
chronological order of their publication rather than offerin r thoroughgoing discussions
that consider the question of theological significance.13
The beginning of modern research concerning the importance of angels or other
intermediary beings for Christology has been commonly associated with \V. BOUSSET
and his so-called Religionsgeschichtliche Schule. BOUSSET claimed inter alia that
Jewish angelology played a formative role among religious-historical developments
within Judaism which help explain the rise of early Christian worship of Jesus (1924).
These developments involved a process of softening the "strict" monotheism - known,
for example, through the Deuteronomistic history of the Hebrew scriptures - and
included a growing interest in angels (and other "hypostatic" figures) in
"Spätjudentum". ' 4
BOUSSET's most thoroughgoing discussion of Judaism as the matrix for
compromising forms of monotheism near the turn of the common era was largely based
on a detailed study published by W. LUEKEN, one of his students, in 1898: Michael.
Eine Darstellung und Vergleich der jüdischen und morgenländisch-christlichen
15
Tradition vom Erzengel Michael. LUEKEN, in turn, had no doubt been encouragedto
address the significance of the archangel Michael (as well as that of other angelic
figures) for Christology by BOUSSET's prior claim that early developments in
Christology were probably indebted to contemporary Jewish ideas, especially those
Michael. 16
which were concernedwith
LUEKEN was probably the first to gather evidence pertaining to the possible
'7
influence of angelological ideas on Christology. In addition, he dealt with further
See e.g. GIESCHEN: Angelomorphic, 7-25: GIESCHEN offers a valuable assessement of data, but
does not reflect on the theological importance of the debate.
14Cp. BOUSSET: GRESSMANN: Religion, 302-357.
15LUEKEN: Michael.
6 Cp. BOUSSET: Antichrist, 151.
ý7Cp. LUEKEN:, tfichael. 133-166.
7
ideas'8
angelological or categories19which are worth%of reconsideration in the current
study of the Apocalypse and other NT in

passages which such motifs occur. 2
To his credit, LUEKEN remained cautious in the way he formulated his views.
Among the primary sources he found what he considered to be sufficient evidence in
early Christianity for the influence of Jewish beliefs about angels on three categories of
Christology; these were references to Christ's (a) pre-existence (so 1 Cor 8: 6; 11: 3.7,2
Cor 4:4; Col 1:15; Heb 1:6,8; Shep. Herrn. Sim. IX 12:2): (b) earthl>ýexistence (e.g. in
Origen, Hom. in Ezek. 17 [to Ezek 1: 1]); and (c) "post-existent" or exalted state (Phil
2:6-11; Heb 1:4,2: 16-18,4: 14-16,7: 25-27,8: 2,9: 11-12,9: 24,10: 10-14, and 13:15; 1
Pet 2: 25 and 5: 1-4; Justin Martyr, Apol. 1 6; Shep. Herrn. Sim. IX and Vis. VI:
Novatian, De Trin. 11).21
BOUSSET, in taking LUEKEN's analysis as his point of departure, attempted to
characterize the sort of Judaism that could foster widespread speculative ideas about
angels. He concluded that the early Jewish interest in intermediary beings was due to
"foreign" influences (in both thought and practice) which were threatening to undermine
the strict Israelite monotheism of the pre-exilic and exilic periods. Only such external
22
influences could make the worship of Christ an explicable phenomenon. For
BOUSSET there was an unbroken line of continuity between "Spätjudentum" and the
early Christian devotion to Christ.
18Cp. LUEKEN: Michael, 52-56: LUEKEN offers some material here on the early Jewish idea of nature-
angels and the connection of angels to a certain kind of element. This investigation seems to be most
interesting for further comparisons with the angel having charge of the fire in Apc 14: 18 or the angels
related to earth, water and air in Apc 16: 8-15. See also YARBRO COLLINS: "Tradition", 565.
19Cp. LUEKEN: Michael, 30-32 and 91-100: Here LUEKEN provides some motifs of Michael as a
highpriest. See also the increasing interest in the angelic category of highpriesthood, e.g. in: FLETCHER-
LOUIS: Luke-Acts, 118-129 and 214.
20 E. the idea Christology Heb Christ as an angel. See
g. of the of as one opposing a veneration of
LUEKEN: Michael, 14-5.
21Cp. LUEKEN: Michael, 163-166.
22Cp. BOUSSET: GRESSMANN: Religion, 469-524: BOUSSET seesesp. Hellenism, Diaspora Jewism
and Persianideasbeing responsiblefor this development.
8
This aspectof BOUSSET's religious-historical reconstruction has, of course, not
23 One recent scholarly discussion which rejects his ideas is that

gone without criticism.
of L. W. HURTADO. Despite his insistence that Jewish ideas help explain a number of
conceptual christological developments arising from the Palestinian Jesus movement,
HURTADO nevertheless maintains that there was an essential discontinuity between
these and the practice of worshiping Christ among early Jewish Christian
24
communities.
It is not the ultimate purpose of this thesis to deal with the problems relating to a
continuity or discontinuity and consequently this receives only brief mention 25

here.
However, it should be noted that the studies of BOUSSET and LUEKEN, in paving the
way for further analysis, have not outworn their importance for current research. The
same may be said of the less well known publication of F. J. DÖLGER (1910). who
derived the connection between angelology and Christology from second century
Gnostic sourceswhich, in turn, relied on earlier traditions.26
However, at the turn of the twentieth century, the association of angelic figures
and emerging Christology was not treated as a solely historical concern, that is, in
relation to the question of how Christology developed at an early stage. Systematic-
theological concerns were also in play. A. HARNACK, in his Lehrbuch der
Dogmengeschichte (1909,4th ed.), reached a conclusion which dismisses the theological
23The same may be said of LUEKEN's work, as is already the case, e.g. in BARBEL: Christos, 339-340:
In the appendix of the reprint of his book, BARBEL refers to LUEKEN's focus as being set too narrowl}
to get more valuable results.
24Cp. HURTADO: God, 3-9 and esp. 24-27. Cp. also HURTADO: "Mean". 348-368 and HURTADO:
"Monotheism", 3-26.
25 For a full description of this conflict of continuity and discontinuity cp. STUCKENBRUCK:
1Veneration,5-14.
26Analogous to LUEKEN (and to some extent to BOUSSET as well) F. J. DÖLGER has collected some
ideas into account, considering the roots to be in
material which took the offspring of angel-christological
Gnosticism. Cp. DÖLGER: Ichthys, 273-297. DOLLER mainly referred to Shepherd of Hermas (Vis. V
2; Sim. VIII-IX), Justin Martyr (Apol. 16). Clement of Alexandria (Strom. ), Tertullian (De campe Christi.
De trin. ), Origen (Ctr. Celsum, De princ. ). Lactantius (Institut. div. ), Methodius (Svmp. 1-3). Philo of
Alexandria (De somn. 1.239; De conf. 146; De cher. 27f; De migr. 102), Or. Sib. 8:456-473. Pistis Sophia
(I1-12), Pseudoevangelium Jacobi and the epistula apostolorum (of uncertain date. but possibly mid-
second century C. E.).
9
import of Christ being designated as an angel. He argued that the christological use of
the title "angelus" in early Christian literature is to be understood as a description of
27
function, not of nature. Similarly, F. CAVALLERA has subsequently claimed that the
"heresy" of Christ as an angel according to his nature ought simply to be eliminated
from the history of development of doctrine.28 Such a convenient distinction runs up
against the emphasis on soteriology originally expressedamong the early Reformers
(see above). Thus, from a systematictheological point of view, the precise way in which
Christology can be related to angelology bears further exploration.
It is conspicuous that little of the research carried out near the turn of the
twentieth century - for example that of LUEKEN, BOUSSET, and DÖLGER - was
being picked up in contemporary studies which referred to the relationship between
Christ and angels in the Apocalypse of John. Such is, for instance, the case in the
treatment by F. BÜCHSEL about Christology in Revelation (1907) whose statement on
the issue is rather meagre: there is at best a dubious proximity as far as a connection of
Christ and angels is concerned. He found himself unable to draw any more
29 R. H. CHARLES, thoroughly familiar with the then known

conclusions. who was
Jewish literature of the Second Temple period, was able to go a little further in his
observations (1920). However, though acknowledging the influence of angelology on
the representationof Christ in the Apocalypse, he neverthelessemphasizedthat Christ is
designated "angel" level the tradition. 30

nowhere actually on any of
Until the 1940s - for a period of some twenty years - this topic was largely
ignored, and references to angelological roots of Christology were mostly downplayed
27See HARNACK: Dogmengeschichte, 204-205 n. 4. HARNACK gives evidence for the designation of
Christ as an angel and further states that some Christians probably understood this as a description of
Christ's nature. This misinterpretation, however, vanished at the advent of the doctrine of the logos.
28Cp. CAVALLERA: "Christ-Ange", 56-59, who refers to the view of HARNACK.
29Cp. BÜCHSEL: Christologie, 27.
30Cp. CHARLES: Revelation 1,259. CHARLES dissociatesthe phraseäkXoSäyyeXo; in 14:15 from the
figure resembling "one like a son of man" in verse 14 by translating it as "another, an angel" (as in verses
6,8,9,15,17,18). not as "another angel" (so CHARLES: Revelation11,12-26).
10
in importance. For instance. according to F. LOOFS (1932) ".., die
dogmengeschichtliche Bedeutung der Verbindung der Christologie mit der En`gellehre
[ist] nicht zu überschätzen." 31
A more serious study which acknowledges the significance of angelology was
in an article by A. BAKKER 32
(1933). On the basis of a passage in the
published
Antiquities of Josephus in which the activity of Jesus is described (18.63-64, the so-
called Testimonium Flavianum), BAKKER identifies an early Jewish Christian tradition
which equated Christ with angels. She correlated this tradition with other tendencies in
the NT which warn against worshipping angels or mistaking Christ for an angel. e.g. in
Hebrews 1-2,33 Colossians 2: 18, and Apc 19: 10 or 22: 8.3' In particular, she considered
Hebrews to be importance because its "anti-docetic" 35

of of polemic.
With the publication of M. WERNER's thesis on the development of the
Christian dogma (1941), the history of research on the connection of christological and
angelological ideas probably reached its climax. WERNER believed that a so-called
Jewish Christian Engelchristologie was the oldest form of Christology of Early
Christianity. 36 He sought to justify his thesis by discussing texts that involve messianic
eschatological figures such as an angelic "Elect One" or "Son of Man" in the Similitudes
of I Enoch 37-71.37 He also tried to recover evidence for the representation of Christ as
an angel in NT texts as well. In his opinion the belief that Christ is an angelic being is
'1 LOOFS: Theophilus, 125 n. 1.

32Cp. BAKKER: "Christ", 255-265.
33 Cp. also WINDISCH: Hebräerbrief, 17, who influenced BAKKER in this idea. For a more recent
discussion see KARRER: Hebräer, 134.
,4 Cp. BAKKER: "Christ ", 258-259.
35Cp. BAKKER: "Christ". 262-263: BAKKER compares Heb to texts that reflect the insignificance of
human needs for angel-like beings, e.g. Tob 6: 6 (and the remarkable differences of the text of 1!
t to the
the from eating), Tob 12: 19 or in contrast Lk 24: 37-43 in order
other variants, explicitly excluding angel
to prove her thesis.
36WERNER: Entstehung. (See for his position also the abbreviated version of Entstehung. )
37Cp. WERNER: Entstehung, 303-321.
assumedby the Gospels and Paul's 38
writings. In particular, he focused on Paul's use of
the title icvptoS (probably in misapprehension of its meaning as a substitute of the
tetragrammaton39). WERNER observed that the designation Kuptoi refers frequently to
angels in apocalyptic literature and argued that therefore Christ himself, as xvpuoý, may
be understood as an angel. 4° WERNER argued further that traces of an angel-
Christology lay behind Arianism and, because of association with the "heresy",
was
banished afterwards.41 WERNER's thesis caused quite a stir and was
contradicted
almost immediately and vehemently by W. MICHAELIS (1942). 42
MICHAELIS' furious response to WERNER was an attempt to disprove every
single argument that had been used in favour of the existence of an angel-Christology in
earliest Christianity. Though his work was, unfortunately, conducted as a vigorous
polemic, MICHAELIS was nonetheless essentially correct in his refusal of WERNER"s
proposal. The material presented by WERNER is hardly enough to justify the
assumption of an angel-Christology existing as a kind of "mainstream Christology" in
early Christianity or even in Arianism. 43 He also accuses WERNER for having
constructed this notion in order to serve his larger thesis of a so-called
Verwandlungsschema ("scheme of transformation") which he derived from the
transformation of Enoch in I Enoch 71 and related to the Gospels (e.g. to Mk 9: 2-10)
38Cp. WERNER: Entstehung, 304-305: WERNER made his assumptions mainly on the basis of the "Son
of Man"-title and conclusions on his hierarchical position. His comparison of the use of the "Son of Man"
in early Jewish writings, such as 1 Enoch 46: 3, and his superior position above the other angels (as
described in I En. 46: 1) led him to the result that the same idea must have been reflected in the Gospels
(e.g. in Mk 8:38; Mt 16:27; Lk 9: 26; Mt 13:41-42; Mk 13:26ff). He found this scheme of Christ being
described as having an exalted position above other angels similarly reflected by Paul's writings (e.g. in
Phil 2: 6-9; 1 Cor 15:28). It is noteworthy that WERNER does not refer to this possibility in relation to the
Apocalypse of John.
39Cp. e.g. HENGEL: Christologly,380.
40 Cp. WERNER: Entstehung. 307-3 10. WERNER believed that "ptog in I Cor 8: 6 had to be
esp.
understood in angelic dimensions, and therefore Christ was described in angelic features.
41Cp. WERNER: Entstehung,371-388.
42 MICHAELIS: Engelchristologie. The subtitle, Abbau der Konstruktion 11artin Werners, reveals the
.
main intention of his work.
43Cp. MICHAELIS: Engelchristologie,
passim, esp. 162-186.
12
in
and some degree also to Paul (e.g. to l Cor 15:5l-52). ýý This was completely rejected
by MICHAELIS, who pointed out that neither 1 Enoch nor any of the other texts
appealed to by WERNER reflect an understanding of transformation that may be used
basis for Christology. 45 Beyond this, MICHAELIS

as a provided further plausible
reasons for rejecting WERNER's thesis as a whole. He argued that the preconditions
WERNER cites as proof for an angel-Christology in the NT and early Christianity are
simply incorrect that is, the hypothesis of a fixed hierarchy of angels (and the use of
-
"angelos" to denote an angel from a low category), 46 the understanding of i ptog as a
title for 47
angels, and an understanding of transformation which brings the earthly Jesus
dangerously close to docetic ideas.48
For the most part, contours for the debate concerning angel-Christology have
been derived from the disputes of MICHAELIS49 and WERNER. 50At the same time, J.
BARBEL devoted substantial research to the angelos-title and its importance for
Christology in early Christianity and in the early church without finding much evidence
for warranting the assumption of a significant angel-Christology during this era.51
Unfortunately, his valuable scholarly research was barely noticed and dismissed by
WERNER52 because of BARBEL's rejection of the existence of an angel-Christology.
as Cp. WERNER: Entstehung, 313-321. The idea of "scheme of transformation" is very important for
WERNER, for he assumed it to be the general solution of Paul (and early Christianity in general) to deal
with the problem of pre-existent (or heavenly) Christ on the one hand, and the earthly Christ on the other
hand. Both of those aspects were combined by the belief of Christ's transformation. For him the easiest
way of achieving such a combination was in the identification of Christ as an angel.
asCp. MICHAELIS: Engelchristologie, 93-114.
46Cp. MICHAELIS: Engelchristologie, 21-34.
47Cp. MICHAELIS: Engelchristologie, 70-79, and also the meaning
of xüptog according to Paul. 61-70.
48Cp. MICHAELIS: Engelchristologie, 104-114,
esp. 108-109.
49Cp. MICHAELIS: "Engelchristologie", 288-290.
50Cp. e.g. WERNER: "Auffassung", 33-62 and WERNER: "Angelus", 62-70.
" BARBEL: Christos.
52Cp. WERNER: "Angelus", 67
n. 30. WERNER accuses BARBEL of generally not paying attention to
the importance of the messianic figures according to early Jewish sources. This was admitted by
BARBEL himself, though he doubted that his research on this topic might have confirmed \1 ERNER's
thesis. According to him not every messianic figure would be angelic in character, cp. BARBEL:
Christas. 347.
i3
and because BARBEL had only regarded as relevant what %VERNER deemed to be a
limited number of Christian sources from the first to the early fourth centuries. s'
Only a few scholars supported WERNER's thesis entirely (such as F.
SCHEIDWEILER54), while the majority of contemporary scholars were either very
cautious with his proposal (such as W. KÖHLER' or G. KRETSCHMAR"') or
categorically rejected his ideas (such as 0. CULLMANN57. F. FLÜCKIGER' 8. G.
KITTEL59 and W. G. KÜMMEL60)
As has already been stated, the problem of using nature as a category to
differentiate Christ from angels is encountered in the disputes between MICHAELIS
and WERNER. The tatter's rather careless use of the term "creature" in referring to
Enoch because of his "election" by God61 caused MICHAELIS to deal with this
in
problem great detail, giving it more attention than it in
warrants terms of the problem
as outlined above. His argument, in essence, was that WERNER's definition of
"election" is too narrow and that to identify a given figure as an "elected being" is an
issue quite apart from whether that individual is a "creature". 62
53 Cp. BARBEL: Christos, 181-311. BARBEL mainly focused on early Christian sources, e.g. Shep.
Herrn. (Vis. 1114, Sim. VII 3, Sim. IX 3; Sim. X 3), Asc. Isa., Origen (Ctr. Celsum, In Is. Horn. ), Justin
Martyr (Apol. 1 6, Dial. ), Methodius (Symp.), Clement of Alexandria (Strom., Excerpta Theod.).
Lactantius (Institur div. ), Irenaeus (Adv. haer. ), Tertullian (Adversus Marcionem, De Carne Christi) or
Novatian (De Trin. ).
sa Cp. SCHEIDWEILER: "Engelchristologie", 126-139, who based most of his assumptions on writings
of Novatian.
5$ Cp. KÖHLER: Dogmengeschichte, 6. The importance of WERNER's ideas is admitted up to some
extent, though reviewed as being rather constructed, following the critique of MICHAELIS.
56Cp. KRETSCHMAR: Trinitätstheologie, 221-222, who stresses the influence of angelology on trinity.
not only on Christology.
57Cp. CULLMANN: Christus, passim.
58 Cp. FLOCKIGER: Ursprung, 60-71. FLOCKIGER mainly interpreted WERNER's ideas of
eschatology.
59Cp. KITTEL: "6Xyy0,o; ", 84. KITTEL insisted that an identification of Christ as an angel is totally out
of question.
60 Cp. K )MMEL: Urchristentum, 111. KÜMMEL rejected WERNER's thesis, because there %%ere no
in Christianity (or early Jewism) which especially advocated the idea of Christ
source materials early
being an angel.
61Cp. WERNER: Entstehung, 303. The idea of election is of larger importance for WERNER's thesis and
for his idea 1 because this enabled him to equate the "Son of Man"
especially of the erwandlungsschema,
in I En. with Christ. Accordingly. WERNER definitely sawwa background in I En. for Christology.
62Cp. MICHAELIS: Engelchristologie, 16-17and 40.r
14
The problem of "creature-terminology" became even more
obvious in the
discussion of the meaning of 1 Corinthians 15:28.45-46. \\ ERNER's proposal
concerning the understanding of Christ as a creature - which he derived from I
Corinthians 15:4563- led MICHAELIS to conduct a detailed exegesis of this passage in
order to refute this idea. He argued that WERNER was overemphasizing the meaning of
F,yEVEio as an act of creation in this passage and, accordingly, had been led to the wrong
64 Similarly, he
conclusions. argued against an understanding of Colossians 1: 15-18 as
evidence for an angel-christological notion of Christ as the firstborn of creatures:Christ
is not representedas a creature, but is strongly contrasted with other creatures.65More
generally, MICHAELIS stressed the importance of Schöpfungsmittlervchaft and
Offenbarung as appropriate categories for underlining the difference between Christ and
angels according to their nature ("wesensmäßig")and not abolishing it. 66
Other scholars have followed MICHAELIS' mode of argument, linking a
description of Christ as an angel with the notion that Christ is being identified as a
creature. C. ROWLAND (1985), for example, has not concurred with the existence of
an angel -Chri stolo gy but instead has suggested that one "... speak of angelomorphic
christology in the earliest period. This kind of description in no way implies that Christ
was identified entirely with the created order. X67Similarly. R. BAUCKHAM (1981) has
wanted to draw a clear line between God and creatures, considering the term worship to
be a signal for such a distinction: only God may be worshipped, not the creatures,so not
68
even angels are to be worshipped.
63Cp. WERNER: Entstehung, 305.

66Cp. MICHAELIS: Engelchristologie, 61. For him, the fact that Christ is the subject of revelation does
not blur the difference between angels and Christ according to their nature, but rather makes them
distinguishable.
67ROWLAND: "Man", 100.
68Cp. BAUCKHAM: "Worship", 322 and 329. Cp. also BAUCKHAM: Climax, 118-120and 148-149.
15
Naturally MICHAELIS offered other criteria for making a distinction between
Christ and angels as well - for instance Christ's function69 or the problem of
70- but here
subordination a question arises as to what extent such criteria rest on
presuppositions which reflect a rather contemporary ,vay of expressing a dogmatic point
of view. It is doubtful that such christological considerations can be generally assumed
for NT texts, or if the early Christian way of describing Christ has to be thought of in
more simplified terms. Such observations are probably worth considering in addition to
the principles of Christology set out by those Protestant scholars mentioned above,
trying to distinguish Christ from the angels.
It is also noteworthy that MICHAELIS and WERNER addressed the issue of
angelological ideas influencing the Christology of the NT only by implying an angel-
Christology as such. The possibility of an existence of an angelic or angelomorphic
Christology was not yet raised. Accordingly, it has to be emphasizedthat MICHAEL IS'
rejection of WERNER was far too categorical in that he completely denied any traces of
an angel-Christology within the NT. This view determined the direction of research for
at least the four next decades.
On the one hand MICHAELIS' strict refusal of admitting even traces of an
angel-Christology is still to be found, for example in the opinion of J. D. G. DUNN
71
(1980). On the other hand it took at least two decades until the connection of
angelology and Christology was again taken into account. J. DANIELOU played a key
role in reopening discussion on this subject. Significantly, he proposed that the
influence of angelic descriptions on Christology could be considered apart from any
claim that this to

necessarily amounts an angel-Christology (1964). Instead, he referred
69Cp.
e.g. MICHAELIS: Engelchristologie, 155.
70Cp. MICHAELIS: Engelchristologie, 167. Both of those terms are of importance in the discussion
e.g.
of the meaning of the "One like a Son of Man" in Apc 14:6-20 in order to distinguish him from the
angels, as to be shown.
16
to an "angelomorphic Christology" and defined this as a description which draws
on
imagery applied to various angelic beings.72
Furthermore, DANIELOU was the first to draw attention to the difficulty of
using "creature-terminology" in order to distinguish Christ from

angels. as this reflects a
way of thinking that belongs to the era of Arianism. 73 Nevertheless, he continues to
make use of the term "creature" himself, while charging WERNER with having limited
Christ's status to that of a creature. 74Accordingly, though denying WERNER's ideas,
he accepted WERNER's terms and categories. However, his idea

of an angelomorphic
Christology was now being taken seriously and would be further developed by R. N.
LONGENECKER (1970).75
Many scholars have followed the ideas of DANIELOU and LONGENECKER
by adopting the concept of an angelomorphic Christology, or have least

at recognised
the possibility that Christology has been influenced by angelic categories. Various
features have been emphasized by different scholars; for example J. BÜHNER,

-A. who
argued for a dependence of the Christology of John's Gospel on angelic traditions,
to Tobit, has described Christ in "One has been 76

analogous terms of who sent" (1977).
Beyond this, an increasing interest in features ascribed to intermediary figures in
early Jewish literature may be observed, as in the works of M. BARKER (1992)
investigating the "Angel the Lord" -Tradition. 77 Similarly, J. E. FOSSUM

of
concentrates on the hypostasized Divine Name and the Angel of the Lord, mainly
basing his research on Samaritan and Jewish concepts of intermediary beings (1985).78
71 Cp. DUNN: Christology, 156-158. It should be mentioned, however, that DUNN gave up his rather
strict position and considers this topic to be of more importance in the 2"d edition of this title, cp. DUNN:
Christology, XXIV-XXVI.
72Cp. DANIELOU: Christianity, 117-146,
esp. 146.
n Cp.
also BARBEL: Christos. 349-350, who argues similarly.
" Cp. DANIELOU: Christianity, 1 18 3.
n.
75Cp. LONGENECKER: Christology, 26-32.
76Cp. BÜHNER: Gesandte,
esp. 118-180.
" Cp. BARKER:. Angel,
passim.
78Cp. FOSSUM: Name,
, passim.
17
An equivalent approach is taken by C. A. GIESCHEN in order to illuminate
Angelomorphic Christology (1998). having a particular interest in the idea of
hypostases.79
An influence of hypostases on Christology may be assumed in general, but it is
not always clear if such concerns have been adopted consciously or are rather simply
paralleled by a similar christological framework. Some scholars are less inclined to
acknowledge that an existence of hypostatic figures in early Jewish thought played a
formative role in the development of early christologies.80
In addition to R. BAUCKHAM and C. ROWLAND, who have already been
mentioned above, other scholars have focused their investigations on angelomorphic
traditions within the Apocalypse. In particular, these include P. CARRELL, who argues
that Christ's description as an angel-like being is only "temporary" (1997)81,and L. T.
STUCKENBRUCK who stresses the importance of angels and the prohibition of
veneration for the development of Christology within a monotheistic framework
(1995). 82 Similarly J. KNIGHT has studied the importance of angelology for the
Christology in the Ascension of Isaiah (1996): KNIGHT defines an angelomorphic
Christology as a description of Christ that contains language and imagery derived from
Jewish angelology which, at the sametime, acknowledgesthat Christ was distinguished
from angels and not an angel himself. 83
Further insight into the influence of angelology and its impact on Christology
has more recently been provided by D. D. HANNAH (1999). In his work HANNAH
79Cp. GIESCHEN: Angelomorphic, esp. 36-45 and 70-123.

$oCp. BAUCKHAM: God, 5 n. 4.
e.g.
81 Cp. CARRELL: Jesus, esp. 191-192 and 224-226. CARRELL stresses the importance of Christ's
"temporary" angel-like status, for this would help avoid the assumption of an "ignorant" or even
"subordinated" Christ (in Apc 14: 14-20) who is in need of instructions by angels. Howe,, er, CARRELL
fails to give any evidence for this idea. Instead, he seems to have imposed a contemporary, dogmatic-
theological explanation which ought not be assumed to have existed as a christological feature for the
author of the text.
82Cp. STUCKENBRUCK: Veneration,esp.270-273.
83Cp. KNIGHT: Disciples, 18-19.
18
focuses on traditions concerning the angel Michael and a possible influence on
Christology in early Christianity. 84 Further, the significance of an angelomorphic
Christology has also been acknowledged by S. VOLLENWEIDER who regards
angelology as a preparation for aspects of Christology which are worked over in order
to emphasise the special character of Christ. thus establishing a high Christologv in

85
general.
It is not only Christology that is considered to be angelomorphic but also
soteriology, as proposed by C. H. T. FLETCHER-LOUIS in his work on Luke-Acts
(1997). He adopts a broad definition in order to make a "specifically human direction"
for the term "angelomorphic" possible.86 Accordingly. he managed to find various
angelomorphic traditions in Luke and the sources used by him, like an angelomorphic
humanity (for example in Dan 7-12 or Acts 17:28ff)87, angelomorphic communities
(for instance in I QS, 4Q400-407,4Q491,4Q511 35, the History of the Rechabites or
the Testament of Job)88 or angelomorphic soteriology (for example in Lk 15:7-10, Lk
15: 11-32, Acts 6: 15 or Acts 7: 53)89. Even a high priest may be considered
angelornorphic (as for instance in Eccl 50: 1-21, Diodurus Siculus' Bibliotheca
Historica, the Letter ofAristeas and possibly in the Book of Watchers in I En. 1-36). 90
Obviously the understanding of the term "angelomorphic" as used by
FLETCHER-LOUIS is quite fluid - deductive and inductive at the same time, and does
not focus on the author's use of tradition or their understanding of the use of certain
imagery. Rather, the term's meaning depends on a more generalized point of view.
Formal parallels become decisive in order to determine whether a certain idea is
angelomorphic or not. Accordingly, one idea can be interpreted as being angelomorphic
84SeeHANNAH: Michael, passim.

85Cp. VOLLENWEIDER: "Monotheismus", 21-44, esp. 34-41.
86Cp. FLETCHER-LOUIS: Luke-Acts, 14 n. 64.
87Cp. FLETCHER-LOUIS: Luke-Acts, e.g. 30-31 and 205-215.
88Cp. FLETCHER-LOUIS: Luke-Acts, e.g. 184-205.
19
and so, correspondingly, other traditions can be interpreted in the same way - in some
cases without even mentioning any angelic imagery.
A tendency for dealing with sources and interpreting them in terms of
angelology can be seen, for in

example, FLETCHER-LOUIS' interpretation of History
of the Rechabites: The celibate status of the Rechabites reported in this text and their
designation as "earthly angels" (5: 3-4; 7: 10) have led him to the conclusion that this
description has to be interpreted as an angelomorphic human 91

communitv.
Accordingly, for him, this way of describing a community allows for a better
understanding of Luke's soteriology depicting Christian society in similar terms - this
Luke's description has to be interpreted 92 Apart from the

means as angelomorphic.
problem of seeing a background for Luke's gospel in the History of the Rechabites,such
a procedure does not take sufficient account of Luke's own use of materials or
traditions. The assumption of a shared world view in which angelic and human
categories could be fluid, however appropriate it might be, ought not to be confused
with the particular ideas expressed by individual authors.
This raises the question as to whether it is the author's understanding of
employing traditions which makes an idea angelomorphic in character or not. It is
probably important if an author consciously derives imagery from traditions.
Accordingly, it is significant to what extent and maybe if his way of composing an
angelomorphic description possibly copes with the ability of his readers to understand
this idea.
is
FLETCHER-LOUIS' concept of angelomorphisms so general as such that it
to text. However, it is likely

can be used as pattern against which examine almost every
89Cp. FLETCHER-LOUIS: Luke-Acts,e.g. 72-107.

90Cp. FLETCHER-LOUIS: Luke-Acts,e.g. 118-129.
91 Cp. FLETCHER-LOUIS: Luke-Acts, 199-204. He bases his conclusion on similarities between some
texts.
92Cp. FLETCHER-LOUIS: Luke-Acts,e.g. 221.
20
that neither a general pattern nor a single uniform concept of adopting angelomorphic
traditions may have existed. Rather, a given author's particular way of adopting
traditions may differ accordingly from text to text, Thus xve cannot assume the idea of
angelomorphism to be uniform in character.
It should be obvious by this point that there is no agreed working definition for
the term "angelomorphic", but rather that the interpretation of its meaning is dependant
on the approach chosen: the more extended the definition becomes, the more
angelomorphic traditions are to be found. The lack of a clear definition is apparent here.
the term can be used in a very flexible way.
It should also be apparent that within the history of research many conclusions
have been advanced with dogmatic considerations in mind, as shown through the
example of the "creature-terminology" (see above). This is also visible in the process of
the above mentioned disputes: the argumentsused are related to the history of doctrines
(notably the first disputes are to be seen only among scholars of history of doctrines).
and closer observations of NT facts follow as a logical Therefore

consequence. it has to
be asked whether this course of the disputes has determined from the outset the more
discussion concerning the connection between angelology and Christology, or if

recent
criteria of the NT have been taken into account seriously enough.
The need for further studies in the Christology of Revelation seems apparent.
Accordingly, the aim of the present thesis is to determine the type of Christology that
characterises the Apocalypse and to observe especially its connection to angelology.
Any contemporary attempt to describe the author's own way of integrating angelolo`gv
with Christology should avoid (or at least be aware of) dogmatic presuppositions. as
shown above. The history of research regarding the studies on angelology and
Christology has shown that a dogmatic understanding - in most cases - underlies the
"angel" Christology`. In the present thesis.

analysis and assessment of angelomorphic or
21
other means of distinguishing Christ from angels (e.g. functional-soteriological and
narrative-contextual aspects)shall be explored. It should also prove helpful to determine
the tradition-historical background which gave rise to this special kind of Christology.
1.3. The Problems of Definitions
Since the absence of a clear working definition of the expression
"angelomorphic" has become apparent, it seemsnecessaryto define this expression for
further studies on the Apocalypse and the question whether or not angelomorphic
elements are present in this writing. A promising start for such a definition has to be
based on the integration of two other expressionsthat are somehow related to the term
"angelomorphic", namely the terms "divine" and "angelic". A definition of these two
words seemsespecially helpful, becauseboth in

were essentially used earlier attempts to
establish an appropriate understanding of the expression "angelomorphic" as will be
demonstrated in this section (cp. immediately below). A definition of "angel
Christology" should also be made at this stage.A closer look at some previous attempts
at defining the expression "angelomorphic" demonstrates the correlation of all
mentioned terms and their dependencyon each other.
For instance, the definition for "angelomorphic`° provided by DANIELOU
explains the expression as a representation
beings. ". ý3
"... by means of the imagery of various angelic
Such a definition seems simplistic, but at the same time it offers a reasonablesolution.
However, the question remains open with regard to what an angelic being actually is; a
definition of an angel or angelic being thus still has to be made. Similarly, the definition
by KNIGHT lacks clarity, since he defines angelomorphic descriptions as
93Cp. DANIELOU: Christianitil, 146.

-1
11 analogies with the angels despite the
attribution of divini "94
and contrasts sharply between an angelomorphic Christology and the so-called Angel
Christology - literally implying a presentation of Christ as an

angel - as postulated by
WERNER. 95 This definition also leaves open the question
of what constitutes an angel
or angelic being. Furthen ore, it remains to be asked what constitutes a divine being,
and whether a divine status rules out the possibility of an angelic status altogether or
allows for an occasional understandingof "divine" 96

angels.
A somewhat more precise definition is finally provided by FLETCHER-LOUIS
who interprets"angelomorphic" as
"... wherever there are signs that an individual or communitypossesses specificalhv
angelic characteristics or status, though for whom identity cannot be reduced to that of
07
an angel.
This definition, in turn, builds on his understandingof what an angelic being is:
"... the constellation of characteristics and motifs which commonly occur across a
broad spread of Jewish texts from the Second Temple and early rabbinic periods. ". 98
Although both definitions, taken together, may seem specific at first sight. some
clarifications are to be made in this case as well. For instance, it needs to be specified
what can be defined as "commonly" applied characteristics or motifs of an angelic
nature.
Another weakness of FLETCHER-LOUIS' definition lies in the temporal
restriction he provides. A limitation of angelic ideas to Second Temple and rabbinic
writings is not necessarily consequent, since imagery concerning angels underlies
changes in that is
period and not standardised.Further, writings from other periods or
94Cp. KNIGHT: Disciples, 142.

95Cp. KNIGHT: Disciples, 76
and 183.
96See for Luke-.Acts, 14 n. 64.
a similar critique FLETCHER-LOUIS:
47Cp. FLETCHER-LOUIS: Luke-Acts, 14-15.
98Cp. FLETCHER-LOUIS: Luke-Acts, 15.
23
later Christian writings can also be held responsible for a development of angelological
ideas.
On the other hand, the definition provided by FLETCHER-LOUIS is
amorphous: if an angel is considered to have all "characteristics and motifs which
commonly occur", almost any being related to heaven would be subject to an
interpretation as having an angelic status. Such a definition appears far too broad and
unspecific. Certain attributes or functions, as well as the possible designation of a figure
as an angel, should be taken into account for a reasonableand limited interpretation of a
figure as angelic.
For HANNAH the concept of an "angelomorphic Christology" is
phenomenological. For him the expressionrefers to
"visual portrayals of Christ in form 99

of an angel",
However, such a definition is too limited as it excludes any form of angelomorphic
Christology but a descriptive element of an appearance.Such aspectslike functions or
the context by which a figure might appearangelomorphic are not taken into account.
Further definitions of the terms such as "angelic", "angelomorphic", "angel
Christology" and "divine" have been proposed by GIESCHEN. He attempts to arrive at
definitions for the words that do not neglect the interrelationship between them. With
this in view, GIESCHEN first defines an angel as:
divine 100
"a spirit or heavenly being who mediatesbetweenthe human and realms".
Secondly he concludes the definition for "angelomorphic" as
to...an inclusive adjective which describes a phenomenon that has the variegated form
functions though the figure may not be explicitly identified as an

and, of an angel, even
It.101
angel.
" Cp. HANNAH: Michael, 13.

1°°Cp. GIESCHEN: Angelomorphic, 27.
101Cp. GIESCHEN: Angelomorphic, 27-28.
24
An angelomorphic Christology. therefore, is
"... the identification of Christ with angelic form and functions he is

... whether or not
specifically identified as an angel"
in contrast to an "angel Christology", which is an
'''explicit identification of Jesus Christ as an angel". 102
GIESCHEN builds his definition on the work of ROWLAND. who interprets an
angelomorphic Christology as a description of Christ which
"in no way implies that Christ was identified entirely with the created order". 103
It should by now be apparent that definitions of "angelomorphic" depend on the
definition of "angelic" and what an angel actually is, probably as well as on a definition
of "divine". Therefore, a definition of angels has to be establishedfirst.
(1) "Angels" and "Angelic"
The concept of angels in the Hebrew Bible and the adaptation of angelological
ideas in the New Testament literature apparently has its roots in the motif of a
messenger sent by God in order to communicate his messages to the people. Therefore,
GIESCHEN's proposal of an angel as a "heavenly being who mediates between human
and divine realms" seems an appropriate suggestion for a definition, which we may
generally agree to. However, since all the functions of angels are not always clear cut in
terms of simply mediating between those realms, we need to be more precise here:
Since angels are generally subordinate to God we may consider them as heavenly
servants of God who do his bidding either in heaven itself, or they take responsibility to
make his will known on earth functioning generally as messengersand God's servants.
In description they might even reflect God's glory, but their power is certainly limited
and subject to God's will. A general definition for an angel in biblical writings could
therefore be:
102Cp. GIESCHEN: Angelomorphic, 28.

I.
"An angel is a heavenly intermediary being,
who is in service of God and functions
as a messenger or servant. "
Further, an angel is generally designated as

such. The adjective "angelic"
conclusively relates to figures who share these attributes of an angel, possibly but not
necessarily implying that the figure thus described represents an angel.
(2) "Divinity" and "Divine"
"Divinity" is best defined in a very general way as a term describing the status of
God. The expressions "divinity" and "divine" are commonly understood in contrast to
"angels" and "angelic". If we understanda concept of divinity exclusively as describing
God and attributes related to him, such a distinction seemsto be appropriate. In turn, we
should attempt to identify the criteria which express a degree of divinity. GIESCHEN
proposes a catalogue for the criteria of divinity consisting of (1) a Divine Position, (2) a
Divine Appearance, (3) Divine Functions, (4) the Divine Name and (5) the Divine
Veneration. 104However, these criteria seem questionable, since many features within
descriptions of God are subject to change and might also be applied to angels or similar
minions of God. A sitting posture of God as an expression of his divinity as assumed by
GIESCHEN may indeed be found in certain traditions. But, as GIESCHEN admits
himself, portraits of God or those surrounding him as standing may also be found. (See
section 3.1.3.2. for a more thorough discussion on this problem in Revelation. )
Moreover, the possibility of deriving divine status from a description of appearanceor
size must be questioned. Though GIESCHEN provides evidence for descriptions of size
or appearanceof divine figures, it may certainly not be assumedthat elements of such a
depiction can be found everywhere. For instance, descriptions of Christ in New
Testament literature do not follow a general pattern of portraying God. On the contrary,
one might wonder where descriptions of God are found and where those descriptions
103Cp. ROWLAND: "Man", 100.
26
play an elemental role in Christophanies. Similarly. a name as clearly divine feature
may be present in certain descriptions, but one might doubt if a concept of divine names
is a standardized common feature in a wide

range of texts. 'Moreover. the expression
"divine name" may be misleading, since most names of angels in

early Jewish texts end
on "-el" (e. g. Michael, Raphael, Yahoel, Uriel) alluding to God. 1° Can all those names
be identified as divine? Angels would then be divine figures as well. And can
one argue
that these names are simply derived from God's name in order to express God's unique
status?In that case most titles given for instance to Christ relating him to God (e.g. son
of God) would have to be interpreted likewise.
A similar problem occurs if veneration is interpreted as an exclusive means to
ascribe divinity to certain figures: In the recent past some scholars, such as
HURTADO, 106
BAUCKHAM, 1°7VOLLENWEIDER'°8 or GIESCHENI°9 (and to some
10) have
extent FLETCHER-LOUIS' assumed that worship and veneration (especially
'cultic' veneration) are a means of ascribing divinity to Christ in contrast to angels where
such a reference is generally absent. Such an interpretation is - as partially admitted by
these scholars - not without challenge, since referencesto veneration or even worship of
angels can be found. Examples for veneration of angels have been provided for instance
by STUCKENBRUCK. 111HURTADO's
argument of a 'cultic' veneration as the means
for distinguishing Christ from angels or other heavenly beings and thus maintaining a
straightforward monotheism (drawing a line between angelic and divine) also has other
flaws. Weak points in HURTADO`s argument include a too narrow definition for
"worship" and the neglect of possible developments in early Jewish traditions
104Cp. GIESCHEN: Angelomorphic, 30-33.

posSee also VOLLENWEIDER: "Monotheismus", 28-29.
106Cp. HURTADO: God, passim (for instance 11-13), "Monotheism", 3-26,
or "Mean", 348-368.
107Cp. BAUCKHAM: Theology, 58-63, Climax, 133-140,
and God, 34-35.
1OSCp. VOLLENWEIDER: "Monotheismus", 30.
109Cp. GIESCHEN:. 33.
-ingelomorphic.
"0 See for instance FLETCHER-LOUIS: Luke-Acts, 15.
27
concerning angels and their veneration.112Despite the theory of worship being the
decisive factor in order to set Christ apart from subordinateheavenly beings which may
in contrast not be worshipped, it seemsimportant for the current definition of divinity
that the criteria of worship lacks precision in general. Added to which, the overlap
by
created evidence of angels being worshipped seemsto contradict the assumption that
worship is the decisive factor for keeping the line between divine and non-divine.
Therefore, it is difficult to regard worship as an exclusive means to establish the
distinction between divine and non-divine. Nevertheless, since worship is rejected by
angels in certain traditions113it may well be worth keeping "worship" in mind as a
means to distinguish angels from God and those in

who are ultimate proximity to him
(e.g. Christ). In other words, early Jewish and later Christian writers might generally
have addressedthe topic of worship in order to keep a line between angels (or similar
heavenly beings) and God. Maybe such a division has been expanded to Christ without
necessarily implying a fully developed understanding of a divine status of Christ.
An even more helpful means of expressing a divine status in early Jewish or
Christian writings might have been established by ascribing certain functions to God
and maybe other figures one wished to present as on par with him. However, the criteria
functions may not be entirely without overlaps: angels might occasionally be

of
portrayed with functions which are commonly reserved for God, such as taking care of
' 14
the created cosmos, protection of the righteous, punishing evil or answering prayers.
Other features, though, are rather exclusively ascribed to God, as for instance (A) the
(a feature is for instance by Wisdom in

creation of the world which rarely shared, as
Proverbia 3: 19; 8:22-3 1; Wisdom of Solomon 9:9 or Ben Sirach 24:3-7). (B) salvific or
111Cp. STUCKENBRUCK: 1,eneration, 51-204, and "Refusal", 679-696. See for honour given to angels
as a cultic practice HORBURY: Messianism, 121.
112Cp. STUCKENBRUCK: 1eneration, 49-50, and "Monotheism", 70-89.
113Cp. for instance BAUCKHAM: "Worship", 322-341. or STUCKENBRUCK: Veneration, 270-27 1.
114Cp. GIESCHEN:. angelomorphic, 32.
28
redemptive deeds like absolving sins, causing general salvation for Israel or
pronouncing eschatological judgement, and finally (C) holding the dominion over the
earth and the entire creation. Such features are generally absent when references to
angels are made: A creation by angels or even just the participation of angels in creation
is excluded. Salvation is also causedexclusively by God, though it it might be carried
out by angels (e.g. in Num 20: 16; Ex 23: 20-23 or Tobl15); the angels only reflect God's
will and obey his command. Similarly, the power to reign over the earth is God's very
privilege. Angels might share some powers, but only if granted by God. Mostly angels
only have control over a certain restricted area of creation, never the entire world.
Moreover, angels might even struggle to gain such power (e.g. the fallen angels in 1
En.), but in no scenario in early Jewish literature or the New Testament do they gain
control of the earth. The dominion of God and his clearly superior rank to angels is
often reflected in the postures by which God is described in contrast to angels. While
God is often portrayed as sitting or throned, angels are often described as standing (see
discussion ). 116
for a more thorough section 3.1.3.2.
In the current discussion a concept of "divinity" has been subject to the contrast
If
with angelic categories. a generally acceptedconcept of divinity with a common view
may be assumed at all, one might question whether or not this concept would
necessarily imply a deliberately to

created contrast one of angelic categories. If not, it
could be possible to provide evidence for divine beings possessing angelic attributes
without reducing their status to that of an angel. However, since "divinity" within the
frame of a monotheistic view seeks to emphasise God's uniqueness, the contrast with
15An identification of Christ in the Gospel

of John as divine might then at first -lance seem problematic,
since John draws heavily on angelic categories for his christological concept, especially the description of
Christ as being sent by his father; cp. BOHNER: Gesandte, passim. However, a divine classification of
Christ in John is warranted elsewhere by the close connection between Christ and God (described as his
"father"). Also Christ's preexistence which is emphasised hints at a divine character.
"' See for the criteria for divinity
provided also VOLLENWEIDER: "Monotheismus", 28-31.
29
other heavenly or exalted beings which might be challenging God's unique status seems
a logical consequence.
Nevertheless, a definition for divinity may not simply be based on a definition
via negations, i. e. to say that divinity is what is not angelic. In turn, one must investigate
where God is explicitly set apart from other categories (e.g. angelic). and what actually
forms the unique character of God. As a result, certain features may be extracted, such
as those just mentioned.
Conclusively, we may summarise divinity as a somewhat artificial expression
for describing the characteristics of God with a special focus on emphasising his
uniqueness. Such unique status may be expressed by ascribing certain functions to a
figure which might then be identified as divine. A major significance for identifying a
divine figure by functions lies in (1) a participation in the creation, (2) a salvific
meaning and (3) dominion over the earth. Other features, such as (A) the position (or
posture) of a figure, (B) the appearance, (C) the name or (D) worship or veneration bear
less significance, since overlaps with figures which have clearly no divine meaning
might exist. Still, these other features can be helpful, since they provide a means for
identifying a status as being equal to God's.
A further feature which may help to identify a certain figure's divinity might be
expressed by certain temporal aspects being ascribed: One of God's characteristics
often alluded to is his eternity. Another figure sharing this aspect might be considered
divine as well. Notions concerning an eternal character of divine figures might possibly
be alluded to by a preexistent character or by an application of formulas as in Isaiah
41:4 (i. e. for instance the Dreizeitenformel as used in Revelation). Similarly, a divine
be by figures the prerogative to operate in past.

status might also expressed ascribing to
present and future. 117
117See for
such a proposal DAVIS: "Agents", 479-503.
lo
However, the definition made above raises the
question of whether or not it
coincides with an underlying concept of monotheism. In early Judaism a very unique
status of God can almost be taken for granted. A notice of divinity for other figures
might therefore be rare, if it exists at all. In early Christianity, though. monotheism
might possibly have been compromised by an upcoming significance of Christ and the
holy Spirit. It must therefore be kept in mind that a "uniqueness" (as assumed for an
indication of divinity) would then have to be accepted for one or two more figures
within the process of a trinitarian (or binitarian) development.
In general, the attempt to define divinity illustrates part of the problem how
angels, angelomorphic beings and divine beings can be clearly kept apart from each
other. The discussion concerning definitions of divine, angelic and angelomorphic may
contribute to the following studies concerning the Apocalypse of John in so far as some
aspects just mentioned might be present in this writing. Therefore, the forthcoming
arguments will also provide a close look at criteria (some of which were just mentioned)
which help to relate God, Christ and angels to each other, and at the question which of
the criteria are used in order to eventually set them apart.
Final consideration should be given to the term "equality which we have
employed above and which shall be used in the thesis in relation to shared status
between God and a divine figure. This concept requires further clarification, since in the
thesis below we shall focus on whether in Revelation Christ is subordinatedto or placed
on par with God. If we keep in mind the particularity of the seer John's Christology, it
would be misleading to understand "equality" (or equal status) between God and Christ
in an absolute sense.On the contrary. this expression should be neither unnecessarily
delineated nor overly generalised. Accordingly. the term shall be applied below when
the seer is thought to express a certain proximity between God and Christ. in which
Christ is placed on the "divine" side (see above) without strictly being identified with
31
God per se. In addition, the so called "subordinate" Christologv
passages(e.g. the vision
in Apc 5 where Christ receives the scroll from God
or Apc 14 where Christ receives a
command from an angel) do not necessarily reflect an emphasis on Christ's subordinate
status per se; their interpretation depends on what one makes of what the auhor actually
wished to demonstratethrough such details.
(3) Angelic Christologies
Based on the definitions established for "angels" and "divinity", we may now
to
continue shed more light on various concepts of angelic Christologies. Following the
suggestion of HANNAH we may define all those forms of Christologies as angelic
which are indebted to some degree to angelological ideas. Accordingly, the expression
"angelic Christology" serves as a general "umbrella term" for those forms of talking
' 18
about Christ which apply references to Christ normally ascribed to angels. These
Christologies can be subdivided further into two other groups, namely into (A) an angel
Christology and (B) an angelomorphic Christology.
(3a) Angel Christology
The meaning of an angel Christology is relatively easy to define as a
christological concept which regards Christ as an angel or, more broadly, as an angelic
being. (Such a concept includes a portrait of Christ as incarnation of an angel or an
exaltation of his )119

status to that of an angel. A concept of an angel Christology has
been assumedfor instance for the New Testamentby WERNER (as shown above). In a
pure form it may have been preserved rarely, as in the Elkasaites' writings witnessed by
Epiphanius (Pan. 19.4.1-2) or Hippolytus (Haer. 9.13.2-3). 120
"8 Cp. HANNAH: Michael, 12-13.

119See also HANNAH: tlichael, 12, KNIGHT: Disciples, 183, GIESCHEN:. 28.
and -ingelomorphic,
'20Cp. KNIGHT: Disciples, 167-I68, The Revelation ofElcha. cai.
or LUTTIKHUIZEN.
32
(3b) Angelomorphic Christology
Compared to the definition which can be

supplied for an angel Christologv. a
definition for an angelomorphic Christology seems to be

more difficult to provide. Part
of the difficulties which occur for a definition of what is actually "angelomorphic" have
already been mentioned above. When a first approach, namely an explanation of
angelomorphic Christology as a description of Christ in µopgn (form) of an angel, can
be taken for granted, it still begs the question whether this way of portraying Christ
implies an upgrade or a reduction of his status. In other words, once an angelomorphic
status of Christ is established one must elaborate if his status is either divine (i. e. still
equal to God despite the use of imagery commonly applied to subordinate servants) or
subordinate (by making him appear as subordinate). One may even assume that both
options are generally possible, since some early Christian texts (such as the Ascension
of Isaiah) describe Christ in an angelomorphic and subordinatecontext while other texts
refer to Christ as a divine being who is also portrayed in angelomorphic contexts (which
may have to be confirmed for the Apocalypse of John). Even descriptions of God
himself might occasionally be slightly angelomorphic (as possibly in Gen 16:7-14;
21: 17-18; Ex 3: 2-4: 17 or Judg 6: 11-27). 121

Therefore, one can say at the current stage of
the discussion that an angelomorphic description does not necessarily deprive Christ (or
maybe a similarly important figure) of his divinity or reduces his status to that of an
angel.122
A further point for a working definition of an angelomorphic Christology needs
clarification, namely by what means an angelomorphic description of Christ can be
established. As quoted above, HANNAH proposes an angelomorphism of Christ as
being representedby visual means. Though an angelomorphic description by a reference
Z' Cp. FLETCHER-LOUIS: Luke-Acts,

15.
22 Cp. HANNAH: Michael, Luke-Acts. 14-15, antik '1GHT:
13. See similarly FLETCHER-LOUIS:
Revelation, 163-164.
ý!
to Christ's appearance is certainly a logical explanation. the proposal excludes further
possibilities by which Christ can be portrayed using the way angelic imagery is
employed. We may therefore propose further means that let Christ appear in a way
which might be agreed to as angelomorphic. As emphasised by FLETCHER-LOUIS,
the angelic aspect of a description can be rooted in characteristics and motifs, i. e. in
traditions. 123Therefore, one should consider that an angelomorphic description might
constitute of other means of reference to the angelic world which can have roots in
traditional material. For instance, an angelomorphic portrait might be established by
ascribing angelic functions (i. e. functions commonly attributed to angels) to a figure
which is not described as an angel per se. An example of one such angelomorphic
description is preserved in Wisdom of Solomon 18: 15-19 where Wisdom itself takes
over functions of the Angel of Death from the Exodus narrative. A further example is
provided by the Gospel of John, where Christ is described as one being sent by his
father, a description which is indebted to the portrait of Raphael in the Book of Tobit.
Besides relating an angelomorphic description to traditional material (as in the
case of alluding to visual or functional aspects), a further way of ascribing an
to figure appearsto be possible: Even if a figure is not related to

angelomorphic status a
by functional aspects,an angelomorphic status of the figure can

angels either visual or
still be achieved by an author by relating it to angels by context. This means, even
describing angels, that the figure may be

without clear allusions to a traditional way of
angelomorphically depicted by relating it to angels in the given context of a passage.
For instance, one may interpret Apc 14:14 as such a reference to an angelomorphic
Christ, since Christ is mentioned along with six other angels, and an angel following his
description is introduced as "another angel" (see section 2.2.2. for a more thorough
123Cp. FLETCHER-LOUIS: Luke-Acts, 15.
34
discussion). Paul's notion in Galatians 4: 14 that he has been
welcomed "God's angel. as
Jesus Christ" might also be interpreted as an 124
angelomorphic understanding, of Christ.
We may summarize the meaning of an angelomorphic description

as a means of
portraying a figure by relating it to the angelic world without implying that it

actually
representsan angel. A reference to divinity or non-divinity of the so-describedfigure is
not made in a general statement, since humans, Christ and even God himself can be
described in such a way. Therefore, an angelomorphic Christology can be defined as the
branch of Christology which describes Christ by relating him to angels without
implying either an angelic or an explicitly divine status. The status of Christ, may it be
subordinate to God or on par with God, has to be derived from the context of the whole
writing which contains an angelomorphic description of Christ. The means of relating
Christ to angels may vary and can draw on traditional material such as (A) a reference
to Christ's appearance employing attributes commonly attested to angels or (B) a
reference to functions which are traditionally angelic, or a description can also draw on
(C) the context to relate Christ to angelic ideas.
In the following study we shall now attempt to investigate whether the
definitions made above can be assumedto be correct by applying them to the concept of
the Apocalypse of John. The focus of the forthcoming chapterswill be the outline of the
author's Christology, especially as regards Christ's relationship with angels and with
God.
1''' See for a discussion GIESCHEN: Angelomorphic, 315-325.
I;
Part B: Analysis of the Christology of the Apocalypse
2. The Christology of Apc 14
2.1. Christology of the Apocalypse and its Connection to Angels
The introduction on the history of researchprovided in chapter 1 concerning the
connection of Christ and angels and angelic figures has made apparentthat a distinction
between Christ and angels in NT texts and Early Christian literature was repeatedly
dogmatic ' Some these be traced to

made under assumptions. of assumptions may
christological doctrines of the third century CE, that is, to ideas which might actually
not be reflected by these early documents. Furthermore, it can be observed that
dogmatic concerns are becoming a decisive factor in studies which focus on the
Apocalypse of John itself, even when those dogmatic concernsmight be presupposedon
a basis not reflected in Revelation.
Firstly it should be examined how closely Christ is related to the angels
appearing with him within the Apocalypse in order to make further statements on the
distinction made between them. There are three main passagesto take into account for
working out the relationship between Christ and angels: Apc 1:7-20,14: 6-20 and 19: 11-
21. Within these passages,more than others (as for instance Apc 5: 1-14), Christ is most
to
closely related angels and described in (almost) angelic categories. Further, it has to
be examined if these passagesare the only important chapters in the Apocalypse that
have to be looked at for demonstrating angelic christological features of Revelation, as
Dogmatic assumptions have been identified in section 12. in publications by MICH, ALLIý.
BAUCKHARM. ROWLAND and CARRELL.
36
it has been done in most works concerning this area 2
of research. Indeed there may be
other texts which do not actually describe Christ in angelic terms. but which are also
important to understand the concept and meaning of the Apocalypse's Christologv and
Christ's proximity to angels.
Furthermore, one has to ask whether these passageshave to be treated separately
from other christological ideas of the Apocalypse or whether the author might have
planned all the christological features of his work carefully, so that one has to observe
the overlap of angelology and Christology in light of the whole work.
To start with, it is probably appropriate to look at the christological features of
Apc 14:6-20, chiefly because this passage contains the most interesting christological
ideas of Revelation's author which, in turn, may shed light on descriptions of Christ in
other chapters of the Apocalypse. The potential significance of Apc 14: 6-20 has often
been neglected or simply been overlooked. Contributions to the Christology of the Book
of Revelation generally seem to focus on the Lamb Christology and to centre then on
observations made on Apc 5: 1-14. This can be seen in various commentaries and works
on the Apocalypse or on the topic of NT Christology: J. D. G. DUNN for instance
barely mentions the importance angelomorphic Christology might have, as noticed
before. H. KRAFT does not acknowledge any Christology in Apc 14: 14-20 and reduces
like to that 3 KRAFT'S research on the

the meaning of the one a son of man of an angel.
4
Lamb, however, is much more in-depth. Some other scholars focus on the description
Christ in 1 Revelation.5
of given chapter of
2 Cp. CARRELL: Jesus, passim, or GIESCHEN:. 4ngelomorphic, 245-269, both focussing on chapters 1,
14 and 19 and neglecting a connection between the Lamb Christoiogý and the angelic description of
Christ.
Cp. KRAFT: Offenbarung, 197.
a Cp. KRAFT: Offenbarung, 107-110.
5 See for a summary STUCKENBRUCK: Veneration, 22-41.
37
2.2. The Christological Features of Apc 14
2.2.1. The Interpretive Problem of Apc 14:6-20
Apc 14:6-20 provides a detailed vision of the coming of "one like a son
of man"
being accompanied by angels. This figure is linked closely to these angels, as be

will
discussed immediately below. Accordingly one might have to give special attention to
the angelological features and ideas that are present when this prominent figure is
described. A further problem to consider is the question whether Apc 14:1-5 is relevant
for the christological description in verses 6-20 or if the vision of the Lamb and his
followers and the following vision of judgement of the world should be treated
separately.
But, first of all, who is the oRotov viöv äv9pcbnoo in Apc 14: 15 who appears
without any further names or titles? Can one assumethat this figure is Christ? And if
Christ is really meant in this passage, is he described clearly enough and sufficiently
prominently so that no further title or name was necessary to identify him
unambiguously? If the author did not deem further designations for the figure, then it is
possible that he assumed a familiarity with his language among his readers who
presumably would not have queried the figure's identity. This applies also to the
eschatological scenario of the passageas a whole; the author may have assumedthat his
readers knew the traditions underlying the vision and that they would therefore have
been in a position to understand the vision as a manifestation of Christ's coming and
divine judgment of the world.
A close relation of the "one like a son of man" with the angels which appear in
the vision of Apc 14:6-20 is quite obvious. (We may also say this about the "one like a
38
son of man" in the opening vision of Revelation, because in Apc 1: 7-20 the same figure
is closely related to angels by means of terminology which will be dealt with more
explicitely in section 5.2.1. ) Accordingly it has to be examined whether he can be Christ
if he is 6 if he has features
or rather an angel, or alternatively of Christ and an angel.
Notably this question is rather important in relation to Revelation's dogmatic value as
well, because according to M. LUTHER it is "rechter Prüfstein" for the biblical
scriptures "ob sie Christum treiben oder nicht. "7
2.2.2. The Problem of the Phrase ä? Ao; äyyEkoq
On closer inspection of Apc 14:6 the description of the first angel as äkkoq
) attention becausethere is no obvious antecedent for the word ä? og.

ccy- oq attracts
The word äX?og could be related to an angel that was described previously in another
in Apc 10: 1 (äX2 i opov) might be a possible solution

context - the angel ov (xyyEkov
then8 - or the phrase might be related to the angels mentioned later on in chapter 14. In
the latter case the "other angel" would then have to be explained best as a "stylistic
device" for introducing a new angel. 9 Many exegetes, as for instance J. WEISS, W.
BOUSSET or R. H. CHARLES have tried to avoid the difficulty of explaining this
by interference in the text. J. WEISS believed that one has in retrospect of Apc
phrase
8: 13 to assumean &XA, öcvcov("another eagle") in Apc 14:6, becauseof the same way
ov
6 Cp. for instance CASEY: God, 142: CASEY regards the expression "one like a son of man" as
Christ in Apc 1: 13. In Apc 14: 14 he assumes an application of this
attributed to only once, namely
like also CASEY:
expression to an angel. Cp. for an interpretation of the one a son of man as an angel
Son, 142-150, RITT: Offenbarung, 77-78, COPPENS: "Fils", 229 and KIDDLE: Revelation, 274-277.
Cp. 11'.4 -, 384,1.27-29.
8 Cp. CHARLES: Revelation 11,21. SWEET relates the äXXoS äyy. Xog to Apc 14:9 instead, cp. SWEET:
Revelation, 23 1. The lack of an obvoius reference is here, because in other passages
quite conspicious
Revelation the to äXXog äyy£Xoq is less as in Apc 7: 2 (related to 7: 1) or
within reference an ambiguous,
8: 3 (related to 8: 3).
9 Cp. VAN SCHAIK: ""AXXoS", 225 and ALINE: Revelation 6-16,823-824.
39
of using ?
I? ov here.10This view is rather unlikely becauseof the further
enumeration
of angels in the following verses as secondand third angel in verses 8 and 9.11and also
because of a lack of any textcritical evidence for this

proposal. A deletion on basis of
textcritical evidence of the word äX? ov as assumed by W. BOUSSET because of
"insurmountable difficulties" of the text's content12 is also hard to justify. The absence
is
of (I? ov witnessed by some variants ( ý', X* and others), but the text containing
äX? ov is much better testified (X2, A, C, P and others). The latter variant also provides
the lectio difficilior. 13 In addition, one may easily explain the creation of a variant
without (Xkkov by the above mentioned difficulty of interpreting the reference of this
14R. H. CHARLES tried to this difficulty in 6, in

word. overcome verse as well as verse
15, by proposing to translate the phrase "another one, an angel" here. 15Consequently
the problem of having to find a referenceto i2 ov would be avoided then. Probably the
best solution in this case is to interpret the term i? oq äyyF-ko; as a compositional
device that draws attention to each new figure it is introduced in the 16The
as narrative.
advantage of this proposal is that it avoids doubtful interferences in the given text in
to
order explain a missing reference of the word äXXoq.
More important for Christology is the description of the angel in verse 15 as
' EXoqbecausethis term affects the interpretation of the son of man figure in
ä? oq (XYY
verse 14. Just how to account for the occurrence of äkXo; äyyF-2
o; has been subject to
10Cp. WEISS: Offenbarung, 96: WEISS to be much more appropriate because of its
considered an eagle
ability to fly, and also because there was no real counterpart for the angel in verse 6. Cp. also KRAFT:
Offenbarung, 192-193 and SWEET: Revelation, 224. For the tradition-historical use of the eagle in the
Apocalypse see also PARK: Offenbarung, 187-196.
Cp. HOLTZ: Christologie, 130, n. 2.
12Cp. BOUSSET: Offenbarung, 383, 2. In BOUSSET wants to avoid regarding the
esp. n. other words.
one like a son of man as an angel.
Surely the use of 'k), ov provides the lectio difficilior, because the reference of this word has to be
explained.
Cp. also HOLTZ: Christologie, 130, n. 2.
Cp. CHARLES: Revelation 11,21-23. CHARLES delays this problem, though, proposing this solution
in his discussion on verse 18, because he 15-17 as an interpolation.
wants to eleminate verses
16Cp. LOHMEYER: Offenbarung,
121 and HOLTZ: Christologie, 130, n. 2.
40
debate. A possible explanation for this phrase has therefore been
assumed as a major
crux inter return of the text. The essentialproblem of this expression is how to identify
the antecedent for äkko;. If the term refers to a single subject, then in this context it
could point to one of two figures. The first antecedentwhich comes to mind is the son
of man-like figure in the previous verse (verse 14) who, however, is not explicitly
designated as an angel. The other possibility would be to find a reference back to one of
the other angels, namely the one mentioned in verse 9.17In the former case, the son of
man-like figure would have to be regarded as an angel, who is similar to the angels in
verses 17 and 19-20; a correlation between is

a son of man and angels also provided in
' 8 In particular, the idea of classifying the "one like a

contemporary Jewish traditions.
son of man" as an angel, according to the above mentioned reference, has been regarded
as very problematic and unlikely. Consequently it is rather assumedthat in

changes this
have been demoting "one like ' 9

passage made, the a son of man" to an angel afterwards.
Recalling CHARLES' solution to the problem of avoiding a straightforward
identification of the "one like a son of man" with an angel has been considered by M.
BARKER. She proposes that the author's translation ä? kog äyyEXoq be understood as a
mistranslation of a purported Hebrew or Aramaic Vorlage behind the Apocalypse. She
assumesthat ` MM was the underlying adjective which the author misinterpreted due to
the range of possible translations for this term. She notes that in Hebrew or Aramaic
' it in addition to meaning "another", also carries the sense of "afterwards".

,
Accordingly, one would have to regard the phrase ä? og äyyF-XoSto mean "an angel
1' Cp. VAN SCHAIK: ""AXXos". But this dependent if Apc 14:6-20 is
possibility is also on the question
originally an independent literary unit or not, cp. MÜLLER: Messias. 195 for this question.
18Cp. MÜLLER: Messias, 195-196. The the background of this tradition is also
question concerning
important for the question of a literary unity of this passage Apc 14:6-20, as to be shown.
19 Cp. BOUSSET: Offenbarung, 388: äUos the äyyEXoS because the messianic
was added to word
character of the son of man like was not understood.
41
afterwards", as the different angels introduced by this expressionrepresent. in any case.
a single angel, namely the "angel of the Lord". 20
The proposals of both CHARLES and BARKER are hardly convincing. Given
their respective dogmatic concerns, they have imported a problem into the passageof
Apc 14 which is extraneousto the text.21Accordingly, the translation of ä? oS äyyF-koS
as "another angel" (which, in turn, is identified with the son-of-man-like figure) should
be preferred. After all, the function of the "one like a son of man" remains strikingly
parallel to the activities attributed to the in 17

angels verses and 19.22
It is impossible to eliminate äkXog under the assumption of textcritical aspects
becausethere is no textcritical evidence that the term äX?o; was ever omitted. There is
no way, therefore, to circumvent the identification of "one like a son of man" with an
23independent his identity hierarchical 24If

angel, of other concerns such as or position.
in verse 6, as we have seen, the expression is to be understood less in relation to an
antecedent than as a stylistic device, then the possibility presents itself that the same
here.25Thus the numerous discussions which question the identification of

may apply
the "one like a son of man" with an angel seem, on consideration, to represent a crux
interpretorum rather than a crux interpretum. 26 The between the son of man
connection
figure and the angels in this passageis rather obvious; no text- or tradition-historical
20Cp. BARKER: Revelation, 145: BARKER regards the tradition of a single angel of the Lord also to be
in Apocalypse. (cp. BARKER: Angel, ) Subsequently for BARKER there is
present the also passim.
obvoiusly no further christological problem present in Apc 14.
21 In case of BARKER's proposal it also remains unclear whether there is a matrix that contains a
have been translated into Greek in order to make her
construction including 11'f;ß and 7XýM which could
hypothesis probable.
22Cp. MÜLLER: Messias, 195-196.
23Cp. MÜLLER: Messias, 196.
24 For many commentators this is Jewish background in this verse. This
reason enough to consider a
Especially for MÜLLER the idea
question will be dealt with in more detail later on in the present thesis.
he Apc 14:6-20
of a Jewish background became very important, insomuch that subsequently considered
be literary in ALINE: Revelation 6-16,
to no unit. Cp. for the thought of a Jewish scheme this verse also:
842 and additionally COPPENS: "Fits", 229, CASEY: Son, 148-149 and MÜLLER: Messias, 196-197.
2S The formulation & äyy£Xog is the Apc (as will be shown later on) and
o; used quite often within
be Apc 14: 6-20 it is used 6
seems to a device somehow favoured by the author; even in the small passage
tines.
42
explanations satisfactorily resolve what some interpreters have perceived
as theological
problem. 27
Another issue with regard to the mentioning

of the one like a son of man is the
probability that he is subordinated to the angels. The angel in verse 15 gives the one like
a son of man the command to send out his sickle and harvest the world. The ostensive
subordination of the figure in verse 14 to the angels due to the order of the
angel in
verse 15 has been considered unlikely by most commentators,becausethe angel

giving
out orders to the one like a son of man is coming out of God's temple and would
28
accordingly represent God's will. Concerning these observations, one should avoid
interpreting the given passage from a dogmatic perspective, especially if it relates to
Christology. Ape 14:6-20 should not be interpreted by assuming a dogmatic
understanding - which seems the "correct" one in the context of modem theological
debate.Furthermore, the notion that verse 15 implies a subordinaterole of Christ should
be avoided, as it suggests that the content of the Apocalypse anachronistically draws
upon christological themes which did not become important until the 3rd century CE.
This kind of dogmatic presupposition is apparent in the work of P. CARRELL. He
wants to explain the subordinate tendencies and a seemingly ignorant Christ by
temporary Christ in this the Apocalypse.29

assuming a angelic nature of passageof
2.2.3. The Significance of Daniel 7: 13
For further research on the christological features of Apc 14:6-20, the attributes
given to the one like a son of man in verse 14 are obviously of major importance; they
26This the discussion is less is in the text such, but

means whole more or a problem that not present as
rather a problem that is in mind of those who discussed this issue.
27Cp. STUCKENBRUCK: !
eneration, 241.
28Cp. MÜLLER: Offenbarung,
270 or AUNE: Revelation 6-16,842. See for this discussion also REALE:
Rcv"i'Iation, 772-773.
43
might explain whether this figure is Christ as he is typically described in early Christian
sources, or if he is rather an angel. First of all it has to be determined which attributes
allow for an understanding of the figure as Christ. A central key for further
determination is the adaptation in Apc 14: 14 of the tradition

of the Son of Man's
coming from Daniel 7: 13, which is also clearly present in Apc 1:7-16.30 It seems rather
important for the discussion of this issue to clarify some observations from the
passage
from the linguistic perspective.
Firstly, the formulation öµotov uiöv äv8pwrov is somewhat conspicuous,
because following the word öµoto; a construction in dative case should be expected.
The rather unusual syntactical connection here, where an accusative is used instead,
31
might mislead one to regard the expression as a solecism. This proposal, though, is not
the only possibilty. One may also assumethat 6µotog and ü are synonymous within the
Apocalypse. This could then reflect the various possibilities for a translation of the
Aramaic n in this work. This means that üc could probably be an equivalent translation
for : ), because the use of öµotoc completely overlaps üc in use and syntactical
32At this it has to be asked which text and tradition the author of the
construction. point
Apocalypse used for his version of narrating the coming of the Son of Man. In the Old
Greek versions of this specific passagefrom the text of Daniel the formulation ü vi6q
ävOpwnovis used in all casesfor the description of the Son of Man. Therefore this term
does not give further evidence for the dependenceof the Apocalypse on a specific Old
Greek source. To help identify the probable source used by the author of Apocalypse. a
29Cp. CARRELL: Jesus, 191-192

and 224-226.
30The character Dan 7: 13 is in I En. 37-71,4 E_ra l 3.. 4pc.. 4br.
of as a messianic key role also reflected
10: 1-4 and Ase.Isa. 4: 1-2. Cp. also SLATER: Community, 77-85.
.
Cp. BLASS: DEBRUNNER: Grammatik, 112-114.
32Cp. YARBRO COLLINS: "Influence",
104-105.
44
table below simultaneously compares versions of Daniel 7: 1333and Apc 1:13 and Apc
14:14.34
Figure 1: Comparison between the OG Daniel Traditions of Daniel 7: 13 with MT and Apc
1,7.13; 14: 14
Apc 1: 7.13 Apc 14: 14 A' 88,51H of CP 967 MT
(12) Eiöov xai ETSov 99E6Povv eOewpovv g9cd povv ý96ipouv

ern
rl"IM
£v opaµcxa 9v öpäµart F-vöpäµaTt F-vöpäµarn
'Cllr vui'CÖS 'C7i; vui tOS T VUKT6C
tif; vvx'öS
i86 i8O'Ü
7 'I&6 xai iSob xai, io Kal Kai Kai i6o lb
1'1N1
ýpXcvxt
ýý Evxi},
vECQE?
xai
ETL £1tL E tI
RE'cä ý-Ai µp-tiä Qv
ticüv vECpE?,v ihv VF-(pXlly iv
i1wv vECpE? cüv
ticuvVE(pEA. cuv
tiwV V&pea, iwv vECpEXcov
Illml
IQ2 Etta
VC(pF2 ,
xai,
oRotov %Loiov c,ýS wS wS wS
ýýý
utov viöv uto; IA6; viöS uiöS
ävOpwiroo ävOpwmov 6cv9ptJEov av9pw»ov ävOpc»tov &Vopwinou mýý
Oxöµe,voc xai TSPxetioKai IIPxetio Kai, xai 11711
EO)S 6)S wg wS 7 171
tiov ztaA.aiou iraA,atöS makaiov irakat6S
ttep v h IEPwv ilµ(v)
ticüvrIµepwv
(equation of
one like a son
of man and
the
ancient of
days
by adaption of
Dan 7: 9 in
verse 14)
It is noteworthy that some of the Old Greek traditions include what seems like
identification the Son Man with the Ancient of Days (SyH, 88, CP 967) by
an of of
the in the formulation ü ui6 ävOp6no-u, while other Ancient Greek

using word cif
lack this identification. Instead, they express a certain direction the Son of Man
variants
is going to here by the use of the preposition i and a following genitive (6',o'). Such
identification the Son of Man and the Ancient of Days may also be implied by the
an of
z' The meaning of the Sigla used in the table are: 9' = Version of Theodotion, 88 =Version of Code\
Sv Version Origin CP 967 = Version of Cologne
Chisianus. SyH =Version of ro-Hexapla, o' = of and
CP 967 in the context of discussions concerned with the different
Papyrus 967. For the significance of
Daniel see ROCA-PUIG: "Codice", 3-18 and CATHCART: "Daniel", 37-41.
versions of
45
use of imagery in Apc 1: 13-20. In this case the identification is achieved by
combining
the attributes of the Son of Man and the attributes of the Ancient Days from Daniel
of
7: 9. Accordingly, it has to be asked if the author

of the Apocalypse was aware of a
Daniel tradition that identified the Son of Man

as the Ancient of Days and if this
tradition might have influenced the description in Apocalypse. 35 Linguistic

evidence.
though, seems to indicate that the author of the Apocalypse generally knew about the
MT (or at least a text similar to the MT). The appearanceof the Son Man figure is
of
described by the verb EiSov in Apc 1: 12 and 14: 14, while the Old Greek
versions
describe this scenario by using EOEthpovv.The use of öµotog instead of the

cc of the Old
Greek versions can only be seen in the two passages of the Apocalypse. A further
reason to regard the MT of Daniel 7: 13 as the background for the Apocalypse is
provided by the description of the clouds in Apc 1:7 because of the use of different
prepositions in front of w(g- v. The description µ¬iä uiwv vECpEXbvis an exact

,
translation of the aramaic ' L7 017,36 while the preposition Eint in the Old Greek
traditions of Daniel can easily be explained as a scribal mistake (017 is mistaken for
17).37A correlation of the Old Greek versions of Daniel 7 and the two given passages
in Apc is only indicated by the identification of the Son of Man and the Ancient of
Days, as already mentioned. But one must not entirely exclude the possibility of
assuming the author's own work by making this identification. On the other hand it
could also be possible that the Old Greek traditions of Daniel (which have to be dated
rather late) might have been influenced by Christian traditions in general, or even by the
34Cp. also STUCKENBRUCK: "Son ", 268-276.

35 Cp. BEALE: "Apocalypse", 542: BEALE was tempted to regard an LXX tradition being responsible
for the creation of the Apocalypse text in this case. Cp. also ROWLAND: "Vision", 2. and ROWLAND:
"Man", 106-107: ROWLAND assumed that there was a common exegetical tradition within the
Apocalypse of Abraham, Joseph and Aseneth and in the Revelation of John, for there is an identification
of the Son of Man and the Ancient of Days preserved in all of the mentioned texts.
36It has to be acknowledged, though, that the translation as PET&T(üv %Tq)EX. wv is also present in 0'.
37Cp. YARBRO COLLINS: "Tradition", 540-541.
46
tradition of the Apocalypse itself. At least the fact that a change from Luc to üc and the
resulting identification of the Son of Man as the Ancient of Days may not only be a
scribal mistake38but can also have theological motivations is 39

quite probable. More
conclusively, the MT or an Old Greek translation being very similar to the MT can be
assumedto be known by the author of the Apocalypse.40
The assumption of the MT as the matrix for the Apocalypse in this case is also
supported by the observation on the "flying angel" in Apc 14:6, which is also only
witnessed by the MT and 0' in Daniel 9: 21: The angel's ability to fly in verse 6- he is
described as 41 is because
tio Evo; - conspicuous, elsewhere only seraphim and
cherubim (cp. Isa 6: 2) seem to be capable of flying; sometimes angels are described as
"standing in heaven" as in 1 Chronicles 21: 16. There is also a remarkable parallel in
4Q530 col. iii where the Giant Mahaway is flying by using his hands as wings ('t171: 1
42
rl., E)1). In Apc 14:6 this attribute is to 43
(177EXoS. The tradition flying
given an of
though, to be 44 is therefore to be found only occasionally. as for

angels, seems rare, and
45
instance in 1 Enoch 61: 1; 2 Enoch 3-4; 16:7-8; 3 Enoch 9:3 (3 En. 21: 1-3); 3 Enoch
22-25, and also in Daniel 9:21 (MT and 9') where Gabriel is portrayed as flying. It may
only be assumedthat the idea of a flying angel in Apc 14:6 is probably dependenton an
tradition Daniel 9:21 MT. 46

early such as
In comparison to Daniel 7: 13 there are a number of other changesto be noticed
in the description of the one like a son of man. First of all, one can perceive an obvious
38This is assumed by PACE JEANSONNE: Translation, 96-99.

39 Cp. STUCKENBRUCK: Veneration, 215-216, "Son", 273-276, HORBURY: Christians, 137 and
LUST: "Septuagint", 62-69.
40Cp. also YARBRO COLLINS: "Tradition", 541.
41 Cp. KRAFT: Offenbarung, 192: Kraft that has to be interpreted as "to come
considered nEiöµevoq
fast".
42Cp. for this parallel STUCKENBRUCK: Giants, 128-134.
4' Angels with wings only in later for instance in Tertullian Apol. 22,8 or 1 En.. 61: 1.
appear traditions, as
Cp. for this AUNE: Revelation 6-16,823-824.
asCp. KRAFT: Offenbarung, 192.
a` See also MICHL: "Engel", 69.
47
change of number: in Apc 14: 14 the one like a son of man comes with a
single cloud.
Second, the cloud is also described as white

probably representing a heavenly
47The
colour. specification of a single white cloud as the Son of Man's seat is rather
unusual and cannot be found in other descriptions of a Son of Man.48The coming on a
cloud is also reminiscent of Apc 10:1 which reports the appearanceof an angel with a
cloud - but in this case the angel is rather wrapped in the cloud and not sitting on it.
Third, the son of man-like figure in Apc 14 is bearing a golden crown. This idea is
not
present in Daniel 7: 13. A golden crown may let a messianic bearer appear as a king, as
for instance in Midrash Psalm 21: 4,49 or it could be an angelic feature as in Joseph and
Aseneth 14:9; 2 Enoch 14:2 [A]; 3 Baruch 6: 2.50Further, it might be interpreted in later
developed texts as a juridic feature of Christ (as in Apc. Petr. 1), but this phenomenon
might not be judged as a specific christological feature in the Apocalypse. The crown
can also be found in different contexts in the Apocalypse (e. g. Apc 2: 10; 4: 4), 51
whereas the horseman on the white horse in Apc 6: 2 (who also bears a golden crown)
possibly builds an analogy to Christ in Apc 19: 11-20. In this passage Christ is described
as riding a horse and bearing a diadem. On the level of the text of the Apocalypse, the
bearing of a crown might also represent a christological feature. (The crown seems to
denote eschatological honour and, as such, occurs frequently in apocalyptic texts.''`)
46 Cp. for the development of the concept of flying angels also the detailed survey in MACH:
Entwicklungsstadien, 185-190.
47Cp. PARK: Offenbarung, 262-263: The cloud might be derived from Ezek 30: 3 where the day of the
Lord is described as the day of the cloud. Accordingly, the presence of the cloud in Apc 14: 14 might
stress the juridical functions Christ has in Apc 14. Cp. also MICHAELIS: " xw6g", 256.
48A formal analogy, though, is given in Vergil's Aeneid 9.638-40,
where Apollo is reported to come on a
cloud's throne. Additionally Apollo is also "sitting" on the throne as in Apc 14, while the Son of Man in
Dan 7: 13 is described as "coming". A literary connection between Vergil's Aeneid and Apc 14 can hardly
be assumed though. Cp. STUCKENBRUCK: Veneration, 242, n. 111. Cp. for a traditional use of a cloud
as a means of transportation ALLISON, Abraham, 213.
49Cp. MÜLLER: Messias, 196. Cp. also 4Q369 'Prayer of Enosh' I col. ii 1-12 where a Davidic figure
has the "crowns of heavens and the glory of the clouds". Though the crown is not golden here, a
messianic character of this passage seems obvious. Cp. FLETCHER-LOUIS: Luke-Acts. 197.
soCp. ALLISON: Abraham, 41.
5' Cp. for the following also: STUCKENBRUCK: Leneration, 242-243, n. 11land BEALE: Revelation,
770.
52Cp. GRUNDMANN: "ßTtcpavo;". 626.
48
Fourth, in contrast to Daniel 7: 13. the son of man-like figure bears a sharp sickle in Apc
14:14. This attribute might be due to another Hebrew Bible tradition which the author of
the Apocalypse has adapted here, namely the harvest in Joel 4: 13. In this case the author
would have combined the motif of the harvest and of the coming of the Son of Man.
The assumption of a combination from Daniel 7: 13 with another OT tradition in this
passage of the Apocalypse seems even more plausible if one compares Apc 14 with the
other passageswithin the Apocalypse mentioning the son of man-like figure. Each of
the other passagesdescribing the one like a son of man also has an additional OT text
attached to the Danielic tradition: In Apc 1:7 without actually mentioning, but clearly
-
Son Man Daniel 7: 13 is Zechariah 12:10-14,'3 in

referring to the of - combined with
Apc 1:13 with Daniel 7: 9 and Daniel 10:5,54and in Apc 14:14 with Joel 4: 13. A further
for the presenceof a sickle might be an interpretation as a symbol for death,

explanation
to Testament of Abraham 4: 11 [Rec. A], where Michael carries a "sickle of

similar
55
death". The sickle as a symbol for death and destruction might hint at an identification
Christ the Destroyer as in the Exodus tradition (see section 3.1.2.5. below).
of with
Fifth, the description of the one like a son of man as "sitting" can be explained by the
the the Joel tradition, because Joel 4 also includes a scenario of

assumption of use of
judgement. Notably in Joel 4: 12 God is judging in the valley of Jehoshaphat while he is
"sitting". 56 Possibly the description of the one like a son of man as "sitting" could
increase of power and therefore represent his

additionally express a certain
57The sickle can probably be interpreted as a sign representing a certain

enthronement.
juridical function of the one like a son of man which becomes rather obvious by the
53Cp. for this also SCRIBA: Theophanie, 200-201 and YARBRO-COLLINS: "Tradition". 536-547.
54Cp ROWLAND: Heaven, 101.
ss Cp. ALLISON: Abraham, 145.
56Cp. VAN SCHAIK: "'AXX.o; ", 223, n. 16 and MÜLLER: Offenbarung, 270.
57Cp. MÜLLER: Alessias, 196 and HOLTZ: Christologie, 130, n. 1: HOLTZ is interpreting the throning
of the One like a son of man as a possibility for a clear identification with Christ. Additionally the
"throning" can possibly be regarded as a sign of juridical grandheur, cp. for this: SCHNEIDER:
"xä9rtpou", 445.
49
following description of the scenario of the harvest in Apc 14: 15-20: The depiction
continues to be very reminiscent of Joel 4. Indeed, it is also possible that the author of
the Apocalypse picked up a similar tradition as in 1 Enoch 69: 27, where the
Son Man his function judge 58

are combined. In case of
enthronement of the of and as
Apc 14 this presupposes the bearing of a sickle as a juridical attribute of the one like a
son of man (which is a feature absent in 1 En. ). A literary dependence on 1 Enoch
cannot be verified, but at least the author's knowledge of such an apocalyptic tradition
might be possible. An adaptation of a tradition depicting the one like a son of man as in
Daniel 7: 13 and additionally a description of him with a sickle cannot be verified either.
Moreover, the white cloud and the golden crown mentioned in Apc 14 are probably not
to be traced back to a single tradition, though MÜLLER rightly assumes a similar
description of the Son of Man figure as in 1 Enoch 46: 1 along with a similar
terminology as in 4 Ezra 13:3. The description in Apc 14 is probably best explained as a
free of Daniel 7: 13, combined with an interpretation like the one found
rather adaptation
in 4 Ezra 13.59
2.2.4. Doubts Concerning Apc 14: 6-20 as a Literary Unit
So far we have only focused on the ideas and motifs that the author of
Revelation combined or adapted into his narrative setting of the vision in chapter 14. It
became apparent that some of these motifs and ideas are rather important for the
But the of whether Apc 14:6-20 is a

author's christological concerns. also question
literary unit or not is decisive for what kind of angelological stamp this chapter has.
58Cp. also for the following: YARBRO COLLINS: "Tradition", 564.

59Cp. MÜLLER. Messias, 196: MÜLLER Dan 7: 13. Therefore MÜLLER
presumes a "free useage" of
that Apc 14 idea of the Son of Man tradition.
proposes one should regard as connected to the general
is idea Man tradition in Apc 14 is
While there a messianic at the centre of 4 Ezra 13, the Son of
highlighted by angelological ideas.
50
Before going into more detail here, the structure and
composition of Ape 14:6-20
should be observed more carefully.
2.2.4.1. The Structure of Apc 14:6-20
On the level of its narrative structure, Apc 14:6-20 may be divided into two main
units. These are (1) the announcement of judgement (verses 6-13) and (2) divine
judgement itself (verses 14-20), which is described in metaphors of a harvest.60These
two blocks are interrupted by an addressto the reader (verse 12) which is connected
with a beatitude for the martyrs (verse 13).
In the announcementof judgement a central role is apparently played by angels,
who clearly function as messengers.The appearanceof the three is

angels structured
around their introduction through the expression ä? oS äyyEXog, which is in each
instance combined with the use of an ordinal number. Each of these angels has a distinct
message to proclaim.
The description of the scenario of the judgement over the world (Apc 14: 14-20)
is structured around the appearance of angels. In this scene the angels are also
introduced by the term äX? o; äyyc? oq, though here they are no longer counted by
In
ordinal numbers. addition the angels do not appear one by one any more; instead they
are introduced by an interlocking chain of commands: Each angel gives a command to
another specific angel or angelic figure. The passage Apc 14: 14-20 is initiated by the
appearanceof the one like a son of man on a cloud, who is followed by three angels,
each of whom is introduced as an äXA,

oq äy-y Xoq.
60For such a division see for instance LAMBRECHT: "Structuration". 98.

2.2.4.2. Demarcation of Ape 14:6-20
The topic of the announcement of the judgement its

and execution presents a
structured unit as such, so generally Apc 14: 1-5 seems to be not too important for
further investigation of Apc 14:6-20 (with the exception

of mentioning the Lamb. as
will be discussed in section 2.3.). The following vision, which begins Apc 15:1. is
at
even less important for research on Apc 14, because Apc 15: 1 formally initiates a new
section (Kai EiBovä? o (Tilge ov).
2.2.4.3. Problems Concerning a Literary Unity in Ape 14: 6-20
The relevance of whether Apc 14:6-20 forms an independent literary unit
becomes clear if we examine the diametrically opposed views of T. HOLTZ and U. B.
MÜLLER. Concerning the proposal to exclude certain verses from the passage
Apc 14: 14-20 as belonging to a separate unit HOLTZ remarked: "Gegen eine
Ausscheidung spricht die offenbar bewußte Gliederung des Abschnittes 14:6-20 durch
die mit ä2 oS gekennzeichnetenEngel, die mit dem Menschensohn in der Mitte die
Zahl Sieben ergeben.i61 Accordingly, for HOLTZ it is possible to understand and
interpret this passage in its entirety. A christological appreciation of the one like a son
of man is for HOLTZ assured by the equality of the designation öµotov viöv äv8püwnou
in Apc 14: 14 with its occurence in 1: 13, since this strange construction (with öµotoS)
only occurs in these two passageswithin the Apocalypse. The difference of the figure's
position in Apc 14: 14 in contrast to Daniel 7: 13 (the one like a son of man is described
as "sitting", not as "coming", in the Apocalypse) leads HOLTZ to the conclusion that
the motif of enthronement actually reflects the work of the author. This divergence from
61HOLTZ: ('hristologie. 129.
52
Daniel 7: 13 indicates for HOLTZ that the figure described in Apc 14: 14
possesses an
obvious significance and must therefore be none other than Christ, who is clearly
62
contrasted with the angels. HOLTZ further argues that the one like a son of man is
closely linked to the angels by the consistency of Apc 14:6-20. Three angels are
mentioned before and after his appearance,all of them introduced regularly with the
term äkXoq. Accordingly Christ is in their centre making the number of seven complete.
So whilst he seems to be one of the angels on the one hand, on the other his middle
position and his special equipment clearly highlight his importance and superiority to
the angels. Christ, therefore, is standing between the world of the angels and the world
of God, as similarly reported in Apc 1: 12-16.
The opposite opinion is declared by U. B. MÜLLER. For him the special way of
distinguishing two acts of three verses within Apc 14:6-20 results in regarding verses
14-20 as a separate unit from verses 6-11, which describes three angels announcing
judgement. He subsequently rejects the view of HOLTZ as a deliberate attempt to have
seven prominent figures acting together, and correspondingly to make a special
the like 63 Accordingly MÜLLER regards the Son of

statement about one a son of man.
Man tradition in Apc 14: 14 as one that is not inherently Christian. He argues that the
Gospels describe the Son of Man differently than Revelation. Whereas the Gospels use
the expression the "Son of Man" as a title, the Apocalypse does not assumeit to have "a
technical" christological meaning. The use of öµoto; (or cc) is inexact and merely
indicates a visionary description of a mythical judgement figure. Furthermore, an
identification of the one like son of man with Christ would not be indicated per se. This
identification is only possible when one draws into consideration Apc 1:13-20, but there
Apc 14 would have been deliberately adapted by the author again. And a second
eschatological judge besides Christ would not cope with early Christian thoughts.
62Cp. for the understanding of "sitting" as "enthronement" SCHNEIDER: "K69i1µat". 444-445.
53
MÜLLER concludes that one should regard Apc 14:14-20 as a Jewish source that has
not been changed at all by any Christian tradition. "
It is apparent that different views of regarding the unity of Apc 14:6-20 will lead
to different results with respect to its christological features. On the one hand we have
the opinion of HOLTZ who regards Apc 14:6-20 as a unit which has been deliberately
composed by the author of Revelation in order to make clear christological statements:
Christ is positioned among angels, but also clearly distinguished from them. MÜLLER.
on the other hand, decides that Apc 14:6-20 is not a coherent unit and regards verses 14-
20 as having a different origin than verses 6-11. Whereas the latter descend from a
Christian writer, the former derive from an early Jewish source which has not
undergone any Christian redaction. Consequently, verses 14-20 bear no trace of
Christology, nor do they contain any christological implications. The Son of Man within
this passageis therefore for MÜLLER an angel.
Notably MÜLLER's thesis has not been challenged so far, neither by HOLTZ
himself, who published his work before MÜLLER, nor by anybody else. Can his idea of
Jewish within Apc 14 be as clearly demonstrated as he assumes?An

an early source
language this passageand of stylistic and syntactical devices seem to

analysis of the of
is
indicate that the passage a unit and reflects the author's own framework. It is
in this context, that neither MÜLLER nor HOLTZ have conducted such an
noteworthy,
analysis for their research.
2.2.4.3.1. Is Ape 14 a Literary Unit?
We have briefly noted verses 12-13 which occur between the two major blocks
in 14:6-20 (verses 6-11 and 14-20 respectively-).Verses 12-13 are normally

of material
63MÜLLER: i%lc'ssias.192-193.
54
regarded as being part of the announcementof the judgement: the unity of this
passage
is barely disputed. 65Accordingly, most
commentators regard it as necessary to structure
the entire chapter 14 in three blocks (verses 1-5; 6-13; 14-20). 66 But the
question of
whether these three blocks form a textual unit or not is answeredin various ways. There
are chiefly two points of view in the recent discussionson this issue: For some scholars
the discrepancy of verses 6-11 and 14-20 seems to be very obvious. They conclude that
Apc 14:6-20 cannot be a unit (for instance MOLLER). 67 Only

an "innerer
Zusammenhang" is admitted due to preservation of the general topic
of judgement,
in
especially verses 7 and 15.68Moreover additional arguments set against the unity of
the given passage have been considered. Those arguments do not seem to be very
convincing. It has been doubted especially that verses 14-20 themselves form a literary
unit, either because verses 14-16 and verses 17-20 have been regarded as a doublet with
the same content69or becausethe verses 15-17 have been regarded as an interpolation.70
Attempts to deny the literary connection within verses 14-20, however, can easily be
explained by recognising the influence of OT texts on this passage or with the
difficulties of understanding this passage,which would otherwise occur7' (as will be
shown later on). MÜLLER in particular has argued against the thesis of a literary
independence of Apc 14 as mentioned above by assuming that Apc 14:6-20 would

- -
be a piece of a Jewish source.72A written source or tradition as a Vorlage for Apc 14 is
nevertheless hard to prove. Only the general background of early Jewish apocalyptic
traditions may definitely be assumed. A final decision on whether MÜLLER's
64Cp. MÜLLER: Messias, 193.

65Cp. for the
unity of Apc 14:6-13 for instance GIESEN: Johannesapokaypse, 230.
66Cp. e.g. LOHSE: Offenbarung, 86-87, MOUNCE: Revelation, 275-277, KRAFT: Offenbarung, 191-195
or VAN SCHAIK: ""AXXoc", 217.
67Cp. MÜLLER: Messias, 195 33; 14-20 is
n. MÜLLER emphasizes that the unity of verses so strong
that verses 6-11 have to be regarded as a seperate unit (cp. MÜLLER: Messias 192).
68Cp. MÜLLER: Offenbarung, 266.
69Cp. WELLHAUSEN: Offenbarung,
24.
70Cp. CHARLES: Revelation
11,18-24.
71Cp. HOLTZ: Christologie, 129-130.
5ý
hypothesis is correct has to be delayed; further
evidence for the problem of the unity of
Apc 14 has to be worked out by investigating the linguistic details

and vocabulary used
of the entire Apocalypse. So far MÜLLER"s thesis has been rejected by those who
would refer generally to "einheitlichen Sprachgebrauchder ganzen Apokalypse", as
stated for example by E. LOHSE. However, LOHSE does not go on to conduct the
analysis required to demonstratehis point. 73
Furthermore, the difference between the two blocks is surely present. As noted,
in Apc 14:6-11 the narration is set by three numbered angels followed by a message
announcing judgement, while verses 14-20 are structured "in zwei Dreierakte" which
describe the acting of the one like a son of man and angels according to more
hierarchical elements.74Despite this difference, the thesis of two clearly distinguished
units within Apc 14 (verses 6-11 und verses 14-20)75 cannot be sustained. Against this
is, firstly, the observation that Apc 14:6-20 is a unit consciously structured around the
author's use of the designation äXXog äyy'yEXo;(i. e. in verses 6.8.9.15.17.18). Secondly,
the angels in this section would, together with the one like a son of man, add up to the
77
number seven76,and could thus be the intentional arrangement of the author. (This
view affects the christological understanding of the text, which was already
) 78 Thirdly, between 7 15 is obvious, for both

mentioned. a connection verses and
describe the coming of judgement in similar terms (verse 7 ijk9£v il 6')pa rTIqxpi wE -
15 öSpa 79
AEpia(Xt). This does not only consist of the topic of
verse fiX9Ev ij similarity
judgement, but is also a linguistic one. Fourthly, the continous description of the angels
72Cp. Muller: Messias, 193-195.

71Cp. LOHSE: "Menschensohn", 85, n. 8.
74Cp. MÜLLER: Messias, 192-193.
75Cp. MÜLLER: Alessias, 192-195, esp. 19-5,n. 33.
76 Cp. for a traditional scheme of seven angels which might be also
present in Revelation for instance
SEGA1.: Powers, 187 n. 9 and BARBEL: Christos, 192-212. See for the scheme of seven angels also
MICHL: "Engel", 77-78, RABENAU: Tobit. 193, MOORE: Tobit, 271 and SCHÄFER: Rivalität. 22-23-
77Cp. HOLTZ: Christologie, 129.
78Cp. also MÜLLS R: tfessias, 193.
,
79Cp. MÜI. LER: O fenborung, 266.
56
as äXXoS äyyE? oS though without from
- counting them verse 15 onward - seems to
make the assumption of a literary unit more plausible. These observations do not
constitute sufficient evidence in themselves. Further and more comprehensive attention
is needed on the vocabulary used in this passage. (For a short analysis

of linguistic
phenomena in Apc 14:6-20 see Appendix 1.)
2.2.4.3.2. Linguistic Observations to Apc 14: 6-20
For dealing with the vocabulary it is useful to concentrate on verses 14-20,
which have especially been doubted as belonging to the first part of the vision in Apc
14. Of course, it is not possible to present all the linguistic details and all the vocabulary
material given in this passage;the section to follow will focus selectively on material
that is of particular relevance.
a) Verse 14
cat Etaov, 1cal,

_Lsov
These words in this form are quite common within the Apocalypse (EiBov 45x
and iSov 26x). Accordingly, it is important to look at the formulation in order to draw
further conclusions. The very same expression occurs another four times in Revelation
in the description of the apocalyptic horsemen (Apc 6: 2; 6: 5; 6: 8 and in Apc 14: 1). In
addition there are a number of similar formulations within the Apocalypse. In Apc
19: 11, for instance, there is a rather similar expression: xai Sov 'rev ovpavöv
_¬
ibov innoS vxöS xai oK 1 vo; En` aviöv

O1 The phrase xai
ijv£coyµhvov xai ... .
57
Et&ov, K(x' i&ov, though, is not directly linked here and is instead in
a nearly chiastic
8°
position.
The approximate formulation ci&ov, 'Kai iSov (without the

x(xi at the beginning)
can be found twice more in Apocalypse outside chapter 14; namely in Apc 4: 1 and 7: 9.
It seems therefore safe to conclude that the phrase

xai Ei&ov, 1cc i& is indeed
attributable to the author of Revelation, especially where the phrase functions to
introduce a vision, whether at the beginning or at a new stage.8'
vEýýý,r
The word vu$Xrj is present within Apocalypse 7 times, 4 of which are in Apc
14: 14-16. In Apc 1:7 the coming of of the one like a son of man is also described as an
arrival on a "cloud", but in this case with the plural of vrTEXi. It is not entirely clear
how this observation has to be judged: Without a doubt the matrix of the tradition from
Daniel 7: 13 is in the background. But in the Danielic traditions (MT and Greek
versions) the plural form vECpEAthv

is exclusively used. Does the mere difference in
number provide enough reason for us to suppose that the author has adopted another
tradition in Apc 1 or 14? There is probably not enough evidence to warrant such an
assumption. One argument drawn into is

consideration concernedwith how the one like
a son of man is described as coming. In Daniel 7: 13 this event is described as the Son of
Man simply coming with clouds, while in Apc 14 the son of man-like figure is
82
portrayed as "sitting", which seemsunlikely on more than one cloud. Further, the term
vE(pk?,
rl in other visions is also used in the singular form in Apc 14. In Apc 11: 12, the
ascensionof the two is

witnesses also described with a single cloud, as is the description
80 Another similarity between Apc 14: 14 and Apc 19: 11 is very obvious. In both
verses an apparentl%
important figure is decribed as "sitting" (KaGijµ£voc) on "white" (Xeux6; ) means of locomotion, in chapter
14 this is represented with a cloud, in chapter 19 with a horse.
81 Cp. for the use of Et ov as an introductory expression for visions within the Apocalypse PEZZOLI-
OLGIATI: Täuschung, 38-41 and 190-191. See for the use of the expression in the Apocalypse also
FIEDLER: Formel, 74-81.
58
of the angel in chapter 10. In the latter passagethe angel, who is also described as an
äkkoS äyyF-koS,is wrapped in a single cloud ( pLßF-ß2

i iEvov vF-#Xjv). Additional
minor convergencesbetween the angel in Apc 10 and the one like a son of man in Apc
14 are obvious. The angel is portrayed with certain attributes, which do not match those
of the figure in Apc 14, but those attributes in the angelophany are related to the angel
in the same way and with very similar formulations as they are related to the one like a
son of man in the vision of Apc 14. The angel has a rainbow on his head (ýrri Tfq
g aviov)
KF-W/%f instead of a crown and a booklet in his hand (E-'vv- xCLpi aviov)
instead of a sickle. Even the introduction of the vision beginning with the formulation
xai ciöov is strikingly similar. Such conformities may support the assumption that the
description of visions containing a single cloud are typical for the author and hence
represent his style.
QýoL_v_-utov_ V- TEov_
-,
This expression can only elsewhere be found in Apc 1:13. This single overlap
hardly allows us to draw further conclusions as such, because it cannot be proven
whether the author used a tradition which contained this expression, or if this is his very
own way of translating the Aramaic expression ViDN 1=: ) out of Daniel 7: 13. The
problem concerning which tradition of Danielic material was used by the author and the
possibility of this phrase being the author's own stylistic device (and therefore being the
interpretation this has been 83

discussed. Still, it is impossible to
author's of vision) often
draw conclusions through linguistical observations, which will allow the assumption of
John's authorship in this case.
82Cp. AUNE: Revelation 6-16,380.

83Cp. STUCKENBRUCK: "Son". 268-276 and 1'enL"ration.211-218.
59
cýv_ i_ tI; aüioü (TT' vov pvßoüv
KExpaA,
A phrase or expression using the very
same vocabulary is not present in the
other parts of the Revelation, but one may easily find similar constructions that contain
other word material. For instance, the expression eni iiS iF-cpaký wOtov is also part of
the angelophany in Apc 10: 1.
The vocabulary for "crown" (6'cE, voq) occurs eight times in Revelation. In Apc
12:1 the crown is a decoration for the head (Eiri,of xcgxxkfq aviiS ait(pavog). In two
other passages the crown is also described as "golden", namely in Apc 4: 4 where the 24
elders are wearing such crowns and in Apc 9:7 where the cricket-like creatures wear
something on their heads like gold wreaths (Ent r6; i pak k avtiwv ü 6'£cpavol
indicate 84
ogotot xpvac»l, probably to certain strength.
The combination of the colours gold and white might also have a certain
meaning and may be an analogy the author deliberately worked out. The portrait of the
one like a son of man sitting on a white cloud carrying a golden crown in chapter 14
might be a deliberate allusion to Apc 1: 13-20, where the very same figure has white hair
and carries a golden belt. This combination of colours is also very reminiscent of Apc
4:4 where the 24 elders are depicted as carrying white robes and golden crowns.
However, it is also possible that this combination can be explained by the author's
reliance on certain traditions. (See Appendix 5 for more details. ) Vocabulary used in
this phrase and also the syntax seem, after this comparison, to indicate that Apc 14:14
was composedby the author of the entire work.
84Cp. AUNE: Revc'lalion 6-16,532.
60
bpEXavov__ö
ü
The description of a "sharp sickle" is only found in Apc 14: 14-20. The
word
"sickle" occurs 6 times in Revelation, but the attribute "sharp" is

only given four tinmes.
This observation might at first sight indeed indicate that this passageis
not the author's
original framework, but the rare use of the expression8pEnavovwhich is mainly tool
a
for harvesting85is probably limited to this passagebecauseof the unique setting of this
Vision. Nowhere else in the Apocalypse could such terminology have been expected.
One finds a description of judgement in metaphors of a harvest, which is a unique
feature within the Apocalypse. Similarly the 8pE'-ituvov

is also used in Joel 4: 10 (LXX).
b) Verse 15
äX? off äyy Xoc
As mentioned in section 2.2.4.1., the expression ä? Xo; äyyEXog is used six times
within chapter 14 of Revelation. This observation has been considered as proof for
taking the literary unity of chapter 14 for granted. The rather widespread further use of
this expression in other chapters in the Apocalypse seems to indicate that äa,Xoq
äyyE XoSis indeed a formulation commonly used by the author of the entire writing. The
expression is also found in Apc 7: 2; 8: 3; 10: 1; 18: 1.
, µLF-76
xpäcwv v__P()-)vf, f
The construction using the dative cpomf µEyäXIj appears on eleven other
occasions within the Apocalypse, namely in Ape 5: 2; 5: 12: 6: 10; 7: 2; 8: 13; 10:3;
14:7.9.18; 19: 17. The preposition Ev is preposed to this construction in some cases of
the given material, as in Apc 5: 2; 14:7.9; 19: 17.
85It is possible that the word Wnavovv could allude to a sickle-shaped sword, which was common in the
ancient Middle East. Cp. YADIN: Warfare, 206-207. But a use of 8pr`tavov in this sense seems not very
in this context, as the scenario describes rather a harvest than a battle. Still, this might explain
appealing
the forthcoming portraits of Christ having a sword as a judge in the history' of arts.
61
Moreover, the connection of cpovlj µEyäý p along with the verb xpäýw is
common in Revelation and can be found in other passagesas well, as for instance in
Apc 6: 10; 7: 2; 7: 10; 10: 3 and again in 19: 17. Accordingly one may also regard this
construction as the author's own words and stylistic way of expressinghimself.
/O pii the and

OEPIc-tQ pc vw / «, gpävOrj
These words are limited to chapter 14 of the Apocalypse, and exclusively to
verse 15. Similar to the case of "sickle" one may most likely assume that terms like
Bcpiýcoand AF-pt6töS are only mentioned here, becausethe description of judgement
takes place in metaphors of a harvest.
Also the rather limited use of the term 'rlpaivo probably has to be explained by
the metaphors of harvest expressed within chapter 14. At least the word occurs one
more time within the Apocalypse, namely in Apc 16: 12. But there the use of ýipaivw is
rather different, meaning "to dry" in that case. It seems feasible to attribute the
infrequency of the word and its varying meanings to the harvest motif again.
iXOv -9 Wpa
-
The expression f XO vq ýipa is present two more times in the Revelation, in Apc
14:7 and Apc 18:10. The impression that Apc 14:6-11 and 14:14-20 establish a literary
unit becauseof this linguistically and syntactically identical unit is strengthenedby this
further proof of the very same expression in another occasion.
c) Verse 16
gßaXv bni i71v yf v

...
The use of the preposition Eni connected with the verb P"kw can also only be
found in this verse. In other descriptions of the Apocalypse the direction of the
62
"throwing" is always explained by the preposition £.S, as for instance in Apc 8:5: 1.:
4:
18:21; 20:3. Strikingly, the verb ßöckkwis most often used in

connection with angels.
This divergence of the usual application of Maw is probabl\ best

... Ei;
explained by the fact that verse 16 does not depict the throwing of the sickle towards the
earth, but to laying it on the earth. The expression is also used in this wvay-in Luke 9:62.
It remains problematic then that in verse 19 the harvest is portrayed with the
expression
90axev EiS 'r v 'yf v. Here, the angel is obviously throwing the sickle. One may
...
assume that the use of the preposition in this case might have been influenced by the
following description in verse 19, FßaXv Ft; iijv ? vöv, which has possibly adjusted
the preposition in the angel's action.
Q_
xa9nR-;Evo;
This nominalized participle occurs - with varying cases,numbers or genders-
27 times in total in the entire document. Therefore it seems very likely that this
resembles a formulation which is commonly and deliberately used by the author
himself.
d) Verse 17
F,x ov vaov soü oüoocvw

-Tw
The motif of the temple being placed in heaven is also mentioned elsewhere in
the Apocalypse. It also occurs in Apc 11: 19 and Apc 15:5. In both cases the placement
of the temple is described with the dative-construction Ev t oüpa.v4, which also
to
permits us assumethe hand of the author for this portrayal being present.
63
e) Verse 18
TO6vnaurijp ov
The altar of burnt offering (co' Oi iw tiijptov) is mentioned 8 times in
Revelation. Accordingly one may also consider this expression to derive from the
author's hand rather than finding evidence for an additional or independentsource. It is
obvious that in verse 18 the Avrn.aßtii ptov is used in connection with the reference to the
temple as in the other occurencesof this word. In some casesthe altar is also connected
with "fire", as for instance in Apc 8: 3-5. This observation is not very surprising as the
is
altar used for burnt offerings. The connection of the angel coming out of this altar for
burnt offering is also reminiscent of the scenario concerning the anouncement of
Samson's birth in Judges 13: 1-25. The archangel Gabriel ascends to heaven in the
flames of the altar of burnt offerings (Judg 13:20) after he has anounced the birth of
Samson. One might consider the narration in Judges as a background for this special
image of the angel with power over the fire coming out of such an altar in Apc 14.
040_1_0u_
Eli,
This expression is also used occasionally outside of chapter 14, as in Apc 2: 26;
6: 8; 11:6 (where interestingly the two witnesses have power over the "water", which is
also a kind of analogy to the power over "fire" in Apc 14: 18), and also in Apc 13:7 and
16:9. Accordingly one might ascribe this expressionto the author's style as well.
ipüyllßov oÜc (3ötpvac if c kg, dv iflK- fjc, xis,.
Most of the words in this verse are exclusively used in chapter 14. But here also
the use of harvest is

metaphors probably responsible for material which is uncommon,
and not used elsewhere in Apocalypse. Influences from Hebrew Bible passages,
especially Joel 4. seem very apparent here.
64
f) Verse 19
Two-C, tiov Ac-ob

'Cob-ft-41015
The "wrath of God" is naturally a very common topic in Revelation, in 14:10;

as
15: 1; 15: 7; 16: 1. In connection with the winepress of wrath this expression
can only be
found in Apc 19:15. Therefore, it can be assumedthat the imagination of treading the
winepress has been adaptedby the author himself, following Isaiah 63:2.
g) Verse 20
ä pi. iovXc vwv iwv litmwv
This description is entirely unique in the Book of Revelation as is the vocabulary
xaXi,vOS."Horses" are often mentioned within the Apocalypse's narrative, we find the
word sixteen times altogether. The specification of the height of the outflowing blood
("up to the horses' bridles") can hardly be explained by the author's use of language,
nor by the motif of harvest.
2.2.4.3.3. Conclusions from the Linguistic Observations
It has become increasingly obvious that there are numerous coincidences and
analogies between the linguistic material if Apc 14:6-20 and the entire text of the
Revelation. Most of the expressions are not only present in the isolated chapter 14, but
also notably often - sometimes slightly different in the entire Apocalypse. In most
-
cases it is possible to trace the use of the expressions from chapter 14 back to the
author's style. Therefore in

one can surely assumethat the vision presented chapter 14
derives from the same author as the rest of the writing. In addition. this indicates the
literary unity of Apc 14:6-20.
65
Admittedly, there are also certain phrases and expressions, which cannot be
explained as typical stylistic devices of the author or as his favourite vocabulary In

.
most of those casesit remains possible to ascribe the rare word to certain traditions from
the Hebrew Bible providing and sharing the motif of a harvest. Those traditions vvere
adapted in the given passage of the Apocalypse.
It is therefore very interesting to take a closer look at the traditions that have
influenced chapter 14 and to clarify whether those traditions might provide additional
proof for the hypothesis that Apc 14:6-20 representsa single literary unit.
2.2.5. Hebrew Bible Traditions within Apc 14
2.2.5.1. Annotation to the Sources of the Apocalypse
A very general statement which can be made concerning the source material of
the Revelation is: "Als 'Quelle' hat dem Seher das AT gedient "86, as P. VIELHAUER
This is indeed an observation that can easily be applied to the entire

remarked.
Apocalypse in general and to Apc 14:6-20 in particular. The question of a direct literary
is though, because quotations are not present in Apc 14:6-20.

connection not raised
Instead, there are merely similarities to other traditions, for instance a number of images
and allusions, and the sharing of a common apocalyptical world view.
Major parts of the influential literature come from the prophetic writings of the
Hebrew Bible; especially Jeremiah, Isaiah and Joel have to be mentioned here. But also
Jewish apocalyptic material is obviously present within the

a proximity to early
Apocalypse, as for instance to 4 Ezra, I Enoch or 2 Baruch.
86Cp. also to the following: VIELHAUER: Literatur, 501 and EZELL: Revelation, 20. See further for the
influence literature on Revelation MOYISE: Revelation. 15 and for a survey of
strong of prophetic
Danielic material in Rex elation see BEALE: Daniel, passim.
66
2.2.5.2. Adaptation of Traditions within Apc 14: 14-20
Since the number of texts from the Hebrew Bible

or comparable early Je« ish
traditions the author draws on in this passageis rather large, it is best to focus
on those
traditions which contribute to the question of whether Apc 14:6-20 is a unit
or not.
When regarding the linguistic aspects of the given passage
and comparing it to
the rest of the Apocalypse, it becomes apparent that especially the description of this
vision in metaphors of a harvest seemsunique. This observation can be traced back to
the use of very special traditions within this description: Hapaxiegomena, other
divergences from the style of the entire work and some motifs may be explained by the
assimilation of Joel 4: 12-16. The double description of a harvest as seen in Apc 14 is
influenced by Joel 4: 13, since this OT vision also describesa twofold harvest, namely a
grain and a wine harvest. The assumption of a doublet within Apc 14 due to the
-
presenceof this doubled description of harvest - can therefore be turned down.
The adaptation of Joel's vision can also be found in the description of the one
like a son of man. In his function as a judge he is portrayed as "sitting" in Apc 14,
which is notably also the case with God, who is judging the nations "sitting" in the
valley of Jehoshaphat.This portrayal of the son of man figure might indeed indicate an
like is but 87
exaltation of the one a son of man, who not only sitting, rather enthroned.
The assumption that the carrying of the sickle is an expression of the one like a son of
man's power as a judge is further confirmed by the following description of events in
Joel 4. It might also be possible that Apc 14 contains a tradition similar to that of 1
Enoch 69:72 -a tradition that also gives a description of a son of man, combining the
87Cp. MÜLLER: Messias, 196 and HOLTZ: Christologie, 130, n. 1: HOLTZ interprets the enthronement
of the one like a son of man as a possibility for clearly identifying him as Christ.
67
enthronement and the function as a judge. 88Additionally, the description of the
place by
the expression 9ýw6Ev if; nöXcc in Apc 14:20 can probably be
explained with the
assimilation of Joel 4: 16 where the town is interpreted as Jerusalem.89
T. HOLTZ, though, rightfully pointed out that the words

fiXOEVh cipa O¬piaal in
Apc 14: 15 have no analogy in the description of the harvest in Joel 4: 13.90A
possible
explanation for this extension could be that these words have been adopted from Isaiah
51: 33. Thus the metaphor which has been adopted from Joel into Apc 14: 15
might have
been enlarged by the additional explanation from Isaiah.91It is possible that the
same
Hebrew vocabulary for "harvest" (712P) in both verses has led to the adoption of this
additional material from Isaiah 51:33.92The description of (treading) the great wine
press in Apc 14 is also present in Joel 4: 13. The tradition of the wine press has been
extended by the description of God treading it in wrath from Isaiah 63:2-6. The amounts
of blood shed, reaching up to the horses' bridles, is not uncommon in descriptions of
eschatological judgement. One can find a very similar description in 1 Enoch 100:3
where horses are walking in blood up to their nostrils. The author of Revelation might
have deliberately taken into account a similar description, which he then added to his
own vision.
Another aspect worth noting is the mentioning of the angel with authority over
fire. This particular angel's coming out of the altar can be easily explained: The
martyrs' prayers beneath the altar, in which they pray for God's judgement (Apc 6:9-
11), are brought before God by an angel with smoke of the incense (Apc 8:3-5). For this
reason it is understandable that an angel connected to fire is answering the martyrs'
88Cp. also for the following YARBRO COLLINS: "Tradition", 564.

89Cp. ROLOFF: Offenbarung, 156 and MÜLLER: Offenbarung, 271.
90Cp. HOLTZ: C,hristologie, 13 1.
91Cp. FEKKES: Isaiah, 195.
92Cp. VAN SCHAIK: "AXXoS" 211-223.
68
prayers in Apc 14.93 A relation between fire and angels acting in an eschatological
description of judgement is not only presented in Apc 14: 18, it

can be observed in other
apocalyptical texts as well, as for instance 1 Enoch. In 1 Enoch 54: 1-2 "the mighty ones
of the earth" are thrown into an abyss of fire. Furthermore, it might be relevant for the
understanding of Apc 14: 18 to keep in mind the "angel of water" in Apc 16:5 as well. It
is possible that the two angels from Apc 14: 18 and 16:5 who are both related to
elements are remnants of a schema that used to combine four angels with the four
different elements. One may find a hint to this schema in 1 Enoch 60: 14-66: 2.9` (For a
more thorough discussion of this hypothesis seeAppendix 2.)
Besides the description of the harvest itself one can find another motif in Apc
14:15-19 that deservesfurther attention, namely the temple in verses 15 and 17 which is
placed in heaven (E-'v

iw ovpav« ). The temple is the place of God's dwelling and the
location from where orders are given and God is worshipped by the angels in this
95This heavenly temple, though, cannot be assignedto concrete traditions in the

vision.
Hebrew Bible: Though the idea of the temple as being the dwelling place of God is
generally attested by the Hebrew Bible96, the location of this temple in heaven is not
present within these writings. A similar tradition can only be found in Testament of Levi
5: 1 or 18:6. A literary dependenceof the Apocalypse from this text, though, may hardly
97
be assumed,becausethe dating of Testamentof Levi is not without doubt. Assuming
the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple about 70 CE has led to speculation concerning
the heavenly temple: Instead of the destroyed real and earthly temple in Jerusalem
then have to heavenly 98 Such a

people might referred a visionary or alternative.
9' Cp. MÜLLER: Offenbarung, 270 and YARBRO COLLINS: "Tradition", 566.
94 Cp. YARBRO COLLINS: "Tradition", 566. See further YARBRO COLLINS: "Angel", 374-379 and
BETZ: "Apokalyptik". 391-409.
9sCp. Michel: "vcO; ", 893 and BRIGGS: Temple, 99-100.
96Cp. Ps 11:4.18: 7; Isa 1; Hab 2: 20; Mic 1:2-3.
97Cp. BECKI R: Patriarchen, 23-24. Cp. also KUGLER: Patriarchs, 21-38 and 47-56.
98See for the problem of dating also the discussion in YARBRO COLLINS: Crisis, 64-69.
69
development is possibly preserved in the Gospel Thomas (Logion 99
of 71). Traces of the
idea of the temple in heaven might also be found in the

vision in Apc 4 and 5. where the
heaven is depicted as God's throne room. '00 Here the
entire heaven might resemble
101
God's temple. In the Songs of Sabbath Sacrifice similar
visions are employed in order
to describe Heaven as the Temple: 102Heaven is referred to as "temple" (ý: )'17) in
4Q400 1 col. i 13, "debir" (-I"="7) in 4Q403 1 col. ii 13, "tabernacle" (1 in 4Q403
.7)
1 col. ii 10, "sanctuary" (tV 1j ) in 4Q405 23 col. ii 11 and "holy

place" (V"717) in
4Q400 1 col. i 14; the impression of Heaven as the Temple is thus

enhancedby certain
architectural features.103
Notably, in the New Jerusalem in the Apocalypse there is no more

need for a
New Temple (Apc 21:22) as the Temple is then represented by God and the Lamb
themselves. 104The lack of the Temple in the New Jerusalem is consequently arranged
alongside the heavenly Temple: The author of Revelation first alludes to a heavenly
99Cp. DECONICK: Voices, 117-118.

100Cp. also DECONICK: Voices, 117. See for temple language
and problems attached to the Temple in
Revelation STEVENSON: Power, 1-6. For the Heavenly Temple see 4.
101Cp. for this
also ESKOLA: Messiah, 213 and 265-257. Cp. also AUNE: Revelation 1-5,284.
102 Cp. ESKOLA: Messiah, 256
and LEE: Jerusalem, 105 and 251. The similarity between the
descriptions of apc 4-5 and The Songs of Sabbath Sacrifice is probably rooted in a shared traditon from
the Hebrew Bible, as both texts reflect the vision from Ezek 1. Cp. for Ezekielian background in The
Songs of Sabbath Sacrifice for instance STEGEMANN: Qumran, 141.
103Cp. DAVIDSON: Angels, 237-238.
104A similar idea is
presented by DÖPP: Deutung, 308: The loss of the Jerusalem Temple resolves in the
hope of a new heavenly Jerusalem alongside with the temple duties. The New Jerusalem, though, is
partially visualised without a temple, as in Apc 21: 22. Still, categories of the Temple are present in these
descriptions. The observation made by DÖPP appears to be correct: The apparent contradiction that one
faces the hope for a new temple in Apc 14 and then a New Jerusalem without the Temple being
mentioned becomes reasonable by the assumption that cultic elements and duties that normally refer to
the duties in the temple are then connected to the heavenly Jerusalem. Thus, the New Jerusalem becomes
a surrogate for the lost Temple in Jerusalem. However, it can hardly be decided if the loss of the temple is
genuinely a problem of early Christians, or if it is rather a problem of early Judaism and the motif of a
lost temple has been adapted by the author of Revelation. It is clearly evident at least that the destruction
of the temple is also an important issue in later Christian writings, especially concerning the death of
Jesus with the destruction of the temple as a punishment of the Jews. Cp. for the later development of the
motiv of the destruction of the temple DÖPP: Deutung, passim. Cp. for the meaning of the Temple and
the appearance in Revelation as significant for the readers of the Apocalypse also STEVENSON: Power.
3. Cp. further RISSI: Future, 52-86, BRIGGS: Temple, 96-103. MATERA: Christologv. 212-213.
ULFGARD: Future, 86-88 and MALINA: Jerusalem, 25-66. Cp. for the Heavenly Temple as a substitute
for the destroyed Jerusalem Temple also LEE: Jerusalem, 105. For the heavenIN duties and cultic
significance after the loss of the Temple in rabbinic literature see EGO: "Diener", 361-384.
% ()
Temple, which is already present, and then expressesits redundance, God
as and Christ
will dwell among their people in the eschatological endtime anyway. Indeed, the lack of
the temple is so explicit in the Apocalypse (Apc 21: 22) that one might assume polemic
against the hope of a new Temple to be preserved here. '05 Such a polemical reference
indeed highlights the significance of Christology, since the Christian community is
expected to centre its beliefs around Christ (and God), not around the evanescent
Temple.
In other early Jewish texts dealing with the Temple in a new Jerusalem, this
concept as preserved in Revelation is never present. Occasionally an extant vision or
detailed description of the New Jerusalem is given or the Temple is mentioned: In
4QFlor (4Q 174) a "human temple" (DIN tli 1f) occurs, but the implication and
'06
translation are not quite clear. In contrast to Revelation, the TempleScroll of Qumran
exclusively focusses on the eschatological Temple, only paying little attention to the
distinguishing Jerusalem from the Temple. ' 07 Therefore, the

city and clearly
descriptions provided by the Apocalypse and the Temple Scroll seem to be diametrically
108Some Aramaic fragmentary groups of the Qumran writings entitled the

opposed.
109
Description of the New Jerusalem share some parallels with the description of the
Heavenly Jerusalem in Apc 21:9-22:9,110an interest in a heavenly Temple - despite a
105Cp. SANDERS: Jesus, 86.

106Cp. TILLER: Commentary, 48.
107Cp. llQTemple col. xlvi 9-11. Cp. for this also TILLER: Commentary, 44. For possible parallels
between 1l QTemple and Apc 21-22 see also WILCOX: "Tradition", 213-214.
108Notably, the Temple Scroll and the Apocalypse share elements of the description of the Temple: In
Apc 4-5 and in the Temple Scroll the holiness of the areas surrounding God are understood as concentric,
i. e. the degree of proximity to God decides the holiness of the place. Cp. for the "Auffassung von der
konzentrischen Heiligkeit" in the Temple Scroll MAIER: Tempelrolle, 12. Also in 4Q405 77a division of
heaven into 7 different holy areas seems to correspond with the holy areas of the Temple. Cp. NEWSOM:
Sabbath, 42-43 and DAVIDSON:. Angels, 238. See for God as the centre of the concentric circles also the
analysis on Apc 4 in section 3.1.1.
'09 The so called Description of the ;\Iew Jerusalem (DNJ) consists of 1Q32,2Q24 (2OiVeii Jerusalem),
4Q554 (4QNew Jerusalem"). 4Q555 (4QNew Jerusalemh), 5Q15 (5Qcii Jerusalem) and IlQl8
(11 QNe Jerusalem). Cp. AUNE: "Qumran", 627-630, esp. n. 30.
110For a detailed list of parallels between 5Q15 and Apc 21: 9-22: 5 see WILCOX: "Tradition", 212-213.
71
focus on the city of the New Jerusalem in these fragments,' 1' though.
- marks a major
difference with the Apocalypse here as well. ' 12
Another description of God's heavenly dwelling place can be found in 1 Enoch
14:10-25. This passageseemsto reflect a division of the Temple into two parts as in 1
Kings 6: 14-19, distinguishing between an outer sanctuary (1 Kgs 6: 14) and the Holy of
Holies (1 Kgs 6: 19): 1 Enoch 14 also mentions two housesin heaven,the outer house (1
En. 14: 10-14) and the inner house (1 En. 14: 11-25). An analogy between heavenly and
earthly Temple seemsto be obvious here.113
The closest parallel to Revelation might be the vision of the New Jerusalem
preserved in 1 Enoch 90: 29-36. The Animal Apocalypse metaphorically described the
restoration of Jerusalem and its inhabitants (sheep) being in proximity to God. The
reason for the lack of the Temple in this vision might be rooted in a deliberate
idealization of Israel's times in the desert where a temple was not necessary in the
114
camp.
If we summarize the observations made on phrases and words from Apc 14: 14-
20 which have no analogy in the rest of the Apocalypse, we can in most cases easily
justify missing analogies by adoptions of certain Old Testament (or partially early
Jewish) traditions. In some cases the traditions lying in the background even confirm a
unity of Apc 14:6-20. One can especially see this in the author's use of two Jeremiah
allusions in Apc 14:8 and 14:15: Jeremiah 51:7 mentions Babylon as the cup that makes
all the nations drunk as in Apc 14:8; in Apc 14:15 a description of the "time of harvest"
is given, as in Jeremiah 51:33. Thus Apc 14 is following the "chronological order" of
111Cp. ALINE: "Qumran", 630-639, REICHELT: Apokalypse, 203-206 and SIM: Jerusalem, 64-67. For
the relationship between the city Jerusalem and the Temple cp. Garcia Martinez: Qumran, 180-213.
112In case of 5Q 15 see WI LCOX: "Tradition", 212-2 13.
113Cp. ROWLAND: Heaven. 83.
114Cp. TILLER: Commentary, 47-51.
72
Jeremiah, which links the two passagesof Apc 14 much closer together. ' Similarly
one has to regard the allusions to Jeremiah 25:29 in Apc 14:6 and Jeremiah 25:30 in
Apc 14:18. The author aspiresto link the passagetogether more closely here
as well.
Finally, we can also find a tradition that seemsto parallel the entire passageApc
14:6-20 that is worth mentioning: We might assumethe existence of a formal analogy
of this passageto Ezekiel 9:2, becausethere we are also, as in Apc 14, provided with a
vision of six heavenly beings accompanied by a figure that obviously has a somewhat
higher status attested to him ("a man clothed in linen"). 116 This scenario clearly
correspondswith the vision from Apc 14 and its description of six angels accompanying
the one like a son of man. It may therefore be considered as a further argument for the
literary unity of the whole passage given in Apc 14.
2.2.6. Summary of the Observations
By means of all the arguments provided, it should have become apparent that
Apc 14:6-20 is very likely to be a literary unit which derives from the hand of one and
the same author. This conclusion may be verified by the corresponding use of syntax
and vocabulary from Apc 14 which appears in the entire writing. The observations on
traditions that were integrated in Apc 14 confirmed the assumption of a literary unit,
because divergences from the author's typical language could be explained by the
adoption of these traditions. In addition, some traditions in particular helped to confirm
the impression that we are dealing with a textual unit in Apc 14:6-20, becauseallusions
115The same result is presented by VAN SCHAIK: "'AXXo; ", 222-223.

116Cp. STUCKENBRUCK: [ "eneration, 244, n. 116 and similarly NORELLI:. a.scensio, 504.
7,
could be found that either cover the entire passage (Ezek 9) or that are partially
present
in Apc 14:6-13 and 14:14-20.11
This result allows for further conclusions, since

we could make plausible that
this passage in Apc 14 has been written and designed by Revelation's author himself.
Therefore, we may now relate both passagesin Revelation that provide

a vision of the
coming of the one like a son of man who is accompanied by angels, namely Apc 14:6-
20. and Apc 1:7-20. This relation allows for further conclusions on how the
prominent
of
son man-like figure may be identified: The one like a son of man in Apc 14 can be
interpreted as Christ by means of a parallel observation of Apc 1:7 and 1:13-20 for the
following reasons:
9 In Apc 1:7 the prominent figure is described using a terminology that is made
up of two traditions from the Hebrew Bible, namely as one who is coming on
clouds, as in Daniel 7: 13, and as one whose piercing is mourned by all the
nations, as in Zechariah 12: 10-14. A connection of these two Hebrew Bible
texts may otherwise only be found in a context that surely refers to Christ (cp.
Mt 24:30; Apc. Petr. 6; Gosp. Petr. 6-7).
" The self revelation in Apc 1: 18, "I am the Living One; I was dead and behold
I am alive for ever and ever! ", clearly refers to Christ's resurrection.' 18
117This assumption might have even more weight if one considers BOE's thesis that the Gog and Magog
cycle from Ezek 38-39 is most likely present in the Apocalypse as a kind of program directly achieving a
link with the Apocalypse's readership; cp. BOE: Gog, passim. An additional link that might be well
recognised by his readers is possibly inserted in case of Apc 14, which means that the readership of
Revelation must have had knowledge of the concept of Ezek, and, must furthermore hay e had insight into
the way that the author of Revelation adopted traditions from Ezek as prophecies that become real by the
appearence of Christ. If the author carefully considered a concept of the Gog and Magog cycle from Ezek,
it seems to be only logical that he chose another tradition, in case of chapter 14 the tradition from Ezek 9.
to allude to a tradition that is well known to his readership. For a connection between passages from Apc
and Ezek cp. further LUST: "Order". 179-183 and RUIZ: Ezekiel, 226-539.
"R Cp. for this also MCDONOUGH: }'H)t'H. 221 and OEGFM. 1: Hofning, 117-118.
74
These reasons provide enough evidence to
regard the one like a son of man in
Apc 14 as Christ in his role as an eschatological judge

of the final judgement. whose
importance is further stressedby some additional attributes.
This type of a Son of Man's appearance as being accompanied by is

angels also
reflected in other New Testament writings, as for instance in Mark 13:24-27 and
Matthew 24: 29-31 (or similarly Mt 25: 3 1). In case of the parallel provided by Matthew
24, it is also interesting that the angels use trumpets in order to gather the son of man's
elected ones from the four winds. This description of the coming of the son of man is
very reminiscent of the visions of the trumpets, which are played by angels in Apc 8: 1-
9: 15 and Apc 11: 15-19. (It might also be speculated that the signal of the trumpet in
Apc 9: 13-15, which releasesfour angels from the Euphrates,somehow mirrors Matthew
22:31 insofar as the number four and angels which are loosely connected to elements
are mentioned in both )

passages. In it
any case, can be reasonably argued that the
tradition of the son of man's appearance together with angels in scenarios showing
eschatological judgement is not unheard of in New Testament writing, but is actually
quite widespread. Therefore, it can be assumed that similar thoughts are integrated in
the Apocalypse of John, probably in order to show the prominence of the son of man
like figure.
It should also have become apparent that the author is almost constantly
repeating his ideas and the traditions he uses for the descriptions of his visions. The
author's way of adapting traditions and also certain vocabulary indicates the author's
deliberate attempt to communicate with his readership that would certainly recognise
the imagery used in a given context. In conclusion, there is very little in chapter 14 that
cannot at the same time be found elsewhere in the Apocalypse. This emphasizes the
importance, therefore, of analysing the narratological and literary context of the
75
Apocalypse - as it has been done in order to determine the
- significance of the images
and characteristics used.
2.2.7. An Angel-Christology in Apc 14:6-20?
It needs to be clarified first of all that Christ is not designated as an angel
anywhere within Apocalypse 14, nor elsewhere in the text. Nevertheless, some
conspicuous facts in this passage cannot be denied: As already mentioned in section
2.2.2., it is noteworthy that the description of the one like a son of man in verse 14 is
followed by the introduction of an äkkog äyyEXoq who appears in verse 15. This may,
as already discussed, be explained by the author's use of this term as a stylistic device.
Still, this formulation remains misleading to some extent. The ambiguity caused by this
term is exacerbatedby the command given by an angel to the one like a son of man in
15 despite in the ' 19 therefore it

verse possible explanations offered exegesis, and could
seem possible to regard the one like a son of man (who is Christ) simply as an angel.
Similarly the parallel structure of verses 15-16 (an angel gives a command to the one
like a son of man) and verses 17-19 (an angel gives a command to another angel) along
with the already mentioned function of the receiver of each command enhances the
impression of an angel-christology, or at least traces of it. 120

If we look elsewhere in the
Apocalypse, attention focuses most immediately on Apc 1: 13-16 in order to examine
whether the description there of the one like a son of man provides any further evidence
for the existence of an angel-Christology within the Apocalypse. Next to the statements
that indicate an identification of the one like a son of man with Christ and the already
mentioned equivocation of this figure with the ancient of days (i. e. God) from Daniel
119Cp. STUCKENBRUCK: ['eneration, 243: Giving the explanation that the angel has the authority to
give commands still leaves open the question why an angel then would have to adopt the role of an
intermediator.
76
7:9 one also finds features taken from Daniel 10:5. This
must arouse attention, because
Daniel 10 features an angelophany.121
These observations become even more

conspicous when one realises how
carefully the author otherwise distinguishes Christ from the angels in his writing. Christ
is generally described with special grandeur and insignia: he

carries attributes normally
only attested of God (Ape 1: 14.17-18), and he alone is worthy to

open the sealed book
(Apc 5: 2-5) while angels are, by contrast, not to be worshipped (Apc 19: 10: 22: 8-9). 122
Why, then, is this supremacy of Christ over the angels not continued in Apc 14:14?
Why does he seemto have been ranked among the angels?
In addition to these observations, one might also consider the appearenceof the
angel in Apc 10: 1 as noteworthy. This angel is apparently very similar to Jesus as
described in Ape I and Ape 14: He is dressed in a white cloud (cp. 14: 14; 1:7), his face
is shining like the sun (cp. 1:16) and his feet are like fiery pillars (cp. 1:13).
A more thorough research on the "Mighty Angel" from chapter 10 might be
helpful for a better understanding of this figure and also for its interpretation, which
in
varies strongly recent publications.
2.2.8. Ape 10: 1 and its Relevance for Christology
At first glance one may indeed find evidence that seems to support an
understanding of the "Mighty Angel" as Christ, allowing for the assumption of the
Christ in Apc 10: 1.123This in Apc 10

presence of an angelomorphic vision - placed
between the visions of the sixth and the seventh trumpet - gives a report on "another
120Cp. also the arguments provided by STUCKENBRUCK: Veneration, 243-244.

121 Cp. YARBRO COLLINS: "Tradition", 549-550. GUNDRY: "Angelomorphic". passim and
ROWLAND: "Vision", 1-7 for the importance of this angelophany.
122Cp. for this KARRER: Johannesoffenbarung, 149, STUCKENBRUCK: Veneration. 257-261 and
DUNN: Christolog% 156.
77
mighty angel" who is descending from heaven. This angel is remarkably dressed in
a
cloud, has a rainbow above his head and his face is shining like the sun. Moreover. his
feet are like pillars of fire. The role of this particular

angel in Apc 10:1-11 is limited to
announcing the end of time and giving the PtßX,

api&iov to John. As has already been
mentioned, the description of this mighty angel being "clothed with a cloud" is
reminiscent of the description of the son of man like being, who comes sitting on a
cloud in Apc 14:14. Similarly the son of man figure comes on "clouds" in Apc 1:7. The
change from singular to plural in Apc 1 may have various reasons, as has already been
discussed. It has been argued by R. H. GUNDRY that this grammatical change does not
necessarily imply a difference in personal identity; 124 singular and plural vary
throughout the whole New Testament literature (as for instance in Mk 13:26 and Mt
24: 30 the cloud appears in a singular form, in Lk 21: 27 it is in plural). 125Notably, the
description of the son of man-like figure's coming is, of course, also described with
to
reference a cloud, namely in Apc 1:7 (with the plural form v) and, with an
vECpcXö
alternation in numbers, also in Apc 14: 14 (with the singular form vE(Xii).
GUNDRY argues even further that the well-known use of clouds as a theophanic
symbol and the "mighty angel" being described as "clothed in a cloud" would support
the assumption of the angel's deification in Apc 10. Generally one might agree to the
idea that the clouds in description of epiphanies are of importance and stress the
appearing figure's dignity. But it seems too generalised to assume a theophany or a
divine character of an appearing figure each time the appearance is described as a
"coming on clouds". The possibility that a non divine figure, as for instance an angel.
might be described must not be excluded entirely. In turn, the discussion about the
123An identification the being Christ has first been by Victorinus Pettau (Comm. in
of angel argued of
Apoc. 10), see for instance STUCKENBRUCK: Veneration, 230 n. 70.
Cp. GUNDRY: "Angelomorphic", 663-664.
Cp. also GUNDRY: "Angelomorphic", 664: GUNDRY deals the clouds` change of numerus
also with
in ascension descriptions. In Thess 4: 17 the the plural form, while the cloud
clouds catching up saints are
78
change in numbers of the cloud might of course contribute to the discussion
about
christophanies: In case of Apc 1:7 and Apc 14: 14 the change of numbers for the
cloud
does not indicate a change of the person described,
as already discussed in the chapter
on the author's use of language. But this discussion is not really relevant for the
possibility of an angelomorphic Christology in Apc 10: 1, because the angel's
description as dressed with a cloud does not provide

an argument in falvour of a
christological perspective. It is probably the "coming" as such that is more relevant in
New Testament writings in order to stress the appearing figure's dignity,

or even more,
this figure's divinity. Wherever events with a clearly epiphanical character are reported
within the New Testament and a cloud is mentioned alongside, one may indeed assume
to encounter either a Theophany126 or a Christophany (as for instance in Mk 13:26,
127
clearly referring to Dan 7: 13). It needs to be stressed,though, that in case of the
Christophanies it seemsto be the term "coming" that indicates the epiphanical character
128
of a given passage. The cloud as a clearly christological feature that stressesdivinity
as GUNDRY assumes in the case of the angel in Apc 10: 1 then be present as
- - should
a device in other NT literature. (Jewish contemporary literature is of course irrelevant
for the discussion whether a cloud indicates an epiphany or not in the given context.)
Apparently, though, an epiphanical context can only be approved when a given scenario
is also concerned with a certain figure's coming, in most casesthe coming of the son of
in which the two witnesses ascend to heaven in Apc 11: 12 is singular, as also in the description provided
in Acts 1:9-11.
126This kind of description of God speaking out of a cloud is naturally not unusual, if one considers for
instance the descriptions of God speaking out of the burning bush in Ex 3:4 or acting in a pillar of cloud
in Ex 13:21-22.
127In almost all cases the combination of "coming" and "cloud" has to be as a reference to Dan
regarded
7: 13.
128The emphasis on Jesus in the New Testament as a "coming one" whose divine character is deliberatley
stressed by NT authors might already be visible in Mk 1:7-8 par. It is definitely the "coming" of the son
of man that is emphasised by the gospel writers, not the cloud or similar features, as for instance the
garment. Cp. for instance Mk 13:26 par, Mk 14: 62 par (also mentioning the cloud; see further BEASLEY
MURRAY: "Apocalyptic", 424-426), and also Mk 9: 9-13 par in contrast: The important feature that is
emphasised seems to be the "coming", the clouds are rather an additional feature. A cloud alone,
therefore, does not necissarily indicate an epiphany. Cp. for the significance of the expression "coming"
79
man, which is then closely related to the tradition in Daniel 7: 13. Also. GU DRY
assumesthe rainbow in the description of the "Mighty Angel" to be an indicator for an
angelomorphic Christology. He bases this assumption on the fact that the rainbow is
in
also present the description of God's throne in Apc 4: 3, and the fact that Christ is
sitting on the same throne in Apc 3: 21 and 22: 1-3. At this point the assumption of an
angelomorphic Christology would need more evidence than that provided by GUNDRY
so far. GUNDRY actually briefly mentions Ezekiel 1:26-28 as a parallel for Apc 10:1.
but without further commenting on it. This striking parallel definitely deserves more
attention, though: Notably the description of God in Ezekiel 1:26-28 contains features
that are both found in Revelation as well. These are namely the fiery appearanceof
God's lower body as paralleled by Christ's description in Apc 1: 15 (or 2: 18) - where
Christ's legs are similarly fiery in appearance- and also the rainbow that is used, albeit
in a more metaphorical sense,to describe God's glory in Apc 4:3. The rainbow is, of
course, very reminiscent of the face of the angel in Apc 10:1. It seemstherefore possible
that the author deliberately used an allusion to Ezekiel 1:26-28 in Apc 1: 15 and Apc
10: 1 in order to make certain statements about the mighty angel, or Christ respectively.
Accordingly, the author might have wished to express a certain divine status of the
angel in Apc 10, if he to

seems refer so clearly to the tradition in Ezekiel 1:28. As the
author of Revelation does so in two instances,namely in Apc 4: 3 (referring to God) and

129
in Apc 10:1 (referring to the mighty angel), a deliberate connection can be assumed.
Then, indeed, the angel from chapter 10 and Christ may be interpreted as similar beings,
or it might even be assumed that Christ is the very same angel from Apc 10: 1. More
evidence than this assumption above would still be needed, though, in order to prove a
also MCDONOUGH: YHWH, 214-217. For the Apocalypse the significance of the expression "coming"
has been demonstrated by COMBLIN: Christ, 51-54. See further HOHNJEC: Lamm, 50-S 1.
129Cp. also GIESCHEN:. 256-260 for interpretation of the angel in Apc
-Ingelomorphic. a christological
10. GIESCHEN also sees the similarities of shared traditions as evidence for allowing for the conclusion
of regarding the mighty angel as Christ and facing an angelomorphic Christolog, in Apc 10.
80
christological interpretation of the mighty
angel in Apc 10. GUNDRY's proposal that
other traditional elements might strengthenthe idea of an angelomorphic Christologv's
presence in Apc 10 have therefore to be considered more thoroughly. GUNDRY finds
other traditions used within the Apocalypse strikingly similar; for instance the
description of Christ's face as shining "as the sun" (üc o

rjXtoS) in Apc 1:16 is
paralleled by the description of the angel's face in Apc 10:1. The author is using the
same vocabulary, and only minor differences between these two descriptions of faces
can be 130
seen. GUNDRY concludes therefore that the similarity of the description of
Jesus' and the angel's face favours an identification of the angel from Apc 10 with
Jesus.131
Furthermore, GUNDRY argues that the description of the angel's feet "as pillars
of fire" (cif ßiüXot nupog) recalls the description of Jesus' feet from Apc 1:15 (öµoiol
xaXxoXi,ßävcw äh Ev xaµivco 1EEITvp(oµev71S)

and some degree also Apc 2: 18 (though
without the ä-)9Again GUNDRY assumes that this correspondence of
descriptions may favour an identification of the mighty angel with Jesus.Even further
arguments might be brought forward for strengthening the assumption of an
angelomorphic Christology in case of Apc 10. The angel shouts with a voice as loud as
a lion's (Apc 10:3). The connection of Jesus with a lion is already present in Apc 5: 5:
133
The Lamb the lion of the tribe of Judah. Admittedly the lion's voice of the angel
is
does per se not seem to be a very christological feature, especially becauseit is not a
common epiphanical attribute. Still, this presenceof another parallel could be taken into
130In Apc 10 the author uses the word np&Twnov while öync is used for the description in Apc 1. Cp. also
GUNDRY: "Angelomorphic", 664. GUNDRY assumes further that the omission of the face "shining"
(p(xivet x'r?L) in Apc 10 might be deliberateley done by the author in expectation of his readership
memorizing Apc 1: 16.
Cp. GUNDRY: "Angelomorphic", 664.
Cp. GUNDRY: "Angelomorphic", 664.
"' Cp. KNIGHT: Revelation, 82. KNIGHT between Christ and the
notably argues against any connection
angel in Apc 10, the angel does not even have divine character for him. According to him, the angel
a
bears the God this is a divine being.
rather something of visual majesty of without suggesting that angel
81
account as an argument in favour of an existence of angelomorphic Christology in Apc
10.
Altogether at least four traditions concerning the

angel in Apc 10: 1 also have a
christological reference within the Apocalypse. It is questionable, though, that
enumerating parallels of traditions shared between Christ and the mighty angel provides
enough evidence alone in order to justify the assumption of an existing angelomorphic
Christology in Apc 10. Observations solely based on parallels

can lead to invalid
assumptions. It is crucial to recognise the entire context of the vision in Apc 10 as well
in order to make attempts to identify the prominent angel in verse 1. Likewise,
observations based on the epiphanical traditions alone may not be the only features that
help the readership of this passageto understandthe meaning of this obviously

powerful
angel. For instance, M. BARKER also emphasises the importance of the cloud, the face
like the sun and the rainbow, and concludes that the angel has to be regarded as Jesus
who is described in terminology of the high priest, similar to traditions in 2 Enoch 22: 9-
10 or Jesus Sirach 50. She derives this identification from a combination of Apc 5:2 and
10: 1: By identifying the angel in 5: 2 (regarding this angel to be sitting on a throne and
thus giving him some divine status) as the very same angel from Apc 10:1134she comes
to the conclusion that other features have to be connected as well. Accordingly, the
angel from Apc 5:2 (being identical to the mighty angel from 10: 1) can also be
identified as the figure in 4:2-3, becauseit is sitting on the throne as well. Moreover, the
lamb took the scroll in Apc 5:7 and then becametransfigured by being anointed. In Apc
10 now, Jesus is to be seen in his form as a high priest. 135BARKER tries to strengthen
her argument by referring to a mistranslation of the term äXXoS again. As mentioned
KNIGHT also refers to incorporated elements of theophanies within this vision, but he does not provide
any arguments concerning why an identification of this specific angel with Christ is impossible.
For an identification of the mighty angel in Apc 10: 1 with the angel in Apc 5: 2 see also BERGMEIER:
"Buchrolle", 235-242. For BERGMEIER's arguments see also BOUSSET: C)th'nharung, 307
.
135Cp. BARKER: Revelation, 180-18-.
82
before regarding Apc 14: 15, she also argues that the term
was a mistranslation from the
original Hebrew term IrI and should have been translated as "after", not as
"another". 136 Accordingly, for BARKER, no second mighty angel exists in the
Apocalypse, but only the one mentioned in Apc 5: 2.137 It is

apparent that too much
focus on traditions and parallels as provided in the entire Apocalypse

alone are not
helpful for fully understanding the vision in Apc 10. Even more, it might lead to the
danger of completely misunderstanding the angel's meaning and attributing him far too
much power.
A similar attempt of regarding a connection between Apc 5 and 10 has been
launched by R. BERGMEIER, though he focuses on redactional and source critical
possibilities: BERGMEIER assumes that John used the vision in Ezekiel 1: 1-3 :3 and the
text concerning the scroll in Daniel 12:4-9 as Vorlage; BERGMEIER, though, calls in
entirely different arguments than BARKER. He considers the visions in Apc 5 and 10 to
be doublets originating from the Ezekielian tradition. According to BERGMEIER, this
Vorlage was reworked by John, who expanded the single vision from Ezekiel to two
scenarios: He creates a vision of his own vocation (with angelological elements as
preserved in Apc 10) in Apc 1 already (including a Christophany with angelophanic
elements as in Apc 10), so the actual vision of vocation in Apc 10 needed to be altered
138
by John. Apc 5 also had influence on the composition of Apc 10: John probably
inserted a (genuinely Christian) vision of the "scroll" in chapter 5 before the "original"
vision in chapter 10. Accordingly, the formerly closed scroll from chapter 5 is described
136 See also the discussion in section 2.2.2. for BARKER's arguments concerning the varying
interpretations of the term . XXo; äyycko; and its importance for the christological understanding of the
one like a son of man.
137Cp. BARKER: Revelation, 181. BARKER's results concerning the mighty angel in Apc 10: 1 are not
surprising: In her study The Revelation of Jesus Christ only one angel seems to exist. She draws on the
results from her own study The Great Angel, where also only one angel, namely the angel of the Lord,
himself being the Lord himself. Cp. BARKER:.
exists and manifests as -1ngel.passim.
138Cp. BERGMEIER: "Buchrolle", 240 and STUCKENBRUCK: Veneration, 231 n. 71 for reasons.
BERGMEIER attempts a reconstruction of a considerable original concept of Apc 10, integrating
elements from Apc 5. See BERGMEIER: "Buchrolle", 238-240.
83
as opened in Apc 10, because "the time has come". These redactional changes result
in
also a description of the mighty angel as very powerful, becausethe functions of two
angels originally present have to be attributed to one angel now, as the other angel is
already mentioned in Apc 5: 2.139Thus, BERGMEIER's idea may help to explain the
connection of traditionally divine and angelic motifs in the description of the strong
angel: The angel in Apc 10 appears to be "overloaded" with attributes because all
elements of a rather glorious description are ascribed to this angel here.140
Against such christological interpretations as BARKER's based on the above
mentioned theophanical features, it can also be argued that some of their elements are
also visible in other passages(outside the Apocalypse), where they clearly have no
christological reference. For instance, the rainbow on the head of the prominent figure
can also be found in Apocalypse of Abraham 11:3. Similarly the description of the "face
shining like the is

sun" not an uncommon feature, as it is also present in Apocalypse of
Zephaniah 6: 11 and some other writings. (See Excursus Two: The Face like a Sun as an
Angelomorphic Feature of Christ for more details. ) The case of the description of the
feet with an appearance of fire is also not only given in a context that might be
considered to have a christological meaning, as one can find this kind of epiphanical
feature also in Joseph and Aseneth 14:9 or in a very reminiscent form in Daniel 10:6
Zephaniah 6: 11 (or Ezek 1:27 8: 2, 141

and Apocalypse of and as already mentioned).
Admittedly, there are a number of theophanic elements paralleling the features of the
epiphany in Apc 10 GUNDRY assuming that this angel has almost a divine status as a
-
for the 142Nevertheless, the importance of such

reason an exaltation of mighty angel.
features seems to be less valuable in view of the parallel angelophanic elements that
Apc 10 also reflects.
"g Cp. BERGMEIER: "Buchrolle", 240-241.

140Cp. STUCKENBRUCK: Veneration, 231 and BERGMEIER: "Buchrolle", 211.
141Cp. for this also CARRELL: Jesus, 132.
84
In fact, the strong similarity of theophanic
and angelophanic traditions elswhere
have been taken into account as an

argument against a christological interpretation of
Apc 10. J. D. G. DUNN, for instance, argued that

similarities in description (the descent
from heaven wrapped in a cloud, a rainbow

over the head, the face like the sun and the
legs like pillars of fire) are due to a comparatively limited

range of symbolism available
to John for his attempt to decribe a heavenly being of overwhelming '43

power. As a
matter of fact, there would necessarily be an overlap of characteristics and features in
the description of epiphanic visions. It is questionable, though, if the only

possible
solution is to consider the author of Revelation to be constrained by a limited pool of
traditions, while he seemsto be a rather creative writer otherwise.
Generally, the key for understanding the author's intention seemsto be rather a
matter of identifying and understanding the distribution of these features within the
Apocalypse as a whole, especially when certain distinguishable patterns emerge
thereby. In other words, the literary setting cannot be ignored. P. CARRELL therefore
rightfully assumed that the figure in Apc 10 lacks some kind of sovereignty: While this
figure here is not speaking alone, but is instead supplemented by a voice from heaven
and swears by God, 144Christ is speaking for himself, for instance saying the more
sovereign "I am" in Apc 1:17-20.145Certainly it can be argued that the function of the
146
angel in chapter 10 is rather limited.
CARRELL's arguments might add to an understanding of a non-christological
description of an angelophanic vision as such. A more relevant hint towards an angelic
142CP. CARRELL: Jesus, 132-139.

143Cp. DUNN: Christolog, 156.
144Cp. CARRELL: Jesus, 136-137: It has to be admitted that the rather subordinate impression one
should have because the voice from heaven is speaking cannot be assumed to be an argument for an
angelic interpretation of the figure in Apc 10 on ist own. This very same feature is notably also present
similarly in Apc 14: 15.
14sCp. CARRELL: Jesus, 136-137. CARRELL further assumes that the figure in Ape 10 therefore clearly
has to be understood as an äyyEXog and definetely not as Christ, as this term is never used of Christ in the
Apocalypse. CARRELL furthermore points out that the lack of a refusal tradition is noteworthy in Ape
10: John does not fall down in awe or attempt to worship the figure in Apc 10.
85
interpretation
- without any christological elements - may be gained from the literary
setting of the Apocalypse: The figure in Apc 10 plays an important role in a chain of
events that the author may well have set up deliberately. R. BAUCKHA\1 tries to
demonstrate that Apc 10 corresponds to the chain of revelation

which is already
presented in Apc 1:1. The revelation - the main content of the book is given from God
-
to Christ and is then given to John via an angel. (This chain is also alluded to in Apc
22:6.) Accordingly, the angel in Apc 10 might simply be the angel who supposedly is a
necessary link within this same chain of revelation again. From Apc 10 on then, the
is
main content of the prophetic revelation given to John.147
A more appropriate and careful solution for the identification of the mighty
angel in Apc 10: 1 than GUNDRY's is offered by HANNAH. 148According to him, the
"limited pool of metaphors and images" means that many descriptions of visions may
sound very familiar. Nevertheless, this should not lead to wrong conclusions. These
similarities between angels and Christ are not great enough to make them almost
indistinguishable from 149A between the angel in Apc 10 and

each other. solid parallel
Christ in Apc 1 is provided by the description of the face as shining like the sun.
Otherwise, John lifts up whole phrases with little alteration if he wishes to express
identical characters, as for instance when identifying Christ from the opening vision
with the Leader of the heavenly armies. (Apc 1: 14 corresponds to Apc 19: 12 and 1: 16
to 19: 15.) HANNAH therefore concludes that it is far more crucial to pay attention to
the text of Revelation itself in order to identify a heavenly being, than just basing the
decision on imagery alone.150This is why the unambiguous Christophanies in Apc I
146Cp. STUCKENBRUCK: Veneration, 232.

'a' Cp. BAUCKHAM: Theolog 81-82.
,
148Cp. HANNAH: Ifichael, 182-183.
149Cp. also STUCKENBRUCK: i'eneration, 231-232.
150Cp. HANNAH: Michael, 153.
86
and 19 are so important. These passages are the most appropriate points of departure for
sorting out and analysing angelomorphic features of John's Christologv.
Moreover, the following procedure is misleading:

one identifies the 'son of man'
in Apc 14 as angelomorphic Christology at work and

uses this to go back and identify
the 'strong angel' in Apc 10 as an angelomorphic Christophany as well. This is circular
reasoning.
Accordingly, it is questionable to think that the description of the 'strong angel'
hints at an angel-Christology.
2.2.9. Angelomorphic or Angel-Christology?
It therefore remains that Christ is not explicitly labelled as an angel in the
Apocalypse; indeed, the one like a son of man figure is even set apart from the angels:
In the order of appearing figures he is placed precisely in the midst of the angels and, in
addition, he is described with attributes given only to him and never to the angels in
chapter 14.151
Thus at most traces of an angel-Christology can possibly be found in the
Apocalypse. 152Considering the position of angels in terms of a hierarchy, it is clear that
all angelic beings are generally in a somewhat subordinate position to God. Angels in
Revelation only carry out tasks given to them by God and act as his messengers,or else
carry out the tasks given to them in final judgement. Christ's position seemsgenerally
to be a different one in the Apocalypse as the author of Revelation has generally placed
Christ on a par with God, as can for instance be seen in Apc 1:14 (a possible symbolic
identification of the one like a son of man and ancient of days) and in Apc 1:17-18.
(Christ is described as "the first and the last"). Tendencies towards a subordination
151Cp. KARRER: Johannesofj'enbarung, 148 Veneration. 244.

and STUCKENBRUCK:
87
Christology do not generally reflect the Apocalypse
author's point of view (see chapters
3., 4. and 5. of this thesis). If he was aware
of such views, they were not deliberately
153
retained.
Subsequently, it remains questionable whether it is

appropriate to assume an
angel-Christology because traces of angelic categories have been

applied to Christ. It
seems preferable to speak of an angelomorphic Christology, because an application

of
angelomorphic terms to Christ does not necessarily imply that Christ is an angel
who is
ontologically distinguished from God. 154In this context it has to be

remembered that
angels must probably not be interpreted here as creaturesas was done by later Christian
"' In any case, it is apparent that Apc 14 (and also Apc 1: 13-. 0; 19: 11-21)
writers.
embodies some kind of tension, which may most likely be caused by the problem of
preserving a straightforward kind of monotheism, referring to God as the one in
command of all things and responsible for the way the judgement on earth is carried out
on the one hand,156 describing Christ important figure ' 57

while as a very on the other.
The importance of Christ is rather obvious in the entire work, especially when Christ is
labelled as Lamb along with all the power attributed to him. (More on this feature will
have to be explained in the forthcoming analysis in section 3.)
A possible explanation for an inclusion of an angelomorphic Christology in
Revelation - despite the fact that Christ is normally clearly distinguished from the
angels and the tendency to even avoid any veneration of angels as in Apc 19:10 and
22: 8-9 - is the assumption that the author based his ideas on a well known tradition.
This special tradition might have been known among his readership or audience. By
152Cp. BAUCKHAM: "Worship", 338, n. 42.

153Cp. KARRER: Johannesoffenbarung, 148-149.
154Cp. ROWLAND: "Man", 100.
155Cp. e.g. Thomas Aquinas: Summa Theologica, 123-396 (STh I. 50-64). Cp. also the introduction of this
thesis for further details.
156Monotheistic phraseology can more clearly be found in Apc 14:4. cp. for this STVCKENBRVCK:
I enn'ration, 262.
157Cp. KARRER: Johannesojjenbarung, 149.
88
integrating such a tradition into the Apocalypse the
author may have been attempting to
gain his readership's or audience's attention more effectively. At the sametime he

was
also able to subtly indicate that a worship of angels is to be avoided.158
We thus identify an early christological idea

preserved within Apc 14:6-20
which may have become a factor in later dogmatic disputes.159We thus have
to
emphasise the fact that the passages in Revelation that might preserve such a
christological idea are not directly mentioned in any sourceswe can accessfor research
on the history of christological disputes. Still, Ape 14 may have contributed to the idea
of an angelic feature of Christ in general and the identification (and equation) of Christ
as being an angel in particular. Accordingly, this means that we distinguish between the
author's intention and the text's Wirkungsgeschichte.160 (For a possible
Wirkungsgeschichte of Apc 14 on the development of christological ideas see Appendix
3.)
However, we cannot suppose that the author of Apc 14:6-20 wished to
communicate a christological idea that would have been controversial for and disputed
among his readers. The text as it stands might have been regarded as attesting a
straightforward angel-Christology which, in the context of debate, would have been
branded as "heretical". 161It should be emphasised, though that an interpretation of
passagesfrom the Apocalypse as an inherent angel-Christology would be anachronistic.
The angelomorphic depictions of Christ provided in some passages indicate an early
means of describing Christ in terns of traditions often linked A

with angels. reason for
such descriptions can only be given on the basis of a non-standardised character of
Christology during the early Christian era. Consequently, we cannot assume that the
158 Cp. STUCKENBRUCK: Veneration, 272, BAUCKHAM: "Worship", passim and KARRER:
Johannesoffenharung, 147-149.
159YARBRO COLLINS: "Tradition", 568.
89
author would have been thought to express an "incorrect" portrayal
of Christ. because
angelic categories were not being entirely excluded. An interpretation

of passages
elsewhere that show traces of angelic material in descriptions

of Christ as a fully
developed angel-Christology bears the stamp of later
christological decisions and
disputes of the fourth century. In other words,

an angelomorphic description of Christ
might exist in pre-Nicene times (without possessing a rather doubtful character),

while
an understanding of such a christological concept (as preserved in the Apocalypse) as

an
angel-Christology would be an anachronistic imposition based on a later development in
church history. The angelomorphic Christology, as preserved in Apc 14, probably arose
at a very early stage in the development of forthcoming christological disputes
concerning the "nature of Christ". At the end of this dispute, after the results of Nicea
Constantinople, 162
and we find a rather "demythologised form" of a trinitarian God,
more or less without angelic features 163The nature of these christological and
at all.
theological disputes suggests that Christology and the relationship between God and
Christ was not uniform. For the Apocalypse as for NT literature in general - one may
-
surely not assume the trinitarian model that was settled at the Council of Nicea; rather
an underlying proto-trinitarian deep structure reflected in Christian worship and
proclamation can be found. 164Such proto-trinitarian thoughts and their christological
implications were then brought to full expression in Nicea in correspondence with the
New Testament; possibly, though, not in full congruence with all nuances of theological
16' For a thorough research on the use and understanding of the Apocalypse in church history see MAIER:
Johannesoffenbarung. The study focuses on events and characters after the Councils of Nicea and
Constantinople, christological disputes are therefore not part of this work.
161Cp. for this also KRETSCHMAR: Trinitätstheologie, 222.
162By the introduction of the term homoousion the ontological relation between the Son and God the
Father and their sharing in being is expressed. Cp. for instance GUNTON: Trinitarian. 8-9. Cp. for the
results of the Councils of Nicea and Constantiople further KELLY: Glaubensbekenntnisse, passim,
HEUSSI: Kirchengeschichte, 96 and HARLE: Dogmatik, 384-405.
163Cp. for angelic categories rejected in the Councils of Nicea and Constantinople BEYSCHLAG:
Dogmengeschichte, 77 and KRETSCHMAR: Trinitätstheologie, passim, esp. 219-223. Cp. for this
discussion also DANIELOU: Christianiti", 117-146, esp. 117-1 19 and "Trinite", 5-41.
164Cp. SCHWÖBEE.: "Christology" 127.
90
(and christological) aspects that the New Testament has to Possible
offer.
angelomorphic aspects of Christology which may be preserved in NT literature were
clarified by the homoousios165 of the Nicene Creed in a way which is not entirely
in
adequate terms of the various authors' different conceptions.Accordingly, we cannot
postulate a straightforward linear development of Christology from NT literature,
including all different aspects of Christology without compromising certain aspects, to
the way the disputes were resolved in the Councils. One might agree that New
Testament literature contains the source of the development of Christology, which is
then finally formulated in the Nicene theology. An assumption of absolute conformity
with all concepts of NT Christology seems doubtful, however, as a fully divine
Christology166 is not necessarily reflected in all passages of New Testament writings. As
for the Apocalypse, for instance, the questions whether God and Christ share one
identity, and whether the possibility of Christ's subordination (or also angelic status) are
preserved here, have not yet been answeredsatisfactorily.
The relation between Nicene theology and NT Christology ought not to be
understood as a discrepancy, but as a matter of a world of ideas that are not explicitly
mentioned within the New Testament writings. New Testament concepts form a solid
base of Nicene theology, but the concept of these fourth century formulations are
preserved in proto-trinitarian deep structure and not in the philosophical language167
165Cp for this KELLY: Glaubensbekenntnisse, 240-259 and HARLE: Dogmatik, 342.
166Cp for the terminology and the assumption of such a "fully divine Christology" or the "Christology of
divine identity" BAUCKHAM: God, 45-79.
167The terminology in Nicene theology is undebatably influenced by Greek philosophy, as for instance
Porphyr (De abstin. 1,19) or Plotinus (Enn. 4,7,10), as demonstrated by KELLY: Glaubensbekenntnisse,
242-243. BAUCKHAM proposes an underlying Jewish scheme that is already present in NT writings
for Nicea resisting against Greek categories: In other words, for
which allows an assumption of
BAUCKHAM the full divinity of Jesus is already guaranteed in NT literature and the Creed formulated in
Nicea was an attempt to preserve a fully developed Christology of such degree against influences of
Greek philosophical ideas. (cp. BAUCKHAM: God, 77-79. ) BAUCKHAM's assumptions appear to be
far too simplistic: He bases his ideas on observations made on a few selected passages from the New
Testament, namely Phil 2: 5-11 and passages from John (Joh 3: 14-15; 8: 28 and 12:32-34, all dealing with
has be "lifted Revelation (passages the Drei--eitenformel and Apc
the Son of Man who to up") and with
5: 13), which he reads against the background of Isa 40-55. This limited field of passagescan on the one
hand hardly be for all different christological concepts preserved by NT
regarded as representative
91
that forms the dogmas of the Councils of Nicea
or Constantiople. and which is later
made explicit by the Cappadocian Fathers.168Christian Theology in the first four
centuries, though, is not in deficit because of a lack of a fully developed trinitarian
169
concept. In the words of HÄRLE, the trinitarian concept is "... ein nachträgliches
Reflexionsprodukt, das die Rede von Gott (und zwar

vom dreieinigen Gott) schon
voraussetzt und sich auf sie bezieht. Sie expliziert etwas, das implizit im rechten Reden
von Gott bereits enthalten ist. 170

it Within the boundaries of development of these above
mentioned theological concepts lies also the development of christological concerns.
Angelomorphic Christologies, as have been preserved by the Apocalypse or certain
other NT writings, stand at the beginning of such a development. Still, these
Christologies which drew on angelic categories should not be regarded as the main
concept of writings that preserve them, as they could be integrated entirely in the
process of establishing the Trinitarian doctrine. 17' Later writers or groups, however,
might have put far more emphasis on the angelic categories, and an assumption of a
fully developed angel Christology therefore seems to be justified here. For instance, an
angel Christology or even an angel Pneumatology172is certainly theologically far more
literature. On the other hand, BAUCKHAM neglects the fact that not all christological aspects, or rather
all theological concepts in the NT, share a single world view that put God and Jesus on par without any
doubts. Furthermore, certain aspects of christological significance, as for instance Christologies that
certainly draw heavily on angelic categories as in the Gospel of John (cp. SCHNACKENBURG: "Vater",
275-291, MÜLLER: "Menschwerdung", 62-66, BÜHNER: Gesandte, 138-152 and 191-261 and
GIESCHEN: Angelomorphic, 270-293. ), the Apocalypse (cp. for instance GIESCHEN: Angelomorphic,
245-269. ), and possibly Colossians (cp. GIESCHEN: Angelomorphic, 343-346, ARNOLD: Syncretism,
90-101 and also HARNACK: Ausbreitung, 252 n. 1.) do not necissarily allow for an implication of Jesus'
full divinity in every NT passage. A clear demarcation of Christ and angels is achieved in Nicea (cp. for
this also KRETSCHMAR: Trinitätstheologie, 222-223. ). Finally, BAUCKHAM does not acknowledge
the process of canonisation for his assumption at all. In early Christian texts a fully developed divine
Jesus can surely not be so generally assumed as possibly in the canonised passageshe is dealing with.
168 Cp. for the influence of the Cappadocian Fathers on the of the Trinitarian doctrine
concept
SCHWÜBEL: "Christology", 131-137 and ZIZIOULAS: "Doctrine", 44-60.
169Cp. HARLE: Dogmatik, 386.
170HARLE: Dogmatik, 386.
171As the Council of Nicea represents a turning
point for establishing a clear cut demarcation between
God and angels (cp. KRETSCHMAR: Trinitatstheologie, 223. ), texts that feature an overly angelic
concept would hardly be underlying the Nicene Theology.
172See for angel pneumatological concepts in the Shepherd Hermas the Ascension of Isaiah
of or
GIESCHI-N: Angelomorphic. 220-225 and 231-236 and "Spirit", 790-803 and MOXNES: "Angel". 49-
56.
92
important in Ebionite or Elchasaite circles, ' 73
and possibly also for very late theological
abstracts like the writings of Dionysus the Areopagite (cp. Hier. IV 181 D).
As it should have become apparent that the

angelomorphic concept of
Christology in the Apocalypse has to be
set at a rather early state of development of a
Christology in the making, it is logical to return to the

question on how and by which
titles and attributes Christ is depicted in Revelation. Firstly. we

shall now investigate the
question of whether or not the expression "one like a son of man" from Apc 14:14
and
1:13 may be regarded as a christological title and
what christological significance this
expression bears.
2.2.10. Possible Christological Titles in Apc 14:6-20
It has become apparent that the expression öµotov viöv ävOpthirou clearly
refers
to Christ. However, the question whether this phrase has to be understood as a
christological title, i. e. as the son of man in the synoptic traditions, 174has not been
answered yet. The iAöS tiov ävepwnov in the Gospels does not have the same features as
the one like a son of man in the Apocalype (Apc 1:7-18; 14:6-20 and possibly 19: 11-
21). In synoptic writings the son of man is not exclusively an eschatological figure (cp.
for instance Mk 13:24-27; Lk 21:36; Mt 24:29-31; Mt 25:31-46), but is also described
as a suffering and earthly figure (cp. for instance 9: 9:

Mt 6; 17:12; Lk 56; Lk 18:31). 175
173Cp. for this KRETSCHMAR: Trinitätstheologie, 222. The Jewish-Christian groups with angel-
christological interests were identified by Epiphanius (Pan. 30.3.1-6) and Hippolytus (Ret. 9.13.1-3). Cp.
STUCKENBRUCK: Veneration, 138-139 n. 238 and KNIGHT: Disciples, 167-170. For more material on
the identification of these groups and traditions they depend on see LUTTIKHUIZEN: Elchasai, passim.
"' Notably, a son of man designation plays only a major role apart from the synoptic tradition in the
fourth Gospel. Act 7: 56 and in Apc 1: 12-20 and 14: 14. Cp. BECKER: Jesus, S 1-25?.
"s Cp. HAHN: Hoheitstitel, 23-42 or BECKER: Jesus, 249-275 for further explanations on the
understanding of the son of man and Jesus. Cp. also KARRER: Christus, 288-289. Cp, for a distinction
of different son of man aspects in Luke FLETCHER-LOUIS: Luke-.4cts, 225-250. Cp. for the use of the
Son of Man terminology in the Gospels also HENGEL: Christologv, 387 and KINGSBURY: Chrisiologv.
176-179.
--9 ;
One has to be cautious, though, with regard to the interpretation
of the Son of
Man in the Gospels as a two-fold figure (heavenly and earthly). On the
one hand. the
Gospel writers surely did not distinguish clearly between the Son of Man
sayings about
a present suffering Son of Man and those concerned with the Son of Man's
eschatological functions (for instance, as a judge). On the other hand, differences in the
adaptation of Son of Man traditions in the Gospels might vary. 176
In Mark's Gospel, the emphasis may be regarded as consisting more of the
suffering Son of Man. The concept of the Messianic secretmight explain this emphasis:
If Jesus' true identity has to be revealed, the focus on the suffering Son of Man seems
only natural. The earthly Jesus is slowly being perfected through suffering.
Accordingly, the Son of Man sayings in Mark can not be grouped in purely present and
future ' 77
purely sayings.
Luke does not appear to have elaborateda distinctive Son of Man Christology in
his Gospel; he is rather faithful to his sources. A specifically Lukan Son of Man
Christology, according to C. COLPE, does not exist. 178One notable difference to Mark,
though, may be discerned in Luke's adaptation of Q. In Mark, the Son of Man sayings
emphasise the might of Jesus, while in Luke (who uses Q as one of his sources) the
lowliness of the Son of Man is also emphasised: he is the homeless (Lk 9: 58) and
despised (Lk 12:10) one.179
Matthew uses Son of Man traditions of his sources with slight variations, and
also fashions in
new sayings relation to these sources. Thus he accomplishes a synthesis
176See e.g. HAHN: Hoheitstitel, 13-46. Cp. further POKORN'': Christologie, 46-49.
465. See for the "Son of Man" in Mk also KINGSBURY: Christolo, ".
Cp. COLPE: uioS , use of
166-179.
178Cp. COLPE: "ui 458-459.
179Cp. VIELHAUER: Literatur, 22-313.
94
of the different nuances concerning the Son of Man. Jesus, who is constantly equated
with the Son of Man, is suffering, exalted, and a future judge at the sametime. ' 80
By contrast, the son of man like figure in the Apocalypse is depicted in
exclusively eschatological categories. This does not mean that the author did not know
the synoptic traditions concerning the son of man, the contrary might actually' be the
181However, the Old Testament traditions were probably again determinative for
case.
his emphasis on the eschatological son of man figure in the Revelation. As in the Mark
13:26 par the tradition from Daniel 7: 13 lies clearly in the background of the son of
182the twice öµotos (instead of ()

man; used expression and the missing article is
reminiscent of the Danielic background, as we observed before (section 2.2.3.). A major
reason for not regarding the one like a son of man as a christological title therefore
appears to be the lack of the article - without determination the uiöS äv8pwnoo should
be formal designation. ' 83In the the description in Apc 14:6-

not regarded as a same way
20 (and also the description in Apc 1: 12-18) is a vision, as is Daniel 7: 13, and since the
material that is described is somewhat blurred by the apocalyptic visionary style, one
should probably not assume that the term öµotov oiöv äv9p6oitovis a christological
title. ' 84 The use of the term oRotov in Apc 1: 13 and 14: 14 is also reminiscent of the
185
language of Philippians 2: 7 where Christ is described as Ev 6'µot%Lcm äv9pwro1).
180Cp. COLPE: 461 and LUZ: Matthew, 112-116.

181On the influence of the Jesus sayings on the Apocalypse, see YARBRO COLLINS: "Tradition", 536-
568. See further SCHÜSSLER FIORENZA: "Apokalypsis", 123.
182Cp. for a Danielic background of the Son of Man in the Gospel traditions also CASEY: God, 53.
183Cp. DUNN: Christology, 90 and MÜLLER: Messias, 197. HENGEL questions the designation of the
be the term Cp.
Son of Man to a title as such and rather proposes to regard as a veiled codeword.
HENGEL: Christology, 387.
184Cp. STRECKER: Theologie, 551-552 for the observations made on the one like a son of man in
to the synoptical Son of Man. STRECKER excludes the possibility that one like a son of man
comparison
is used as a title in Revelation, as the Danielic traditions in the background are part of a vision with the
blurring what it reports. The author of Revelation rather attempted to depict the supernatural
nature of
of the revealed exalted figure. Cp. Also CASEY: God, 142. CASEY regards the
and special elements
Gospel title "Son of Man" to be entirely absent in the Apocalypse. See also SCHÜSSLER FIORENZA:
"Apokalypsis", 123.
185The terminology in Phil 2: 7 is apparently very similar to Apc 1: 13 and 14: 14. but it is rather
impossible to infer a related Christology in those two different NT writings. Phil 2: 5-11 has a
that seems to be based on a notion of Adam Christo logy. This kind of Christology
christological concept
95
These passages taken together might
reflect a more widespread use of the word 6gotoS
in early Christian writings as a way

of describing Christ in terms of a statement of
confession, or as an apocalyptic circumlocution of referring to Christ (apokaliptischer
Umschreibungsstil). 186Further evidence for this

assumption, however, can admittedly
not be given, because Apc 1 and 14 and Philippians 2 are the

only references in the New
Testament that preserve an expression describing Christ in terms of human
'87 The
similitude. circumlocution in Apc 1: 12-18 and Apc 14:6-20 might accordingly be
a means of visualising Christ either as a representative of God (the first and the last
188 figure functions judge. 189

This rather general use
one), or respectively as a who as a
of the expression öpotov u'ov äv9pü itoo, then, would indicate a description of Christ
that does not refer to him by title, a much clearer reference would otherwise definitely
have been made. The author of the Apocalypse seems to avoid the title and instead
fashioned the expression for describing Christ in an apocalyptical manner, probably in
order to qualify the son of man for an audience which was not entirely familiar with
designation. 190On the

such a surface, Apc 1: 13 and Apc 14: 14 therefore only describe
one like a son of man, which does indicate the title. 191Nevertheless, it
not use of a
can definetely not be considered to be present in Apc 1 and 14. Cp. for this also DUNN: Christology,
114-121, esp. 115.
186Cp. CULLMANN: Christologie, 193 n. 1. Cp. also MÜLLER: Offenbarung, 269.
187The terminology of a "human similitude" might indicate some concealed form of an epiphanical
tradition. Cp. for this VOLLENWEIDER: "Monotheismus", 36 and "Metamorphose", 107-13 1.
188The function of the one like a son of man as God's representative can be derived from Isa 41: 4 and
44: 6 where a similar terminology is used in order to refer to God. Cp. ALINE: Revelation 1-5,101.
189Cp. KARRER: Christus, 302. KARRER the emphasis of his observation on Apc 1: 12-18, but the
puts
use of öµotov uiöv 6cv9pcbirouhas definetely to be regarded as identical in Apc 14:6-20.
190Cp. SCHUSSLER FIORENZA: "Apokalypsis", 122-123, against MÜLLER: Theologiegeschichte, 44:
MÜLLER assumes that John emphasises the concept of a son of man, which would indicate a dependence
on early Christian traditions. The fact that the expression "one like a son of man" only occurs twice, each
time as a circumlocution, does not justify such an assumption. It is more appropriate to regard the use of
the expression öµotov uiöv ävO*nov as being deliberately avoided. See for the use of the expression
being in deficit also LOHSE: "Menschensohn", 86. However, even if the concept of a son of man in the
Apocalypse might be deliberatley downplayed, one might still assume the use of the expression öµowov
uiöv äv9pcönou as such as being rather highlighted. The significance of this expression does not depend
on the question whether a title is used or not. Cp. similarly ROWLAND: "Vision", 1.
191 Cp. DUNN: Christologt-, 91. SCHÜSSLER FIORENZA: Offenbarung, 69 and MÜLLER:
O//t'nbarung, 83-84 and 269. Cp. also HAHN: Hoheitstitel, 13ff: HAHN only refers to the Son of Man as
a title. KRAFT does not ask the question whether a christological title is present or not at all, because he
considers that the N+riter of Apc 14: 15 does not regard the heavenly figure in verse 14 as Christ but rather
96
remains obvious that the importance of the one like a son of man is stressedin both
192
passages. The circumlocution probably functions less as a title. but rather
as a means
of associating Christ with a certain function.
One should not entirely forget the fact that other features
relevant for the
concern of Christology and christological titles are found in Apc 14:6-20. Other names
or titles, though, seem to be less important for the discussion of christological

193For instance, finds
matters. one only the name 'Irl6oöc in verse 12 (as in Apc 1:9;
12:17; 17:6; 19:10; 20: 1; 22: 16.20.21), not the full designation l'qao ÜSXplu'röS (as in
Apc 1:1.2.5).194The fact that the name is mentioned here is probably rather irrelevant
for further discussion, because it is simply mentioned without elaboration or
195Moreover, in Apc 14: 13 the phrase Ev xvpiw arouses some minor attention:
emphasis.
The expression unambiguously relates to Christ, but the use here is, again, lacking in
'96
any special emphasis. Thus one may not infer anything that has a bearing on the
author's Christology. The only other feature next to the oRozovutov äv9p6lrou that is
relevant in terms of discussing the author's christological focus therefore seems to be
the Lamb mentioned in verse 10.197The fact that the Lamb is mentioned here seemsto
indicate that Apc 14:6-20 as a section should be related to Apc 14: 1-5 more closely than
as an angel. (cp. KRAFT: Offenbarung, 197.) KRAFT's conclusion would automatically exclude the
assumption of a christological title. In contrast to the observations made by other scholars, LOHSE
regards the term öµotov viöv ävOpcbitou as a lengthened form of a christological title, cp. LOHSE:
Offenbarung, 46.
92Cp. e. KNIGHT: Revelation, 106, KARRER: Christus, 302.
g.
93 Cp. CASEY: God, 141-142: According to CASEY John preferred to express Jesus' exaltation and
lorship by means of riotous profusion of assertions and images, rather than titles in general.
194 The phrase 'Ii6ob does not emphasise the importance of Jesus. Therefore a
Kai 'r v nißiriv
christological implication of the mentioning of Jesus' name is doubtful. It is more likely that the phrase
"and maintaining faith in Jesus" resemies a parallelism to "those who keep the commands of God". A
striking parallel for this can be found in lQpHab col. viii 1-3, where "the doers of Law" are paralleled b`
"fidelity to the Teacher of Righteousness". The phrase Kai Ti v mcrriv 'Irlaoü in Apc 14: 12 seems to be a
because mann; is not a typical term used in the Revelation. Elsewhere, it is only used in
gloss, anyhow,
Apc 2: 13 and 19. Cp. AUNE: Revelation 6-16,839-840. Cp. for the use of the full title DE JONGE:
"Expression", 267-281.
195Cp. BOUSSET: Offenbarung, 386.
196Cp. HAHN: Hoheitstitel, I? ,, n. 2.
197It is noteworthy that commentators barely refer to the mentioning of the Lamb in this . erse of
Revelation.
97
lqq
has been assumedthus far. This, in turn, may raise a

question about the degreeto which
Lamb Christology and the description of Christ as human-like

are interrelated.
2.3. The Relationship between Ape 14: 1-5 and Ape 14:6-20
The juridical son of man like figure, which we identified as Christ,

contrasts in
function with the Lamb in Apc 14:1-5. It seemsnoteworthy that in Apc 14:6-20 find
we
the description of the figure of Christ seated in judgement after a setting that mentions
the Lamb in Apc 14: 1.4, in which the Lamb is not explicitly identified as the one like a
son of man. In turn, it is almost certain that Christ is to be identified as the one like a
son of man, even if this identification is not made very explicitly, as has been argued
above (see section 2.2.6.). There is little doubt that the Lamb also refers to Christ,
though it seemsnoteworthy that Christ is referred to as a Lamb in Apc 14:1-5 and then,
without further explanation or introduction, as one like a son of man in Apc 14:6-20. So
first of all it has to be examined whether or not the same author was at work at both
passages in view. Like Apc 14:6-20, Apc 14: 1-5 certainly preserves the style and
vocabulary present elswhere in the Book of Revelation. The phrase xai, Eihov, xai iöov
in Apc 14: 1, for instance, can be found identically in Apc 14: 14.
It is easy to find more expressions and vocabulary in Apc 14: 1-5 that cope with
Apc 14: 6-20 in the in 198

For instance, the
either particular or with entire writing general.
ent rwv µvuihicov (+avu3v) can also be found in Apc 7: 3 and 22: 4. and
expression
in Ape 14:9 (though here the singular form aüzov is used). Another
moreover
hints language is k rov ovpavov in Apc 14:2.

expression that at the author's specific
because the very same expression can be found v,erzyoften within other passagesof
198See ALINE: Revelation 6-16.803-818.
98
-"qq
199
Revelation. More evidence for the author's own language in Apc 14:1-5 is
provided
by the use of the expression vEätwv no?Xc v, which is not only found in Apc 14:2. but
also in Apc 1:15 and 19:6, and additionally in Apc 17:1. although here without
reference to the voice (gxovij). Further evidence is provided by the expression ji ou6a
gxovijv in Apc 14:2 which occurs another ten times200 in the Apocalypse, and also the
description of "in front of the throne" Evthnov Opovoooccurs nine more times, though
definite 201
without the article. Especially the description of Christ as Lamb (iö 6pviov)
has to be regarded as a stylistic feature of the author's vocabulary. This expressioncan
be found twenty-nine times within Revelation202and only once (Apc 13:11) does it not
Christ. 203
refer to
Conclusively, it can be stated that despite some minor differences of the content
of the passages Apc 14: 1-5 and 6-20, it cannot be denied that both passages are at least
slightly linked and have a common origin, namely the writer of the Apocalypse.
It seems to be agreed that the meaning of the Lamb is 204because the Lamb
clear,
is already introduced in Apc 5: 6 and 5: 9 as "slaughtered" and also as "purchasing with
205The
its blood" (Apc 5: 9). These metaphors refer to the concept of Christ's atonement.
power of the Lamb and its accession to the throne are therefore the logical consequence:
199Cp. Apc 3: 12; 8: 10; 9: 1; 10: 1.4.8; 11:12; 13: 13; 14: 13; 16: 11.21; 18: 1.4: 20: 1.9; 21: 2.10.
zooThis expression is also present in Apc 1: 10; 5: 11; 6: 6-7; 9: 13; 10:4; 12: 10; 18:4; 19: 1.6.
201This reference to the throne can also be found in Apc 1:4; 4: 5.6.10; 7:9.11.15; 8: 3 and 20: 12.
202The lamb as referring to Christ is mentioned in Apc 5: 6.8.12.13; 6: 1.16; 7: 9.10.14.17; 8: 1: 12: 11: 13:8;
14: 1.4.10; 15:3; 17: 14; 19:7.9; 21: 14.22.23.27 and 22: 1.3.
203BAUCKHAM titles to follow a deliberate pattern of the
assumes the occurences of christological
Christ times in the the title Jesus fourteen times and the Lamb
author: The title occurs seven composition,
28 times. Cp. BAUCKHAM: Climax, 34-35.
204It still remains quite difficult to decide on how äpviov can be best translated. A translation as "lamb"
Christ's function a translation as "ram", though, would more clearly refer to
emphasises as a redeemer,
39-41. The linguistical the term in the LXX,
his ruling character. Cp. also HOLTZ: Christologie, use of
21: 15 2 Clem 5: 2-4 to confirm that the translation as "lamb" is the more
Josephus, Philo, John und seems
160, SCHÜSSLER FIORENZA: Priester, 268-270
favourable option. Cp. also MÜLLER: Offenbarung,
344-345. See for the probabilit. of a translation as "lamb" also
and JEREMIAS: "öcpviov". philological
äpviov "ram" is by STUHLMACHER:
HOFIUS: "'Apviov", 272-281. The translation of as preferred
BÜCHER: Kirche, 40-41: BÖCHER occasionallN favours the translation
"Lamm", 529-542. Cp. similarly
äpviov has be taken into in passages where the Lamb's
as ram, because the power of the to consideration
leader is due be See for the discussion of the different translations also
character of a to emphasised.
STRECKER: Theologie. 555.
99
It is due to the fact that Christ has revealed himself as a dignitary
of divine statusby his
own death in atonement that he now receives worship in the vision of the Lamb in the
throne room in Apc 5. The redeemer's death, therefore, is a pre-condition for the
heavenly functions and tasks.206Accordingly, the Lamb is assigned

a certain divine
status and a correspondingly powerful position. The functions of the Lamb are.
however, more ambiguous. (Therefore, functions of the Lamb and those given to Christ
elsewhere have occasionally been conflated.201)

It might be inappropriate at this point to
deal with all the important features of the Lamb, because more than christological
concerns may have been in the author's mind when he describes scenariosthat feature
the Lamb. (Further christological issues concerning the Lamb will be discussed in
sections 3.1. and 3.2. below. ) One might agree for the sake of the argument that the
Lamb has a dual role in the Apocalypse, namely the Lamb's characteras a victim - this
is especially emphasised in Apc 5: 6.9.12; 7: 14; 12: 11 - and the Lamb's additional role a
military leader or a sovereign, who, as one sitting on the throne, shares being
worshipped alongside God, as can be seen in Apc 5: 12-13 or Apc 7: 9-17.208Numerous
traditions, at least, that possibly influenced John's way of describing the Lamb seem to
confirm that the author had in

various aspects mind which he wished to communicate to
his readership. John's description of the Lamb throughout the Revelation could refer to
it as (1) the daily or tamid burnt offering (as in Ex 19:38-46) ;209 (2) the passover
its for the liberation of Israel (as for instance in Ex

sacrifice and symbolic character
12:1-20; Deut 16:1-8; Num. 9:2-5; 2 Chr 30: 1-27); (3) a military ruler (as for example in
1 En. 89: 45-46, or similarly in Test. Jos. 19: 8); and (4) the death of the innocent
205 Cp for instance JEREMIAS: "äpviov", 344-345, AUNE: Revelation 1-5.371. MÜLLER:
Offenbarung, 160-162 or HOLTZ: Christologie, 37 and 47-50.
z Cp. also MÜLLER: Offenbarung, 161.
207A conflation of the Lamb's functions as redeemer and victim can be seen, for instance. with the role as
leader judgement in Apc 14: 14-20. Cp. for this MOLLER:
an eschatological with tasks of as
O»t'nbarung, 161.
1"8Cp. for this also AUNE: Revelation 1-5,368-373.
100
-Iqq
suffering servant of God (as in Isa 53). Because several different

aspects can be
recognised in the Lamb's description, it can be assumed that the

author wished to
convey to his readership a wider range of ideas concerning the meaning of the Lamb b\
deliberately conflating the traditions mentioned above. John probably

meant to evoke
various images (as for instance innocence, suffering, obedienceand rule) in his readers'
minds with which he wanted them to identify 210

themselves.
If one may assume that the Christology within the Apocalypse is carefully
considered by the author and accordingly referring to Christ by different titles or
designations deliberately in certain passages, Christ's functions in general may surely
be regarded as interconnected 211 Thus it should not be entirely ignored that the author
.
probably had certain intentions in mind by describing Christ as a Lamb in some cases,
while he gives a completely different report about Christ in other visions, like, for
instance, Christ's angelomorphic appearance in Apc 14 where he is attributed as an
eschatological judge. More insight might be gained by comparing Lamb Christology
and an angelomorphic Christology as provided in Apc 14:6-20, in order to demonstrate
a connection of the Lamb's functions and those of an angelomorphic Christ, and also to
find out about the author's intention for giving two obviously very contrasting
descriptions of Christ in his writing. It appears appropriate to compare those two
features at first where they contrast with one another. A comparison between Apc 14: 1-
5 and Apc 14:6-20 thus seemsthe best first approach, becausethe mention of the Lamb
and the description of Christ in angelic categories stand very close together.
At first, it has to be examined whether those two passageswith the different
Christology in opposition randomly or deliberately by the author.

concepts of were put
it should be examined whether the passage .-\pc 14: 1-5 is somehow

Accordingly,
209Cp. for this also KARRER: Christus, 105. However, an interpretation of the Lamb as daily offering
ignores the uniqueness of Christ's sacrifice. Cp. HOLTZ: Christologie, 46.
° for forthcoming by STUCKENBRUCK: Reuel 'on, 35.
`' Cp, this the commentary
101
-qq
connected to Apc 14:6-20, or whether it has an independentsourceor ideological

origin.
An analogy between these passagesis provided, though,
especially by the verses 12-11
because there the description of the harvest of the earth is interrupted,

and the text
centres unexpectedly on the community. This is very reminiscent of Apc 14:1-5.
Consequently, the meaning of verses 12-13 can hardly be interpreted detached frone
their relation to the very same community. In Apc 14:12 the reader or the Christian
community is directly exhorted to keep God's commandmentsand remain faithful to
Christ. The faithfulness is expressedby a call to endurance.212Such a feature seemsto
be specifically Christian as this kind of pacifism is rather unknown in Jewish material,
where armed revolts against oppression are more common. 213The imperative ypäi ov in
13 is it is following beatitude. 21' The

verse not given a single object, concerned with the
beatitude in verse 13 stresses the meaning of the warning provided in verse 12.21 The
seer receives his legitimation by having the beatitude mediated to him by the voice
heaven. This beatitude is (paränetisch) in 216All

coming out of paranetic character:
those facing a martyr's death in the eschatological prosecution shall be comforted. 217
The prophetic spirit confirms this beatitude with a promise of eschatological peace for
the martyrs, which may function as a deliberate counterpart to the eternal punishment218
of those worshipping the beast in Apc 13.219The reason for the peace of the martyrs
("their works follow them") being the eschatological reward may be explained on the
basis of tradition: Parallels for good works as a reason for a reward in the face of final
211Cp. also OEGEMA: Hoffnung, 114-123.

212Cp. further SCHOLTISSEK: "Mitteilhaber", 198-199 and LOHSE: Ethik, 120-121. See for this also
SMITH: "Revelation", 107-108.
213Cp. KRAYBILL: Cult, 201.
'W Cp. KRAFT: Offenbarung, 195.
15 Cp. also for the following passage: MÜLLER: Offenbarung, 268.
216Cp. MÜLLER: Messias. 190.
2" Cp. MÜLLER: Offenbarung, 268.
218The eternal punishment as depicted in Apc 14: 11 also has traditional backgrounds. since a similar
be found in I En. 10: 13 and 13:2.
? ortrait of such an eternal punishment can also
ý Cp. KRAFT: Offenbarung, 194-195.
102
-,am
judgement may also be found in early Jewish material. 220

such as 4 Ezra or also Pirke
Aboth 6:9-10. In both sourcesthe following of the works in

eschatologicaljudgement is
221 In the mishnaic
present. material the referenceto the works bears a positive meanin-
Knowledge of the Law and good works will accompanya man at his "departure".222In 4
Ezra we find more occurencesof the works: 4 Ezra 7:35 mentions good and evil
works
and their opposite manifestations in an eschatological reward; elsewhere in -1 Ecru the
works are only depicted in the positive way of referring to them as "treasure" which is
piled up in front of God (4 Ezra 7: 77)223or as a reason for eschatological reward (4
Ezra 8:33).224A parallel can also be found in Christian literature: In Apocalypse of
Peter 6 the deeds of humans stand separatelybefore those who performed them in final
judgement; here people will be punished or rewarded according to their deeds. Matthew
6: 19-20 can probably be interpreted in light 225

of such traditions.
Undoubtedly Apc 14: 12-13 originates from the author himself. The existence of
a beatitude in verse 13 adds special weight here, because beatitudes are a relatively
common feature in the entire writing and seven other beatitudes are integrated.
226
Accordingly, the beatitude in verse 13 should not be consideredas a gloss.
The description of the Lamb and its followers in Apc 14: 1-5 should be
interpreted as a deliberately chosen device of the author in order to underscore the
between the followers of the Lamb on the one side, and the followers of
confrontation
the beast on the other. 227 The ideas and images mentioned in Apc 14: 1-5 and 11-13
220See LOHSE: Ethik, 82: According to LOHSE the tradition of the good works being important in the
judgement is of Jewish origin; Mt 7: 2 and James 2: 13 also reflect on the
eschatological not specifically
food works and their significance.
Cp. for this Müller: Offenbarung, 269 and LOHMEYER: Offenbarung, 123: LOHMEYER regards the
"weighed" (Job 31: 6: Prov 16:2: -' 1:2.
idea of "following works" as a concept where the works are either
Ps 62: 9 or Dan 5: 27) or are "kept" (2 Bar. 14: 12: 4 Ezra 7: 77).
222Cp. for further parallels in rabbinic material STRACK/BILLERBECK: Offenbarung, 817.
223The reference to good works as treasure is also very reminiscent of Mt 6: 19: 12:35 and 19: 2 1.
224Cp. for this also AUNE: Revelation 6-16,839.
222See LOHMEYER: Offenbarung, 123.
in Revelation L: \\IBRECII f:
226Cp. AUNE: Revelation 6-10,798. For the use of beatitudes cp. also
"Exhortation". 276-278.
227Cp. for the discussion of antithetic imagery also HIRSCHBERG: Israel, 195-200.
101,
-mm
correspond to each other. Both passages distinctly refer to the "reception of the
name":
in Apc 14: 11 the reception of a name is related to the
name of the beast. in " ei-se 1, on
the other hand, the followers of the Lamb receive the name of the Father
and the Lamb
228
itself on the forehead. (Correspondingly, the author contrasts the "presence
of the
beast" in Apc 13: 14 with the "presence of the Lamb" in Apc 14: 11.2"1') Also
the
expression iapOevot suggestsa deliberate effort of the author to indicate the difference
of the two opposing groups: The napO&ot in Apc 14:4 have to be interpreted
metaphorically as the people of God who do not represent male people only but men
and women alike; the reference that they "have not polluted themselves with women"
indicates a refusal to participate in the Emperor Cult, as Babylon (=Rome)2 ° is depicted
in Apc 14: 8 (and in Apc 17:2.5). 231The author's use of the expressions
as whore also
drinking from her wine (Apc 14:8) and drinking from God's wine of wrath (Apc 14:10)
is constructed correspondingly. The varying status of both groups, i. e. followers of the
lamb and followers of the beast, is then consequently reflected in the coming
judgement: Those who venerate the beast have to anticipate the eternal punishment, the
followers of the Lamb may instead hope for the Lamb's protection and presence.
(The reference to the Lamb is not unproblematic here, since the parataxis by Kai
might infer equality between angels and Lamb. However, this reference to the Lamb
228 The reception of the name of "the Lamb and his Father" reveals an important feature of the
Lamb being the Son God. Cp. MATERA:
relationship between God and the Lamb, namely the of
Christology, 209.
229Cp. SWEET: Revelation, 227.
230An identification of Babylon as a symbol for Rome is confirmed by allusions in early Christian and
2 Bar. 67: 7: Or. Sib. 5: 143.159: 1 Petr 5: 13). Cp. further
Jewish writings after the Jewish war (e.g.
COURT: Myth, 142.
23! SCHÜSSLER FIORENZA: Offenbarung, 1 11 against the
' Cp. for a metaphorical use of nap9£voi
ideals for instance by BLACK: Origins, 84: BLACK considers a
understanding of an ascetic as assumed
in Essenic (See BÖCHER: Kirche, f l. ) SCHÜSSLER FIORENZA's
parallel motif as writings. similarly
is an ideal that the author of Revelation
arguments are rather striking. though, as celibacism not
faithful follo%%ers of Christ who do not
consequently praises. See for an understanding of napO %ut as the
SATAKE: Gemeindeordnung, 39-47 JOR\S: Evangelium. 124-125.
attend the Emperor Cult also and
Cp. similarly for RO\\ LAND: Revelation. 120.
a metaphorical understanding
104
-qm
might represent a gloss, probably inserted in order to establish

a parallelismm.s
232)
membrorum.
Further evidence for the theory that the author deliberatell, designed
antithetic
imagery233in the description of the different situation both groups
are about to face is
provided by the adoption of harvest metaphors in both reports. In Apc 11:15-19 the
judgement of the earth is portrayed as a twofold harvest of earth by the like

one a son of
man and angels. This harvest representsGod's judgement of the earth, though it might
not be very clear at first sight. There are good reasonsfor such an assumption: Initiall\
the announcement of a judgement to come in Apc 14:6-11 provides an obvious reason
for this interpretation of the harvest; especially the angel's declaration in verse 7 which
is repeated similarly in verse 15 as an announcement for judgement234 makes this
plausible. Also the vocabulary in Apc 14:19 should support the interpretation of the
harvest as God's judgement, becausethe sudden appearanceof a "great winepress of
God's wrath" can hardly be regarded as a device that is used in a normal harvesting
process. Indeed, whenever the metaphor of harvest occurs in the Hebrew Bible and in
early Jewish literature, it is closely associated with (if not a representation of)
eschatological judgement. 235Following the command to begin the wine harvest in verse
18, the remark concerning the treading of the great winepress of wrath is probably
influenced by the report about the final judgement in Jeremiah25:30.236
232Cp. SPITTA: Offenbarung, 149. See for a similar problem concerning Apc 6: 16 section 3.1.2.3.
233The author's device of describing the opposing groups and their leaders should preferably be labelled
as "anti-imagery" rather than "dualistic". The term anti-imagery or antithetical imagery expresses the
deliberate wish to display opposing ideas and groups in general. As FREY convincingly
author's
demonstrated, a classification of passages as "dualism" needs far more precision because different
dimensions of dualistic thoughts have to be distinguished. Cp. for the difinition of "dualism" FREY:
"Dualistic", 275-335, esp. 280-285 and CHARLES WORTH: "Dualism". 389-418.
234The assumption that Apc 14:7 and 14: 15 correspond here presupposes the unity of Apc 14:6-20.
In it have become before that the idea of a unit\ can hardly be neglected.
though. turn, should apparent
235The harvest metaphor for descriptions of judgement can, for instance. also he found in Isa 27: 12.4
Ezra 4: 28, ? Bar. 70: 2 or Joel 4: 12-13.
23 Cp. KRAFT: OfJenharung, 199.
Ios
The portrayal of the entire harvest in Apc 14: 15-20, though.
shows some
remarkable characteristics which might help to identify
a certain matrix as a background
for the seer's report. To begin with, it is to be
observed that the entire image given in
Apc 14: 15-20 portrays a twofold harvest

on earth, namely a harvest of grain (14-17) and
a harvest of wine (18-20). This twofold description of the harvest has led
to some
speculation on how the different phasesof the harvest are to be interpreted.
2.3.1. The Twofold Harvest and its Meaning for Christology
Before dealing further with the relationship between the

passagesApc 14:1-5
and 6-20, it is necessary to define the meaning of the twofold harvest. Some scholars
regard the doublet as two distinguishable situations of God's judgement, namely a
judgement of unbelievers on the one side, and the gathering the Christian believers
of
on the other. 237 A better explanation for the phenomenon of a twofold harvest has,
however, been overlooked, namely that it is an adaptation of the eschatological harvest
terminology from Joel 4: 12-13. In Joel 4: 13 a twofold harvest is also present without a
-
distinction of the meaning of the harvest. The harvest in this Hebrew Bible passage
refers to a total judgement 238

without salvation. Certain scholarshave tried to argue that
23' This
view is taken by HOLTZ: Christologie, 133-134, SCHÜSSLER FIORENZA: Judgement, 113-
114 and LOHMEYER: Offenbarung, 125-126. See for a brief outline of the problem of interpreting the
twofold harvest also BORING: Revelation, 170-172 and PRIGENT: Commentary, 45 1.
238 Cp. MOLLER: Offenbarung, 269-270, LOHSE: "Menschensohn", 85, YARBRO COLLINS
Apocalypse, 105, BEALE: Revelation, 772-776, CHARLES: Revelation II, 21-26 and FEKKES: Isaiah.
193. The description of the harvest as a twofold harvest of grain and wine seems to correspond to the X11-.
while the LXX describes a twofold wine harvest (cp. HOLTZ: Christologie, 133, n. 2). The assumption of
an Old Greek variant as the background for the version present in Apc 14 cannot be entirely excluded,
though. Cp. YARBRO COLLINS: "Tradition", 565. A rather unorthodox view on how the grain har,,est
can be interpreted is provided by SCHLATTER: Offenbarung, 232. SCHLATTER finds salvific and
juridical aspects in the description of Apc 14: 14-16: According to him, the scenario has to be regarded as
judgement for the followers of the beast and, at the same time, as salvation for the Christian community.
SCHLATTER might be right in his assumption as such, final judgement can indeed mean salvation for
the Christian community, becausejudgement coincides with the elimination of powers opposing God and
his community. SCHLATTER, though, formulates his arguments far too vaguely bý assuming the harvest
as a metaphorical harvest of sin and obedience. (By interpreting the harvest in such a metaphorical \%a\.
SCHLATTER also has to regard the vintage in a more positve N\ay, including salvific aspects. than the
106
the two different parts in the description of the harvest have two distinct
meanings.
namely that the grain harvest, in contrast to that of the wine, has to be considered as a
gathering of the faithful 239

people. Notably, the influence of Joel 4 on Apc 14 has
nowhere been denied. The interpretation that Apc 14 alludes to a gathering of the
faithful is based on the premise that the author deliberately interpreted the two
parts of
the harvest differently himself. A connection with Mark 13:27. for instance, has been
considered. This connection has been regarded as rather vague by scholarswho argue in
favour of a gathering of faithful Christians.240
A more elaborate concept of the twofold harvest, of which the grain harvest has
to be interpreted as salvation, has more recently been proposed by R. BAUCKHAM.
According to him, the vision of the harvest consists of the grain harvest (the harvest of
the world) and the grape harvest (vintage of the earth). BAUCKHAM rightfully
assumes that this narration is based on Joel 3: 13 (4: 13 MT). He then further concludes
that John saw more in this passage than just a twofold harvest of the wicked nations,
harvest harvest. `41 BAUCKHAM the grape harvest as a

namely grain and grape regards
rather negative image of God's judgement on the unrepentant nations. BAUCKHAM
produces much the same arguments as have been given in section 2.2.5. for the
argumentation for the unity of Apc 14: The "great wine press of the wrath of God"
echoes "the wine of wrath of her (=Babylon's) fornication" in Apc 14:8 and "the cup of
Cp. SCHLATTER: Offenbarung, 232-233. ) He also neglects distinct descriptions of

context would allow.
Christ with different meanings in the Apocalypse and, therfore, the possibility that Christ is described in
juridical terminology in Apc 14: 14-20, while his for salvation might rather be reflected in
significance
terms of a Lamb Christology, as will be discussed in sections 2.3. and 3. below.
239There is no homogenous interpretation concerning which part of the harvest has to be interpreted as a
REISNER: Buch, 140, the wine harvest as a gathering, while LOH\IEYER:
gathering, though. assumes
Offenbarung, 129, HOLTZ: Christologie, 133-134, SCHOSSLER FIORENZA: O>1C>>ilarung, 113-114
to be the is carried out by the
and BORNKAMM: "Komposition", 212, regard the gathering one which
like CAIRD, in both parts of the harvest as a gathering. (cp. CAIRD:
one a son of man. contrast, regards
Revelation, 191-192). See BORING: Revelation, 171-172. For a rather different approach on
similarly
interprets the double hancst in
how to interpret the harvest see HANSON: Lamb, 173-175: HANSON
li§ht of Jesus' crucifixion, the judgement for him is the judgement of the cross.
24 Cp. HOLTZ: Christologie, 134 and BORNKAMM: "Komposition", 212. n. 13.
241Cp. BAUCKHAM: Climax, 290. Cp. for the following discussion also BALCKHA\1 Theology. esp.
94-104.
107
the wine of wrath of God poured undiluted into the cup
of his anger". The use of very
similar terms leads BAUCKHAM to the correct (and mostly undisputed) '2
conclusion -
that the treading of the winepress can only be regarded
as God's judgement on the
243
nations.
However, in the case of the grain harvest, BAUCKHAM

attempts to argue
against a juridical character of this aspectof the harvest: He assumesinsteadthat

-
similar to the imagery of vintage - the image of the grain harvest has an antecedent,
namely the 144,000 who have been ransomedfrom humanity as first fruits (Apc
14:4). 244He concludes:
The first fruits were the first sheaf which was taken from the harvest
before the rest was reaped, and which was then offered to God
as a
sacrifice (Lev 23:9-14). The connection between the first fruits of 14:4
and the reaping of the whole harvest in 14:14-16 would be obvious to any
Jew, who was unlikely to be able to use the image of the first fruits
without implying a full harvest of which the first fruits are the token and
pledge (cf. Rom 8:23; 11:16; 16:5; 1 Cor 15:20,23; 16:15)."245
From here BAUCKHAM deduces that the martyrs, who are redeemed from all the
nations, are offered to God as the first fruits of all the nations. Accordingly, the image of
grain harvest had to be an image of gathering of the converted nations, not a negative
image of judgement. 246It is not surprising that BAUCKHAM regards Apc 14: 14-16 as a
242The proposal by REISNER: Buch, 40 seems not convincing at all regarding the vocabulary and
allusions used in Apc 14.
243Cp. BAUCKHAM: Climax, 291.
244Cp. BAUCKHAM: Climax, 291: BAUCKHAM argues that the phrase concerning the first fruits in
Apc 14:4 recalls Apc 5:9. But instead of the Lamb ransoming people from ever', nation by sacrificing
itself in Apc 5, the followers of the Lamb are now to be a sacrifice themselves in Apc 14.
245 BAUCKHAM: Climax, 291-292. Cp. also CAIRD: Revelation, 191-195, esp. 194 for the same
CAIRD ýýw8£v is in analog) to Jesus'
argument. adds the argument that the term rr; ;T6?, rw, used
Accordingly the death "outside the city" bears a salvific aspect for CAIRD. The major
crucifixion.
is the traditional background of this description of the place for Cod's
weakness of this argument, though,
judgement: The same location is, for instance, given in the I "orlage in Joel 4.
46Cp. BALCKHAM: Climax, 292-293.
los
gathering, which he attempts to establish by an interpretation of martyrs as first fruits.
thus interpreting the grain harvest as a gathering in a universal sense: It is

one of
BAUCKHAM's central concepts for interpreting the entire Book of Revelation that the
focus of John is his interest to convert the nations.247Indeed, BAUCKH. AM managesto
put some strong arguments forward in order to make his concept of a "Conversion of
Nations", i. e. the gathering of all nations into God's kingdom, appear plausible in Apc
14: He argues that the grain harvest is described in a rather limited sense as reaping
only. In contrast, the harvest of grapes consists of two actions, the gathering of grapes
and the treading of the winepress. These latter actions are made even more explicit in
the Apocalypse, as they correspond with the gathering of the kings of the earth and their
armies in Apc 16: 12-24 and the judgement of the nations in 19: 15.248For the vintage, in
turn, no corresponding action is present, though it could - according to BAUCKHAM -
have been easily added, if the author had wished to convey a juridical message here as
well. Threshing and winnowing, though, are absent in the vintage. If the author wanted
to make a juridical statement here, he could have mentioned threshing (as in Jer 51: 33.
Mic 4: 12-13; Hab 3: 12; Mt 3: 12; Lk 3: 17) or the chaff of the harvest being blown away
in
(as for instance Ps 1:4; 35: 5; Isa 17:13; 29: 5; Dan 2: 35; Hos 13:3; Mt 3: 12; Lk 3: 17).
Alternatively, judgement could have been symbolised by the gathering of the grain into
burned (as in Mt 3: 12; 13:30; Lk 3: 17).

the barns, while the weed or the chaff are
Because of the absence of any of these possible additions, BAUCKHAM concludes that
deliberately did the message of Apc 14: 14-16 to be understood as

the author not want
judgement. 249 In line his of the "Conversion of the Nations".

negative with concept
247Cp. for this aspect BAUCKAHM: Climax (Chapter on The Conversion of Nations), 238- 337 and also
Theology, 80-108.
248Cp. BAUCKHAM: Apc 19: 15 Apc 14: 19 and explains the identity of the one
Climax. 293: echoes
Cp. BAUCKHAM: Theology, 96.
treading the winepress in Apc 14:20. also
his
249Cp. BAUCKHAM: Climax, 293-294 and Theology, 96-97. (BAUCKHAM numbers arguments
his the first fruits as being the
different in both given references and takes statement concerning
slightly harvest a gathering
in favour of regarding the grain as
harvest of all nations into account as an argument
as well. )
109
-M
BAUCKHAM emphasisesthat reaping as such is not a image judgement250

natural of
(with the exception of Hos 6: 11), but would rather be the
positive image of bringinì
into God's kingdom. 251
people
As another argument in favour of the grain harvest having

a positive meaning.
BAUCKHAM points out that this part of the harvest is conducted by the one like a son
of man. The fact that the grain harvest is performed by a more prominent figure, namely
Christ, and not simply by an angel, also leads BAUCKHAM to the conclusion that this
part of the harvest must have a positive meaning: Christ is receiving the nations into his
kingdom, as also in his Vorlage in Daniel 7: 13-14 the Son of Man receives "dominion
and glory and kingship over all peoples, nations and 252
languages".
At first glance, BAUCKHAM's arguments in favour of the concept of
converting the nations are indeed striking. A considerablenumber of argumentscan be
mustered, though, that call into question BAUCKHAM's interpretation:
1) Both reports concerning the harvesting of the earth, the harvest of grain in
Apc 14: 14-16 and the vintage in Apc 14: 17-20, allude to Joel 3: 13 (4: 13 MT). This
passage in the Hebrew Bible deals only with a situation of judgement; nothing here
this harvest 253The Apc

points to a salvific aspect within process. correspondence of
14: 14-16 with Apc 14: 17-19 and the parallel structure with Joel 4: 13254(where no hint
for the assumed gathering is given), and also the distinct character of Apc 14:15 as an
250A possibility of regarding negative elements to be present in the grain harvest exists. though: The
has the fire be considered to be reminiscent of the fire into which the weeds
angel who power over can
(=evil ones) are thrown. Cp. for this idea VOS: Traditions, 146-152 and YARBRO COLLINS:
"Tradition", 563.
25' As for instance in Mk 4: 22 and John 4: 35.38. Cp. BAUCKHAM: Climax. 293-294 and Theology. 96-
97.
252Cp. BAUCKHAM: Climax, 294 and Theology, 97-98. See for a similar list of arguments in favor of a
interpretation of the grain harvest also ALINE: Revelation 6-16,802-803.
positive
5' Cp. AUNE: Revelation 6-16,802 and BEALE: Revelation, 774.
2c4Cp. also SÖDING: "Lamm", 98 n. 42: The tradition-historical background of Joel 4 (and also / En.
9)
48: excludes the possibility of a gathering of faithful people.
110
I-M
announcement for judgement, leave little doubt that the twofold harvest does
not
describe a gathering in one of its parts, but rather a total judgement.255
2) Furthermore, the actual harvest in Apc 14:15-19 is only described

very
briefly. In verse 16 E9cpic9i ii yf is shortly announced. In verse 19 the description is
slightly more detailed; depicting the harvest of wine and the throwing of the grapesinto
the winepress of wrath. The more explicit portrayal of the harvest of wine in
comparison to the rather briefly mentioned grain harvest can be explained by the fact
"daß den Schlußversen aus rein formalen Gründen eine größere Breite des Ausdrucks
256This rather tightly formulated account concerning the entire harvest in

zukommt".
Apc 14: 14-20 can once more be attributed to the author. The seer might deliberately
have given a vague description in Apc 14, whereas the more detailed account is still to
come in Apc 19: 11-21. Accordingly, the account in Apc 14 can be interpreted as a
to 257
visionary anticipation of circumstancesstill come.
3) The instrument which is used for the harvest is a "sharp sickle" (SpEitavov
ob). The identical tool is used in both parts of the harvest, Apc 14: 14 and 17, which
indicates that not gathering, but rather punishment and judgement are in the author's
here.258
view
'Ocv
4) The phrase 11 'ö xx 6Epiaat ("the hour for harvest has come") in Apc
11
("the hour judgement has

14: 15 clearly corresponds with fXAEv ij üpa tTq Kpi6F-coq of
in Apc 14: 7. This connection strongly hints at a juridical character of the grain
come")
harvest as well. 259
5) The harvest of either grain, grapes or olives is commonly used as a metaphor
for instance in Isaiah 17:5; 18:4-5: 24: 13; Jeremiah 51: '3:
for divine judgement, as

756MÜLLER: Messias, 193.
"' Cp. MÜLLER: Oflenbarumg, 270 and BORNKAMM: "Komposition". 210-222. The assumption of a
be doubted, though. Cp. MÜLLER: 1fessias, 193.
anticipation in Apc 14 can also ,
visionary
258Cp. ALINE: Re've'lation6-16.802 and 842.
ýq
Hosea 6: 11; Joel 3: 13 (4: 13 MT); Micah 4: 12-13; Matthew 13:24-30,36-43; `lark
4:29:
4 Ezra 4:28-32; 2 Baruch 70:20. Occasionally. part of the harvest

might admittedly
have a salvific character, as the threshing floor in Matthew- 3: 11-12. Ho«
ever, the
harvest as preserved in Joel 3: 13 (4: 13 MT) was also
understood negatively (i. e. as
judgement), which can be seen in a traditional Jewish exegesis

of the Joel passage in
Midrash Psalm 8: 1.260
6) An interpretation of the grain harvest as a gathering is problematic. despite
the fact that a salvific character of the harvesting action (or at least a part of such an
occurence) can be present in other Christian literature, such as Mark 13:26-27 (=Mt
23: 30-31); 1 Thessalonians 4: 16-17; 2 Thessalonians 2: 1. A literary connection between
Apc 14: 14-16 and Mark 13:26-27 cannot be proven satisfyingly 261and the topic of this
kind of gathering is otherwise strikingly absent from Revelation. A passagethat seems
to deal with the parousia of Christ in Revelation is Apc 19: 11-21, but here we only
encounter a scenario describing an eschatological war, not some kind of gathering.
Moreover, the martyrs in heaven in Apc 7: 9-17 are there because they died, not because
262
they were gathered. Thus the event of a gathering is never depicted; only the
God's fait be in the Apocalypse.263

reunification of people as a accomplit may seen
In conclusion, the assumption of a gathering of the faithful in Apc 14 is hardly
convincing. A positive meaning of the vision of these two harvests cannot be deduced in
view of the massive arguments that indicate an eschatological judgement only. The
twofold harvest is therefore best understood as a more hendiadys-like vision of
judgement eradicating earth, root and branch.
259Cp. MÜLLER: Messias, 194, BEALE: Revelation, 774 and ALINE: Revelation 6-16.802.
260Cp. AUNE: Revelation 6-16,802 and 843.
261Cp. VAN SCHAIK: ""AXXo; ", 224. Against VOS: Traditions, X. See for the weaknesses of the
14 YARBRO COLLINS: "Tradition". 5621-567.
assumption of Gospel influences on Apc also
112
2.3.2. Harvest Metaphors and Antithetical Imagery in Apc 14: 1-20
It should be emphasisedthat, crucially, the

entire portrayal of the harvest aims
for a description of a total annihilation
of those who worship the beast. In contrast to
this, a further harvest metaphor can be found in Apc 14: 1-5,

namely the description of
the followers of the Lamb as "first fruits" in verse 5. Here, the

assumption of a gathering
- as considered by some scholars for the account on a twofold harvest in Apc 14: 15-17
-
seems to be more justified. 264The followers of the Lamb are depicted
as being relatively
safe, because they are "purchased from among men"265 in contrast to those
- who
worship the beast.
Apc 14:1-5 also provides another minor detail deserving

attention, which
supports the assumption of some kind of deliberate "anti-image" to chapter 13. Not only
is a clear distinction between the followers

of the beast and those of the Lamb stressed;
in addition, the different "terrain" on which the leaders
of the two opposing groups are
standing may be relevant. The Lamb is referred to as standing on a mountain (tcYT6 uni
'co'opo; ) in Apc 14: 1, namely Mount Zion. In contrast, the beast is described as "coming
out of the sea" in Apc 13: 1. If one can assume that this automatically implies that the
beast is possibly standing on sand (which seems rather natural on the shores of the sea)
and the Lamb is standing on a rock (Mount Zion), the author might wish to express
another contrast between beast and Lamb here. This assumption is even more likely if it
is also taken into account here that the dragon is already discribed as standing on the
262Apc 7:4-8, though,

could be construed as a gathering, but it shares no motifs with texts as I Thess
4: 16-17. Cp. AUNE: Revelation 6-16,802
263As for instance in Apc 14: 1-5
or symbolically in Apc 21: 12. Cp. AUNE: Revelation 6-16,802.
264Cp. BARKER: Revelation, 242
and YARBRO COLLINS: "Tradition", 565.
265For this
reason the assumption made by BARR: Tales, 130, that the vocabulary of grain and ww Inc
could represent a metaphorical allusion to the last supper does not seem cons incing. Such a metaphorical
explanation is rather out of the question, because soteriological aspects can hardly be derived from a
scene that definitely describes a total judgement. Cp. also KRAFT: Ofj'enharung. 195-146: Wine and
grain might at first sight be reminiscent of last supper, but this association has to be disproved, because
grapes and grain, or bread and wine respectively. are basic and elementary food.
beach in the previous verse (Apc 12: 18). This inauguration
of the Vision is therefore part
of the major antithetical imagery the author attempts to display. Subsequently, this
distinction of the "fundament" of the two leaders might be the

author's device to depict
a weakness of the beast and its followers, as they are just standing on sand. while the
Lamb itself and the followers are gathering on the rock. 266Maybe the
author had fit
7: 24-29 in mind and alluded to this passage. which his readers would have
easily
267
recognised.
It is not just the image of building a house on sand (or on rock, respectively) that
has to be considered as a parable for wrong or right leadership (as in the gospel
tradition), naturally featuring the rock as image for stable leadershipand the sand for an
unstable leadership. It is also the other vocabulary, as for instance the forces of nature
(winds and water), directed against the two different houses (parallel to the various
forces of nature directed against people dwelling on earth in the Apocalypse) that
confirm an assumption of an allusion to Matthew 7: 24-29. Similarly the "great fall" (Mt
7: 27) of the man building on sand (paralleled for instance in Apc 14:8 and the fall of
Babylon) can be interpreted as reflecting such an allusion. Admittedly, the passagein
Apc 13 does only imply that the beast is walking on sand (or on the beach). 268The anti-
image that can be seen in Apc 13 and 14 consists of the Sea (as a symbol for Chaos and
Mount Zion (a for God's kingdom). 269

evil) and symbol presence and
The assumption of anti-imagery in Ape 13 and 14 in order to accomplish a clear
distinction between followers of the Lamb and the worshippers of the beast finds further
though. The the sign of Lamb or beast respectively is a clear

support, acceptanceof
266Simultaneously, the dragon's position by the sea might be alluded to in Apc 21: 1 where the sea is no
in to the New Jerusalem. Cp. also MCEWAN HUMPHREY: Cities, 110.
more contrast
267Cp. for this idea also SCHÜSSLER FIORENZA: Judgement, 181-186 and \1OUNCE: Revelation.
264.
268The previous report in Apc 12: 18, though, seems to confirm this assumption, as has been mentioned.
269Cp. for instance STEVENSON: Power. 295-296.
114
-M
means of keeping a sharp distinction between the two groups.270One might also assume
that the reaction of the crowds towards their respective religious leadersdiffers: In Apc
14:3 the followers of the Lamb sing the "new song", which
probably expresses
confidence in their leader. In Apc 13:3, on the other hand. the people wonder
about the
beast. The different groups are contrastedby their characteristicsas
well: The followers
of the Lamb are shown in a way that stressestheir faithfulness and integrity, for "no lie
is found in their mouth" and they are "without fault" (Apc 14:5). As a contrast, -upc 13
:
depicts deceit and duplicity by which the beast leads its followers astray (Apc 13:8.14)
and influences the people to disobey God's commands (Apc 13: 14).271
More evidence for an anti-imagery between the two passages is provided by
SCHUSSLER FIORENZA, who stresses the importance of the actions of the elected
ones in Apc 14: 1-5, which is a decision made by the elected during their lives. The
"consistent resistance" (vno tovi) of the elected, as depicted in Apc 13: 10, which is
reflected again correspondingly in Apc 14: 12-13. is a precondition that has to be made
voluntarily in order to recieve the eschatological salvation (i. e. being with the Lamb on
Mount Zion). The worshippers of the beast, on the other hand, are threatened with
eternal punishment (Apc 14: 11). The author probably wishes to accentuate not only the
differences between the followers of the beast and the followers of the Lamb, but also
the fact that a deliberate decision has to be in

made one's lifetime in order to belong to
272
the Lamb. This strategic function of Apc 14:1-5 is not only achieved by contrasting
by its interpretation in
the two groups in Apc 13 and 14, but it is also made clear explicit
Apc 14:4-5 (the followers of the Lamb are described as "first fruits"). the corresponding
270For a sociological survey on different groups in Revelation see YARBRO COLLINS: "Outsiders".
187-218.
'" Cp. ROWLAND: Revelation, 120.
272Cp. SCHÜSSLER FIORENZA: Judgement, 187-192.
III
Imm
angelic proclamations in Apc 14:6-11, and the warnings

and blessings in Apc 14: 1?-
13.273
The Lamb and the beast are contrasted with one

another in order to show the
superiority of the Lamb. Both Lamb and beast share a throne: While the Lamb shares
the throne with God (Apc 3:21; 22: 1-3 and in a modified description also in Apc >), the
beast shares the throne with Satan (Apc 13:14). Furthermore, the description
of the
deadly wound of one of the beast's heads as Ec payi voS in Apc 13:4 is
v er},
reminiscent of the wounded Lamb in Apc 5: 6 and may reflect the resurrection of Christ.
Nero 274The remaining appearance of Lamb and beast might

alluding to the redivivus.
be regarded as a contrast as well, becausein both descriptions the horns and eyes are
mentioned. The numbers of horns (and maybe of the eyes as well) seem to be relevant.
in order to enhancethe power attributed to the Lamb.275
Thus it is obvious that Christ is present amongst his followers (i. e. the Christian
community) in the form of a Lamb; whilst in the following scenario, where he functions
as a judge, he is given an angelomorphic shape. The community of Christians
recognises Christ as their saviour and redeemer. As a logical consequence, the
community on the one hand regards Christ as the Lamb, and on the other. the
worshippers of the beast cannot see Christ as a Lamb, because they are unable to
recognise Christ's importance and his status as redeemer. Accordingly the author
describes Christ in his function of an eschatologicaljudge as one like a son of man (in
angelomorphic categories); he is regarded as the judge who brings total havoc and
destruction.276 This image is achieved by the harvest metaphors in Apc 14. The
followers of the Lamb are already redeemed and brought to God as first fruits. The
273Cp. SCHÜSSLER FIORENZA: Judgement, 189 and HAYS: Vision, 179.

'" Cp. SCHÜSSLER FIORENZA: Offenbarung, 106. Notably, the same Greek term has been used in
both instances for describing the wound.
275Cp. for a full discussion of the appearance of Lamb and beast interferences in
and the possibility of
those descriptions KRAFT: Offenbarung, 110.
116
followers of the beast, though, are threatenedby a forthcoming twofold harvest, ision
a'
of total judgement and elimination.
These two different descriptions of Christ are probably set by the

up author in
to
order reflect the different views of Christ as they seemconsistentfor followers of the
beast and followers of Christ: The vision of Christ as a Lamb and its meaning as
redeemercan only be by
understood the Christian community, while the followers of
the beast will only perceive Christ as a judge in form of the one like a son of man.
COMBLIN: Christ. 56-61. In

276For the focus on the one like a son of man as a juridical figure see
is the Cp. COMBLIN: Christ, 3! - 4.
contrast, the Lamb the shepherdof community.
117
3. Lamb Christology in Relation to Angelomorphic
Christology
3.1. Christological Aspects in Ape 4-5?
At first sight it might be peculiar to take the throne

room `vision provided in :\pc
4: 1-11 into consideration in dealing
with a christological question. In addition, by
treating this passage as a contiguous counterpart to Apc 5: 1-14,1

one finds that both
chapters are inextricably linked: 2 they share the setting of the heavenly throne-room,
where first God (Apc 4) and later the Lamb (Apc 5) are worshipped under similar
3
conditions. The vision of worshipping elders and living beings in Apc 4: 4-8 and Apc
5: 14 establishes an inclusio, which further supports the Apc 4: 1-5: 14. '
unity of
However, one can state even more. It is indeed for christological

reasons that both
throne-room visions should be treated together, becausethe relationship between God
and the Lamb is reflected here. E. SCHÜSSLER FIORENZA explains Apc 4: 1-5: 14 on
the basis of the central theological question: "Who is the true sovereign of the world? ". 5
The throne-room vision already gives an answer to this question. According to John, the
true ruler is God, who is described in Apc 4 as sitting on the heavenly throne and
receiving the worship of heavenly beings and the 24 elders. In Apc 5, though, it is also
the Lamb which receives worship by angels and elders; the Lamb does in fact even
seem to share God's throne (Apc 5:6). If the Lamb is therefore put on par with God in
this respect, as we can assume here, the importance of a joint examination of Apc 4
along with Apc 5 becomes more obvious. The Lamb and God are thus of analogous
See for instance KNIGHT: Revelation, 58: KNIGHT mainly focuses on the shared throne-room topic in
chapters 4 and 5 in order to link them together.
2 The in Apc 4 the the Lamb in Apc 5. This fact alone does actually prop ide
vision presupposes vision of
enough reason to regard both chapters as connected and, therefore, Apc 4: 1-5: 14 should be examined
together. Cp. MÜLLER: Offenbarung, 150. See further MOUNCE: Revelation, 116-117 (though without
reasons given). See for the connection of Apc 4 5
and also LAMBRECHT: "Structuration". 90-91.
3 Cp. STUCKENBRUCK: Revelation, 33 and HOHNJEC: Lamm, 36.
4 Cp. SLATER: Community, 173.
118
significance for the author. This is at first glance carried through in
the transference of
expressions from one chapter to the other. The christological impetus

of Apc 5 evok es
out of the preceding vision of God sitting in his throne-room in Apc 4: The "seven
spirits of God" which are presented in visible form as "seven flaming torches" in
.-upc
4: 5, for instance, become a physical feature
attributed to Christ, who has "seven horns
and seven eyes which are the seven spirits of God" in Apc 5: 6.6 Accordingly, this
example encourages us to take a closer look at why both God and the Lamb are placed
together in the parallel visions, and in what ways the Lamb Christology has
acquired a
particular importance.
3.1.1. Christological Aspects in Ape 4
The vision of God in Apc 4 consists of four narrative sections, namely the ascent
of John to heaven (Apc 4: 1-2a), a description of God's throne-room (Apc 4: 2b-6a), a
description of those who surround God's throne (Apc 4: 6b-8a), and the heavenly
worship of God (Apc 4: 8b-11). 7 Even before contrasting these different parts of the
vision with Apc 5, it is possible to encounter christological evidence by observations
based solely on Apc 4: The report concerning John's ascent to heaven features a detail
that arouses attention for the christological concept of the Apocalypse. The ascent as
is
such mediated by "the first voice which I heard speaking with me as a trumpet" (11
Tj npwirl l1v ijxov(Ta Obsg

cpwvTJ thXiriyyos) in Apc 4: 1. This phrase is very reminiscent of
the phrase "I heard a loud voice as a trumpet" (r'jxovßa gxovr v ji yäXiiv äc
...
ß&Xmtyyoq) used in Ape 1: 10. The "loud voice" in the opening vision of the Apocalypse
s See also for the following SCHÜSSLER FIORENZA: Offenbarung. 79-84.

6 Cp. STUCKENBRUCK: Revelation, 33-34.
7 The division basically follows the one provided by KRAFT: Offenbarung. 94-102. Apc 4: 1-2a has
given
to be excluded from the actual vision of the throne-room, though, because this ascent is not part of the
vision as such, but rather an introduction. For a similar sub-division of Apc 4: 1-2a see also
119
is most likely attributed to Christ.8 Subsequently.
the voice in Apc 4: 1 has to be
interpreted as Christ's voice as well. ' It
may be argued that verse 1b represents an
editiorial verse of the author; it is possibly integrated in order to link the

vision starting,
in Apc 4 to Ape 1:9-20.10But regardlessof the
question of whether or not this ,-ersehas
to be interpreted as a redactional gloss, in its present form

verse 1 preserves an image of
Christ that overlaps with that of an angelus interpres. 11The

portrait of Christ in chapters
4-5 is thus twofold: on the one hand, in Ape 4: 1b Christ is

perceived by John as an
angelic mediator, while on the other hand he is envisioned as a Lamb in Apc 5. The
Lamb is, in turn, superior to angels since he is powerful enough to

open the seals of the
book (Apc 5: 5; 6: 1); the same cannot be achieved by the angels (Apc 5: 2-3, including
"the strong angel"). The Lamb is, in addition, also included in the worship of God (Apc
5: 9-14). This varied representation of Christ like the angelomorphic Christ in Apc
-
14: 14-20 - might be the result of the author's wish to communicate his ideas to a
readership which has a certain affinity for angels. By portraying Christ in this way.
while drawing on an angelology with which his readers were well acquainted, the author
could emphasise that Christ be 12

must regarded as more than simply an angel.
Another reason for this twofold description of Christ in chapters 4-5 might be
the concept of different perspectives when Christ is perceived: The author might have
wished to convey the idea that Christ can only be seen as a Lamb by his followers in
STUCKENBRUCK: Revelation, 31. For a more complex division of the entire chapter see AUNE:
Revelation 1-5,274-275.
8 Cp. for instance BOUSSET: Offenbarung, 243.
9 There seems to be little doubt that Christ is the speaking subject in Apc 1: 10-11. AUNE attempts to
provide a counterargument for relating the voice in Apc 1: 10 to Christ. He considers instead the existence
of a "second voice" in Apc 1: 17-20 which is referring to Christ. Apc 1: 10 is for him nothing but a voice
of an interpreting angel. ALINE concedes that his argument has the weakness that two different speakers
cannot be distinguished on basis of Apc 1:9-20. Cp. for this AUNE: Revelation 1-5,282. The "first voice"
can, in turn, not be related to any other subject than Christ, as Apc 1: 12 makes clear: In verse 12 John
turns around to see the origin of the voice and seesthe one like a son of man e. (i. Christ) speaking to him.
10See for this theory for instance AUNE: Revelation 1-5,282.
" See also Apc 17: 1: 21: 9-10; 22: 1.6.8 and the similar throne visions in I En.. 71:5-10: 2 En. 20: 3-22: 3.
Ape. Abr. 15:2-18: 14 and 3 En. 1:6-12. Cp. for this STUCKENBRUCK: Revelation, 31-32.
12 Cp. for this STUCKENBRUCK: Revelation, 31-32 and Veneration, 272. Cp. also KARRER:
Johannesoffenbarung, 169-186.
120
heaven. The seer, therefore, perceives Christ in a
more angelomorphic way while he is
still on earth - accordingly the designation of Christ as a Lamb is absentin chapters 1-3.
In heaven, after his ascent in Apc 4: 1, he can then see Christ in his
true shape.namely
as the Lamb which is the saviour. This concept would cope with the observationsmade
above (in section 2.3. ) concerning the different portraits of Christ in Apc 14: 1-5 and 6-
20 as well as with the conclusions of different perspectiveswith analogousdesignations
for Christ.
After the ascentto heaven13John visualises the throne-room14and the one

sitting
on the throne. The description provided of God, though, is rather brief. The form or
appearanceof God himself is not commented on; the description takes place instead
through an analogy to precious stones and their colours.15In contrast to the author's
apparent reluctance to provide a report or vision of God's 6

appearance' and careful
13It is
noteworthy that John introduces the ascent with the remark of the door opening in heaven. The
phrase as such reminds of Ezek 1:1, but in this passage the open door is not mentioned; it is the heaven
opening in this Hebrew Bible passage. John follows this passage later in Apc 19: 11. In Apc 4 John
therefore seems to employ some kind of technical terminology. A similar use of language can, for
instance, be observed in the Ethiopic version of Asc. Isa. 6: 9 where the narrator hears that a door is
opened in heaven. Cp. GRUENWALD: Mysticism, 63.
This vision of the throne-room is probably rooted in the concept of Jewish Merkavah Mysticism. See
for this concept and the possibility of Merkavah Mysticism in Apc 4 also GRUENWALD. Mysticism, 42-
69, AUNE: Revelation 1-5,278-279 and HALPERIN: Chariot, passim. Notably this vision in Apc 4 is a
first person singular report of heavenly ascent, which otherwise in New Testament literature is only
present in 2 Cor 12: 1-10. Probably the vision in Ezek 28, which also features a first person singular
report, has influenced the scenario of the heavenly ascent in Apc 4. Cp. KNIGHT: Revelation, 59. For the
influence of Jewish scriptures on Apc 4 see also STUCKENBRUCK: Revelation, 32, HANNAH:
"Vision", 80-81. Cp. also ESKOLA: Messiah, 212-213. However, ESKOLA emphasises the influences of
Ezekiel too much, nearly neglecting the influences of Isa 6 or other passageson this vision in Revelation.
15Cp. KNIGHT: Revelation, 59.
16Cp. CAIRD: Revelation, 63, GRUENWALD: Mysticism, 64, MOUNCE: Revelation. 120 and also
MÜLLER: Offenbarung, 83 and 144: A vision of God might result in death (cp. Gen 32: 21; Judg 6: 22-23 :
13:22; Dan 10:5-6). Accordingly even John falls down like being dead in Apc 1: 17. This reluctance of
depicting God can also be seen in Apc. Abr. 16:3. Cp. KNIGHT: Revelation, 59. The sight of God
that John had to describe God
elsewhere (Isa 6: 5) causes the seer awe, which provides another reason,
in terms light. Cp. KRAFT: Offenbarung, 96. Cp. for the avoidance of
only of shimmering and shining
isms in Apc 4 also HALPERIN: Chariot, 89: An even stricter attempt of avoiding any
anthropomorph
description God for instance be seen in the Targum to Ezek 2: 9-10. John avoids
anthropomorphic of can
God's in Apc 4: 2 moving away from the I "orlage Ezek 1:26-28. Such
speculations concerning appearance
be in the Apc. 4br. 18 less anthropomorphisms are employed. Cp. for
a trend might continued , where even
this ROWLAND: Heaven, 84-87.
121
-44
avoidance of anthropomorphic '7

categories. the author does not hesitate to ý-,
i
.ea
detailed report about Christ's appearance (as for instance in Ape 1: 12-16
or even Apc
5: 6). The author almost gives the impression that he is

attempting to compensate for his
reluctance in describing God by providing even more detailed images of Christ.
Remarkably, the author even draws on vocabulary and traditions that

normally refer to
18
God. Christ therefore becomes a visible image of God.' 9 In chapters 4 and 5a
good
example for God becoming a more visible aspect as Christ is preserved: The seven
torches in front of God's throne which representGod's seven spirits in Apc 4:5 become
physically manifested and embodied in the Lamb's seveneyes and horns in Apc 5:6.
After the opening of the vision, the subsequent sections of Apc 4 seem to
confirm that the author is attempting to describe Christ in a more detailed manner than
God himself. God is regarded as unapproachably powerful; however, Christ is the
protagonist and donator of salvific gifts20 on the one hand, and the figure which carries
the judgement the 21Within Apc 4 do not find any other

out eschatological on other. we
ideas of christological concerns as such, though. Only God himself is mentioned in
" One might only find references to God's hand in Apc 5: 7 and his voice coming from the throne in
16: 17, which indicates a certain amount of indirectness, avoiding to attribute God's voice in a direct
anthropomorphic way. Cp. BAUCKHAM: Theology, 42-43.
18Christ's appearance in Apc 1: 12-16, for instance, features a visible voice as in Ex 20: 18, head and hair
being white as in Dan 7: 9 (cp. also GOLDINGAY: Daniel, 165.), or the seven stars in the right hand,
which might resemble an epiphanical feature of God (cp. KRAFT: Offenbarung, 46. ). Cp. for this AUNE:
Revelation 1-5,90-100, MÜLLER: Offenbarung, 84, MATERA: Christology, 205-206 and KRAFT:
Offenbarung, 45-47. Further descriptions of Christ also reflect attributes given to God in the Apoclaypse
itself: The description of God in Apc 1:8 is mirrored by Christ being attributed "the first and the last" in
Apc 1: 18. Cp. KRAFT: Offenbarung, 48. The terminology of Apc 1:8 describing God as "the one who is
be regarded as a re-interpretation of Ex 3: 14. Cp. for this
and who was and who will come" should
SODING: "Lamm", 78-82.
20The description of Christ as the bringer of salvific gifts compromises VOLLENWEIDER's categories
for distinguishing God from angels: VOLLENWEIDER regards salvation as one of the aspects for a clear
distinction of God from any angels. Cp. VOLLENWEIDER: "Monotheismus", 30: God is regarded as
responsible for distributing salvific gifts, though angels might be instructed to perform acts of salàtion.
In the vision in Apc 4 and 5, however, it becomes is hý Christ (wwho is
obvious that salvation performed
in Apocalypse). A general and clear-cut distinction
also depicted angelomorphic terminology within the
as considered here by VOLLENWEIDER seems too strict as Christ is the one who actively performs acts
of salvation. Cp. for this also BACKHAUS: "Vision", 46.
21 Cp. for this consideration also BACKHAUS: "Vision", 46: BACKH, \US identifies Christ as the
because he is in drama, %%hile God, though
protagonist of Revelation, the acting person the apocal-,ptical
being described as very powerful, does not move or act.
122
chapter 4: 2-11: In verse 2 he is described as "sitting on the throne",22 followed by
a
vague portrait that depicts God in terms of coloured precious stones.23Christologically
this colour scheme seemsto be rather irrelevant: God's description as resembling jasper
and carnelian does not correspond with the colours given in the descriptions of Christ in
Apc 1: 13-16 and Apc 14: 14. The dominant colours there are white
and gold: the
elements of Christ's description, though, derive from theophanies and angelophanies.
The 24 elders in Apc 4: 4 are described in the same colour scheme as Christ (also having
white garments and golden crowns). Therefore, the author might have wished to
distinguish God clearly from any angelic categoriesthat Christ or the elders share.`'
The throne of God (verse 3) is surrounded by a rainbow, a feature which occurs
again in the angelophany in Apc 10: 1.25 Since the possibility of a christological
interpretation of the strong angel in Apc 10 has been sufficiently eliminated (see section
2.2.8. ), a christological concern can therefore not be deduced from the description of the
22The expression "the one sitting on the throne" is used representative for God's name itself, cp. HOLTZ:
"Apokalypse", 256-257.
23The colours John uses are a combination which can also be found in the Hebrew Bible (Ezek 28: 13)
and classical literature (Plato: Phaidon II Oc-d). This combination of colours, though, can probably not be
interpreted as certain aspects of God's character: Such an attempt would neither acknowledge the
mytsical nature of the given vision, nor would cope it with the reluctance to describe God in human terms
elsewhere. Cp. also KNIGHT: Revelation, 59, KRAFT: Offenbarung, 96 and similarly MOUNCE:
Revelation, 120-121. For an attempt of interpreting the precious stones see GLONNER: Bildersprache,
176-178: GLONNER interprets the stones as a visible display for God's invisible reign. His attempt to
identify the colour scheme red and green as a representation of Egyptian religious symbols, ascribing the
judging God in Apc 4 the elements of fertility (represented by green, ascribed to Uto in Egyptian religion)
Chaos (represented by red, the colour of Seth). Such a connection between ancient Egyptian religion
and
and John's writing can barely be established.
24The use of precious stones in describing God's throne is not a completely unknown concept: In the
Even in the angelophany in Dan 10: 5-6
throne-vision in Ezek 1:26-28 precious stones are also mentioned.
be but the of the stones in the vision of God in Apc 4 cannot be
precious stones might encountered, colour
here. Notably, though, the precious stones from this vision can later be seen in the
explained satifactory
description of the heavenly Jerusalem in Apc 21: 11-19. Cp. AUNE: Revelation 1-5,285. Cp. further
THOMPSON: Revelation, 50-51 86. See SATAKE: Gemeindeordnung, 150 for a possible
and
background the 24 (According to MICHL the elders have to be interpreted as
astrological of elders.
figures from the Hebrew Bible, cp. MICHL:. ältesten, 92-116. ) SATAKE, though. considers
transformed
like I Chr 25: 9-31 in the background of Apc 4 more likely. An angelic
the possibility of a tradition
identity for the 24 elders cannot be due to the attributes theN are described with. Cp. MOL'NCE:
excluded
Revelation, 121-122. It is noteworthy that the elders do occasinally take over the part of an angelus
interpres (Apc 5: 5: 7: 13). Cp. also SATAKE: Gemeindeordnung, 147.
25Cp. ROWLAND: Heavcir. 102.
I:
26
rainbow surrounding the throne. The rainbow emphasisesthe
power attributed to
27
God, and functions as a device that
stresses the image of God as the focus of
concentric circles surrounding him. The circles are made up by the rainbow, then the
living creatures (verse 6), followed by the 24 thrones

with the 24 elders sitting on them
(verse 4). 28This same image is later expanded in Apc 5: 6,
where the Lamb is then also
integrated into the centre of the concentric circles, surroundedby 29

angels.
Further images obviously increase the emphasiswhich John
wants to ascribe to
God by a display of overwhelming power. For instance John describeslightning,
voices
and thunder as emanating from the throne (Apc 4: 5), an image that is reminiscent of the
plague tradition from Exodus 9: 2330 and 28 and of Exodus 19: 16-17 and might already
allude to a forthcoming judgement.31 The Sea of Glass adds to the description of an
overwhelmingly powerful setting in God's Temple.
More evidence of God's power is reflected by the heavenly worship. The 24
elders and four living creatures worship (Apc 4: 8-11) and praise God as the one "who
was and who is and is the One who comes" (verse 8) and also as the "creator of all
is 33
things"32 who worthy of praise for this reason (verse 11). In a way that is
26The rainbow is
an element known from the throne vision in Ezek 1:27-28. This allusion can similarly
be found in 4Q405 20-22 col. i 10-11. Cp. ALINE: Revelation 1-5,285. Cp. for Ezek 1:27-28 as i'orlage
also HALPERIN: Chariot, 89 and ESKOLA: Messiah, 212.
27 Cp. GLONNER: Bildersprache, 179-180, MICHL: Engelvorstellungen, 20-23 and RENGSTORF:
tpt;, 341: The rainbow emphasises God's glory according to the Vorlage in Ezek 1:27-28. Similarly, the
angel in Apc. Abr. 11:3 is described as rather important by the image of a rainbow surrounding his head.
It is possible that the author of Revelation wished to convey information concerning God's size (and thus
also express power, namely by an enormous size). Cp. for this idea also GUNDRY: "Angelomorphic".
664, n. 11 and LENSKI: Revelation, 312.
28Apc 5: 11 (and 7: 11) this impression, as a host of angels is also surrounding God's throne,
complement
which by this description apparently becomes the immobile centre of the cosmos. Cp. AUNE: Revelation
1-5,286 and similarly STUCKENBRUCK: Revelation, 32. Cp. also SATAKE: Gemeindeordnung, 144-
145, HALPERIN: Chariot, 88-93, CHARLES: Revelation 1,115-116 and GLONNER: Bildersprache.
176. A similar description of God occurs in 1 En. 14:8-25 where God - depicted as extremely bright - is
by Cherubim his heavenly hosts. The tradition from Ezek I and 10 is probably in the
surrounded and
background here as well. Cp. DAVIDSON: Angels, 315.
"' Cp. HENGEL: Christology, 150-151, KRETSCHMAR: Offenbarung, 35. BAUCKH, A%I: Theology. 13,
and God, 62.
30Cp. GLONNER: Bildersprache, 180-181.
31Cp. BAUCKHAM: Climax, 202-203.
32 The notion of God as creator can be interpreted as a criterion which unmistakably differentiates God
from angels. Cp. VOLLENWEIDER: "Monotheismus". 29: VOLLENWEIDER regards creation as God's
124
reminiscent of the connection between Apc 1:4.8 and 1: 17-18. Apc 4: 8
might be taken
to imply a certain parity between God and Christ. 34 The phraseolo,,

y applied to both
God (Apc 1:4.8; 4: 8) and Christ (Apc 1: 17) may

provide evidence - though not very
transparent - of an angelomorphic Christology: The designation of God as "the ho

one ww
is and who was and who comes" is most likely a deliberate circumscription for God's
name corresponding with his name in Exodus 3: 14.35In Exodus 23: 21. however, God's
name is also linked with that of an angel; in this Hebrew Bible passageGod's name is
attested to be "in" the angel36 indicating that God was present by having his name dwell
in this particular angel. 37 Early Jewish writings, such as Exodus Rabbah 32: 4 or h.
Sanhedrin 38b, reflect on the power that is attributed to this particular angel in Exodus
23: 21: In Exodus Rabbah 32: 4 the angel apparently has the power of forgiving sins.38In
b. Sanhhedrin 38b the angel is even sensedto be a threat towards monotheism as such
because the angel (named Metatron here) might possibly even be found worthy of
distinct own privilege - with very few exceptions of angelic presence during creation (cp. for the topic of
assistance during creation also FOSSUM: Name, 21 1-213 for evidence). VOLLENWEIDER's argument
is probably correct. It does, however, not seem adequate to regard the designation of God as creator as an
explicit distinction of God and angels in case of Apc 4: 11.
33The acclamation that God is
worthy of praise and also the address "Our Lord and God" as the response
to the trishagion in Apc 4: 8 probably reflects the customs of the Roman imperial cult. God is declared
worthy of praise because he is the creator of all things. As the creator God is ruler, which reflects political
and religious terminology. Cp. for this THOMPSON: Revelation, 58.
34The expression "who was and is is the One who comes" is reminiscent of Apc 1:4.8. Cp. for
who and
instance STUCKENBRUCK: Revelation, 32-33. Cp. for the correspondence between 1:4.8 and 1: 17-18
also KRAFT: Offenbarung, 48. See for the similarities of the expressions pointing at a parity between
God and Lamb also MATERA: Christology, 205. Cp. also MCDONOUGH: YHWH, 220-222:
MCDONOUGH argues in favour of a clear distinction between God and Christ, though. It is questionable
whether a distinction is so obviously clear here. Surely, the author of Revelation wishes to stress
identification of God and Christ in phrases that are as similar as the tri-partite formulas more than he
wishes to emphasise differences.
35Cp. KRAFT: Offenbarung, 31. Cp. also JÖRNS: Evangelium, 26-28 and LE DEAUT: Pascale, 335. A
use of the Dreizeitenformel corresponding to Ex 3: 14 seems to fit best in the theological concept of the
author of the Apocalypse. It might be complemented here that according to Ex 3: 14 the last sequence of
the Dreizeitenformel has been in Apc 4: 8; instead of a form of "to be" (for instance 6
slightly changed
eaöµevog) the author used 6a pxö.t vo;. This might be an intentional change in order to point at the
eschatological coming of God. See for this similarly JÖRNS: Evangelium, 27 and HOLTZ:
"Apokalypse", 247-248. Remarkably, parallels of the Dreizeitenformel applied to gods with three forms
be found in Christian literature, for instance in Pausanias (Descr. X, 12) or Plutarch (De
of eivai can non
Iside 9). Cp. AGOURIDIS: Alrox-aivyr77,82.
36 See for the concept of God's in Ex 23: 21 NEEF: "Ich", 54-75 and
name and the angel
VOLLENWE1DER: "Monotheismus", 28-29.
31See for the discussion of Erod Rab. 32 also SEGAL: Powers. 71-73.
125
39 If
worship. we may assume that the author of the Apocalypse was aware of hoch
Exodus traditions and the mentioned discussions concerning this

angel from Exodus 23.
it seems possible that Apc 1:4.8,4: 8 and Apc 1: 17 do not only

refer to the equivalence
God Christ. 40It is

of and also possible to infer an angelomorphic aspect of Christolo`gv
in these designations. The reference in Apc 1: 17 and Apc 19: 12 1would then
mean that
the author regards Christ as the angel mentioned in Exodus 23:21.
Further christologically important observations can only be inferred by
comparing Apc 4 with Apc 5. On its own Apc 4 does not allow for further conclusions
concerning the Christology of the Revelation. The above discussion, however, confirms
the impression that although God is described as all-powerful, God is at the same time
not the one who acts. The role of God in Apc 4 is rather limited and passive. God sits on
the throne and receives worship, and the doxologies referring to God's actions in the
focus be 42 What God is doing in the present or

past on what can now seen as results.
is
what anticipated that God will do has yet to be seen.
3.1.2. Christological Aspects in Apc 5
3.1.2.1. The Significance of the Lamb
Since the Lamb is mentioned in Apc 5 alongside God it is only logical that even
material is conveyed in the following vision in Apc 5. Accordingly.

more christological
insight into John's concept may be gained by observations of Apc 5

more christological
" See for a full discussion literature and the implications STUCKENBRUCK:
of the midrashic
1'eneration, 68-72. See also SEGAL: Powers, 68-71.
40Cp. for this also SEGAL: Powers, 212: "The process of transferring divine names and titles to Jesus is
the Revelation John where the identification of the Christ with the
especially characteristic of of
" SEGAL Apc 22: 11-13 as an example here.
tetragrammaton is even more obvious. quotes
41Cp. for this GIESCHEN: Angelomorphic, 253.
126
alone, but also by the comparison of chapters 4 and 5. Such a
comparison would
moreover reveal additional information for the understandingof the relationship God
of
and Christ, and therefore for the Christology of the entire Revelation.
The vision in Apc 5 basically consists of three main

elements: The Problem of
opening the sealed Scroll (Apc 5: 1-5), Christ being comissioned as the Lamb (Apc 5: 6-
7), and the Worship of the Lamb alongside God (Apc 5: 8-14). 43 It is
not only the
sequences concerning the Lamb, though, as one might expect, which are christologically
relevant. Interesting features that help to gain insight into the author's christological
concept may already be found in the introductory verses.
The passagethat deals with the problem of the scroll which can apparently not
easily be opened already hints at a discrepancy between God's rule in heaven and the
execution of his plans concerning the world as his creation. The description of the scroll
suggeststhat God needs a mediator to have the scroll opened and the sealsconcealing it
broken. It is not considered that God might open the scroll himself. ` 4 The opening of the
to
vision seems confirm - as we have already assumed - that God is depicted in a rather
passive way again. God is depicted rather briefly in Apc 5; he is holding the scroll in his
right hand (5: 1) until the Lamb takes it from him (5: 7). Similar to Apc 4 God is
worshipped (alongside the Lamb) at the end of chapter 5. In contrast to God, the figure
who can and will open the seal appearsto be described in more detail. As it is the Lamb
who is worthy to open the seals, Christ (as the Lamb) is portrayed as having the
necessary qualifications to do so, thus emphasising his importance and his dignity. The
impression of a deliberate description that stresses Christ's importance can be
confirmed by investigating the other features concerning the scroll and its opening in
42Cp. for God's passivity in Apc 4 BORING: "Christology", 707-718. BORING regards the reason
also
for God (or Christ in other passages) being passive as a matter of the Apocalypse's narrativity. i.e.
alternating narrative levels.
'` Cp. for this division STUCKENBRUCK: Revelation, 34-36.
44Cp. AUNE: Revelation 1-5,347 Revelation, 34.
and STUCKENBRUCK:
127
Ape 5: 1-5: The vocabulary used for the
scroll throughout Ape 5 is zö ßß3Xioa,. In spe
10:2 the strong angel is also depicted with book,

a though the vocabulary there differs:
it is a 1t1A,ocpi&ov,i. e. the grammatical diminutive

version of a book, which the angel is
holding. Possibly the author wished to express increasedimportance
an of the Lamb:4
it is the Lamb and not the angel from
chapter 10 which reveals the eschatological
prophecy. Therefore, the ßtp3dov might be an intended enhancement the ßtpkWi

of tov
that the angel is holding. 46
The Lamb also seems to be superior to

angels, as the angel asking who is worthy
of opening the scroll in Apc 5: 2 is obviously not worthy to open the scroll 47
The entire liturgical scene in 5: 2 has the sole purpose indicating

of that no one except
for the Lamb can actually open the scroll. 48The inability
of any other being to open the
scroll is further reflected in verse 3: no one "in heaven or under the earth" can open the
scroll. Possibly the author wishes to emphasisethat it is exclusively the Lamb's power
to open the scrol149in order to avoid any angelic speculationsconcerning the Lamb. In
the Hebrew Bible and early Jewish writings often angels were described being
prosecutors and keepers of the heavenly books for judgement that contained knowledge
of human behaviour 50In Apc 5: 2-3, though, the author emphasises that no one else, not
.
even an angel, can open the scroll. Not only is the superiority of the Lamb therefore
expressed, but also the affiliation of the Lamb with angels is explicitly excluded.
as It is
rather conspicuous that the strong and tall angel from Apc 10 is holding the smaller scroll, while
the Lamb, a figure that one would assume to be rather small, holds the "bigger" scroll. One might ask
whether this rather ironic description represents a deliberate paradox.
46Cp. BERGMEIER: "Buchrolle", 241.
47See for the importance
of this angel in Apc 5: 2 also BERGMEIER: "Buchrolle", 241.
48 Cp. for this
also KRAFT: Offenbarung, 105 and MÜLLER: Offenbarung, 154. The presence of the
angel in Apc 5: 2 has probably to be explained exclusively by his function: His only purpose is to ask the
of who is worthy to open the scroll. Cp. MULLER: "Ratsversammlung". 256-257.
aquestion
The vision in Apc 5: 1-5 probably follows a scheme similar to I Kgs 22: 19-22; Isa 6: 1-10; Dan 7:9-14:
Three points may be considered to reflect such a traditional scheme, namely A) The question to those
present in the vision, B) the apory of those present and C) the answering for the question and the
investment of a figure worthy of a certain task. Cp. for this MÜLLER: "Ratsversammlung". 251-267.
50Evidence for the prosecuting angels having scrolls or books with the deeds of humans can for instance
be seen in Dan 7: 10 or J En. 89: 61-90: 22. Cp. for this also SCHA FER: Rivalitkif. 30-3 1.
I 2s
The scroll is representative of a vision judgement. but unlike other passages,
of
dealing with a scroll or a book in judgement,

such as 1 Enoch 90: 17-20. Daniel 7:9-10
or 4Q530 col. ii 7-8 where the books are immediately opened,'' in Apc 5 the Lamb is
just taking the scroll; the scroll remains sealed untill Apc 6: 1. The fact
that John is
weeping in Ape 5: 4 might hint at the delay in opening the scroll. In contrast to 1 Enoch
47:3-4 where the holies rejoice over the immediate opening of the book, in Apc 5:4 the
opening of the is
scroll obviously delayed, and the reaction of the seer is consequently
expressed as weeping. Accordingly, the vision in Apc 4-5 should be interpreted as
unfolding a judgement scenario, but it does not contain a vision of judgement as such.
Judgement is prepared in this part of Revelation, the actual judgement starts taking
place in the following chapter (Apc 6: 1) with the breaking 52

of the seals.
Another detail that stresses the importance and worthiness of the Lamb is the
saying made by one of the elders in Apc 5: 5, where Christ - before being introduced as
the Lamb - is addressed as the Lion of the tribe of Judah53 and the root of David in
verse 5. The messianic expectation which is expressed here seems to be deliberately
The lion becomes lamb.54 These designations attributed to

reversed: strong a slain
Christ recall Hebrew Bible and Jewish messianic traditions which anticipate the coming
of a political messiah who will act in favour of Israel by conquering and triumphing
Israel's judging its 55 The language

over enemies and opponents. political and religious
S' See for 4Q530 col. ii 7-8 and the proximity and differences with Dan 7: 9-10 STUCKENBRUCK:
Giants, 119-123.
52Cp. similarly JÖRNS: Evangelium, 39-40.
53The author expresses some interest in the tribe of Judah again in Apc 7:5, where he mentions this tribe
as the first one. Cp. also JORNS: Evangelium, 49 n. 134.
saSee also SLATER: Community, 167.
5SThe designations of Christ in Apc 5: 5 are analogous to Hebrew Bible passages, such as Gen 49: 9 and
Isa 11: 1, or Jewish literature (e.g. Pss. Sol. 17: 1-42; 4Q285 5 4; 4Q252 col. v 3-4 and 4Q161 col. iii 18).
Cp. for this STUCKENBRUCK: Revelation, 34, HORBURY: Christians, 133, SCHUSSLER
FIORENZA: Priester, 271-272 AUNE: Revelation 5: 1-5,350-351. Cp. for the frequent useage and
and
the importance of the "Shoot of David" and traditions from Gen 49 and Is II also LICHTENBERGER:
Qumranic the "Shoot of David"
"Messianic", 9-20, and OEGEMA: "Expectations", 53-82: In writings
he is by "Teacher of the Torah" (7T Tn'
will not come alone, though, accompanied an eschatological
11 (4Q174) and in Blessings (4Q252). (cp" for this
rV11i) in 4QFlorilegium 4QPatriarchal
LICHTENBERGER: "Messianic", 11-12.) In 4Qplsae (4Q161) Isa 11.1-5 is quoted and interpreted as the
129
of Apc 5: 5 by which Christ is alluded to here also emphasises the important
role he is
56Notably, John
playing. changed the tradition from Isaiah 11: 1.10: He
reinterprets the
root of Jesse to the root of David. Thus, the Lamb determines

what constitutes the
lineage of David, David does not in turn constitute Jesus' importance.ý'
The same
tradition is ascribed to Christ again in Apc 22: 16, but there it is

connected with Christ
being attributed as "the Morning Star". 58The identification

of Christ as the Lion is also
reminiscent of the description of the mighty angel roaring like a lion in Apc 10:3. As
demonstrated in section 2.2.8., though, this similarity does

not provide enough evidence
for the assumption that the angel in chapter 10 should be identified

as Christ. The author
also uses the term c, iEp for the description of the angel's voice. Accordingly he is
probably using an analogy in Apc 10:3 which just expresses a certain similarity and can
therefore be interpreted as a device of circumlocution.
A similar kind of circumlocution can also be seenin Apc 5:6 where the Lamb is
finally introduced.59 Here the Lamb is described as "standing in the middle of the
throne", amongst the four living beings and the elders, and also "as if it was
slaughtered" (Eßiixöc EGTcc7µevov).The use of the circumlocution cif kc xxyµ voS
hints at Christ's salvific death though the cross is not mentioned60 and represents a
- -
Shoot of David's rise in the end of days, when God will support him with the Torah, a throne of glor,,. a
holy crown and coloured robes. (cp. OEGEMA: "Expectations", 56-57. ) Also in Blessings I QSb (1 Q2 8b)
col. 's ii 22-v 29 associations with Gen 49: 9-10 referring to the lion and Isa 11:2 can be discerned. (cp.
OEGEMA: "Expectations", 58-59. ) Cp. for this also PARK: Offenbarung, 165-170, SCHIMANOWSKI:
Liturgie, 197-203 and BAUCKHAM: Climax, 180-182 and 214. Cp. for the significance of David as
mediator and messianic figure also DAVIS: "Agents", 484, HORBURY: Messianism, 50 and CASEY:
God, 42-43. A messianic figure represented by a lion can also be found in -t Ezra 12:31-32. Cp. also
CHARLES WORTH: "Christology", 244.
56Cp. THOMPSON: Revelation, 58. See similarly ESKOLA: tlessiah. 213.
;
57Cp.
also KARRER: "Stärken", 406.
58The to Christ as "the Morning Star" might resemble an allusion to another passage from the
reference
Hebrew Bible with a messianic meaning, namely the star of Jacob in Num 24: 17. See for this %1:\LIN: 1:
Revelation, 249 and MOORE: "Jesus", 82-91. Cp. also BEALE: Revelation, 1146. See for the meaning of
Christ as "the Morning Star" further BOLL: Offenbarung, 48.
60A theology of the cross, though, is not present in the Apocalypse: The cross itself is not dealt with or
interpreted. It is mentioned in Apc 11:8 for describing a place. The death of Jesus is relevant
as a cipher
is
for John, the cross not. Cp. KARRER: "Stärken", 406 and Johannesoffenharung. , 10-311
.
130
typical device in 61
the seer's visions. There is little doubt that the
term 67cpayµwvvoc
refers to Christ's sacrificial 62

death. John's focus, though. is not
on the crucifixion as a
historic event; the outcome of Jesus' death has
cosmological importance for two
reasons: (1) The fact that the Lamb is characterisedas slaughteredexplains why it has
the power to open the scroll; the Lamb is worthy and therefore has an exalted
position.
because it has overcome (Apc 5: 5) and has redeemed the
people by its blood. Its
sacrificial death - depicted as being slaughteredin the vision of the throne room in Apc
563- denoted the redemption by its blood.64(2) In addition, Jesus' violent death marks a
starting point for understanding his own death and the conflicts in the world. 65 This
description of Jesus' death is modelled after the tradition of the Passover Lamb
according to Exodus 12 (and to some extent also Isa 66

53: 7). The salvific effect of the
lamb's blood, though, does not consist in the forgiving of sins in the Exodus story, but
rather in the preservation of God's people from death commissioned by a revenging
angel of death following the tradition in Exodus 12.67One might raise the question here
whether the narrative in the Apocalypse is following the Exodus tradition.
3.1.2.2. Christ as the Passover Lamb from Exodus
A number of features throughout Revelation seem to correspond to Exodus 1?: The
connection of lamb and Passover, a salvific effect of the lamb's blood and the
61Cp. KARRER: "Stärken", 407.

62 The term ýi payµtvoS probaly reflects Jesus' death on the cross, cp. KNIGHT: Revelation, 63 and
SODING: "Lamm", 89-90.
63See also Apc 5: 12; 13:8.
64See for instance BACKHAUS: "Vision", 47.
65Cp. also STUCKENBRUCK: Revelation, 35. Cp. further STUCKENBRUCK: "Setting", 29-30.
66 Cp for instance AUNE: Revelation 1-5,353. LE DEAUT: Pascale. 333, COMBLIN: Christ, 22-, 1.
"Lamm", 89 BAUCKHAM: God, 61-62. According to SCHÜSSLER FIORI NZ, 1 a
SODING: and
between the Lamb the from Isa 53 is not tier\ probable, because unlike
connection and suffering servant .
9Eoü in the Apocalypse.
the expression SobkoS the expression 6cpviovnever occurs with the extension TA
Cp. for this SCHÜSSLER FIORENZA: Priester, 268-269.
6 Cp. similarly PITTMAN: "Angel". 25.
1? 1
punishment of God's (and his people's) opponents from Exodus 12
may possibly be
reflected within the settings of the Apocalypse.
The concept of Christ as a passover lamb is

generally not unknown in NT or
early Christian literature, as can for instance be seenin 1 Corinthians 5:7.1 Peter 1:19'''
or Justin Martyr's writing (Dial. 111:3). In the Gospel of John.

especially, this
connection between Christ and Passoveris made very explicit: Christ is designated
as
"the Lamb of Godi69 in the Gospel of John 1:29 and 36.70Further, as is
well known, the
passion narrative is altered by John in a way that Christ (in John 19: 14) is crucified
exactly at the time of the Passoverlamb's in

slaughter the temple (on 14 Nisan).7' This
feature of Christ representing the PassoverLamb is also present in Revelation. Here it
consists of two visible features, namely the description of a Passover Lamb and the
politically motivated feature of the lion. This combination is not entirely unique in
Christian literature. The Lamb is portrayed in the political terminology describing it as
lion (and hinting at an understanding of a political Messiah) and in sacrificial terms.
Such a combination can also be found in Testament of Joseph 19:8-9, where a similar
is depicted. 72 5 provides the earliest known

twofold messianic figure As Apc
68 For the possibility of a connection between John's Lamb Christology and Pauline and Post-Pauline
traditions see SCHÜSSLER FIORENZA: "Apokalypsis", 123-124. See also MÜLLER:
Theologiegeschichte, 46 and HOLTZ: Christologie, 44-47.
69The vocabulary for the "Lamb" in Joh differs from Revelation though: In Joh the lamb is labelled as
&[Mö not öpviov as in the Apocalypse. In Joh the äµv65 receives the additional attribute Tob 9eob which
is not present in the Apocalypse (cp. also the next footnote). Cp. for the different words used for the
Lamb and a messianic interpretation d SCHÜSSLER FIORENZA: Judgement, 96,
of pviov also
YARBRO COLLINS: Apocalypse, 40, SÖDING: "Lamm", 88-89, FREY: "Verhältnis", 346, GUTHRIE.
"Christology", 404-405, KARRER: Christus, 105, KALMS: Stur:, 240-241. HEINZE:
Johannesapokalypse, 241-289 (esp. 271-289), BÖCHER: "Verhältnis", 293-295 and Kirche, 3. The
6pviov, is feature Revelation. In other NT literature it can only be found in
expression though, a unique of
Joh 21: 15 with an ecclesiological meaning. Cp. SÖDING: "Lamm", 88 n. 22. See also PARK:
Offenbarung, 74-84.
70 The expression is most likely pre-johanine material. Cp. BECKER: Johannes 1-10,96-97 and
SCHUSSLER FIORENZA: Judgement, 96.
71 Cp for this AUNE: Revelation 1-5,353 and BECKER: Johannesevangelium 11-21.686. Cp. for
Passover and Exodus traditions in Joh LE DEAUT: Pascale, 324-332.
72Cp. GUTHRIE: "Christology", 400-401. GUTHRIE. however, Test. Jos. 19:8-9 to be an earls
assumes
Christian is b\ KOCH: "Lamm". 87-88. (cp.
Jewish apocalyptic influence. Similarly, a redaction rejected
is Christian
further BÖCHER: Kirche, 40-4 1.) It seems rather obvious, though, that this given passage of
95. Cp. KUGLER: Patriarchs. 2l and 11- 38
origin. Cp. SCHÜSSLER FIORENZA: Judgement, also -25
Test. Jos. in See for Christian influences in
for Christian influence and the dating concerning the general.
I2
combination of both of these messianic terms applied to
one single messiah it is ver%
probable that this representsa creative achievementof Revelation's 71

author.
The description of Christ as a lion has to be
regarded as an attribution of
messianic kingship to the Lamb; 74similar parallels for such a political designation for a
ruler can (for instance) be found in Deuteronomy 33: 20-22 for Gad
and Daniel or I
Maccabees 3: 4 for Judas Maccabeus. 75Simultaneously, the
portrait as Lamb could hint
at a political character of this messianic figure as well: The Lamb could be understood
as an apocalyptic ram figure, as in 1 Enoch 89:45-48, a scene from the Animal
Apocalypse, where David and Solomon are depicted as

sheep prior to their crowning
and then 76
as rams after their enthronement.
Despite this political analogy, the interpretation of the Lamb as the Passover
Lamb is the favourable explanation, as the meaning of the Lamb's bloodshedding

as
redemption is also explained. Also, the portrait of Christ by two very different aspects
(Lamb and lion) is metaphorically very sharp,77 and therefore rather seems to indicate
two different messianic concepts attributed to Christ:78 He is a political and a
soteriological figure at the same time and not just a political figure described in
metaphors that basically 79

exclude each other.
the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs also DE JONGE: "Influence", 193-246. See for the Christian
influence on Test. Jos. 19: 1-7 KUGLER: Patriarchs, 83: "In an allusion to Jesus, Joseph reports a vision
in which the twelve tribes, symbolized by deer, are attacked and dispersed, but are delivered by a
combative lamb, born of a virgin of Judah (19: 1-5). " The combination of Jesus' birth narration and his
depiction as a Lamb (as in the Apocalypse) are evident here. Cp. also JEREMIAS: "Lamm". 216-219 and
MÜLLER: Offenbarung, 161.
73Cp. JOHNS: Lamb. See PITTMAN: "Angel", 24.
similarly
74Cp. SÖDING: "Lamm", 112.
75 Cp. ESKOLA: Messiah, 214
n. 190. In apocalyptic literature the lion may as well represent certain
figures or groups who punish Israel, as for instance 1 En. 89: 55-66. Cp. TILLER: Commentari". 32-36.
Such an identification can however not be applied in case of Apc 5, because no proper juridical aspect is
attributed to the lion here.
76Cp. ESKOLA: Messiah, 213-214. Cp. also TILLER: Commentary, 310-314 and SWE F 1: Revelation.
124.
77Cp.
similarly HAYS: J'ision, 174.
78 Against ESKOLA:. 1lessiah, 214, who argues that the theo characters in Apc 5: 5-6 are not sharply
contrasted.
"' Cp. also HOHNJEC: Lamm. 39-40.
133,
-
Through the Lamb's (i. e. Christ's) death, the people
of God are enabled to
struggle against a world of evil powers (Apc 5: 9-10; 14: 1-5; 19: 1-10), With the outcome
that they are saved from the threatening nations. Revelation reflects on the tradition of
the Passover night as a kind of rebirth of God's people in the events of the Exodus.8°
The resulting event of redemption apparently takes place, respectively, in Exodus 12
and Apc 5: 9 by the Lamb's slaughter and the shedding of its blood. The soteriological
aspects in both passages are then quite analogous and might even support the hypothesis
of Christ's different descriptions being dependent on the view of varying circles: For the
believers God provides salvation in both passages (by eliminating the opposing forces)
and is therefore perceived as a just redeemer who is with his people; whereas from the
perspective of the opponents God is a fearsome destroyer, though his true intention is
not understood.
3.1.2.3. The Description of Christ as a Function of Perspective
is by his followers. 8' In heaven he is seen

In Revelation, Christ understood only
the Lamb (Apc 5: 6-14), as he is by his true followers who are

as and redeemer
him Mount Zion (Apc 14: 1-5). At the same time, however. Christ is
assembled with on
judge by those who oppose God (as seen in Apc 14: 14-
perceived as the angelomorphic
20 or 19:11-21). Admittedly, that the descriptions of Christ are a

an assumption
different (i. by his followers understanding who Christ

consequence of perceptions e.
do his and true powver)82has

really is and by his opponents who not realise purpose
80Cp. SÖDITIG: "Lamm". 89.

81See for a similar consideration HOLTZ: Christologie, 31.
first the four horsemen)
R-See for a similar concept of changing perspectives (related to Apc 6 and the of
389. TAEGER distinguishes the different
TAEGER: "Hell", 369-389, especially his conclusion
6: 2: To inhabitants of the earth, the first
horseman in Apc the
perspectives concerning the victorious "servants of God"
horsemen (Apc 6: 3-8) while the true
horseman has a darker appearance than the other interesting tix
light TAEGER's consideration is especially
perceive him as a figure resembling the side.
1-,4
some weaknesses: (1) If Christ is perceived as a judge by those who oppose him. it is
rather strange that John regards him as an angelomorphic judge in Apc 1:7-20. It
could
be argued, though, that John himself is still standing
on earth and has - due to a rather
unrevealed and blurred vision of Christ - still a dubious perception, and thus considers
Christ to be a more juridical figure. The seer's perception then drastically

changesafter
his ascent (Apc 4: 1) in Apc 5: 6 when he sees Christ as the Lamb. (2) In Apc 6: 16
the
Christ is perceived as a Lamb by the opposing kings of the

earth. This assertion,
however, is not straightforward. For example, one could argue that this
verse might be
considered a redactional addition to the text, since the role of the Lamb as a judge and
the mentioning of its wrath are rather uncommon themes in the Apocalypse. 83 Also, a
textcritical problem occurs for Apc 6: 17 that might support the view of a direct link
between verse 16 and verse 17, thus supporting the assumption of a redactional
addition: Apc 6: 16 refers to the kings of the earth hiding "from the face of the one
sitting on the throne and the wrath of the Lamb" (ätö npoßwmov toü KaOTJµhvovEni
toi Opövov xat äitö 'TIS öpyflS tiov (Xpviov). In Apc 6: 17 several textcritical witnesses
(X, C and 1611) refer to the wrath of God and the Lamb in the plural form (r 6p'yijg
ai 'ui v). Some other witnesses (namely A, T?, bo

sams, and Prim) offer another variant
(aviov), referring to the wrath of God only. This variant with the singular form avioü
would be a continuation of verse 16, connecting verses 16 and 17.84 Accordingly, the
wrath of the Lamb in verse 16 could then indeed be interpreted as a redactional change.
X
However, two major witnesses, and C, indicate that the text featuring the plural form
is better 85More weight is added to the notion of regarding aüt ö' as

aüic3v supported.
the first horseman. (cp.

this discussion, as he does not totally exclude a christological understanding of
TAEGER: "Hell", 380. )
R' Cp. for this argument AUNE: Revelation 6-16,420-421. For bibliographical evidence of a rather
peaceful role of the Lamb cp. CHARLES: Revelation 1.182-183.
166 AUNE: Revelation 6-16,420. Notably AUNE takes the Variant %%lth
Cp. MÜLLER: 4k'ssias, and
,
the singular form wrrob for granted.
R`See for the textcritical evidence also AUNE: Revelation 6-16,386.
the original reading by the use of Isaiah tradition: Maybe the
author formed a
parallelismus membrorum as in Isaiah 2: 10.19.21; 13: 1386

and therefore refers to God
and the Lamb in Apc 6: 16.87 In any case it is noteworthy that

although John refers to
God's wrath in other passages (11: 18; 14: 10: 16: 19; 19: 15). he
only refers to God's (and
not the Lamb's) wrath, possibly reflecting the author's standard description. "R The
mentioning of the Lamb, in turn, seems to be rather clumsy, as the wrath of the Lamb is
89
not portrayed elsewhere. The twofold mentioning of the wrath in verses 16 and 17
might therefore be doublet.90

a
Apparently, not all doubts for either solution can be eliminated entirely; in any
case,the fact that the Lamb is perceived by the kings of the earth remains disturbing for
a hypothesis that strictly relates descriptions of Christ to different aspects for the
different perceivers. If we assume that the author was careful and fully aware of his use
of traditions, it to
seemssensible ascribe the mention of the Lamb's in
wrath Apc 16:16
to the author following the tradition from Isaiah 2 and 13. And as the Lamb is the
central figure in this chapter, one might well consider the option that the reference to the
Lamb originates from the author. 91
86 Cp. JORNS: Evangelium, 96: The expression "hide from the face of the one sitting on the throne
...
because the day of his wrath has come" is well known in the Hebrew Bible, for instance in Hos 10: 8; Joel
2: 11; Nah 1:6; Zeph 1: 14-15 and Mal 3: 2. In Apc 6 the expression receives a christological importance by
the addition of the Lamb's wrath instead of referring to God.
87 See also STUCKENBRUCK: Revelation, 41-42: " The reference to them has resulted from the
introduction of a statement about Christ into the second half of Isaiah 2: 10 (LXX- "from the fear of the
from his "the Lord" is applied to God on the
Lord and the glory of strength"), while the meaning of
throne. " Cp. also MÜLLER: Offenbarung, 175.
88Cp. MÜLLER: Offenbarung, 175. However, MÜLLER's assumption that the variant only referring to
God's wrath offers the lectio diffrcilior is inconsistent, because he considers the version u ith the singular
language time. JÖRNS assumes that both
as being more in line with the author's at the same rightfully
(singular or plural) have no antecedent in the Hebrew Bible. and one might therefore consider
versions
the singular variant to be lectio diJcilior. Cp. JÖRNS: Evangelium. 96.
possibly the
89Against BÜCHSEL: Christologie, 27-28, who conflates different christological categories in order to
establish a stringent view of Christ's wrath as a common topic of the Apocalypse.
9° Cp. JÖRNS: Evangelium, 96.
91Cp. CHARLES: Revelation I. 182-183.
13(ß
However, the phrase äitö ifjq äp'yý rov
öcpviov probably contains a deliberate
92 as is
paradox, wrath not characteristic for a lamb. The expression "the N-rathof the
,
Lamb" is not used propria persona, but by the inhabitants
of the earth. who do not
understand the salvific deeds of Christ. Their perception of Christ reflects a complete
misunderstanding: love and forgiveness represented by the Lamb its

and sacrificial
death are perceived as avenging judgement by people to whom lies

and deception have
become second nature. The author does not attempt to reveal his own theological
aspect
or christological matters in Apc 6: 16, but rather wants to demonstrate a
misunderstanding by underscoring a delusion the (unfaithful) people on earth believe
in.93This consideration does not only cope with an assumptionof different descriptions
of Christ as a function of perspective; indeed, it would seem to support such a theorN.
The use of the expression "the wrath of the Lamb" therefore makes a misunderstanding
of the Lamb's meaning in perspective of inhabitants of the earth very explicit to the
audience of Revelation; the purpose of the Lamb is not understood by people on earth at
therefore they judgement. 94 The of the

all, and only perceive not salvation. response
inhabitants of the earth is lament - something which may also correspond with the
Exodus tradition. After the killing of the firstborn there was "a great cry in Egypt" (Ex
12:30), while there was no more lament among the Israelites, and possibly the author is
here to the the Egyptians.95

alluding crying out of
92See also SWETE: Apocalypse, 93.

9; Cp. for the discussion of the expression än6 Tf 6pyfg To,3 öcpviou as a paradox that indicates a
inhabitants CAIRD: Revelation, 90-93. See similarly HANSON:
misunderstanding of the of the earth
Lamb" description for the
Lamb, 169-170. HANSON regards the term "the wrath of the as metaphorical
consequences of the rejection and crucifixion of Jesus.
')' See for the idea of the "inhabitants of the earth" (representing the unbelievers) having a different vie%%
figure first horseman in Apc 6) God TAEGER: "Hell", 389.
of a (here the than the people of
1±7
3.1.2.4. Further Evidence for John's Use Exodus
of Traditions
More evidence is needed here if

one is to accept that the Exodus tradition is
preserved in various passages within Revelation, and especially in

the visions in Ape 4-
5: A first observation which might further
affirm that John had the Exodus traditions in
mind for his narrative setting could be based on the description

of the Sea of Glass in
Apc 4: 6. To some extent, the depiction
of this Sea of Glass can be explained with
reference to Ezekiel (Ezek 1:22), where the firmament in God's throne

room is
portrayed as having "the colour of ice". 96In combination with Apc 15:2-3,
where people
who were victorious over the beast are singing the Song of Moses next to the Sea
of
Glass, an Exodus tradition becomes a likely 97
source. According to Exodus, Moses and
the Israelites, after crossing the Red Sea, sang a song praising the Lord for his help (Ex
14:30-15: 1).98 The Song of Moses in Apc 15:3-4

should make apparent that the Sea of
Glass resembles a heavenly counterpart of the Red Sea,

which is symbolic for the
salvation of the faithful and the destruction of God's opposition. This parallel between
Exodus and the Apocalypse becomes more apparent in the description of the Sea
of
Glass in Apc 15:2-4: 99The Sea here is intermingled with fire (Apc 15:2), reminiscent of
the lake of fire in Apc 14:9-11, representing the place of punishment for those who
oppose God and worship the beast. Accordingly, the Sea of Glass indicates salvation for
the faithful, while it also alludes to the lake of fire in Apc 14 and so represents the
9' This is
even more explicit in 1 En. 89:20, where the hyenas (representing the Egyptians) lament, while
the Israelites (depicted as sheep) remain silent. Cp. TILLER: Commentary, 283.
96Further
parallels for the Sea of Glass might be provided by I En. 14:9-11 and Ex 24: 10; see for further
details ROWLAND: Heaven, 219-221.
9' For the
author's deliberate attempt to connect Apc 4-5 and 15 see also SPITTA: Offenharung. 69.
98 It be that the tradition from Gen 1:7 the the firmament is in the
can argued concerning waters above
background here, cp. for this CHARLES: Revelation 11,117-118 and STRACK BILLERBECK:
Offenbarung, 798-799. In light of the New Song which is sung in Apc 15 and its cosmological dimension
parallel to that of Ex 15 an allusion to this part of the Exodus narrative seems to be more reasonable here.
See for the importance of the Hymn in Ex 15 and its cosmological significance at Israel's earliest period
of her history HANSON:. -lpocalvptic, 300-301.
i ,S
punishing of those threatening God's own people. similar to the Red Sea in
the Exodus
loo
narrative.
3.1.2.5. Christ as the Destroying Angel from Exodus?
Moreover, in Exodus 12:1-33 the tenth and final

plague is carried out by (iod.
The punishment of the enemies of God's people is

a feature which is prominent
throughout the Apocalypse. In Exodus 12:23, though, the task of killing the firstborn is
taken over by "the Destroyer" who is controlled by God. This passage wielded
fundamental influence on later texts and developed into a tradition

of a destroyer angel
carrying out killing missions, warriors' tasks or actions of judgement ' °1

for God, as is
reflected in Genesis 3:24; Numbers 22:21-38; Joshua 5: 13-15-,2 Samuel 24: 16-17 (1
Chr 21: 15-16); 2 Kings 19:35 (Isa 37:33-37): Ezekiel 9: 1-11: Wisdom of Solomon
18: 15102or maybe Testament ofAbraham 17:5 [Rec. A], where an angelomorphic Death
103
is labelled as a destroyer (Xv4(Xivcov).
We may now ask if the tradition of the destroying angel from Exodus 12:23 was
a concept which the author of the Apocalypse was aware of and related to Christ. The
assumption of such a tradition in Revelation is not inappropriate, as two other passages
from the New Testament probably also identify the destroyer angel from Exodus in a
christological way:
99See for the Passover Lamb) the Exodus Typology from

connection of the Lamb (representing the and
Apc 15 also SCHÜSSLER FIORENZA: Judgement, 95-96. Cp. also BAUCKHAM: Theology. 71.
MEALY: Years, 75 and LE DEAUT: Pascale, 335.
10°See for this also HALPERIN: Chariot, 93-95 and KNIGHT: Revelation, 108-109.
101Cp. MEIER: "Destroyer", 456-458.
102Cp. GIESCHEN: Angelomorphic, 64, see also n. 35. Cp. also ALEXANDER: "Demonology", 332-
in 2 Sam I Chr holding a sword in hands
334: In Ex 12 the text refers to a "destro\er" (r'177=7T), and -
is depicted "destro\ ing (i1'fl ? rI 1Ký7 1). In 4Q51 I the term
in the latter - the same figure as angel"
r1*1MU7D is notably used in order to refer to a demon.
103Cp. ALLISON: Abraham, 340.
i ;4
(1) Such an allusion to Christ representingthe destroying
angel from Exodus 12
is probably preserved in 1 Corinthians 10: 1-10: 104The
presence of Christ in Paul's
typological reference to events after the Exodus reflects indirectl%

on Christ as the
"destroyer" (ö? o9pEVov). As the Vorlage for verse 10, Numbers 16:41-50 (LXX) does
not mention the destroyer,'°5 the referenceto this figure is rather surprising here. As the
other events from the narrative after the Exodus are also interpreted typologically in
light of Christ's presence,'06 an assumption of the identification of the destroyer

as
Christ cannot be entirely excluded. Textcritical problems of 1 Corinthians 10:9 and the
reference to Christ (iöv Xpt(ytiöv) within at least reflect on the christological problems
connected with an understanding of Christ as the punisher of Israel in the desert: :\
rather substantial amount of variants read iöv xvptov and some few read iöv Azov
instead of tiev Xpi.6tiöv. Probably a theological difficulty concerning an interpretation of
Christ as the destroyer - and therefore an angelic figure - was perceived in these
witnesses.
(2) A very similar interpretation of Christ as the destroyer, following the
tradition from Exodus 12, might possibly also be present in Jude 5-6. ' 07 This passage
depicts the salvation of Israel and the punishment of those not believing executed by the
"Lord". As in the previous example, a textcritical problem occurs here as well which
could distinctly point to an understanding of the executing figure as Christ. A number of
textcritical witnesses read 'Irl6ovg in 5

verse rather than xvptoS. (The variant reading
Cp. for this GIESCHEN: Angelomorphic, 325-328.

05 A reference to the destroyer is made in Tg. Ps-J. Num
1104
'05 17: 11. though. Cp. GII: SCHE N
Angelomorphic, 328 40. One that referring to the destroyer vas not an entirely unusual
n. might assume
interpreting from the HebreNN Bible. Possibly Paul drew on such traditions that
way of certain passages
describe events after the Exodus.
106Cp. also ELLIS: "Xpu tTg", 168-173 or BECKER: Paulus, 42-43. Cp. for the typology in I Cor 10 and
its purpose HAYS: Echoes, 95-102.
107Cp. for a christological interpretation of the destroyer in Jude 5-6 HANNAH: lfichacl, 139-142.
,
Angelomorphic. 328. Cp. further
FOSSUM: Image. 41-69, "Kurios", 260-287 and GIESCHEN:
OSBURN: "Jude". 107-115.
140
9cÖ instead is not very well attested.)1°8 The attestation for 'Irjcoüc
would hint at an
understanding of Jesus as the punishing destroyer. Whether 'Irlßoüg or xvptoS is the
original reading is not entirely decisive, as the title xvptoS most likely refers to Christ
109 Accordingly, the account in Jude 5 could also hint at a christological

anyway.
interpretation of the destroyer. In both given examples, though, the identification

of
Christ as the destroyer depends on textcritical evidence and an identification

of a
punishing force in Numbers 16:41-50 (LXX) as the destroyer in the background.
Therefore, it is worth exploring whether elements of this tradition are reflected in the
narrative setting of Revelation as well. A positive result would indicate further
angelomorphic features of Revelation's Christology.
A correspondence of actions of punishment between Exodus 12:23 and the
Apocalypse is evident. In line with the tradition concerning the angel of death, both
Exodus and Revelation derive the punishment more immediately from angelic forces
(i. e. not from God himself). In Exodus 12 the destroyer angel is the one carrying out the
killing of the firstborn. In passages in the Apocalypse we see angels carrying out God's
judgement, as for instance in Apc 15:5-16: 21. It is probably not the ordinary angels
which the author of Revelation had in mind when he tried to relate the events from the
Exodus narration to his own vision of God's judgement. The tenth and last plague in
Exodus 12 corresponds to the final judgement of the earth after the other plagues are
by description the judgement in Apc

carried out angels, namely to the of eschatological
14:6-20 and 19: 11-21. The figure carrying out this judgement is apparently Christ.
though, which means that Christ is here taking over functions of the destroying angel.
FOSSL \t
108'Ircoi S probably represents the lectio difflcilior here. Cp. for the textcritical evidence also
Jude, 309 HANNAH: %Iichael. 140-
Image, 67-69, BAUCKHAM: Jude, 309. KELLY: and
141
We may conclude that John deliberately transferred
two major features from the Exodus
narrative to Christ: his being the destroying angel, "° but also the Passover Lamb.
3.1.2.6. The Destroyer in Ape 9: 11
At this point, it is worthwhile to mention that the Apocalypse

explicitly refers to
an angel of destruction, namely the angel from Apc 9: 11. This particular angel is
noteworthy as he represents one of the only angels in Revelation who is mentioned h%
name. (The only other angel referred to by name is Michael in Apc 12:7. Satan might
possibly be understood as an angel in Apc 12:4-9, too. '1 1) Angels are rarely named in
the Apocalypse, and it is unclear if John simply has no interest in designating angels
with names, or if he intends by this omission to place a special emphasis on those he
does name.
The angel of the Abyss (ä7-y og tfj äßvß6ov), from Apc 9: 11 is named
'Aßa6&bv and 'AnoX? Ixov, and this designation suggests christological concerns here.
The name 'A(3a8&bv probably only occurs elsewhere in 4Q280 10 col. ii 7 as referring to
an angel's name. ' 12Generally, this designation represents the kingdom of the dead (as
in Prov 15: 11; Job 26: 6; 28: 22; 31: 12; Ps 88: 12), death itself (Job 28: 22), a poetic
parallelism to Sheol (Prov 15:11; 27:20; Job 26:6; 1QH col. xi 16-19). the grave (Ps
88: 11[88: 12 MT]), the abyss (4Q504 = 4QDibHama 7 8) or even a place of destruction
(Job 26: 6; 28: 22). 13 The Hebrew expression 11'7=M is often translated as äntX wx
110The that Christ takes functions from the destroying angel of Exodus is probably also
assumption over
alluded to in Apc 2: 23, where Jesus threatens to beat the children of Jezebel to death.
Cp. HANNAH: Michael, 127 n. 22.
See for the text KOBELSKI: Melchisedek, 43-44. See also DAVILA: Liturgical, 4'-48.
113See ALINE: Revelation 6-16,534, MOUNCE: Revelation. 191. LOHSE: Oit 'nbarung. 60. CARRELL:
Jesus, 233and KNIGHT: Revelation, 79. Cp. further for the use of this expression in Qumran literature
DA VI LA : Liturgical, 62.
142
22 LXX)114
(Prov 15:11; Ps 87: 12; 28: which is also reflected in the Greek name
'AnoXXvwv this angel receives in the Apocalypse. This

angel also brings plagues (in
form of locusts) to the inhabitants of the earth.
One might ask if this angel, designated as

a destroyer, resembles Christ.
especially as he is additionally labelled as king (ßocm?i S), a title that often refers to
Christ in Revelation (e.g. Apc 17: 14 or 19: 16). Further, the

angel from 9: 11 may be
seen as resembling the fallen star in Apc 9: 1115and might therefore be the same figure
as the in
angel verse 11 the
who possesses keys to the Abyss.11
6 Likewise, Christ is in
possession of the keys of death and Hades in Apc 1: 18 (cp. also Apc 3: 7. where Christ
has the keys of David). Taken together, these features may lead us to the conclusion that
Christ should be identified with this angel but this is unlikely, and a better suggestion
-
is that the angel represents Satan, or even alludes to Domitian or another Roman
(Nero) Satan's 117This is further by

emperor as one of minions. supported some other
minor details mentioned in Apc 9: 1-11. The power of the angel (represented by a star) is
described as limited in Apc 9: 2, he "is given" (6&9i1) his powers, probably indicating a
divine passive in order to show that the powers are given to this angel by God. 1'8 In
contrast, Christ is never attributed with divine powers in such a passive way, he actively
takes the scroll from God (Apc 5: 7). The passive is

ES&Oii never used for portraying
11'Cp. AUNE: Revelation 6-16,534.

115A connection between falling stars and fallen angels can be found elsewhere, as for instance in 1 En.
18: 13-16,21: 3-6,80: 6,86: 1,88: 1-3 and 90: 24 and possibly also Jub 8: 3. See for this MACH:
Entwicklungsstadien, 175-176, esp. n. 162.
116Cp. for this conclusion KRAFT: Offenbarung, 142 and SWEET: Revelation, 167. Occasionally the
identification of the angel from Apc 9: 11 representing the fallen star from 9: 1 has been neglected (cp.
AUNE: Revelation 6-16,534, MÜLLER: Offenbarung, 195, MOUNCE: Revelation, 191) and the angel
in Apc 20: 1 has the keys to Hades as well. Such identification is
was identified as the angel who
in Apc 20 agent of God who willingly follo'ýs God's
problematic, though, as the angel represents an
figure in Apc 9 is to his powers. See similarly CAIRD: Revelation.
orders, while the only permitted use
117-118 and KRAFT: Offenbarung, 255.
1" Apolyon might represent Domitian to Aischylos.. 4gam. 1082 liked to identih
who - according
, 94 CAIRD: Rei"elation. 120) or
himself as Apollo (cp. SCHÜSSLER FIORENZA: Offenbarung. and
Nero himself as an incarnated Apollo as well
Nero (cp. AUNE: Revelation 6-16,535): probably regarded
GUNDRY: "Angelomorphic", 61: n. ,J
(cp. SWEET: Revelation. 170). See for this also
,,.
,,.
Christ. One might even consider that this
expression is deliberately not applied to
Christ, as the Son of Man from Daniel 7: 14 "is

given" (600I) dominion by God. It
seems that John carefully avoided the application of this term for Christ. In turn, the
expression e'56" is applied to minions of God whom certain power is given, as f'or
instance the horsemen in Apc 6: 2.4.8, the angels in Apc 7: 2

and 8: 3 or even the seer
himself in Apc 11: 1. Similarly, God's opponents are given their

power by God's
permission (Ape 13:5-15).
Also the smoke which is releasedby the angel seemsineffective, as it basically
has only the effect of darkening the sun similar, yet more powerful plague has
-a
already been reported in Apc 8: 12. The smoke that ascendsfrom the pit is reminiscent
of the smoke from the altar in Apc 8: 3-4 which ascends to God with the prayer of the
Saints. However, the smoke in Apc 8 has cosmological significance (asking for
justice'19) and is respondedto by God; the smoke in Apc 9 seemstherefore almost as a
parody thereof, because it has only a limited effect on earth. Even the locusts appearing
out of the smoke might add to the impression that the angel in Apc 9: 11 represents
merely a parody: The Angel of the Abyss is labelled as the king of the locusts. Such a
reference is strange, because locusts are commonly known to have no king, as is
reflected, for instance, in Proverbs 30:27.120
Further, the twofold explanation of the angel's name in Apc 9: 11 might point to
the author's attempt to establish this angel as a parody of Christ: The angel's name is
in Hebrew ("Abaddon") Greek ("Apollv-on"). The

represented as "Destruction" and
is of the multilingual inscription on Jesus'

explanation of the angel's name reminiscent
designation "The King of the Jews" is written in Latin. Hebrew and

cross, where the
I Cor. In I Cor 1: 10 Paul

It is interesting to see a parallel of punning statements in the Apocalypse and
him öX 9pFÜ instead of Apolyon) and creates plays on %%ords
also mentions the Destroyer (labelling as o'
faction Apollo (I Cor 1: 18-19 3: 4-6). See SWEET: Revelation. 1-0
concerning the of and
118See for instance GUNDRY: "Angelomorphic", 672.
119See also KRAFT: (O1/c'nlbanmg,134-135.
14
Greek (John 19:20). In Ape 9: 11 the Latin name
might be deliberate]%omitted in order
to concentrate on the pun regarding Nero's (or Domitian's)

claim to represent -Apollo.', '
.
A christological interpretation of the angel in Apc 9: 11 is
also problematic
because the plague caused by this angel is neither very important
to the author (notably.
it is described only very briefly compared to the visions

of judgement in Apc 14 and 19.
where Christ's actions are portrayed in much detail), nor would Christ be designated as
a fallen star as in Apc 9: 1. Instead, Christ is named as the morning star in Apc 16.
-12:
which also might reflect John's attempt to establish the angel of Apc 9 as a parody of
Christ.
The ownership of keys as such does also not represent a christological feature.
Within the Apocalypse keys are referred to four times. Twice it is surely Christ who has
the keys (Apc 1:18 and 3:7), another two times it is the angels from Apc 9 and Apc
20: 1. It seems that the keys which are attributed to Christ in Ape 1: 18 have their
significance derived from Christ's death his 122It be the same

and resurrection. might
keys being alluded to in Apc 3: 7, emphasising the power of Christ. Therefore, the keys
do bear for John. ' 23 In

of the angels not seem to this same significance any case, the
keys are clearly distinguished from each other by different expressions (and numbers).
In Apc 1: 18 Christ is holding the x? iS rov Oaväiou i«xI coü &&u, while the angels
have the singular Oxt; äßx ov (Apc 9: 2) or rr v KXEiv iýS äßtxßov

rob cppeaioS'ct
(Apc 20: 1). The angels' keys - having the power to open the Abyss and the underworld
which is traditionally attributed to angels. Such power

- represent some minor power
for instance be in the Apocalypse of Zephania 6: 5. Here the angel

might reflected
Eremiel is in charge of the Abyss and Hades. However, if

even we accept Christ's
120In Amos 7: 1 (LXX) the concept of a leader of the locusts is known. hmýever. Cp. for instance AL\E
Revelation 6-16,534-535.
12'Cp. GUNDRY: "Angelomorphic", 672 n. 34.
122Cp. STUCKENBRUCK: 220, GUNDRY: "Angelomorphic", 673. ý%ho assumes
Veneration. against
the key as a angelornorphic Christ.
that the key in Apc 20: 1 allows for an understanding of the angel with
I'S
superiority regarding the keys, a certain rivalry between the satanic
angel in Apc 9 and
the apparently good angel (who is binding the dragon

representing Satan) in :\.pc 20.
The explanation for those two opposing angelic beings

owning the same key- scans
rather simple: the key (along with a certain amount

of power) is given to the satanic
angel in Ape 9. In Ape 12 the archangel Michael is

victorious in battle against Satan and
his angels. He is, therefore, probably also the angel in Ape 20: 1-2
who - remaining
unnamed here binds Satan and takes over the possession of the key- '24
- over the Abyss.
It is important not to make too much of the fact that the

angel in Apc 9 is
referred to as a king, as God's opponents are often described in this way (e.g. Apc 1:5.-
6: 15; 17:2.18; 18:3.9; 19: 19; 21: 24). Accordingly, the destroying angel does not
compete with Christ in any way, Christ bears more attributes of the destroying angel
from Exodus and possesses more power than the angel from Ape 9: 11. A christological
meaning unfolds only insofar as the angel of the Abyss probably serves as a parody.
3.1.2.7. The Arrangement of the Plagues in the Apocalypse
John follows the Exodus tradition to a certain extent' 25

and also maintains the
especially violent punishment of God's earthly opposition as the last act of retribution.
Generally, John has divided the plagues into two categories: He refers to the plagues as
(1) heavenly phenomena; as for instance (a) thunder and lightning (Apc 8:5: 16: 18). (b)
123See for this also STUCKENBRUCK: Veneration, 239: The ike\ in Apc 3: 7 represents an image of
hope, while the key of the angel in Apc 20: 1 rather resembles a tool of punishment.
24See for this KRAFT: Offenbarung. 255 and similarly HANNAH: Michael, 127-128.
also
125John from Exodus in his writing; allusions to only seven out of the
mentions seven of the ten plagues
ten plagues from Ex can also be seen in Ps 78: 44-51; 105: 28-36; Amos 4: 6-13; 4rtapanus 3.27.2-' 3 3.3
.
Bar. 16:3 [Greek]; Wisd. Sol. 11-18. This may be significant for Revelation, as an interest in the number
is the Apocalypse (e.g. seven bowls of wrath poured out b} , even
seven also reflected elsewhere within
in Ape 5-8, the trumpets in Ape 8-11 or the se\ en figures in
angels in Ape 15-16, the seven seals seven
KNIGHT: Revelation, 148-149. ) In some
Ape 14:6-20). (Cp. for the importance of the number seven also
from Ex was copied more slavish[ and nine or ten plagues are alluded
other writings the original concept
1. Josephus 4nt. 14. Apc. ihr.
to, as for instance in E.:ek. Trag. 133-148; Jub. 48: 5; Ps-Philo 10: . -?.2193-3
interest reflected here is
30: 3-8 and Philo De vir. 11os. 1.96-142. One could suppose that the theological
focused on the Exodus and the plagues as historic and, therefore, changes were generally avoided.
146
hail and fire (mixed with blood) (8: 7), (c)
comets (6: 13: 8: 8.10). (d) a darkening of the
sun, moon and stars (6: 12-13; 8: 12), (e) the moon turning to blood (6: 1L)
and (f
hailstones (16: 20). Alongside this, he refers to
plagues as (2) terrestrial phenomena like
(a) earthquakes (8: 5; 16: 18), (b) water turning to blood (8: 9: 16:3-4).
(c) famines (6: 6.8)
(d) wild animals (6: 8). 126The order of the plagues from the Exodus
and narrative is
altered slightly by John, who uses the traditions concerning the

plagues independently.
However, the origin of the description of the plagues can still be traced back to Exodus
traditions. 127The Exodus traditions of the plagues correspond with the Apocalypse
as
follows: Exodus 7: 17-24 with Apc 11:6; 16:3; 8:8, Exodus 8:3 with Apc 16:13, Exodus
9:8-11 with Apc 8:7; 16:21, Exodus 10:12-15 with Apc 9:3 and Exodus 10:21 with Apc
16:10.128
3.1.2.8. The Presentation of Magic in Exodus and the Apocalypse
It might be interesting to mention at this point that it is not only the plagues
themselves from Exodus which the author of the Apocalypse adopts. He also follows
his Vorlage from the Exodus narrative regarding the causes of the plagues. They are
brought about by means which can almost be classified as a use of magic: the role of the
mediator of the plagues is limited to the use of an item (for instance a trumpet in Apc 8-
9) or the use of a magic substance (for instance the bowls which are metaphorically
filled with God's wrath in Apc 15-16). 129The use of this kind of magic results at first
1226Cp. for this subdivision of the plagues (with minor differences) AUNE: Revelation 6-16,418-419. See
for the meaning and the different aspects of plagues in Revealtion and Greco-Roman prodigies AUNF's
Excursus on Ancient Prodigies and the Plagues of Revelation in: Revelation 6-16,416-419.
127 Cp. for the plague traditions and the alterations from the Exodus tradition also Mt`LI. FR:
Offenbarung. 189-196 and 278-284.
128Cp. LE DEEAUT: Pascale, 334. See similarly THOMPSON: Revelation. 51: THO\IPSO' regards the
plagues to be particularly reflected in the "bowls of wrath".
i29 In is h\ hand (Ex 9: 22: 10: 12; 10:21) or a 1.010 .x
the Exodus narrative magic often caused a person's
273-275. A is mentioned frequently in the
9: 23, and 10: 13). Cp. MÜLLER: "Plagen". staff also
147
glance in destruction only. However, attention should be given to the wtaýin
which the
outcome of the plagues is described. Often, the result is portrayed in
a ,vay that reminds
of creation rather than destruction, becausethe result of the plague is described

with the
verb form >$v¬io (as for instance in Apc 6: 12: 8: 1.7.8.11: 16:2.33.4.18.19).
This
expression may be an allusion to the language of creation as in Genesis 1: ',. whereas
ýi 1'1 from the creation narrative resembles Ey$vE'co.One can find this special
use of
F,y£vEtio furthermore in several passages in the Apocalypse quoting the Exodus narrative
(as for instance Apc 8: 7.8; Apc 16:2.3.4.10). 130 Perhaps the author of Revelation
deliberately preserved such a motif of applying magic in the tradition of the plagues. By
adopting the description of a form of magic expressing a degree of powers normally
found in a creation context, the author does not simply follow the traditions from the
Exodus narrative, but instead reveals more about his opinion concerning magic and
simultaneously unveils another partial aspect of christological concern. As in the
Exodus plagues, John describes those who initiate the plagues as mediators of God's
will, therefore using magic which becomes legitimized by God. In Exodus, the miracles
by Moses Aaron, ' 31 in the Apocalypse, it is angels

are normally performed and whilst
(and to some extent also Christ, e.g. Apc 6: 12) performing the magic. Accordingly. the
role of the Lamb might initially appear rather similar to the role of the angels. causing
destruction in order to perform God's 132 Here, the angels are obviously
will.
to Christ, their follow a chain of events initiated by Christ (for

subordinated as actions
instance, in Apc 8: 1-2 the opening of the seventh seal is followed by the action of the
It is that the Lamb shares a feature of

seven angels playing the trumpets). noteworthy
here. because the staff is more a means

Apocalypse, but one should not assume a connection with magic
beating the opponents (Apc 2: 27: 12:5 and 19: 15) than causing magical eý ents.
of Exodus Mtt'LI. ER:
130See for the discussion concerning magic as a motif in the Apocalypse and
"Plagen", 268-278, esp. 272-277.
131Cp. MÜLLER: "Plagen", 273-277.
Lamb and the angels in the
''` See also MÜLLER: "Plagen", 271: MÜLLER defines the roles of the
visions of plagues as identical.
148
angels in the passages concerning the plagues: such a
similarity might make the notion
of Christ representing the destroying angel more plausible.
The use of Exodus traditions in Revelation

also sheds light on the author's
general opinion concerning the use of magic. The understanding of the use of magic
seems to be positive in the passages where the angels (and occasionally the Lamb)
employ magical powers for destruction. In turn. other passages in Revelation

give
evidence for a more negative understanding of magic. Apc 9: 21 mentions the use of
magic (cpapµaxci(X)amongst other evil deeds that humans do not turn away, from.
Similarly cpapµaiccta is the means by which Babylon seduces the people of the earth in
Apc 18:23. Further, in Apc 21: 8 and 22: 15 the magicians (cpapµaxoi) are labelled as
those who will be eternally punished and excluded from the New Jerusalem.' 33
Accordingly, in these passages the author defines magic and pharmacy as anti-divine
134 Such interpretation

powers. an copes with a rather negative understanding of
passages from the Hebrew Bible where pharmacy or magic is mentioned. For instance,
the cure for diseases - often a punishment from God - is caused by God alone (e.g. Num
12:9-15; 1 Kgs 13:4-6). Such a view becomes especially apparent in Exodus 15:26.
God is depicted Israel's 135Also 1 Samuel 28: 3-25 depicts Saul's

where as physician.
En-Dor as redundant and useless. Further.

attempt to use the powers of the witch of
most clearly rejected in Deuteronomy 18:9-14 and Ezekiel

magic and magical rituals are
13: 17-23.136In Exodus 22: 17 and Leviticus 20: 27 the use of magic is even described as
by death. 137In Early Jewish literature, pharmacology can also be considered

punishable
For instance, in 1 Enoch 7-8 (and astrology) is taught to humans

as evil. pharmacology
133For "sorcery" as a part of catalogues of sins see also AUNE: Revelation 1, -2-, 1130-113 1.
134Further use of magic employed by anti-divine forces might possibly be seen in Apc 16-13-14. %khere
by false the beast and the dragon might allude to demonic
the signs performed the prophet and
possession. Cp. STANTON: "Magician", 171.
°5 Cp. KOLLMANN: "Tobit", 289-291 and STUCKENBRUCK: "Tobit". 258-259.
136Further evidence for an understanding that cure can only come from God can be found in [)Cut :1ý:
103:3. See for STUCKENBRUCK: "Tobit". 251).
Kgs 13:6; 2 Chr 7: 14; 16: 12; Ps 41: 4: this
149
by the fallen angels. In contrast to such
a refusal. the use of magic in the above
mentioned passages from the Apocalypse which deal with the

plagues from Exodus is
depicted more positively. The simple explanation that
can be given for the twofold
description of magic within the Apocalypse lies

within God's legitimation: The magic
used by those opposing God is naturally depicted as evil, whilst the

angels cause
magical destruction in God's name; consequently, such use of magic had to be
portrayed positively. Accordingly, it seems to be only the magic permitted by God
himself which is considered to be acceptable,other kinds of pharmacy and

magic are
portrayed pejoratively, opposed to God. Although descriptions of magic in connection
with the tradition 138

of the plagues are rarely seen, assessingmagic positively as long as
it is permitted by God is not a unique feature at all. One can clearly find traces of such a
in
concept order to make magic or pharmacology acceptablein early Jewish literature,
such as Tobit or Jesus Sirach. In Jesus Sirach 38: 1-15 the pharmacology for healing
purposes is legitimized as being God's 139An even more

part of creational order.
detailed portrait of magic and pharmacology being acceptable can be seen in Tobit,
where the archangel Raphael sent by God himself teaches humans to use fish organs
- -
to create medicine (Tob 6:3-9), heart and liver for an eye disease(Tob 11:11-12), and
also to use the gall of the fish in a magic ritual for dispelling the demon Asmodeus (Tob
8:2-3). It is also Raphael who apparently uses magic and binds the same demon (Tob
8: 3) within this narration. 140Similarly, pharmacology is regarded positively in Jubilees
10:7-14, where angels teach humans the use of healing herbs on God's behalf. These
in the Apocalypse, preserve an image of magic that is positive.

passages,visible also
137See also KOLLMANN: "Tobit", 290 n. 4. See for a rejection of the medical profession as such also
FITZMYER: Tobit, 137.
138See MÜLLER: "Plagen", 276.
139See for the discussion also WOLFF: Anthropologie. 211-220.
140Cp. for a positive understanding of magic in Tobit (and also in Sir. ) KOLLMANN: "Tobit". 289-299.
in the BA text of Tobit. here
%k
Notably KOLLMANN investigates the use of pharmacology
found in the S test. See for
is not referred to with Greek expressions. References are rather
pharmacology
this STUCKENBRUCK: "Tobit". 258-269. esp. 263-264.
I 5n
because magic is understood as being taught by God his '4'
or one of mediators. This
is
magic notably not labelled as magic by John. In contrast, it is clear that the expression
(papµa1cis represents bad magic in relation to those who participate in the economic
Rome (i. Babylon). 142

system of e.
3.1.2.9. Conclusion for the Use of Exodus Traditions in the Apocalypse
It should be apparent by now that there is little doubt about the significance
of
Exodus traditions for the author of Revelation: We may certainly assume the author's
deliberate adaptation of these traditions in order to depict a new eschatologicalexodus
in his own writing. 143Thus, the consideration of Christ (in form of the Lamb)
representing the destroying angel from Exodus 12 fits in well in this framework. The
141A positive kind of magic might accordingly have been considered in case of Apc 2: 17 where Christ
distributes a white stone with a new name to those who overcome. Cp. AUNE: "Magic", 481-501.
142In NT literature magic may be understood positively when it is not labelled as magic, but rather as a
phenomenon within Christian community, while it is labelled as negative magic when it functions
rhetorically to vilify opponents; for this understanding in relation to Acts, see GARRETT: Demise.
143 Cp. for the eschatological exodus BAUCKHAM: Theology, 70-72: BAUCKHAM sees the
eschatological exodus in the Apocalypse reflected in (1) the image of Jesus as the Lamb, representing him
as the Passover Lamb who has ransomed a people (also drawing on the words of the Sinai covenant in Ex
19:5-6), (2) the Sea of Glass which is modelled after the Red Sea in the Exodus tradition, (3) the plague
traditions from Ex, (4) allusions to the Exodus narratives in Apc 11:6, where the activity of the two
is
witnesses modelled on Moses and the plagues, (5) the reference to Egypt as one of the prophetic names
of the great city in Apc 11: 8 and (6) the reference to Balaam as a false Prophet leading God's people
astray in Apc 2: 14 (cp. for the reference to Balaam also LE DEAUT: Pascale, 333). Also the description
God's throne which is flanked by cherubim in Ex 25: 18-22 corresponds with Apc 4 (cp.
of
BAUCKHAM: Theology, 33). Further, the protection in the desert granted to the woman with the child in
Apc 12: 1-6 recalls the miraculous salvation of the Israelites (Ex 19: 4, cp. Deut 32: 11) in the desert. Cp.
LE DEAUT: Pascale, 335. Further, the turning of people into priests in Apc 1: 6 and 5: 10 might reflect Ex
19:6 being in the background. Cp. SCHÜSSLER FIORENZA: Priester, 108 and JOCHUM-BORTFELD:
Offenbarung, 156-165. Apc 18:4 also seems to formulate the concept of a new Exodus in Revelation; cp.
THEISSEN: Religion, 245. The use of the term ztpart6roxog referring to Jesus in Apc 1:5 might be
Ex 12: 12 first but Christ is actually compared to the firstborn of Lg\ pt
reminiscent of at sight, whether
involves too much speculation: The term ", r6-ToicN is used with a rather positive meaning, and a
firstborn by a plague seems therefore to be remote. Finall.. also the
connection to the who are eliminated
hint Exodus in
lack of a new Temple in the New Jerusalem in Apc 21: 22 might at motifs of the narrati%e
Israelites' in the desert (where God is continually present on the ark
the background: Similar to the camp
is in for Temple God is immanent. Cp. for this idea
of covenant), the New Jerusalem no need a as
(concerning the Animal Apocalypse) TILLER: Commentary. 45-51. As the Exodus traditions are so
interpret descriptions in the Apocalypse in light of these
dominant in Revelation it is possible to certain
legs like fire in Apc 10: 1 might he a
traditions in the background: For instance, the angel's that are
be to Ex 20: 11. Cp. for
reminiscence of Ex 14: 19.24. or the angel's feet on earth and sea could an allusion
Revelation 6-16.555-556. For a summary of 1xodus
this MOUNCE: Revelation, 202-203 and AUNE:
traditions in the Apocalypse see also ULFGARD: Future, 35-41.
iii
special final task is carried out by prominent figures in Exodus and Revelation: In
Exodus the destroyer (sharing a certain proximity with God) is

the bringer of the final
plague. In Revelation, though, it is Christ who carries out God's judgement in \pc 14:6-
;
20 and 19: 11-21. However, in both Apc 14 and 19 Christ is
also described in an
angelomorphic way (see chapters 2. and 4. of this thesis). By being allowed to share
both angelic and divine traits, he may be understood in relation to the

angel-like
destroyer of the Exodus tradition who, in turn, bears a strong association with Israel's
God. In the vision in Ape 14:6-20 the judging Christ is accompanied by six angels.
Similarly in Ezekiel 9: 1-11, a vision that is most likely influenced by the tradition of the
Destroyer angel, '44 the destruction of Jerusalem is carried out by six angels and a
prominent angelic figure. This tradition from Ezekiel has probably influenced the vision
in Apc 14; the six accompanying angels in particular can be explained on this basis (see
section 2.2.5.2. ). An assumption of the presence of elements of the destroyer angel in
the Apocaypse seems more plausible in view of two destroyer angel traditions that have
possibly influenced Apc 14.
Certain features in the description of the final judgement might correspond to
descriptions of the Destroying angels, making the case for destroying angel traditions
Revelation For instance, the "sickle", which is the harvesting tool

within more probable.
in Apc 14: 15-20 from the tradition of Joel might - according to GIESCHEN - possibly
Destroyer '4 Similarly.

represent the "sword" from traditions concerned with the angel.
by his ability to harvest the entire earth with a single strike of his sickle, ,e may infer
144Cp. GIESCHEN:. Angelomorphic, 66 and 125-126 n. 3.

'a5 Cp. GIESCHEN: Angelomorphic, 251. The argument GIESCHEN provides here is not unproblematic:
Ezek 9: 1-l 1 and Ex 12, a sý%ord is
In the traditions that have probably influenced Apc 14: 14-20. namely
not mentioned.
I2
that the harvesting figure in Apc 14: 16 is of enormous size. something
consistent with
destroying angel traditions. 146
It might also be tempting to regard the command of the

angel directed to the one
like a son of man in Ape 14: 15 as a tradition reflecting God's control
over the destro\ Cr
as in the Exodus tradition. However, except for the difficulty of proving this admittedly
vague connection to be an adaptation of material from the Exodus narrati,,c, the
description of God controlling Christ would indicate a certain degree of subordination.
One might wonder if the author of the Apocalypse wishes to communicate a
Christology which so openly puts Christ in a subordinate position. More research on
Apc 5 can possibly illuminate whether John was trying to express a certain subordinate
tendency of Christ or if he was attempting to relate Christ and God by equal status.
3.1.3. Status and Features of the Lamb
3.1.3.1. The Lamb and the Throne
An important feature which should be helpful in order to determine the Lamb's
light intention (or possibly subordination) is

status and shed on the author's of equation
the Lamb's position in relation to the throne. As such the Lamb's position on the throne
indicates a certain dignity already. However, other figures in the visions in Apc 4 and
It to be asked. then, whether the

are also described as sitting on thrones. needs
description of the other figures differs notably enough in order to establish a clearly
Lamb. The following considerations about the meaning of

emphasised position of the
its the whether there is a

the Lamb on the throne and exact position, as well as question
its o%Nn.If
146Cp. GIESCHEN:. 4ngelomorphic, 32 and 251. Also this argument is barely convincing on
like a son of man he could
the author was concerned with demonstrating an enormous size of the one
have used more self explanatory features in order to indicate this figure's size.
IS
clear-cut distinction between the Lamb and the heavenly beings
or not are important
here.
Firstly, it has to be examined what the author intended

to express when he
mentioned the Lamb and its position "between the throne and the four living beings" (Ev
µýß(P iob Apövov xai iwv 'rum Mv ý v) in Apc 5: 6. Scholars apparently disagree
whether the whole scenario has to be interpreted (1) as an Enthronement. (2) as a
Commission in a Heavenly Court or (3) as an Investiture. '47 An

understanding of ;\pc 5
as an Enthronement of the Lamb, following an ancient Egyptian pattern, is based on the
assumption that the vision contains the three parts in the traditional Egyptian scheme.'48
These sequencesare (a) Erhöhung ("Elevation"), (b) Präsentation ("Presentation") and
(c) Inthronisation ("Enthronement"). It is possible to refer to this three-stage
enthronement scheme in Apc 5, interpreting the prediction of the elder about the Lamb
in verse 5 as Elevation, the appearance of the Lamb in verse 6 and the conferment of
power (by taking the scroll) in verse 7 as the Presentation of the new ruler. The homage
by heavenly beings in Enthronement. 149

paid the verses 8-13 could then represent the
But evidence for the existence of such a scheme in Revelation is not entirel\
convincing. As with arguments for the presence of this enthronement ritual in other NT
literature (for instance Mk'50), it is unlikely that an Egyptian Enthronement scheme
would have been adopted in NT literature without any connections. Also, it is important
to realise that the scheme is a rather anachronistic reconstruction of an ancient ritual.
147For a good overview on the History of Research on this topic cp. AUNE: Revelation 1-5.332-338.
138The three-part scheme of the ancient Egyptian Enthronement goes back to NORDEN's research:
NORDEN attempted to relate this scheme to Vergil (Eclogues 4), but also mentioned NT literature
(namley Tim 3: 16) as a possible parallel. Cp. NORDEN: Geburt, 116-128.
149Exactly this interpretation of events from Apc 5 according to the ancient enthronement scheme has. for
instance, been undertaken by HOLTZ: Christologie, 28-29.
ISOCp for instance VIELHAUER: Literatur, 344-345: VIELHAUER interprets \1k in light of the
Mk 1: l 1 adoptionstcormel, ßik 9: 7 as Proklamation and
Egyptian Enthronement ritual and interprets as .
in NT literature he identifies I Tim 3: 1tß.
Mk 15:39 as the Akklamation. As similar traces for this scheme
Hebr 1:5-13 and also Apc 5. (See n. 24. )
154
and the author of Revelation might not have reconstructedsuch a schemeas it has
since
been synthesized. ' 51
Apc 5 might also be interpreted in light of the

assumption of the Lamb's
Commission in the Heavenly Court. A basic element of commission,

namely the
commission in response to a question - as reflected by Hebrew Bible texts (1 Kgs 22: 1-
38; Isa 6: 1-13) - is also present in Apc 5:2. where the angel asks who Mould be
worthy
to open the scroll.
The attempt to regard Apc 5 as Investiture. though, seems to be more
appropriate, as the focus is not on single features which might represent elements of
ancient rituals only, but rather on various traditions that may have influenced this
vision: By the combination of traditional material from Daniel 7 (investiture of the one
like a son of man) and Ezekiel 1-2 (motif of the sealedscroll) the author forms a scene
of investiture centering around the Lamb's reception of the scroll. The reception of the
scroll in 7
verse signifies the following reception of praise in verse 12. The basis of the
Lamb's investiture is his sacrificial death. 152By assuming an investiture in Ape 5, the
presence of elements of a commission are not denied. These elements from I Kings 22
and Isaiah 6 are also present in Apc 5, but they do not representthe central theme of this
As term, investiture describes the character of Ape 5 best as it refers (unlike

vision. a
to an act of establishing someone's power, which he already possesses

enthronement)
informally. 153 An investiture Lamb therefore also allows for a conclusion

of the
Christ's The focus Apc 5 is certainly on displaying Christ's

concerning status. of
Any is not implied by the %ision

significance. tendency to ascribe a subordinate position
of God giving him the scroll.
"' Cp. also AUNE: Revelation I-5,334 and 336.

152Cp. for a detailed research on the traditional backgrounds ALNE: Revelation 1-`" "6 "g
Kl: Liturgie, 219-229.
' Cp. AUNE: Revelation 1-5,336. See for this discussion also SCHI %1;\NOW
15S
Secondly, it must be asked where the Lamb is
actually placed during and after
the investiture. The location given in Apc 5: 6 seems to be rather

unclear: the Lamb is Fv
µgß(L)ioh Opövov xai tithv 'r a po v ýwwv. A translation of this expression seems to
indicate that the Lamb is simply standing between the four heavenly beings
and the
throne, which so far has only been depicted with God sitting on it. It is possible that
a
translation can express a greater proximity between God on the throne and the Lamb:
For instance, the phrase Ev [temp could also refer to an area which is also occupied by
objects, and could thus be translated as "among, with", by which the Lamb would be
located closer to the throne.'54 Such an attempt, however, does not seemto be entirely
satisfying. If the author wished to express greater proximity. he could have described
the Lamb's position as being "on the throne" (cp. 3: 21b). In addition, Apc 5:7 clearly
describes the Lamb as "coming and taking" (f X9cv K(d Eil rjcp¬v) the scroll, \. hich
seems to indicate a certain distance from the throne before. The fact that the Lamb is
slightly remote from God's throne and not depicted as "sitting" in Ape 5: 6 becomes less
disturbing in the light of other occurrences within the Apocalypse, when the throne is
described as being shared between God and Christ: In Apc 3: 22, for instance, God and
Christ (after vindicating) the throne together. 155 The

are portrayed as sitting on
hand" from Psalm 110 known in NT

expression "at the right the tradition commonly
literature 156is missing here; 157in its place, a description of the communality of the
is
throne between God and Christ given. 158
Possibly the omission of the expression "at
the right hand" hints at a further christological development, hence the communality of
isaCp. ALINE: Revelation 1-5,351-352 for possible translations ofe ' µeCT(q-
155See for a connection between Apc 3: 21 and 5:6 also LEE: Jerusalem, 248.
156Cp. HENGEL: Christology, 119-225 and "Erhöhung". 43-73, STUCKENBR['CK: Veneration. 128-
Ps 110 in Early Christian
129 n. 208 and KNIGHT: Disciples. 130-133 for the significant role that plays
Christ's Cp. further: MARKSCHIES: "Sessio". 252- 317.
understanding of exaltation.
is to in Revelation.
157The absence of the theologoumenon of Christ's exaltation strikingly rarely alluded
feature in NT literature. Cp.
despite the session at the right hand of God being a very common elsewhere
AUNE: Revelation 1-i. 263.
158Cp. HI NGEL: Christologv, 13 3.
156
Father and exalted Son, who shareshis throne with other vindicators. 9 is
emphasised
160
instead. Similarly the sharing of the throne is also expressedin
other passagesin
Revelation: In Apc 7: 9-10 the throne and he who sits on it and the Lamb
are mentioned
together in one sentence again. Also in Apc 7: 17 the Lamb is described as r6 cxv i ov
tob Apövou, guiding the 144,000 (similar to Apc 14: 1-5). To a certain extent a proximit\
between Lamb and throne is expressed here.161The communual sharing is expressed
even more distinctly in Apc 22: 1, where the river of the water of life goes forth k Toü
9p6vov tiov Ocov xai toi) dcpviou.It is also a sharedthrone of God and the Lamb which
will be in the heavenly Jerusalem (Kai o 9povo; rob OEov Kai tioü öcpviov Ev aüip
il(; tat) coming down to the new earth (Apc 22: 3). The common throne substitutes for
the temple in this new eschatological Jerusalem. God and the Lamb reign and are
together this throne (Apc 22: 3-5). 162 The distinction of

worshipped on one sharp
describing only God as sitting on the throne in Apc 4-5 becomes less emphasised until
the distinction is nearly dissolved in Apc 22: 3. On the one hand the paratactical
Lamb (connecting by the in Apc 22 does

arrangement of God and the them word Kai)
not entirely eliminate the distinction between the sitting father and the standing son
given in Apc 4-5, but it expresses a unity (by the sharing of the throne) on the other
hand. 163The sharing of the throne might be interpreted as reminiscent of an exaltation
Christ God's hand 164

despite the fact that the "sitting at the right of God"
of to right side,
is not explicitly mentioned. In Apc 5: 7 one might find an allusion to the "sitting at the
though: The Lamb is taking the scroll 6x tý &ýtiäS iov xa&rlµEVov Urri Tov
right",
is in "\pc
159The sharing of the throne by Christ and those who are victorious probably also expressed
276-279. See for the slmbasileia representing a common
20: 4A,cp. for this DE JONGE: "Expression",
topic in NT literature also THEISSEN: Religion, 85-86.
16°Cp. HENGEL: "Erhöhung", 43. See for a salvific meaning of Apc 3: 21 LIESEN: Jch1r"m"(Jr, )kahTs, '.
41.
161Cp. HENGEL: Christologv, 151.
DE JONGE: "Expression". 279.
162Cp. HENGEL: Christologv. 151. See for this also
163Cp. SÖDING: "Lamm", 113-114.
164See also SÖDING: "Lamm", 110.
157
Opövov. It can thus be assumed that the Lamb is placed the
at right hand side of God ",
after (or when) he takes the scroll from God. Taking this
position in perspecti\ e. the
Lamb is then - according to the use of the tradition from Psalm 110: 1
- placed in an
exalted position. In Apc 5, however, Christ is portrayed as standing rather than sitting.
The position of Christ at the right might therefore be coincidental. It is

possible that the
author attempted to avoid a description of Christ sitting at the right hand side in order to
avoid a conception that is 166

too anthropomorphic. But if this is the case. why specify
that the scroll is taken from the right hand (Ex 'cffS8F-4t
&q, sc. XFtPOc)?
3.1.3.2. The Standing Posture of the Lamb
Notably, only God is sitting on the throne in Apc 4: 2 and also in Apc 5:6-7,
whilst the Lamb is standing. This tendency of differentiation between God sitting and
the Lamb's position, though, seems to be compromised according to the content of Apc
3: 22; the communual sharing of the throne becomes defined more precisely between
5
chapters and 22.167It also becomes more distinct that Christ is closer to God's throne
than the four living beings or the 24 elders of the throne room vision: The living beings
are Ev Opovoo xai xvxkw rob Opövov, while Christ is standing Ev t&Nq Toü
µ 6w rob
Opövov xaI. tiäw tiEa6dcpwvß xov xai Ev uxxp 'tciývnpEßßvrEpwv. It is also evident that
168
the Lamb is closer to the throne than the elders, as the elders are either portrayed as
Opövou in Apc 4: 4 or >vwirtov rov in

OF-of) Apc 11: 16. A subordinate
icvKXOOEvroü
165Cp. for such a position SÖDING: "Lamm". 90.

166Cp. for this assumption HENGEL: Christolog', 151. Notably HENGEL considers the conception of a
here, AUNE assumes exactly this double throne as the common
bisellium as too anthropomorphic while
AUNE: Revelation 1-5.262). As BACKHAUS rightfully points out. this
seat for God and the Lamb (cp.
facility God and the [, anib. but not the
assumed concept might solve the problem of the seating of
it. Cp. BACKHAUS: "Vision". 44 n. I1 1.
theological problem connected with 113.
SÖ[)IMU "Lamm".
'67Cp. HENGEL: Christologv, 151, SCHIMANOWSKI: Liturgie. ? 15-217 and
15S
position of the living beaststo Christ is also indicated by their
glorification of the Lamb
169
alongside God.
It arouses attention, though, that the Lamb is not depicted

on the throne in Ape
5:6 or 5: 13. It is either depicted as standing Ev tecw tob 6p6vov(verse 6). or

mentioned
paratactically after God who is sitting on the throne (verse 13). The author might have
tried to avoid a direct statement which would have depicted God and the Lamb next to
each other on the throne in Apc 5. Still, the author definitely wished to portray the
Lamb's location in the immediate vicinity of God, as has been demonstratedin section
3.1.3.1. above. One might go further in interpreting the proximity between God and the
Lamb as closer still: it is evident in Apc 5: 6 that the Lamb is "in the middle of the
throne" and also "in the middle of the four living beings".
The problem of determining the Lamb's position as near the throne and not on
the throne might be eliminated by regarding the four living beings as part of the throne:
The description of the heavenly throne matches the description of the throne of the king
of Israel given in 1 Kings 10: 18-20.170This golden and ivory throne is composed of
that the two armrests are two lions, the backrest features
parts resemble certain animals:
bulls' heads, the footstool was probably shaped like a bull as well, and the stairs leading
171The description the four living beings is

to the throne were flanked by lions. of
the image given of the king's throne here. Two of the cherubim-
slightly reminiscent of
like beings172from Apc 4: 7 surely match some of the animals that resemble part of the
king's throne, namely the first living being representing a lion (iö cwov to npwTOv
being in bull &vtEpov

(TO' c4.
ýov öµotov
oRotov ? ovtii) and the second the shape of a
his Torlage from Ezekiel 1: 10 here, as the description

µö(yxcp).John is surely following
169Cp. HENGEL: Christologly, 151.

170See for this discussion also GLONNER: Bildersprache, 175.
"l Cp, for this METZGER: Gottesthron. 298-365.
from Isa 6: 2 and the cherubim
t'' The four living beings in Apc 4-5 are combined out of the seraphim
Theolo v. 33. )
from Ezek 1:5-14. (Cp. for instance BAUCKHAM:
1S4
of the four beings is very similar to the tradition in the Hebrew Bible. '-' In
Ezekiel
1: 10-26, though, the four cherubim
are portrayed in a way that allows for them to
actually form part of God's throne (i. e. the wheels). 174 Maybe John
alludes to a
combination of such a throne imagery from 1 Kings and Ezekiel. Possible

analogies for
John's description of God as ox x"jxcvos dirt
tio'v Opövov- with the identification of the
throne as being the cherubim are preserved in Psalm 18: 11

- where God is depicted as
or for instance in 1 Samuel 4: 4 where God is described as sitting on the
cherubim ýWý). 175 Another possible tradition for the throne

as John
describes it might be the description of the mercy-seat according to Exodus 25: 17-22
and 37:6-9. Here cherubim are evidently part of God's '76

mercy-seat. Evidence for the
cherubim as being part of the throne rather than just surrounding it also occurs in
Josephus' writings177and rabbinic' 78and gnostic179material. The living beings in Apc 4
might therefore not only surround the throne, but also be 180
part of the throne. The
phrase 16ickcq rob Apövoo would refer to the beings surrounding the throne as parts
attached to it. In this case, the Lamb would not just be in the middle of the throne and
the four beings, but the Lamb's location could also be defined as being positioned
1" John alters the order of the appearing beings, cp. also ALINE: Revelation 1-5,298-299. Moreover,
while in Ezek the fact that the four living beings have four faces is emphasised, no such structure of the
faces is made explicit in Revelation. One may assume, though, that the description of these beings being
"full of eyes" in Apc 4-5 and other literature (3 En. 9:4-5; 22: 9; 25: 2-6; 26: 6; 2 En. 22:2) derives from an
exegesis of 1 Ezek 1:5-10. Cp. DECONICK: Voices, 143. The number of wings of the living beings is
also altered from four to six, following the tradition from Isa 6. Cp. GRUENWALD: 68-69
1th"sticism,
and ROWLAND: Heaven, 223. See further BOLL: Offenbarung, 36-39.
174Cp. for instance MICHL: "Engel", 62-63.
15 See GLONNER: Bildersprache, 175. Cp. for similar references SCHÄFER: Rivalität, 19-20.
similarly
176Cp. for this
also HALL: "Throne", 609-612.
"' Cp. JosephusAnt. 3.137.
178Cp. for the living beings as part of the throne for instance Midrash Song of Songs 3: 10 and parallels in
Midrash Psalm 103, Tanchuma (B) 11'7127= 14 and Exod. Rab. 23. Cp. for this also
STRACK/BILLERBECK: Offenbarung, 799-800. The living beings were also constituent parts of the
throne in Pirqe R. El. 4.
179A similarity to Apc 4 can be seen in the Nag Hammadi \\riting On the origin oo1the world (formerly
Sabaoth throne upon a chariot called "Cheruhin"
called the Untitled Writing): In this writing creates a
forms bull, surrounding the throne. Cp. for this also
with of a lion, a an eagle and a man and angels
FOSSUM: Name, 303-304.
160
within the space of the throne, or rather on the throne.'81 The Hebrew Bible
passages
dealing with descriptions of God's throne
might not generally allow for an
interpretation that sees the Cherubim resembling his
throne, though: The way God's
throne is depicted in 1 Kings 6 makes it rather clear that it

was understoodas floating
182
above the cherubim. The cherubim could therefore not have been part of the throne in
the passage of I Kings. This negative result does not necessarily
exclude an
understanding of a cherubim throne in Apc 4 entirely. because God is not depicted
above the cherubim here. The portrait of the relationship betweenthe four living beings
and the throne is not depicted with precision in Apc 4:6, as the position of the beings is
Ev µtßrp cov Opovov xai xüx), (p tioü Opovov. Only the close proximity of the four living
beings to the throne can be derived from this description. Whether they are actually part
of the throne or just surrounding it can hardly be decided on the basis of Apc 4: 6. As the
beings are worshipping God (Apc 4: 8-9; 5: 8) they are definitely entities that do not
entirely merge together with the throne. In any case,more significance is attributed to
the Lamb beings, his is 183

than to the as position even closer to the throne.
Another feature deserving attention is the description given of the Lamb as
"standing" (EcripthS) in Apc 5:6. A reasonableexplanation of the depiction of the Lamb
be interpretation to Christ's 184Such an

as standing would an referring resurrection.
explanation would similarly correspond with verse 5: when the Lamb is coming to the
throne, it is not simply taking over its it

task, already "has taken" (ELXfl(v) the 54Bkiov.
indicating by the use of the present perfect that the actual taking of the scroll is an
can now be seen the Lamb is therefore

already completed action the result of which -
180For "Throne". 609-613. This interpretation is also discussed in

such an interpretation see HALL:
CARRELL: Jesus, 142-144. See similarly BAUCKHAM: Theolog}% 42: BAUCKHAM considers that the
living beings "belong to God's throne". See similarly ESKOLA: Messiah, 214.
181Cp. HALL: "Throne", 609-612.
182Cp. METZGER: Gottesthron,309-366.
183Cp. also CHARLES: Revelation /, 118-124. See also CARRELL: le'su.
s, 144.
206. S\\ I Tt 4poc 77,
194Cp. AUNE: Revelation 1-5,352-3531, KISTEMAKER: Revelation. : ahipse.
SOD[NG: "Lamm", 89-90 and PITTMAN: "Angel". 25.
161
taking the place at the throne (Apc 7: 17) as opposedto the four living beings
or other
beings in the throne room. 185Further evidence that the Lamb's
portrayal as standing
refers to Christ's resurrection can be found in Apc 11: 11. The two witnesses here
are
clearly resurrected, and the same verb (aiaµ(xi) is used in order to describe the
186Admittedly, the description in Ape

event. 11 is much less ambiguous, as the
spirit of
life returns to them and they then stand up on their feet. Theologically,
the concept of
resurrection in Ape 11 does not cope with Christ's resurrection,

as the witnesses come
to life again after three and a half days.187Assuming an allusion to Christ's resurrection
in Apc 5:6, the portrayal of Christ as standing may still seem rather odd,
especially in
view of traditions preserved in the Hebrew Bible or early Jewish writings where God is
depicted as sitting while his heavenly court is standing, for instancein 1 Kings 22: 19: 2
Chronicles 18:18; Isaiah 6:2; Jeremiah 23: 18.22; Daniel 7: 10; 1 Enoch 14:22; 2 Baruch
21:6; 48: 10; Testament of Abraham 4:5; 8: 1; 9:7; 15:11; 16:3 [Rec. A]: Testamentof
Levi 2: 10, or even in the Apocalypse itself (as in 7: 9.11; 8:2). '88 Also Israelite priests or
worshippers are often depicted as standing before the Lord, for instance in
Deuteronomy 10:8; 17:12; 18:5.7; 1 Samuel 1:26; Ps 24:3; 134:1; 135:2; Jeremiah7: 10;
15: 1.19; 1 Esdras 8: 90; Judith 4: 14 or Maccabees 7: 36.189 Finally, angels are also
described in a standing posture before God's throne, as can be seen in Daniel 7:9-
19°
10.13; 1 Enoch 71:8; 2 Baruch 21:6; 48: 10 and 4 Ezra 8:21.191In these traditions the
depiction of people standing around God probably indicates a certain degree of
185Cp. KARRER: "Stärken", 408-409.

186See similarly HOHNJEC: Lamm, 46-47: HOHNJEC regards tßTflxöc to be etymologically identical to
the NT term for resurrection (äv&aiarn. S).
181Cp. for the differences in the concepts of resurrection MULLER: Auferstehung, 50-51. esp. n. 16,.
188Cp. for this further Jewish traditions the heavenly court standing in
and also for early reflecting on
God's throne room AUNE: Revelation 1-5,352.
189Seefor this AUNE: Revelation 1-5,352.
190See for the (being introduced as napEtoTip toav in Dan 7: 10) as angels in
napE6mijickc; in Dan 7: 13
judgement SCRIBA: Theophanie, 36-37.
a situation also instance in
191Cp. MICHL: "Engel", 70. The angel of destruction can also be depicted as standing. as tor
have to stand before God see alò
I Chr 21: 15-15. For a general assumption that angels
VOLLENWEIDER: "Monotheismus". 29.
I6'
subordination. One might ask whether the portrait of a
standing Christ might not
contrast with the description of the 24 elders, who are sitting,

` on their thrones
God. 192Given the
surrounding prominence associated with the sitting position. it
might
seem at first sight that the 24 elders are superior to the Lamb, as they are the
ones sittinh,
on thrones while the Lamb has to stand. The Lamb could then even be interpreted
as an
angelomorphic depiction of Christ, as the standing posture often applies to angels.

as
just demonstrated. Further, certain rabbinic writings (Gen. Rab. 65: 21
or J. Be'r. 2c)
might support such a view as they express an interest in the standing posture of angels.
The angels' standing posture is explained on the basis that they have
no joints, which
demonstrates their inability to Sit. 194It has also been argued that 4Q405 20
col. ii-21-22
seems to distinguish certain angels who may sit, whilst other angels have to stand. 19j
However, it seems doubtful to put Ape 5: 6 in line of this discussion, as the terminology
concerning sitting or standing is subject to changing situations in other traditions: in
Isaiah 3: 13, for example, God (and not an angel) is standing as he is judging; in
Testament of Abraham 11:4-11 [Rec A] the position of the judging Adam alters from
sitting to standing. ' 96 In Apocalypse of Peter 6 Christ and the angels are depicted as
sitting when the eschatological judgement takes place. It is obvious that a sitting or
standing posture respectively is probably not a uniform means of identifying angels (or
similar subordinate beings) throughout early Jewish and Christian writings. Neither can
it be interpreted as a clear means of differentiating Christ and angels. Therefore. one
X92The identity of the 24 elders can probably not be clarified without a doubt. Cp. for thorough
discussions about the variety of possible interpretations concerning these elders the Excursus The t%,entv"-
in AUNE: Revelation 1-5,287-292, MICHL: 41testen, passim. SCHÜSSLER FIORENI_A:
elders
dfour
Priester, 284 n. 199 and SATAKE: Gemeindeordnung, 137-150. Their description as sitting on thrones
for high in the heavenly hierarchy.
allows only an understanding of their rank
19'See also FLETCHER-LOUIS: Glory, 344.
194See for this GRUENWALD:: 1fi'sticism, 66-67, esp. n. 137. See further SCHI\1 \NOWSKI: Liturgie.
218.
195Cp. FLETCHER-LOUIS: Glory. 144 for the discussion. Cp. also DAVILA: Liturgical. 145-146: It is
the thrones mentioned in the Song.
% of the
possible that only the lesser angels are not allowed to sit, while
Sabbath Sacrifice suggest that the more important angels may be allowed to do so.
196See for this also MUNOA: Powers, 50-51.
163
should doubt that the Apocalypse follows traditions where
angels or angel-like beings
are so drastically differentiated from other beings that they

cannot sit. Such a distinction
between angelic beings who can and who cannot

sit could not be underlying the
description of Christ in Apc 5: 6, since he is actually depicted

as sitting in Apc 14: 14.
Following these observations, the standing posture of the Lamb

would not necessarily
imply a subordinate position, if a judgement situation would be in

view in this vision at
all.
Given the close proximity to God's throne in the portrait of the Lamb, a
subordinated Christ does not appearto be the image the author wishes to expressin Apc
5.197 On the contrary, the portrait of the standing Lamb (i. e. Christ) has a rather
remarkable parallel in Acts 7: 56 where the Son of Man is perceived by Stephanus as
also standing at the right of God. 198

An explanation of the description of Jesusas the
standing Son of Man - in contrast to the often used tradition of Jesus sitting at the right
hand side of God and the implication that the standing posture is an attempt to limit
-
the status of Jesus here'99 is not convincing. In Luke 22: 69 the Son of Man is taking his
seat; therefore a limited status of the Son of Man can hardly have been Luke's
intention. 200 Analogously, the Lamb is portrayed as sharing God's throne in the
Apocalypse, so the establishment of a limited status of the Lamb is similarly out of the
question for Revelation.
197Christ is rather associated with the throne. See for this also KNIGHT: Revelation, 64 and 161-162.
198See also SWETE: Apocalypse, 77.
199See for such an argument ROWLAND: Heaven, 368-370. Parallel to his argument concerning Act
7: 56 ROWLAND emphasises the standing posture of the Lamb as well. For him the Lamb's importance
is expressed by death and redemption. Cp. ROWLAND: Heaven, 426 and 516 n. 72.
ZooCp. for this also FLETCHER-LOUIS: Luke-Acts, 246-248 and AUNE: Revelation 6-16.803. Christ's
in Act 7 be influenced by, the following scenario in Act 8 referring to 'imon
posture as standing might
Luke-Acts, 248 n. 8. Cp. for
Magus who is also referred to as the Standing One. Cp. FLETCHER-LOUIS:
Standing One FOSSUM: Vame. 112-129, esp. 124 n. 148. Cp. also
the concept of Simon Magus as the
to the Son of Man in Act 7: 56 on
GIESCHEN: Angelomorphic, 31. COLPE attempted explain standing
Cp. COLPE: "uiec", 462. This explanation does.
the assumption of a different tradition that Luke adapted.
knew the tradition of the sitting òii
however, not take Lk 22: 69 into account, which indicates that Luke
be interpreted as interceding fror
of Man. The standing Son of Man could in the given scenario well
for GRI''NDý1 ýN'ý: 6ý0 and
Stephen, like a defendant at a court. Cp. this proposal also
FLETCHI R-LOUIS: Luke-.-acts,247.
164
Likewise, the description of high ranking heavenly figures
as either standing or
gives the impression of interchangeability

sitting elsewhere in other early Jewish or
early Christian writings. For instance, in 1 Enoch 49: 2 the Son of Man is depicted
as
standing, while he is portrayed as sitting in 1 Enoch 51: 3 and 55:4. In Ascension

of
Isaaiah Christ's posture changes from standing (Asc. Isa. 9: 35) to sitting (A Isa.
sc.
201
11:32). Obviously, the features of either standing or sitting in descriptions of exalted
figures are functional terms. It appears to be wrong to regard the postures as typically
representative features of certain heavenly beings, be it christological. angelic, or
angelomorphic. The meaning of the postures have to be derived from the context. 202
An interpretation of the standing Lamb as a feature which represents Christ as a
defendant (of his followers) in a court situation might be enticing. Such an
interpretation could be rooted in Daniel 12: 1 where Michael, the defendant and
6'ciixci).
intercessory angel of Israel, is also portrayed as standing (: 203Parallels for an
understanding of the Lamb as a heavenly defendant might also be found in Samaritan
writings: the Memar Marqua seems to offer a lot of minor parallelling features
Apocalypse, for instance interest in the staff of Moses in

compared to the as a certain
Memar Marqua 1.3, possibly alluded to in Apc 12:5 and 19: 15. In the same passage, the
Great Name of God (probably inscribed in the staff here) is mentioned, reminiscent of
the name of the figure in Apc 19: 12-16. Of further interest in the Samaritan material are
Moses Memar Marqua V. 2, where the depiction of

references to as standing, especially
Moses as standing before God and pleading for Israel might be regarded as an
interesting parallel, as Moses becomes exalted and transformed into an angelic
201The Christology of the Ascension of Isaiah is deeply in general. In 4sc. Isa. 9: 27-39 the
subordinate .
in homage to God. In Asc. /sa. 11: 32-33).though, they
Beloved One and the Spirit are standing, probably
is likely dependant on I Pet 3: 22. Cp. K\IGHT:
are described as seated. The latter description most
Disciples, 63.
Against FLETCHER-LOUIS: Luke'-. 4crs. 247. N%ho
202See similarly GRUNDMANN: "cstijxco", 647.
Man for an angelomorphic being.
regards the standing posture of the Son of as appropriate
165
intermediator. 204 The parallels offered might
at first sight lead to a conclusion of a
similar concept of an angelomorphic Christ as an intercessor or defender in \pc 6. It

-ý:
seems, however, that these possible allusions are too widely spaced in the Apocalypse
in order to demonstrate with any force that John has

used such a concept. Furthermore.
the standing posture of the Lamb in Apc 14: 1 would not correspond
with `loses in the
Samaritanpassages.
Assuming features from a court scenario would cope

with the t« o different
in
portraits Ape 14. The juridical son of man like figure would be sitting andjudging his
in
opponents Apc 14:14, while the Lamb would be standing as the defendant of his
followers - such an interpretation copes well with the notion of Christ being depicted
according to the perspective of his followers and opponents.
The only feature in Apc 5 that might be reminiscent of a courtroom or
judgement situation seems to be the the standing posture of the Lamb (and possibly the
sitting posture of God and the 24 elders). One might ask, therefore, if this provides
enough evidence for assuming a description of judgement of any kind in Apc 5.
The analogy between the standing Lamb in Apc 5: 6 and 14: 1 allows for a more
convincing consideration than any courtroom or judgement situation involving standing
angels or angel-like beings. In Apc 14: 1, the Lamb is standing on Mount Zion. the place
where God's eschatological kingdom will be established.Therefore, the portrait of the
standing Lamb in Apc 14:1 hints at the Lamb as an eschatological Davidic Messiah. a
is his followers to face his enemies in

warrior-like Messiah who gathering and about
battle.205Such an interpretation would be in line with certain traditions: in Psalm 2:6
God sets his king upon Zion, the holy hill, from where the king will conquer his
203Cp. for Michael as Israel's intercessor for instance SCHÄFER: Rivalilrit, 29-30 and LL KE\
1:
1fichae>l, 13-30. See for the concept of angels participating in court also MACH: Entevicklungsstadien,
,
255-257, MICHL: "Engel", 88 and SCRIBA: Theophanie. 36 n. 108.
204 Cp. for the thorough discussion of the Samaritan texts FOSSUM: Name. 112-129. see also
FLETCHER-LOUIS: Glon', 146-148.
I6(
enemies (verses 8-11). This passage is further interpreted
messianicall}- in Psalms of
Solomon 17:21-25.206 The closest parallel for the

vision in Apc 14: 1-5 is preserved in
-t
Ezra 13:29-50.207 Apc 14: 1 is almost literally mirrored in 4 F_: 13:35: Ip.
rcr st>autem
stabit super cacumen montis Sion (But he will stand on the top of Mount Zion). It is
probable that the passage from 4 Ezra and Apc 14: 1-5 share a common source or
tradition. 208
The function of the Lamb in Apc 14: 1-5 and other passages might also shed
some light on the question of why the Lamb is depicted as standing. In Apc 14:4, the
followers of the Lamb are described as oi, äxoý,ou8ovvcegt äpvic önou äv urmyi
I n.
Such terminology could allude to the Lamb as a shepherd who is leading its people
-a
task that naturally involves a standing posture. Indeed, one can see some prominence of
shepherd terminology209 being applied to the Lamb or Christ respectively: In Apc 7: 17
the Lamb is explicitly labelled as a shepherd, being ävä kEßov cob Apovov (as in Apc
5), leading (notµ(xvEI) its followers to the water (cp. Ps 23). Notably the Lamb is not
referred to as sitting here despite being positioned in the middle of the throne. Also in
Apc 12:5 Christ is referred to in similar terminology: he shall lead (th) Xa noiµaivEiv )
iron staff (E-'vp4 &o m8ilpä). The same expressions reoccur in Apc
all nations with an
19: 15 (iotRavEt avio Ev päß&p cn&gpä) where they are applied to Christ again. In
this vision, though, Christ is depicted as sitting on a white horse (Apc 19: 11). Therefore.
Christ as a standing shepherd might not seem to be consequently arranged

a vision of
205Cp. AUNE: Revelation 6-16,803-804 and KISTEMAKER: Revelation, 400.

206Notably, Apc 19: 11.15 refers to following verses of these passages.namely Ps 2: 9 or P.ss. Sol 17:26-
27 respectivley. One might get the impression that the author deliberately refers to these traditions again.
in order to demonstrate that Apc 19 is a continuation of Apc 14.
207See for the messianic concept and the gathering in Pss. Sol. 17 and 4 Ezra 13 also HORBURY:
;11c'ssianism,55. "Qumran". 644
208Cp. for this ACNE: Revelation 6-16,803. See for a slightly different vvie%N ACNE: n.
89: "The close parallels between Rev 14: 1-s and 4 Ezra 13: 25-50 (which narrates the eschatological
describes Son the Most High, the %1an from the ' ca, who
assault of the nations on Mount Zion and the of
fire) the fragment in Rev 1411-5."
will destroy them with suggests the original content of
209 For shepherd imagery see also GUTHRIE: "Christology". 104, CA', F)' God, 142. C(»113L1\
Christ. 31-34. BÖCHER: Kirche, 3-5 and KNIGHT: Revelation, 128.
,
i (-w
throughout Revelation. Still, the sitting position of Christ in Apc 19
should perhapsnot
be considered as disturbing an arrangementof shepherdimagery
applied to Christ. as he
is also treading the great winepress of wrath in Apc 19: 15.
which could not be done
while riding. Since the function of Christ is juridical in chapter 19. a sitting posture as
-
in
already seen Apc 14:14 - is not very unusual. The passagesreflecting on shepherding
Ev 06ß&p at&npä indicates a rather juridical meaning of shepherd imagery in
Revelation. A look at the other passages where the Lamb is described as

a shepherd
might confirm that they implicitly refer to a standing posture.
The phrase irotiµavEi avio-6S ev päß&w mSiipöc also occurs in Apc 2: 27, though
here it does not refer to Christ, but to those who overcome (o vu'z v). Accordingly, in
Apc 2: 27 a promise is made to those who overcome, but it is Christ who is depicted in
fulfillment of this promise in Apc 19: 15 (and Apc 7: 17 and 12:5). It is noticeable that
regarding the enthronement promised to the vixwv in Apc 3: 21, Christ is depicted as the
one who achieved such a position in Apc 5: 6 or 7: 17. Supposedly, the author portrayed
Christ typologically as the one who fulfills the promises in analogy to Ape 1:5, where
Christ is called the irpuwroxoc (cp. Rom 8: 29).
The shepherd imagery applied to Christ as the Lamb seems peculiar at first, as it
is the Lamb who is the shepherd. However, such a description can also be seen in the
Animal Apocalypse. For instance, in 1 Enoch 89: 45 David is described as a ram that is
leading the sheep (i. e. Israel); 1 Enoch 89: 48b depicts Solomon as a ram shepherding
the flock of Israel. Another parallel for such imagery can be found in Joh 10:11-16
Jesus is described the Probably this parallel is the passage

where as good shepherd.
to imagery in the Apocalypse. A standing posture is unfortunately

closest shepherd used
in the above parallels, so it can only he assumed that the standing

not mentioned any of
posture of the Lamb derives from such imagery.
168
In Apc 5 though, the focus is on the
sacrificial Lamb which is standing cic
±vov (as slaughtered).However. the analogy the Lamb depicted

Eßtpayp, of as standin-,,in
two instanceswith a slightly different impetus allows for the conclusion that the
author
wanted to express that the Lamb is victorious because of his sacrifice: The Lamb
-
described with varying expressions between sacrificial and military terminoloýL'210 is
-
the victor quia victima. 211In
such a context the standing posture of the Lamb could
indeed be interpreted as a concealeddevice of alluding to Christ's resurrection.
A rather simple approach for identifying the standing posture of Christ in Apc
5: 6 would be to consider the situation circumstantially: as the Lamb approaches God's
throne in order to receive the sealedscroll out of his hand, it seemsrather natural that he
is standing before he is coming (ijkAEv) and taking the scroll in verse 7.212But again,
this interpretation of the standing Lamb does not correspondwith Apc 14:1.
Therefore, the explanation presented above appears to be the preferable solution
for the problem of the standing Lamb: the Lamb's standing posture refers to its warrior-
like messianic character which is only fully comprehensible by its suffering and own
sacrifice. An echo of Christ's resurrection might also have been intended with this
statement; the whole expression E6ti xö äbq F-6cpayµ6ov probably resembles the
author's deliberate attempt to emphasise Christ's death (kß(pc

yµhvov) and resurrection
(E(Yi1xoc)paradoxically. 213
210Cp. similarly BAUCKHAM: Climax, 215. BAUCKHAM regards the different attributes in Apc 5: 5-6
between military violence and national interests (which remain unfullfilled) and a victory
as a tension
(which is fullfilled by the sacrifice of Jesus). The victory of the Lamb
against evil by means of sacrifice
simultaneously. Cp. also MÜLLER:
might reflect on military and sacrificial categories
Lamb indicates that being victorious is
"Ratsversammlung", 255 n. 7: The emphasis on the victory of the
for the Lamb in to be proclaimed as a kingly leader.
essential the worthiness of order
211See similarly SLATER: Community, 169.
212Cp. for this idea MÜLLER: Offenbarung, 156. See similarly SCHIMANOWSKI. Liturgie, 217-219
and BEALE: Revelation, 350. See further

213Cp. HOHNJEC: Lamm, 45 and similarly SCHÜSSLER FIORENZA: Priester, 270-271.
excursus One: Paradoxes in the. -1pocalypse as means of describing Christ.
as might be parallel to
The term 6 t6Ttg could possibly also express an aspect of resurrection,
in Korn. 11.2 ). The "Standing One" in the Clr mentina probably
the Pseudo-Clementines (e. g. reflected "standing One".
One" "the Living One". In Philo God is also referred to as the
means "the Eternal or
(De 2. People approaching. God therefore also
because he is immutable and unchangeable somn. _221-210).
169
In any case, one should hesitate to
ascribe subordinatetendenciesto the Lamb in
Apc 5 becauseof the standing posture. As

we have seen, it is more suitable to confirm
that the picture of the standing posture contributes to the

very powerful image of the
Lamb which the author of Revelation attemptsto

represent.
Excursus One: Paradoxes in the Apocalypse

as Means of Describing Christ
Statements with a paradoxical character

occur frequently within the
Apocalypse, 214
particularly in the seven letters to the churches in Asia. In Apc 2:9, for
instance, Smyrna is addressed as being poor
and rich at the same time. Apc 2: 10
continues by offering believers a paradoxical reward: they can receive the Crown of
Life for being faithful until their deaths. Similarly, the letter to Sardes begins
with a
paradox accounting for this community as being simultaneously dead and alive (Apc
3: 1).215Further evidence for paradoxes can be found in Apc 3: 15
where Laodicea is said
to be neither cold or hot, and in Apc 3: 17 where the same community is described as
being rich but poor. The opening vision in chapter 1 might
moreover provide evidence
for the author's use of paradoxes: in Ape 1: 12 the narrator John turns
around to see the
voice talking to him. 216
Along with these obvious paradoxes one might also find some paradoxes in
depictions of Christ. We have already mentioned some descriptions with paradoxical
statements concerning Christ, as the Lamb being "standing as slaughtered" in Ape 5: 6,
the paradoxical character of the "wrath of the Lamb" in Ape 6: 16, or also the
supposedly small Lamb with the ßif3Xiov (Ape 5: 8) as opposed to the strong angel in
Ape 10:2 with the ßtßa,api8tov. The depiction of Christ being the Lamb bearing a mortal
wound and at the same time the Lion "who has conquered" in Ape 5: 5-6 is probably the
have to be a "Standing One" (De post. Caini 27). Cp. for a more detailed discussion of these passages
FOSSUM: Name, 120-121. It has also recently been argued that an interest in an intermediary Moses can
be seen in some Qumran writings: FLETCHER-LOUIS has attempted to demonstrate the deification of
Moses in 4Q374. (cp. FLETCHER-LOUIS: Glory, 136-141, "Angelomorphic", 292-312 and
"Deification", 236-252. The fragmentary character of the manuscript, however, does not warrant
FLETCHER-LOUIS' assumption; cp. for this DAVILA: "Ascents", 472-473. ) For 4Q377 I recto col. ii
FLETCHER-LOIUS proposes the existence of an angelic Moses who is depicted as standing, showing his
immutability. As evidence for this proposal he offers rabbinic writings (-1both de R. Nathan A 12:2: 37:2;
Gen. Rab. 8: 11; 14:3; b. Hag. 16a; Pirqe R. El. 46) where the standing posture indicates an angelic
interpretation (cp. FLETCHER-LOUIS: Glon', 146-148, esp. n. 24. ). He also offers evidence for an
understanding of standing as a symbol of immutability, as Aristobulus (frag. 2.9-12 in Eusebius Praep.
Evang. 8.9.38-8.10.17) and certain writings of Philo (De somn. 221-230 and possibly De sac.. 4beli et
Caini 8-10 and De post. Caini 27-29). See for a thorough discussion also SEGAL: Powers, 170-175.. E
connection between these parallels and 4Q377 as assumed by FLETCHER-LOUIS might be considered
but be Also in Gosp. Thom. 18 the standing posture might be
possible, cannot proven with certainty.
interpreted in light of immortality or immutability. See for this DECONNICK: Seek, 91. Admittedly, all
these parallels are too vague and remote from John's theological concept to warrant such a use of
tradition in Revelation.
214Cp. for this discussion also THOMPSON: Revelation. 48-49.
21SCp. for this also AUNE: Revelation 1-5.122.
216Cp. also ROWLAND: Revelation. 59.
most paradoxical image used to describe Christ. 217Apc 5. concerned with Christ being
victorious by his death on the cross, describes another major paradox. (: A
similar
deliberate conflation of such imagery can be found in
a reference to the cross, which is
labelled the "tree of life" in Ape 2: 7 and alluding to Deut 21: 22-2 )- Apc 22: 2-
- clearly
3.218) Notably, the author employs paradoxical imagery for the description
of the
pseudoprophet by labelling him as lamb and dragon at the same time in Apc 1' :11.219
Moreover, the beast, resembling a parody of Christ, bears
paradoxical features as it is
recovering from an apparently mortal wound (Ape 13:3.12).
It seems worth asking whether the author continues the tendency
of employinO
deliberately paradoxical descriptions for Christ elsewhere. We do indeed find
evidence
for more paradoxes being applied to Christ. In Ape 1: 18 a rather
obvious example for
this can be seen. Here, Christ is the one who "was dead" and "is alive" The same
depiction of Christ is present in Ape 2: 8. However, this paradox might simply
reflect
on early Christian traditions of Christ's resurrection. Still, such a statement has to be
accounted for as being paradoxical in character. Some other paradoxical expressions are
used to refer to Christ in the following passages as well, as for instance Christ's
depiction as "the first and the last one" in Ape 1: 17 and 2: 8 (cp. also Ape 22: 13). and
also in Ape 3: 7 where Christ is holding the keys of David, enabling him "to open what
nobody can shut and to shut what nobody can open". The blood of the Lamb and its
salvific effect is also portrayed in a paradoxical way, as in Ape 7: 14 it is surprisingly
said to wash and whiten the clothes of believers. It should have become apparent that
paradoxes are a common device of the Apocalypse's author, whose tendency to apply
such constructions to Christ can clearly be seen. Indeed, Christ seems to be described as
a paradox in the entire Apocalypse. According to our observations, Christ is portrayed
according to two perspectives, namely as the Lamb (a Passover Lamb) for the believers,
and the angelomorphic judge (an Angel of Death) for the non-believers. Such imagery
can be defined as somehow paradoxical as well, as appears odd it that Christ is depicted
as a cruel judge and caring leader of his community simultaneously. It can also be
considered a paradox that Christ functions as a destroyer while he has the status of a co-
creator in Ape 5 (see section 3.2.4. for this discussion). This paradox is reflected
exactly in the shepherd imagery provided in Revelation (see section 3.1.3.2. ). On the
one hand Christ is the Lamb functioning also as shepherd for his people, but at the same
time Christ is also "shepherding" his opponents >v päß&q m i1pä.
It can be concluded that paradoxes play a major role for the seer in his way of
describing Christ. He defines and explains Christ paradoxically as unexplainable, and
thus comprehensible only through paradoxes.
3.1.3.3. The Horns and the Eyes of the Lamb (Apc 5: 6)
Further attributes of the Lamb indicate its superiority over the 24 elders or the
four living beings who are also present around the throne. The seven horns attributed to
demonstrate the the Lamb plays in Apc 5. In early

the Lamb should also significant role
`" Cp. also SCHMIDT: "Bildersprache", 169.

218Cp. THOMPSON: Revelation, 48-49.
21QCp. SCHÜSSLER FIORENZA: Priester, 270 n. 126.
171
Jewish literature and the Hebrew Bible we find
portraits of certain prominent figures
who are described having a horn in order to symbolically indicate

their might. For
instance, in 1 Enoch 90: 9 (probably) the Maccabees depicted horned lambs. ', ''
are as
Similarly, in 1 Enoch 90: 37 a messianic military leader is depicted

as a white bull with
large horns. A further parallel of a messianic conception for the horns in Apc 5: 6
might
be found in 1QSb col. v 26, where the Prince receives a blessing that his horns
(i7ß`']17) may be like iron. Also in Numbers 23: 22; Deuteronomy 313:17; Jeremiah
48:25; Psalm 18:1-3; Psalm 22:22; Daniel 7:20-21 and 8:3-4 horns are referred to as
symbols that reflect a certain amount of their bearer's 221The Lamb in Apc 5: 6 is
power.
therefore correspondingly portrayed as extremely powerful, as it has seven horns.
The imagery of the seven horns is complemented by seven eyes that are also
attributed to the Lamb. This description is (as has been mentioned in section 2.3.2. )
connected to God's description in Apc 4: 5. Here the vision corresponds with Zechariah
4: 2-10.222In Zechariah 4: 2 the Prophet has a vision of the seven lamps of fire, probably
representing the menorah of the Temple, similar to the seven torches of fire in Apc 4: 5
that are placed in front of God's throne. Zechariah 4: 10 identifies those lamps as the
seven eyes of God, probably indicating God's omniscience (as can be seen for instance
in 2 Chr 16:9; Job 28: 10; Ps 34: 15; 139: 16).223 These lamps or the seven spirits
respectively most likely represent a group of seven angels in front of God's throne (as
220The identification lambs as the Maccabees is not entirely certain, as verse 9 might also allude to
of the
the Hasidim. Cp. TILLER: Commentary, 354-355. See also BEALE: Revelation, 35 1.
221Cp. MOLLER: Offenbarung, 156, AUNE: Revelation 1-5,353. Cp. also MOUNCE: Revelation, 132-
133, LOHSE: Offenbarung, 44, KISTEMAKER: Revelation, 207, YARBRO COLLINS: Apocalpse. 41
and KNIGHT: Revelation, 64.
222For the image for the four living beings. LOHSE
of the seven spirits and the seven eyes and also
background. Cp. LOHSE: O//enharu 44. This
assumes shades of astral mythological traditions in the Apc
ng.
be dismissed, it that these in 4-5 can be more
possibility might not entirely though seems passages
basis from the Hebrew Bible which are rather N isible and not as
easily explained on the of traditions
The in the background of Apc 4: 5 are Zech 4: 10
remote as the astralmythological traditions. traditions
Offenbarung, 1 10. Ezek 1: 13 another parallel th'ut
combined with Is 11:2 (LXX), cp. KRAFT: provides
in 5. Cp. ROWLAND: Heaven. 224. Cp. for influences of Hebrew
might be in the background Apc 4:
10 for the influence of Zech 4
Bible passages also HEMER: Letters, 142. See also FEKKES: Isaiah. 107-1
and a discussion on a possible influence from Isa 11:2.
172
for instance in Tob 12: 15224),as certain
early Jewish writings similarly- designate
angels
as spirits. The expression "spirit" is used, for instance, in Jubilees 1:25. -1:2:
15:31-'32 or
1 Enoch 61: 12.225The occurence of angels being designated
as spirits is admittedly not
very common. In Qumranic writings, though, the expression "spirit" is

more commonly
used for designating angels. Angels are represented as spirits in 4Q403 1

col. ii 10:
4Q405 14-15 col, i 4; 4Q405 19ABCD 4; 4Q405 24 2, they

are the D"MýM MIM in
4Q403 1 col. i 43; 1 col. ii 8,9; 4Q404 5 5; 4Q405 20

col. ii 21-22 11; 4Q405 23 col. i
9-10, and also 4Q405 23 col. i 8-9 indicates that "holy
angels" and "spirits of God" are
being used synonymously.226
Even in New Testament writings a designation of angels

as spirits is known: in
Hebrews 1: 14 angels are called n'roupytxä 1tvwi aia, corresponding with the same
designation in verse 7.227This passage supports the claim that

angels are sometimes
described as spirits in New Testament literature. Therefore, also the "seven

spirits of
God" in Apc 3: 1,4: 5 and 5: 6 may be identified as seven angels standing before God, in
analogy with Apc 8: 2.228 It is even possible to identify these seven angels with the
group of angels in Apc 15:5-8 and Apc 16: 1-21 as well, because their description
223See also AUNE: Revelation 1-5,353-354.

224The
specification of seven angels being before God is shared by the different versions of Tobit.
Vaticanus and Alexandrinus (BA) on the one hand, and Sinaticus (S) on the other. In BA Raphael is
additionally designated as one of the seven "holy" angels (eic ex icüv enTä äyi.wv äyytkXwv). Angels in
BA are described as "holy angels" between "holy ones" and the "holy One", which might possibly stress
their intermediary tasks. (cp. similarly DESELAERS: Tobit, 185 and FITZMYER: Tobit. 296. ) The
description of God as the "holy One" in Tob 12: 15 BA is probably a reference to Is 6: 1-3 (see also
GROSS: Tobit, 46. ); as the same passage from Isa is underlying Apc 4-5, one might assume that
Revelation is closer to the BA version of Tobit. For a connection of Tob 12: 15 and Apc 1:4 and 3: 1 cp.
also GROSS: Tobit, 46 and MOORE: Tobit, 271.
225Cp. for this AUNE: Revelation 1-5,34
and 353-354.
. 26 Cp. for full list "angels" being "spirits" in Qumran NEWW SOM: Sabbath. 25.
a of represented as
Apparently "spirit" is the most common designation for angels in Qumran. Cp. for this also DAVIDSO \
Angels, 241 and 252 and AUNE: Revelation 1-5,34-35. See for the designation of angels and demons as
spirits ALEXANDER: "Demonology", 331-353.
2' See for this LANE: Hebrews 1-8,32.
228See AUNE: Revelation 1-5.35. See MJCHL: "Engel". 114 and MOORE: Tobit. 271.
also
17?
matches the statement concerning the seven spirits in Apc 5: 6 which God sends out into
the whole world. 229
Another hint for an angelic interpretation of the spirits in Apc 4: 5

and 5: 6 can be
derived from the parallel in Tobit 12: 14-15. Here the angel Raphael is
announcing in
verse 14 that he was sent from God (ämßtEt? v µE oO oÖin BA and alt t&, 1E\' µ£ 6
OcöSin S). The same Greek verb refers to the spirits that are sent out (which are
äiai& hvot here) in Apc 5: 6. The reference to sending the spirits out almost certainly
indicates that an angelic understanding of the spirits in Apc 5: 6 is favourable.
Some scholars have assumed that the seven spirits represent the Holy Spirit,
in in 230
becausethey are mentioned a rather "trinitarian" salutation Apc 1:4-5a, but such
an interpretation seems too close to a trinitarian concept231and does not acknowledge
the early Jewish material and the passage from Hebrews 1:14 that indicates the
probability of the spirits representing angels. A decision on whether these seven spirits
represent angels or the Holy Spirit is not entirely crucial for the understanding of the
Lamb's significance here. It has been demonstrated,however, that an interpretation of
is
the spirits as angels very appropriate. Like God having power over the spirits, Christ
in Apc 5: 6. The (seven horns

now receives command over these seven spirits attributes
to Christ also ensure the impression of the Lamb as

and seven eyes) given
232as it shares features with God. 233

overwhelmingly powerful and wise,
229Cp. GIESCHEN: Angelomorphic, 264.

230 Cp. for instance BAUCKHAM: Theology, 110-115, KISTEMAKER: Revelation, 207. HEMER:
Letters, 142-143, HOHNJEC: Lamm, 49-50 BECKWITH: Apocal pse, 424-427. See similarly
or
SPITTA: Offenbarung, 66.
2'' See for the problem of identifying the seven spirits also KRETSCHMAR: Offenbarung, 34-35.
232 Possibly the seven horns represent Christ's power, while the seven eyes embody wisdom. Cp.
CAIRD: Revelation, 75: CAIRD regards the horns and
HARRINGTON: Revelation, 84-85. See similarly
See further SCH1\1: \NO' SKI:
the eyes as an expression for indicating omniscience and omnipotence.
Liturgie, 229-231.
233See YARBRO COLLINS: Apocalypse, 41.
174
3.2. The Christology in the Hymnic Parts of Apc 4-5
3.2.1. The Reaction of the Elders and the Angels
The tendency of the Lamb's superiority over the other figures.

namel\ the tour
living beings, the elders and other angels in the vision in Apc 4-5. is further
evidenced
by the hymnic material in these chapters, and also by the reactions of these figures as
the Lamb takes the scroll.
A clear-cut distinction is apparent between the Lamb and the other beings
surrounding the throne in the vision in Apc 5. Their reaction to the Lamb's investment
reflects their subordinate position. The 24 elders and the four living beings fall down
before the Lamb and worship it (Apc 5: 8), and the myriads of angels join the scene of
worship by praising the Lamb (Apc 5: 11-12). Further, the entire creation, all beings in
heaven, on earth, on and in the sea, join this praising (Apc 5: 13). This scene of worship
in Apc 5 does not only indicate the Lamb's superiority over the beings witnessing its
investment, 234the sequence of these beings worshipping the Lamb also expresses the
Lamb's relation to God, as Apc 4 offers a parallel structure of God being worshipped.
The four living beings worship God (Apc 4: 8-9) by praising him, followed by the 24
before God (Apc 4: 10-11). In to this explicit form

elders who put their crowns contrast
of worship, such veneration by God's creation seemsto be absent in Apc 4. However,
an implicit form of integrating the is

creation present in Apc 4: 11, as God is referred to
the things for he is praised. More clearly God's worship by

as creator of all which
is
creation expressedin the hymnic part of Ape 5: 13, where God and Lamb are praised
together.
234See also CARRELL: Jesus, 144: The Lamb is superior to the 24 elders and the four living beings. as
they acclaim Jesus in song and bow down before him (Apc 5: 8; 5: 12).
175
Provisionally, these observations seem to
confirm an equality of the Lamb and
God, as both share the worship of the elders, the four living beings,
and the creation.
Notably angels are not mentioned as worshipping God,
which must arouse some
suspicion. In similar heavenly scenarios angels (sometimes reciting hymns) are
regularly mentioned, as in 1 Kings 22: 19; Daniel 7: 10; 1 Enoch 47: 3.23 One
can only
assume that the author deliberately wanted to express the expanding circle of
worshippers in increasing detail only once in Apc 5 and therefore did not repeat full y
the scenario in Apc 4. An omission of the angels in Apc 4 may be explained as having
been taken up by the presence of the angels in Apc 5: 11.236(Also, angels are included in
a vision of worshipping God in Apc 7: 11.) But then it remains problematic why the
angels should be mentioned as praising the Lamb alone whilst they are not said in the
text to be worshipping God. Perhapsthe author wanted to stressthe superiority of the
Lamb over angels here; as the status of God, who is assumed to be far superior to the
angels, needs no demonstration at this point. In the hymnic material itself one can
indeed find further clues for the Lamb's superiority over the other angels, elders and the
four living beings, and also more statements concerning an equality of Lamb and God.
Strikingly, the hymnic material in Apc 5 is more extended and deals with the Lamb in
much more detail than with God in Apc 4.
3.2.2. The Relation between God and the Lamb in the Hymnic Parts
A parallel display of the hymnic material - divided into the passages dealing
God (Apc 4: 8.9.11), the Lamb (Apc 5:9-10.12). and with both the Lamb and
with with
235Cp. also GRUENWALD: Ahsticism, 33 and AUNE: Revelation 1-5.363.

216Cp. AUNE: Revelation 1-5.363. The description of the multitude of angels reflects traditions such as
137, SWEET Revelation. 131 and KNIGHT:
Dan 7: 10 or 1 En. 14:22. Cp. MOUNCE: Revelation, :
Revelation, 65.
176
God (Apc 5: 12) - demonstrates the author's interest in
describing the power
of the
Lamb in detail.
Figure 2: Display of Hymnic Material from

Ape 4 and 5
Apc 4: 8 11 A p c 4: 9 A pc 5: 9-10 Apc 5: 12
. Apc 5: 13
Hymn praising
God God Lamb Lamb Lamb+God
&ytos, äytoS, &ytoS
...
xvptoS ö O£69
o ltavtioxpäticop
6iv xai. 0äiv
Kai ö epxöµEVOc
äýtos Ei (XýtoS ci äýto' v Eatty
ö xvptog xai. 0 ethS
iö äcpviov Td)xaB%la`vcu
ýjµwv To h6cpa. ki
7µevov T(i) Opövw
Kai TO)apviw
Xaßciv &ixsovrnv A,a(3civ xapciv
...
'r v S&ýav Söýav tiö ßtpkiov ti7ly Svvaµty TIeOayia
xai, 'rhv 'Ttµ7jv xai t, µrly Kai nkokov xai h Ttµh
Kai Thv & )Vaµty "Kai £'6xapt6'ctav Kai. ao(Piav Tj SÖýa
Kai
Kai tßxüv Kai iö xp&2oS
Kai t LTV
" Kai SOýav
xai ävoiýat Kai £ )Xayiav
tiäS ccpayiSaS
avrob
etc tiolýS (Xki vac eiS ioüc aüüvaS

tid)v ai6vwv 'cwv cwowov
ött öit
cslb9xitßac ECFqy71S
iä 7t&vtia
xai i yöpaßa
Kai Stä tib O TJ.öc t( 9&1 Ev aip ati
Gov csov
ex näo-ig cp fc
xai yXdxsarjSxai
Xaov
Kai 9Bvovs
f ßav koITj6a;
xai Kai
6Kttc97ßav aütioýs tic) 9e4
ijµwv ßaetXeiav
Kai iepeig Kai
(3aaiXe c ovrnv
gei 'trjc Yf1S
The limited hymnic materials used to describe the power of God should not,
however, lead one to infer that this is not of ultimate concern: Apc 4: 8 describesGod as
"ptoS ö 8Eck 6 navtioxpä'rwp, a phrase that bears no analogy in the describing

passages
background Isaiah 6: 3: 2"

the Lamb. In the of this passage one can clearly recognise
237Isa 6: 3 is also quoted in I En. 39: 12. Cp. MÜLLER: Offenbarung, 146-147, MINE: Revelation 1-5.
304-305 and JÖRNS: Evangelium, 24-26. God is adressed with a singular title ("Lord of Spirits") here, so
I'7
however, the author has slightly changed the matrix for his
version of the hymn. as he
inserted three titles referring to God as (a) Kbptoc,(b) o OF-öS
and (c) 6 mavroxpäzwp.
instead of the MR= 7717"' in the MT or icvptoS
c c4k«nO in Isaiah 6 (LXX). The
extended use of titles applied to God is not only a means of underscoring God's
power
by titles, but corresponds as well with the introduction
of Apc 4:8 and with the
Dreizeitenformel from the second part of the hymn: God is also
addressed by a threefold
äytos and by 0f 1v xai ö ciw xai ö F-'pxöi voc. Accordingly. God is

acclaimed by three
pairs of expressions in Apc 4: 8, possibly in order to emphasise God's power and
perfection. The passage in verse 8 might underline God's nature according to the
Dreizeitenformel, in which John is particularly interested. 238In Apc 4 the significance
of this formula might even be highlighted by the author's use of different tempora. The
use of the in
aorist Ape 4: 1-2a, the setting of Ape 4:2b-8a in the present tense and the
description of 4: 9-10 in future tense might also correspond with the phrase o ijv xai ö
239
cSv-Kai ö EpxöpE VOS.
The three pairs of three acclamations in Apc 4: 8 and the corresponding use of tempora
may be schematisedas follows:
Figure 3: Scheme of Auc 4: 8

1 2 3
1 äyto;, äytog, öiyto;
2 xüptog ö Acb, ö ltavioxp&ro p,
3 ö fly ö
Kai cüv Kai. ö EpxöµEVOS.
------ ------ ------ -- ----
Apc 4 1-2a 2b-8a 9-10
Tempus aorist present future
the verison of 1 En. is closer to Isa 6. Cp. for the influence of Hebrew Bible passages on Apc 4: 8 and
other passages featuring the trishagion also THOMPSON: Revelation, 57.
218In Jewish material one may find parallels for an interpretation of the trishagion as three aspect`
early
6: 3 interprets three holies to God being hold' in heaven, on earth and in
of God: Tg. Isa. the as alluding
Apc 4: 8 is from the hekalot literature, where God was king. is king
eternity. Even closer to an example
Cp. AUNE: Revelation 1-5,307 and for the latter parallel SCH, -I 1:FR:
and will be king for eternity.
focuses the eschatological coming of God, as the
Synopse, 62. In the Apocalypse, though, the author on
indicates. Cp. JÖRNS: Evangelium. 27-28. This concept of a
third part of the Dreizeitenformel clearly
God therefore, to be a unique feature of the Apocalypse.
threefold description of seems,
239Cp. similarly JÜRNS: Evangelium, 29. See further SCHIMANOWSKI: Liturgie. 144-147.
178
Generally, the Dreizeitenformel is also present in descriptions
of Christ (Ape 1: 17-18 ).
as has been demonstrated above (see section 3.1.1. ). Notably. though. such
an equation
of God and the Lamb is not present in Apc 4-5. The formula describing God as the
one
who was, who is, and who comes is probably the only phrase connecting Christ and
God in Apc 4: 8. On its own the entire verse is

a theological reflection on God's
immense power and might. In the following sequences that

contain hymnic material the
author of the Apocalypse reveals more on the relation between God and the Lamb.
3.2.3. The Prerogatives in the Hymnic Parts
Apc 4: 9 contains elements of a hymn, though it is provided in oratio ohliqua.
The four living beings give God S'Eav xai itgiv xai cüxaptcJtiav which takes place
EiS io-1S aiciwvaS'rthv aiwvcnv. Both phrases recur in the following hymns in Apc 4 and
5, albeit with a notable variation in the first phrase. The objects which the four living
beings give (&haouaty) to God are presented in Apc 4: 11 again, but here they are
described as the objects which God takes (? (x4EIv). Furthermore, they are not the same
elements of worship, because Evxapi6iiav is altered to 'rtv 81)vai nv. Similar
doxological elements are also present in the hymnic parts concerned with the Lamb in
Apc 5: 12. These elements are even increased rather impressively here, as no less than
listed here, rTjv 8vvaµly -Kai nXovrov xai 6ocpiav xai ißxüv xai
seven are namely
86l In the following hymn, in turn, God and the Lamb are
tiiµhIv xai av Kai EvXoyiav.
Sö, a xai iö Kpäiog are given to them. At first sight.

praised together and 71nn xai ij
the application of these elements might simply reflect a certain similarity of the "cards
but following the object of veneration the changes might imply the author's
used,
here. One that the description of the Lamb's praise listing seven
intention may consider
display its with Apc 5:6 \\ here the

predicates in order to worthiness might correspond
aýu
Lamb has seven eyes and sevenhorns. An interest in the number
seven.however. is also
reflected in descriptions of God: The seven torches of fire resembling the

seven spirits
are burning in front of his throne; also in Apc 7: 12 the doxology addressing God
features seven objects. 240Therefore, the distribution of the predicates

of doxologies in
pairs of seven or three cannot simply be dependent upon whether it is God or Christ
who is worshipped. The occurence of seven doxological elements does not
automatically entail an addressto Christ, as three of those elementsare not exclusively
featured in doxologies for God. As the hymn in Apc 5: 13 praising God and the Lamb
mentions four doxological elements, it should be apparent that there is no
correspondence between a given number of elements and a given recipient. The only
observation that can be made concerning the number of predicates of a doxology in
Revelation is the variation of three (Apc 4: 9.11), four (Apc 5: 13). or seven objects (Apc
5: 12; 7: 12). Accordingly, the author implies that the Lamb and God have an equal
status, as both are attributed three or seven ascriptions in the doxologies, while they
share four objects241when they are praised together in Apc 5: 13.
A minor difference that occurs when the various prerogatives are listed is the use
of articles in front of the descriptions. Occasionally the entire group of predicates only
receives one article (Apc 5: 12). while in the other doxologies they receive either an
individual article each (Apc 4: 11 and 5: 13) or no article at all (Apc 4: 9). However, such
help in distinguishing the prerogatives given to God from

an observation cannot us
Lamb. In the lists of prerogatives with an article for each attribute.

those ascribed to the
240As the doxology to God also includes seven prerogatives it cannot be deduced that the Lamb is more
SLATER: Community, 171-172. However, one might assume that
powerful than God. See for this also
is deliberately Cp. PETERSON: ©E02: 321.
the number of seven prerogatives composed.
'" The number of four prerogatives might also reflect on the author's interest in this number, as can also
living beings (Apc 4-5), the 1', angels in the four corners of the
be seen in the description of the four )ur
Cp. further PETERSON: Of-O-. X44 and 250.
(Ape 7: 1), or the cubic from of the New Jerusalem.
world
180
more emphasis is probably given to the individual object than in
cases where just a
is 242
single article present.
The objects within the doxologies that are given to God

and the Lamb
respectively show a certain variation as well. Previous attempts to identify the
predicates have occasionally led to grouping them into sections containing a certain
meaning. For instance, the predicates in Apc 5: 12 can be devided into two sections: the
first four predicates (iijv 815vagnvxai itXoviov xai 6ocpiav Kai i(Tiiv)'``"
could then
refer to the powers the Lamb received in order to reign, while the following three ('n.i p'
xai 864av xai. E1 oyi(Xv) give reasons for the Lamb being 24` Such an
worshipped .
understanding would be consistent with Apc 11: 17, where gratitude is expressed
because God took his might and reigns. The vocabulary used in Apc 5: 12, therefore,
might hint at the investment of the Lamb and the Lamb receiving the powers as the ruler
of the world, similar to God in Apc 4: 11.245However, we are obliged to deal more
thoroughly with the prerogatives in the doxologies in order to see whether they confirm
this kind of equality being expressed here:
A) It is noteworthy that "glory" (6ö a) and "honor" (uju) as a pair are included
in each of the passages above containing a hymn. In Revelation S&ýa refers to God in
three passages (Apc 4: 11; 7: 12; 19: 1), and one more time to God and the Lamb together
(Apc 5: 13). In all occurrences rtgi is used simultanously. 246 Both expressions also
Testament Christian in Romans 2: 10.

occur together in other New and early writings, as
I Timothy 1: 17; Hebrews 2: 7.9; 3: 3; 2 Peter 1: 17; 1 Clement 45: 8 and 61: 1-2. Also in
LXX both frequently together. as can be seen for instance in

the expressions are used
Psalms 8:6; 28: 1; 95:7; Job 40: 10; 2 Chronicles 32:33 or I Maccabees 21.
14: They
242See also MORRIS: Revelation, 99 and SLATER: Community. 172.

'a' For a connection of these expressions and their meaning see also DELLING: "Johann esapokaIypse".
111-113. See further BEALE: Revelation, 364-365.
'44 Cp. for this suggestion for instance LOHSE: Offenbarung, 45, NIM \C E: Revelation. 117, \1ORRIS:
DELLING: "Johannesapokalýpse". 11 1-112.
Revelation, 98, SLATER: Communihv. 172 and
181
probably resemble a hendiadys-like construction in Revelation.24' The other expressions
in the doxologies might therefore deservemore attention.
B) In Apc 4: 9 Evxapt 'ria is given to God

alongside &a and ztjn . which is an
object that is exclusively attributed to God in the Apocalypse (4: 9: 7: 12). It is
questionable,though, if one might imply the Lamb's inferiority becausethanksgiving is
not attributed to it. As JÖRNS observed,the expressionE vxaýptatiais

probably present
in both passages in Revelation in order to reflect gratitude: In Apc 4: 9 forthcoming
a
judgement is expected, while in Apc 7: 12-15 the gratitude is uttered by those

who face
God's salvation in front of his throne.248 Accordingly,, we may interpret the
thanksgiving only being given to God out of the context from Apc 4-5. It should be
added that the expression Evxaptßiia is probably used synonymously with E1 oyia
(Apc 5: 13 and 7: 12) as the latter term also describesoffering praise.```' Accordingly, the
act of thanksgiving in the hymns does not emphasise a more important status of God
compared to the Lamb.
The prerogatives applied to Christ (i. e. the Lamb) in Apc 5 are, in turn, similar to
those applied to God elsewhere, and one can only observe a slight changein vocabulary
between the doxologies concernedwith God on the one hand and with the Lamb on the
other:
C) "Wisdom" (aocpi(x), for instance, is given to the Lamb in Apc 5: 12, but it is
in
also used a hymnic context concerning God in Apc 7: 12. This prerogative is probably
that appropriate for the Lamb in the vision concerning its

an attribute was considered
king. 250
investment. The attribute as such is often regarded as a gift from God to a
X45Cp. MÜLLER: Offenbarung. 148.

246See for the use of "glory" and "honor" (and "power") also SCHIMANOWSKI: Liturgie, 167-168.
21"Cp. for this AUNE: Revelation 1-5,365-366 and JÖRNS: Evangelium, 33.
'48 See JÖRNS: Evangelium, 33 and MÜLLER: Of enharurig, 148.
"JoSee also DELLING: "Johannesapokalypse", 111 and JÖRNS: Evangeliumr, 53.
250Cp. BRETTLER: God, 55-56 and AUNE: Revelation I-5.365.
182
D) "Wealth" (n obroc) is notably not used in
connection with God in the
Apocalypse, but the author probably usesthe expressionin association

with kingship in
Apc 18: 17, albeit with a negative meaning. This prerogative is, how
ever, included in
one of Philo's writings, amongst three other expressionsoccuring in Apc 5: 12: nXoütcc.
8ö4a, 'nn and k6 are mentioned in De ebrietate 75. The similarity between Philo
and the prerogatives in Apc 5: 12 might indicate a significance for these qualities. 211
Furthermore, references to wealth can also be seen in the doxology to God in I
Chronicles 29: 11-12 and, referring to Christ, in 2 Corinthians 8:9 (n?,oüoloS d5v).`
Presumably, the wealth attributed to the Lamb here emphasises its importance, and
simultanously distinguishes the "true wealth" (i. e. Christ) from the wealth of the kings
of the earth.
E) "Praise" (EVXoyia) occurs three times in the Apocalypse, exclusively referring
to God (Ape 5: 13; 7: 12) or the Lamb (Ape 5: 12). One can therefore conclude that
is
grandeur attributed equally between God and the Lamb by this expression.
F) "Power" (Svvccp; ) is also attributed to God (Apc 4: 11.7: 12; 11: 17 and 19: 1)
Lamb (Ape 5: 12). This expression probably also serves to describe God and the
and the
Lamb as being on a par: In Apc 4: 9 Svvaµns describes the power of God as the creator.
in Apc 5: 12 therefore participates in God's

the Lamb that receives the same attribute
253
power.
It has been argued that "glory and power" would constitute a Leitmotiiv
throughout Revelation's liturgical passages as well (similar to Sö,a and Ti tii).
God Jesus of the world as opposed to the Emperor's

attributing and as true sovereigns
254 is too superficial as 8u vaµt; does not

Cult. However, such an assumption probably
doxological in Revelation (as e.g.. \pc

occur in every passage which contains material
25' Cp. AUNE: Revelation 1-5.365.

252See S\\ ETE: Apocal pse, 81.
25' Cp. JÖRNS: Evangelium, 53.
183
4: 9 or also Apc 5: 13 where xpäio; is used instead
of 8üvaµtS). Still, the use of Söi;a in
combination with SvvaµnS in Apc 4: 11 attracts

some attention as both prerogatives also
occur at the end of the Lord's Prayer in Didache 8:2 (also including the Eu"igkeit.
s/orrmel
Ei.S do ai(-OvaS).Presumably, the combination of Söýa and 8vvetp; was

a common
doxological expression for referring to God's glory
and strength in early Christian
circles, though we cannot speak of afixed expressionhere: ii and especially Kpärog
are similar expressions used synonymously in doxologies, as will be demonstrated in
the following two sections.
G) "Might" (i(yxiS) could resemble a synonym for 8vvaµtS, 2" used for the Lamb
(Apc 5: 12) and God (Apc 7: 12). In the Hebrew Bible the expression T17("strength") is
frequently used to describe God's kingship, as can be seen in Exodus 15:2.13; Isaiah
19:4; 45:24; 1 Chronicles 16:27-28; Psalms 62: 12; 59: 18; 93: 1. Less commonly, the
expression also resembles a privilege that God grants a king (1 Sam 2: 10: Ps 28: 8). 256
One might therefore conclude that iyxvS is indeed a predicate that might indicate the
Lamb's investment with the attributes of kingship, similar to 8vvaµnS, 6ocpia and
257 Notably though, the is description

iXoviog. expression reminiscent of the of the
strong angel in Apc 10: 1 or the angel in Apc 5: 2, who are both described as ißxvpöc. It
might therefore be worth asking if the author clearly distinguished angelological,
christological and theological categories in these passages, as similar expressions are
shared by God, the Lamb and angels. However, an assumption of angelic categories
applied to the Lamb seemsrather unjustified: the use of iaxc is limited to God and the
Lamb, while the angels are described with the adjective i upoS- We may conclude that
25' Cp. for this proposal KRAYBILL: Cult, 221.

? SS
Cp. BRETTLER: God, 57-68.
256Cp. AUNE: Revelation 1-5.3,65 and BRETTLER: God, 63-64.
25, See MÜLLER: "Ratsversammlung", 255.
also
184
the power of the strong angels is defined by the application
of ißxic to God or the
Lamb, not vice versa.
H) In Apc 5: 13 four prerogatives are mentioned,

amongst which Tö hpätuý
represents a new element in the hymnic material in Apc 4-5. It has occasionally been
considered that the fourfold doxology in verse 13 representsthe fourfold division

of
creation (ßäv xtiiaµa ö Ev iw ovpavcP xai Eni tiijS yýc xai vnoxäzw Tfic yý1Sxai FRI
in
ti' g OaXöcß(Yiic) the same verse. 258Such an interpretation of the four prerogatives does
not appear to be very likely in light of the varying number of objects in similar
doxologies in the Apocalypse. However, the order in which the objects appear in \.
; pc
5: 13 is very similar to comparable doxological material throughout Revelation. 259It is
likely that xpäio; was added by the author together with the Ewigkeitsformel Eig roü;
aüiwaq cwv c ithv ov: In Apc 1:6, icpäioS (together with S&Ea) is also present, followed
by an abbreviated version of the Ewigkeitsformel Eiq cons ai vaS. (This doxology
might again hint at a rather flexible use of terminology in order to express God's or
Christ's strength, as xp&rog or SvvaµiS are apparently used alternately) The widespread
use of xpäioq together with 6 roibg aüovaS in early Christian circles is additionally
testified by I Timothy 6: 16; 1 Peter 4: 11 and 5: 11. Also in Jude 25: 1 Clement 64:
65: 2260 and Martyrdom of Polycarp 20: 2 xpaioc, is used in connection with the
Ewigkeitsformel, they are, however, separated from each other by other predicates.
Another striking parallel for the phrase ij S&ýa xai T6 KpäioS Eiq iovS ai I vac Tow
aiwvwv being part of a doxology can be found in Apocalypse of Sedrach 16: 10.
258See for instance MOUNCE: Revelation, 138 and DEICHGRÄBER: "Gotteshymnus". 53 n. 3. In :\pc
5: 3 the cosmos is divided into three sections only. Cp. AUNE: Revelation 1-5.348 and 366.
2S9Cp. AUNE: Revelation 1-5.366.
2601 Clem 64 65: 2 interesting to Apc 5: 1,. as both passages from l Clem share
and provide parallels
details with the passage from Apc: In I C/em 65: 2 a throne is mentioned among the prerogatives of the
God Lamb. / Clem 64 also features four
doxology, which is also present in Apc 5: 13 addressing and the
(&ii; in Apc 5: 1,: eüý.uyia has in turn
doxological elements of which three (x. Kp&T and n u) are present
One Apc S / Clem are based on similar
been replaced with µeyaXctx uvrt. might ask NNhether and
traditions.
185
Similarly, Testament of Abraham 20: 15 [Rec. A] features "glory
and power" together
with the Ewigkeitsformel. 261
Within the Apocalypse we find two more

expressions reminiscent of xpätoS in
Apc 5: 13, namely xpatiCov in Apc 2: 1 (applied to Christ)

and navtoxpt wp (applied to
God) in Apc 4: 8. (Other occurences of derivates of the
expression in Apc 2: 13-15: 25.-
-1:
3: 11 and 7: 1 are not pertinent to this discussion. ) At first
sight, it is already obvious that
God and Christ do not only share this attribute in Apc 5: 13, but
similar expressions are
attributed to them in other passagesof Revelation. The nuancesoutside Apc 5. though.
might be interesting: In Apc 4: 8 God is not simply attributed as xpätoq, but his power is
described in an even increased form as the itavioxpth(op. 262 Such

a statement
concerning Christ is not present in the Apocalypse. So it might seem that God is
described as slightly more powerful.
Christ, in turn, is described as the one "holding the stars in his right hand" (Apc
2: 1). The word xpatic3v does not only mean "holding" in this context, but bears the
meaning of "having power over". The stars which Christ is holding have before been
identified as the seven angels of the seven communities (Apc 1:20). It seems, therefore,
that Christ is the 263 in Apc 5:6,

attributed a certain amount of power over angels, as
Christ is described having the 264

As has been shown,
where as power over seven spirits.
this very same power is attributed to God as well (Apc 4:5). Accordingly. both God and
Christ have a large amount of power attributed to themselves in the Apocalypse, a
power which certainly sets Christ apart from the angels as being more powerful. God's
261See
also AUNE: Revelation 1-5,49.
262The to be for the Apocalypse, as it occurs only one more time
word rravioxpärCop seems rather specific
in other New Testament writings (2 Cor 6: 18) and otherwise only in the Apocalypse, here mainly in
liturgical texts as Apc 4: 8; 1 1:17; 15:3; 16:7 and 19:6. See THOMPSON: Revelation, 55.
263Cp. STUCKENBRUCK: Veneration, 233.
264lt seems possible that John (i. Christ's position in contrast to
also expressed christological concerns e.
that of angels) in terms of astrological ideas: this idea be in Apc 1:20, where Christ is
might reflected
holding the seven stars who represent seven angels, or also in Apc '_2:16. where Christ himself is
Star". being in background of John's Chri<tolog.
addressed as "the Morning This concept possibly the
and angelology is examined more thoroughly in Appendix 4.
186
power is further emphasised as being the navToxpätwp and creator. This
special
attribute is not applied to Christ. Still, in Ape 5: 13 God and Christ are attributed the
doxological KpäioS which allows for an interpretation

of equal power of both of tliem.
I) The object iö ßt3Xiov in Apc 5:9 is, of course,

not a doxological predicate as
such, but since it is inserted in verse 9 in the same manner as the doxological predicates
in Apc 4: 11 and 5: 13 it seems worth investigating whether further intentions

of the
author might be derived from here. Notably, the doxologies in Apc 4: 11.5: 9 and 5: 1
are all introduced with & toq and a form of vat followed by the infinitive Xaßciv. 265
(This construct in Ape 5: 9-10 replies to the question raised in Ape 5: ' and the reaction
of the seer in 5: 4 correspondendly: The question it; ä toS ävoi4at TO'I3tIXiov xai
?vaal ti6S acpayiöcS aviov; is answered in the same style: ä o; Ei a,a4Eiv iö ßtßý,iov
xai ävoI n ti(q 6cpay1&xSw tob. ) The introduction with äEioq and a form of £ivat
cannot be understood without the following infinitive (? x eiv266) and its attached
accusative objects as ä4to; is not used absolutely; only the entire construction (äýtoS
and Eivag and infinitive and accusative object/s) defines the content and reason of
267Accordingly, the entire construction has to be interpreted as the praise;

worthiness.
therefore, the description of the Lamb taking over the scroll has to be regarded as
praiseworthy for the author: It is not just the scroll as such that is taken, but the
functions of the Lamb as a messianic figure, similar to the attributes that are attestedto
God in the hymns as an eschatological figure.
265See for list Revelation, 58. In Apc 4: 11 5: 9 the doxology is

a of these elements also THOMPSON: and
introduced by öci;ioq ei (in the du-Stil). Lamb and God are therefore adddressed with the same expression,
which represents a further hint that the to put them on par. In Apc 5: 12 the introduction of
author wanted
doxology in 3. Person ä v ecsn". See
the changes slightly: Here the Lamb is addressed the singular with t.
for the change of person also ALINE: Revelation 1-5,309-3 10 and NORDEN: Theos, 141-166.
66 11.5: 9 5: 12 v, ith
. The infinitive X.aßeiv is present in the three doxologies in Apc 4: and corresponding
impetus lies the tour living
the äýtoS in the introductory part of each doxology. In Apc 4: 9 the more on
2
beings. Consequently the verb in verse 9 is a form of SI&ojn. In 5: and the 4 infinitives are äVO1 (ll and
Xüßai focusing on the question who can open the scroll.
267Cp. JORNS: Evangelium. 49.
187
We may summarize that most of the predicates
within the doxolo,-,ies do not
seem to distinguish God and the Lamb from each other, but rather express an equal
status of both of them in general. Some elements in the lists of prerogatives in the
hymns may vary, but the author seems not to aim at a subordination
of the Lamb.
3.2.4. The Worthiness of God and the Lamb
The tendency to express an equation of God and Lamb is further found in

,-upc
4: 11, Apc 5: 9-10 and Apc 5: 13, as the reason for being worthy of receiving doxological
honors or the scroll, respectively, is constructed in a parallel fashion. For both God and
Lamb, the reason for receiving these objects is provided in the subordinate clauses in
Apc 4: 11 and 5: 9 starting with oRt. In Apc 5: 12 the reason for the Lamb's worthiness is
not given with a subordinate kt-clause, but with the participle 'r6 kßcpayR6ov which
likely be ött Eßcpoc'yµboc 268Another parallel feature shared

most should read as F-6rtv.
by God and the Lamb can be derived from a comparison of Apc 4: 11 and Apc 5: 9-10.
The reason for God receiving the doxological honors is clearly given in the creation (av
95 269Such is, to C'hrist.270

icii6aS tiä irävia). a statement as mentioned above, not applied
Instead, Christ's salvific deeds (i. e. redeeming people for God and making them to be a
kingdom and priests for God271) are displayed in a very similar manner in Apc 5: 9-10.
268Cp. similarly SWETE: Apocalypse, 81 and JÖRNS: Evangelium, 53.

269See for the significance of creation also Apc 10:6, where the angel's oath is reflecting God as creator,
or Apc 14:7. Cp. HOLTZ: "Apokalypse", 248-249.
270It might be of christological concern here that Christ is called rt öcpxi rij KTißecc Toü AEOVin Apc
3: 14. Such a statement might appear to express a certain subordinate status of Christ, if 6pXrj is simply
translated as "beginning" (cp. John 1:2-3). However, other translations ("ruler", "cause") are possible as
The äpxrj have been parallel to ztpotÖtoxog which is svnon}mously
well. expression might also employed
for in 18. Cp. AUNE: Revelation 1-5,256. We that the use of 6(M
used &pxrj 1 Cot 1: might complement
in Ape 3: 14 probably corresponds to the expression rrp otoroxog in Apc 1: 5. indicating a tendency of the
Christ his in a timely sense: he is described as
author to apply predicates to which express special status
is implied
being at the earliest stage of creation. Accordingly. no subordinate. but rather an exalted status
here. By addressing Christ i 6tpxij Ocov the concept of creation and Christology are
as rrlc xtißec Tov
closely related with each other. Cp. also HOLTZ: "Apokalypse",
_'49. V. Because
'`" See for a differentiation between kingdom and priesthood AGOURI'DIS:: 'roA-a VV17. of
in Christ's reign. 5cc also
Christ's deeds people are established as coregents on earth. participating
188
Christ is not the creator here, but instead he is honored cacpö
me acci yöpocßaand
enoii czc Remarkably, all referencesto reasonsfor doxological
. praise are gigen in the
second person singular, which underlines the parallel structure of these statements.
Also, the means of their achievement is described and set in

parallel: God arranged his
creation by his will (6tä tiö AEki iµ (Tov)while Christ redeemsby his blood (Ev aiµaTI
(you). Furthermore, creation takes place in three steps, a) (71)9xii(yoc, iä nävta. b) 8tä
iö ftXijgä f
Gov a(xv and c) xai Extii6Oiic av. Similarly, the salvation by Christ's deed is
described in three steps, a) E6cpäyi1g, 272

b) Kai. fjyopacz(x and c) Kca E noiijaaSaüioi S.
This parallel clearly underlines that John elaborated an equal status of God and the
Lamb in this verse, attributing creator-like actions to both of them. The threefold action
of both of them might also be considered to correspond with an occasionally expressed
threefold creation (Apc 5: 3 or 10:6) in the Apocalypse273 and could therefore also bring
Christ nearer to a status of a quasi-creator. The division of the cosmos in the
Apocalypse is, however, not very strict throughout the writing. The universe might be
described as being divided into four (Apc 5: 13 or 14:7), three (Apc 5: 3 or 10:6), or even
only two sections (Apc 10:5,12: 12,14: 6 or 21: 1). Therefore, not too much weight
should be given to possible parallels between cosmology and the elements from
doxologies, as already demonstratedabove in the caseof Apc 5: 13.
The fact that John employs another parallelism might add to the impression of
Christ and God acting as "creators": In Apc 4: 11, God's act of creation points to the
consequence of his action. His creation is also taken into view in the third person plural
EKTtG(i latter in Similarly Christ's

as ijaav Kat c av, though the verb passive.
SCHOLTISSEK: "Mitteilhaber", 192-194. SCHÜSSLER FIORENZA: Priester, 168-290 and JOCH1 %1-
BORTFELD: Offenbarung, 156-165.
272The image of the Lamb "purchasing" the people probably goes back to a tradition of redeeming
See HOLTZ: Christologie, 65-68. Cp. SCHÜSSLER FIORENZ: \: Priester. 280-
prisoners of war. also
281 and SWEI T: Revelation, 130.
Apc 5: 11 be present in Phil 210. Cp. for this
`2'3A three partite division of creation similar to might also
also SCHIMANOWSKI: Weisheit, 34.
189
benevolent action of self sacrifice is considered in 5. using a third person plural
foram (Kc I. Mio(Ytkz ov6ty £iti, 'r q yij ). Therefore, one can infer a parallel message
from both given passages: God is praised because he

acted as creator. while Christ
receives praise for making people as priests for God. who will reign on earth.
Accordingly, both God and the Lamb acted in favour of humankind. Despite
the fact
that their actions are different, they have both acted positively on behalf of the created
order. We might even interpret Christ's salvific deed as a new creation: Christ is clearly
not involved in the act of creation as such, but the parallel setting of God creating the
world and Christ making humankind into new priests and kings on God's earth might
suggest that John wanted both actions to be understood similarly. 274 Christ's self
sacrifice and its outcome might therefore allow for the conclusion that the redeemed
people from all nations resemble a new people or even a new kind of creation,
analogous to God's initial creation. More emphasis is put on Christ's role in a new
creation in Apc 21 where the New Jerusalem comes down from heaven into the newly
created world (Apc 21: 2). This Jerusalem is simultaneously God's (and the Lamb's)
dwelling place and the Lamb's bride, indicating the rather intimate relationship of God
Christ 275Accordingly, God and the Lamb receive a very similar form of
and once more.
praise. In the following hymn in Apc 5: 13 it is notably the entire creation (näv KTI61a)
which is praising God and the Lamb together.
Another detail in the doxology in Apc 5: 9-10 deserving attention is the
subdivision of the justification for praising Christ. The reason for the doxology is
in three by the three verbs in verses 9-10. The verbs

arranged parts which are marked
den Tod). b)
divide the act of salvation into a) Ea(päy-n;- victory over death (Sieg ühc'r
274See for the parallel setting of creation and salvation in Apc 4: 11 and 5:9-10 also HIOMPSON:
Revelation, 58-59. See similarly MATERA: Christology, 206-207. The assumption of a connection
is further by the the expression nou`w in Apc 1:6 and
between salvation and creation supported use of
in Ape 21: 5. Sec for this
5: 10, because this term points to an understanding of creation as also present
JOCHUM-BORTFELD: Offenbarung. 164-165.
190
Tryopaa(x- redemption (Erlösung), and c) Enoirlßoý glorification (t'erherrlrc, hung).
- --`' 1F
has been suggested that this division was
not only inserted by John for aesthetic
reason.
but it might also represent a theological
concept: Rom 8: 30 constitutes a possible
analogy for a tripartite scheme as preserved in Apc 5: 9-10.27 More important for
our
study is the consideration that the author used a tripartite division
as in Apc 4: 8 once
more. In Apc 1:5c-6a such a distribution of Christ's

salvific deeds in three acts (being
described with three verbs) can be found.278It

can only be assumed,though, that the
author empolyed three verbs in Apc 5: 9-10 in order to allude to another tripartite
scheme he also used in Apc 4: 8, repeating the &ytog three times. As the author might
have used the expression & tog three times as

well, possibly in order to allude to the
trishagion, 279
an assumption of the repeated use of tripartite arrangements alluding
-
similarly to God and the Lamb - could be more likely.
The expression ä,tos28° used as an attribute might be worth further
consideration, as a theological interest may underlie the use of this expression.28' It is
obvious that 6ýto; is used not only in reference to God282(Apc 4: 11), but also applied to
the Lamb (Apc 5: 9 and 12). Accordingly, the Lamb is once more represented in similar
terms as God himself. 283 This equality is further paralleled by the same style of
addressing the one who is worthy of praise: twice the form of ä toq (followed by a form
of Ctvai)284 and the infinitive Xa4kiv enclose the address of the object of the praise.
275Cp. MATERA: Cliristology, 212. See

also JOCHUM-BORTFELD: Offenbarung, 207.
276See for
such a division KRAFT: Offenbarung, 113.
277Cp. KRAFT: Offenbarung, 113.
278See LAUCHLI: "Gottesdienststruktur", 362 n. 9 and RUSAM: Formeln, 58.
280See for detailed discussion äi; JÖRNS: Evangelium, 56-76. See also ROOSE: Zeugnis.
a on toS
8J
`. Apparently the use of äi; tog applied to God and the Lamb here is at an early state of development in
Christian literature. Cp. DEICHGRÄBER: "Gotteshymnus", 50-5 1.
282The ä have been understood as a synonym for the name of God, as JÖR\S
expression tos might even
has demonstrated: Aquila translated God's name "10 in Gen 17.1 as gtcS xai iKa\\. A connection
between Aquila's translation and the use of äEioc in Revelation can, ho\kever, not be established. See
JÖRNS. Evangelium, 56 and 63.
283See KNIGHT: Revelation, 65, VAN UNNIK: "Lamb", 445-461 and GUTHRIE: "Revelation".
also
401.
211Cp. for a parallel structure also SLATER: Communiiv. 171.
191
namely God (o Ki ptoS Kul 0 OF-öS11RC
v) in Apc 4: 11 and the Lamb (Tö ClpviOVto
F,ß(paygvov) in Apc 5: 12.285

It may also be assumedthat both God
and the Lamb are
brought closer by blending religious and political language in their descriptions: God is
referred to in religious language as creator on the one hand, on the other hand the scene
reflects his kingship in political language as God sits on the throne. Further. the 24
elders acclaim God's kingship by presenting him their crowns, which might
reflect a
customs of the Roman imperial cult. Such political languagemight further be visible in
the acclamation "worthy are you" and in the address"Our Lord and God" (ö i ptoSxai
o 9EöSiith v) which corresponds to the acclamation used in the imperial cult (dominos
et deus noster). Similarly, Christ is depicted in a conglomerate of religious and political
language; the description of his sacrificial death reflects on religious aspects, while
Christ's depiction as "Lion of the tribe of Judah" and "Root of David" in Apc 5:6
language of Israel. 286 Such

mirrors the political use of combined political-religious
language applied to God and the Lamb might represent another hint at an equal status of
both figures, which the author of Revelation may have deliberately designed.
3.2.5. The Application of the Ewigkeitsformel to God and the Lamb
The use of the Ewigkeitsformel To; Etc ioc aiö vac iwv aithvwv in Apc 4-5 and
even in the entire Apocalypse also seems to support the thesis that similar significance
is attributed to God and the Lamb. In the entire Apocalypse this is

expression used
thirteen times, and in it to God and Christ: in Apc 1:6 and 1: 18 the
most passages refers
Ewigkeitsformel Christ in Apc 4: 9.10,7: 12.10: 6 and 15:7

refers to exclusively, while
285In Apc 5: 13 such an equal status is not achieved by to but

ý%orthiness. here God and the
attributing
Lamb are addressed together (Tw KC("l.I t) Fin tuu Opbvw Kai T() äpviw).
286 Cp. for this the detailed discussions on the expressions &w; and 6 xvpuý >iai ö G* ripwv
Roman imperial AUNE: Revelation 1-5.309- 312 and
concerning political language of the cult
192
only God is mentioned in connection with this expression; whereasin Apc 5: 1.3 1I:
).
and 22: 5 God and Christ are referred to together with the formula. (The
other passages
including the Ewigkeitsformel, Apc 14: 11,19: 3 and 20: 10. do
not mention God or
Lamb, but instead refer to the duration of punishment for those

who oppose God.)
Apparently, God and Christ must have been similarly important for John he
as equally
adds the Ewigkeitsformel to descriptions of both of them. Notably, in Apc 1:18,4: 10.
10:6 and 15:7 John also emphasised God's or Christ's eternal life
as a quality they have
in common with this same expression. The expression is also used in

order to indicate
an eternal reign of God and Christ together (Apc 11: 15 and Apc 22: 5) and further
stressesan equal statusfor both of them.
3.3. Conclusion
Accordingly, the entire construction of the hymnic parts in Apc 4 and 5. which
has been demonstrated to be set highly in parallel, indicates that the author generally
to
wished put God and the Lamb on par. Equal is
status ascribed to God and Lamb by
certain attributes (for instance sharing the seven eyes as stated in Apc 4-5, thus also
sharing the control over the seven spirits). Further, the Lamb is associatedparadoxically
with wrath, a feature that is normally reserved for God in Hebrew Bible passages(for
instance in Num 11:1; Ps 2:5; Isa 54:8; 63:3 or der21:5). Similarly, the Lamb has taken
.
function is normally performed by God himself (as in
over the of a shepherd which
Ezek 34 or Ps 23). Moreover, the proximity of the Lamb to God's throne (Apc 5:6:
7: 16-17 and 22: 1-5) indicated equality between God and Lamb. Both of them share
"dominus deus nosier" under Domitian's

THOMPSON: Revelation, 58-59 and (excluding the use of et
reign) 105-107.
287 Such an assumption is further supported by the author's use of the expression nthv: The
Christ (Apc 1: 18) or to God
Ewigkeitsformel often occurs with a form of 6 ýi ' being either applied to
(Apc 4: 9-10; 10:6: 15:7). Cp. RUSAM: Formeln, 57.
14;
worship, and occasionally they are even worshipped together (Apc
5: 1 and 7: 1- ).
Within many passages of the Apocalypse the
elements of praises and doxologies given
to God and the Lamb correspond well with

each other and therefore indicate equality
between God and Lamb rather than

ascribing subordinate tendencies to the Lamb. 288
Occasionally passages of Apc 4-5 also demonstrated Christ's

superiority over angels as
well. Despite such similarites between God and the Lamb some
minor differences
between them can be mentioned. God is described
as being rather passive in these
chapters of the Apocalypse. At first sight his actions appear to be limited to

sitting. as
he is only described as ö xa9ijµ¬voS (e.g. Apc 4: 3; 4: 9: 5: 7) indicating his judge,
role as
or as letting the Lamb take the sealed scroll from him (Apc 5: 7). A reason for such
a
limited description of God is probably the
author's avoidance of anthropomorphisms.
The hymnic material also focuses on God and his

act of creation, which - next to
judgement has to be acknowledged as God's major role in the Apocalypse. 289On the
-
other side we have the Lamb as the more active figure, approaching God's throne,
taking the scroll and bringing salvation to the people by self-sacrifice. The following
sequence (Apc 6) will also describe the Lamb opening the scroll's seals290 and
shepherding its followers (Apc 7: 17 and similarly Apc 14: 1-5). It has been argued that
"... the lamb is carefully distinguished from God " and that "... God is precisely,what
...
this figure (i. e. the Lamb) is 291The have
not". observations we made above contradict
such a judgement. The Lamb is described in terms that make him appear to be close to
God and function as his more active counterpart and representative. It seems that the
Lamb is almost described as a mouthpiece of God himself. 29` Further, the amount of
288Cp. for the God Lamb also the passage on Gleichheit des Lammes mil Gott dem
equality of and the
Vater by HOHNJ EC: Lanmm,150-154.
289See Excursus by JÖRNS Gottes Handeln in der Apocal in: Evangelium, 42-43.
similarly the on pse
290 performing the Christ God's executor. Cp. BORI\(I:
opening of the scroll's seal represents as
"Christoloùv ", 708.
291CASEY: God, 142.
2Q2See BORING: "Christology", 707: BORING attests that God is defined h) Christ. and their
similarly
HOLTZ: "Apokalypse", 251 BOCHER: Kirche. I.
voices tend to blend together. See similarly and
194
powers and attributes God and the Lamb have in common (as has been demonstrated)
and the communal worship and sharing of the throne supports an understandingof the
divine 293
Lamb as possessing status. Subordinate tendencies of the Lamb are practicall`
nowhere to be found. Whether such tendenciescontinue within descriptions that depict
Christ in his role as a heavenly judge has still to be elaboratedin the following sections
of the presentthesis.
293Cp. SCHIMANOWSKI: Liturgie. 21: against CASEY. God. 142.

similarly
IQS
4. The Christologv in Apc 19
4.1. The Structure and Unity of Apc 19
Apc 19 consists of three sections: 1) the vision of the heavenly service
(resembling a celebration of God's just judgement and the Fall of Babylon) in .\pc
19: 1-10,1 2) the vision of the eschatological messianic warrior figure (the rider sitting
on the white horse) in Apc 19: 11-16, and 3) the visions of the defeat of the
pseudoprophet and the kings of the earth in Apc 19: 17-21. The latter two sections are
more closely linked as they report on the outcome of the eschatological battle of the
horse, both in 2 In turn, there to be a

rider on the white visionary style. seems
discrepancy between Apc 19: 1-10 and the following sections, as the chapter is
introduced with a service in heaven and the celebration of Babylon's downfall, at first
glance the following visions might not seem a very appropriate continuation of this
introduction, as an eschatological battle is reported there. Certain observ ations,
however, are helpful to confirm that these two sections are linked together.
4.1.1. Inner Unity of Apc 19: 1-21
A first argument for the unity of Apc 19 as a whole arises from antithetical
"wedding feast the Lamb" ýýhich

imagery within the chapter. Apc 19:7-9 refers to the of
feast the birds on the dead bodies of the kings of

is apparently set parallel with the of
1For a thorough analysis of Apc 19: 1-8 see KENNEL: Hymnen, 225-264.
19 SCHÜSSLER-FIOREN7. ": Olenbarun 128.
Cp. for the patterns of visions in Apc also .
into Apc 19: 17-18 and 19-2 1.
SCHÜSSLER-FIORENZA subdivides Apc 19: 17--'l two sections, namely
marked by the expression xai ei&ov.
196
the earth in Apc 19: 17-21.3 The author possibly draws
on the rather cruel imag of the
birds eating their cadaverous food as contrast to the vision

of the vedding feast of the
Lamb, which resembles the victory over exactly the same evil forces
serving as food for
birds 4 For both

the now. of these descriptions the same term (&invov) is emplo,, ed.
Such imagery also corresponds to the major topic of judgement which is

alluded to in
Apc 19: 1-10 and 19: 11-21, as Apc 19: 1-10 described the celebration over the judgement
and downfall of Babylon (especially visible in verse 2). while Apc 19:11-21 gives a
more detailed report concerning the actual judgement vision. Therefore. Apc 19: 1-10
can possibly be understood as a kind of foreword for the following passages.
We may further assume that the author of Revelation deliberately maintained a
connection between Apc 19: 1-10 and 11-21 by other allusions within both passages.For
instance, one can see the dominance of the topic of blood imagery in both passages.In
Apc 19:2, vengeance is announced for the murder of God's servants and the spilling of
their blood. Apc 19: 13 correspondingly describes the rider of the white horse dressed in
a garment stained with blood. However, it is unclear whose blood is alluded to in the
latter description, it could be a reference to either the blood of the martyrs or the blood
of God's is
opposition which now spilled in the judgement scenario.
The correspondence of allusions to pure linen might also add to the impression
Apc 19 as a unit, because pure linen given to the Lamb as a wedding dress in Apc
of
19: 8 is by the white and pure linen worn by the heavenly host in Apc 19: 14.
mirrored
Some of the vocabulary employed in chapter 19 might allow for deducing a deliberate
between Apc 19: 1-10 11-21. For instance, the expressions S1Katat in
connection and
Apc 19:2 and 8txa th ta'ta in Apc 19:8 seem to be alluded to by the expression
8ixaoa 'vrý in verse 11. Similarly, the expressions äA,

iiOtvai (verse and äi. rj9ivoi
2)
Lamb RO)OSE:Zeugnis, 207.

See for the feast of the birds as a Gegenbild to the wedding of the also
Cp. also STUCKENBRUCK: Revelation, 92.
`Cp. for this also MEALY: }ears, 63 and MIILLER: Ofenhurung. 119.
197
(verse 9) correspond with the same word ä),
rlOtvoq in Ape 19: 11. The expression of
A,öyot tov 9£ob in Apc 19:9 seems to be

... mirrored by the expression 6;. yoS tcoü 0¬oü
in Ape 19: 13. The same expression might

also suggest a connection bet\\ een Apc 19: 10
and Apc 19: 13: in Apc 19: 10, a reference to the "testimony of Jesus" (µapTupia 'Iquov)
is made, followed by a designation for the

rider as ö X6yoq toü OF-of)in Apc 19: 13.
Notably, a combination of both expressions

occurs frequently in Revelation (Apc 1:19-,
20: 4, cp. Ape 6: 9). Therefore, it is possible that these two

expressions are related in Apc
19.6 Finally, one may also consider that the terminology

of Ape 19:5 and 19: 18 seems to
be in correspondence, as in both verses one finds

an allusion to "the small and the big
ones": Ape 19:5 describes God's servants with this expression (oi tmpoi xai of
µzy&Xot) while the same phrase is used for God's enemies in Ape 19: 18 (with the
Genitive form juxpwv ic(A p yäXo v). 7
An allusion to a passage from the Hebrew Bible provides further

evidence for
the unity of Ape 19: 1-10 and 11-21: The topic of the wedding of the Lamb in Ape 19:7-
9 and the narration concerning the warriorlike rider in Ape 19: 11-21 might reflect on a
shared matrix in the background of both passages, namely Psalm 45: 2-5. It is possible
that John deliberately alluded to this passage when he composed chapter 19.8
Another observation that might add a little more evidence for the assumption
that Ape 19: 1-10 and 11-21 should be read together can be derived from allusions to a
further Hebrew Bible passages in both sections. Ape 19 generally follows the order of
Isaiah 61-63, as the bride imagery in Ape 19:8 represents a quote form Isaiah 61: 10.
This salvific passage is followed by allusions to Isaiah 63: 1-3 in Ape 19: 13 (where the
6 Cp. ROOSE: Zeugnis, 207-217. The weakness of ROOSE's argument is the fact that the "\\ ords of God"
are referred to already in Apc 19:9. However, the expressions "testimony of Jesus" and "%ýord(s)of God"
occur each two times in Apc 19: 9-1-33,which might represent an ABBA structure of this passage. This
could reflect on a deliberate composition. For the connection between "testimony of Jesus" and "word(s)
of God" see also STUCKENBRUCK: Revelation, 91.
7 The in Apc 1 1: 18: 13: 16.20: 12. See further ROOSE: Zeugnis. 207.
expression also occurs
8 Cp. for this MEALY: )'ears, 64-65.
198
garment of the heavenly rider is soaked with blood like God's garment in the
corresponding Isaiah passage),and also by the allusion in Apc 19:15 to the treading of
the great wine press of wrath from Isaiah 63: 3. Therefore, the author apparently kept the
general outline from his Isaiah Vorlage dealing with salvific aspects followed by
visions
of judgement and wrath.
4.1.2. Unity of Ape 19: 1-21 through Comparison with Ape 14
Similarities can be found between the setting of Apc 14 and Apc 19. Both
chapters report a judgement scenario in visionary style, both involving a high ranking
heavenly figure with a rather prominent role, namely the one like a son of man in Ape
14 and the heavenly rider in Apc 19.9 Notably, both times the figure is not referred to by
a name. In both chapters the author moreover metaphorically alludes to the judgement
as a harvest. The prominence of harvest metaphors in Apc 14 has been thoroughly
discussed above (see section 2.3. ). In Apc 19: 15 the author again uses the same
metaphor as in Apc 14: 19-20 and identifies the one treading the winepress as the rider
on the white horse (i. e. Christ). Further details of Apc 14:6-20 correspond with Apc
19: 11-21, as for instance the means of locomotion upon which the heavenly figure is
(the in Apc 14: 14-15 and the white horse in Apc 19: 11.21). the
sitting white cloud
(a in Apc 14: 14 and multiple crowns in Apc 19: 12). and the sword-
crown single crown
like instrument (namely a sharp sickle in Apc 14: 14-16 which is echoed as a sword in
Apc 19:15.21).
Not only the figure carrying out God's judgement is set parallel, though, also the
for those the sign of the beast (Apc 9-11:

14: 19:20) corresponds
punishment who accept
for followers of the beast is
between the two visions. In Apc 14: 10. the punishment the
9 See OFGEMA: HotJüung. 118.

similarly
199
the same as in Apc 19:20, as it consists of fire and sulphur both times: Fire and sulphur
as such in Apc 14, and in Apc 19 a fiery pit burning with sulphur (2i.
wrly toü nvpöSrf
xano thvinc Ev 9Eüo).
The duration of the punishment for those who acceptedthe sign

of the beast as
eternal (Ei; ai(övaq cdý vcov) is reflected in Apc 19:3, where the smoke rises up for
eternity (ö xatvöS (XvtifS ävaßai. v¬t Ei. iolbS ai6 vac rwv aiwvcwv). The expression "her
smoke" (o )
icairvoS (xvcf; most likely alludes to the smoke of the destroyed Babylon
mentioned in Apc 18:9.18.1°
Further, Apc 14: 1-5 and Apc 19: 1-10 share a similar composition, and both of
focus, " following (Apc 14: 14-20

them contain a salvific while the sections and Apc
19: 11-21 respectively) concentrate on the elimination of God's opposition. For instance,
the introduction begins in a location which is rather remote from the following
judgement scene; in Apc 14: 1 on Mount Zion, in Apc 19: 1 in heaven. Both opening
scenes mention a crowd of people who are apparently present, namely the 144,000
sealed Ones in Apc 14, who are mirrored by the voice of the multitude in Apc 19: 1.6.
Chapter 19 even seems to report the scenario provided in Apc 14 more clearly, as the
song of the 144,000, which is performed by the voice of the multitude "like a voice of
like thunder" in Apc 14:2 and Apc 19:6.12 This song is only
many waters and a voice
to in Apc 14, in Apc 19. However, two songs are explicitly described, namely
referred
Apc 19: 1-3 and 19:6-7.13 Notably, the 24 elders and the four living beings are not
included in the group which sings the new song in front of God in Apc 14:3. whilst they
the to God in Apc 19:4. This detail in ; \pc 19

are amongst those who perform praise
hints the from Apc 14: Apc 19 appears to he a

also at the gradual unfolding of story

Cp. also SÖDING: "Lamm", 99.
12Cp. MCEWAN HUMPHREY: Cities, 113-114.
1' Cp. for these analogies between Apc 14 and Apc 19 JÖRNS: Evangelium, 124-125. Sec also
BORNKAMM: "Komposition", 21 1-212 and AUNE: Revelation 6-16,795.
200
detailed version of Apc 14, which is rather
proleptic in character. The relation beM een
Apc 14: 1-5 and 19: 1-8 and between Apc 14:6-20
and Apc 19: 11-21 is a relation of
prolepsis and actual event. The full meaning of what is alluded to in Apc 14 is
at last
unfolded entirely in Apc 19.14 Along with this, the destruction

of Babylon the Great
which is foreshadowed in Apc 14: 8 is finalised in Apc 19: 1-2.15
Regarding these analogies, it might be no coincidence that in both Apc 14

and
19 we find small sections which do not entirely relate to the
content of these chapters.
As has been argued above (see section 2.3. ), the events

of Ape 14: 12-13 interrupt the
scenario and, somewhat suddenly, appeal to a situation within the Christian community.
Similar to this interpolation, we find the interpreting angel's

rejection of worship in Ape
19:9-10. As in Ape 14: 13 before, verse 9 includes a makarism, which does

not quite
seem to fit into the given context of judgement. Other features of Ape 14: 13 and Ape
19:9 are strikingly similar, as A) both verses exhibit an introductory formula beginning
with i«xi and followed by a form of the verb Xycly (X yov6ric in Ape 14: 13 and ? y*
Rot in Ape 19:9), B) both verses share the command to write (ypäiov)16 which is
.
immediately followed by C) a beatitude (Row(XP
' tot). The statementsof the beatitude are
D) strikingly similar again as both beatitudes are directed to an elect group of people
who are described by a nominalized participle (oi änoOv?1rncovticSin Ape 14: 13 and of
KEKX71µevotin Ape 19:9). The group is further identified by participation in Christianity
and belief in Christ, as the group is closely related to Christ himself: the addressed ones
are those who "died in the Lord" (&noOvl1axovtES >v xupIq in Ape 14: 13) or who are
invited to the wedding feast of the Lamb (,cob yaRou coü (X'pviou in Ape 19:9).
Furthermore. the beatitudes are even continued similarly. In both cases E) a second
14See JÖRNS: Evangelrwn, 124, MÜLLER: Offenbarung, 328, LOHSE: "Menschensohn", 210-214 and
MEALY: Years, 70.
15Cp. MEALY: Years, 74-75.
16See for the order to write also RUIZ: Ezekiel, 506-507: The order occurs mostly in the seven letters to
the churches, oterwwise it occurs in Apc 13: 13.19: 9 and 21: 5.
201
introductory formula is added (? -y iö üµa in Apc 14: 13 and it.Fycl kot in Apc
19:9), which is F) followed by a further statement.'7 The parallels between Apc 14:1
and Apc 19:9 are therefore immense, and have to be

regarded as a deliberate
achievement of the author. We may assume that the author interpolated Apc 19;9-10 for
a similar reason as Apc 14: 12-13 before. When we consider that John interpolated a
beatitude in Apc 14 in order to convey a certain message to his readership. we are
probably allowed to assumethe existence of a similar phenomenonin Apc 19 as \vell.
The messagesthe author inserts into both judgement scenarios are somewhat similar
insofar as a reward for correct behaviour (i. e. being a follower of Christ and not of the
beast) seemsto be promised. The reward is relief of the strains within life (Apc 14:13)
and the invitation to the Lamb's wedding (Apc 19:9), which (according to Apc 21)
represents a life in the vicinity of God and the Lamb. As in Apc 14:13 before, the
beatitude aims at comforting the readership of the Apocalypse from their current
distress.18
In addition to such a message the author inserts another detail in Ape 19: 10. The
first person narrator (i. e. John himself) attempts to worship the angel who conveys the
beatitude to him. This attempt is drastically refused by the angel. Accordingly. in Apc
19: 10 John not only promises the eschatological reward to his readership, he also
the message that angels must not be worshipped. Like the beatitude itself, the
conveys
angel's refusal of John's worship does not quite fit into the context of the rest of the
Apc 19, deals with a vision concerning the eschatologicaljudgement

scenario of which
The full this of angelic worship (also present in -\pc

of the world. meaning of refusal ,
22: 8-9) is best explained in terms of christological and angelogical concerns, discussed
in the following section.
" Cp. for this also AUNE: Revelation 1--22,1031-10 32.

18See similarly PARK: Offenbarung, 113-114.
202
The parallels between Apc 14 and Apc 19
are altogether striking: the vocabulary
and setting of both visions are stunningly parallel. and we even managed to demonstrate
that Apc 19 is a continuation of what has been narratedproleptically in Apc 14.
4.1.3. Unity of Ape 19: 1-21 through Comparison

with Ape 1
Apc 1 offers a number of apparent parallels to Apc 19 (and

conclusively to Apc
14). The majority of these parallels consist of nearly identical

attributes and features
shared by the rider on the white horse in Apc 19 and Christ in Apc 1. Both times a
vestment is attributed to the figure (Apc 1: 13; Apc 19: 13). his eyes are like fiery flames
(Apc 1: 14; Apc 19: 12), and out of his mouth comes a sharp sword (Apc 1: 16: Apc
19: 15.21, cp. also Apc 2: 16). Further, as in Apc 14: 14, the figure appears
on a white
cloud (Apc 1:7.13), which we already identified above (see section 2.2.4.3.2. ) as a
feature reminiscent of the description of riding the white horse (Apc 19:11.21). As in
Apc 14: 14, the vision concerning the heavenly figure is opened by the expression ci ov
in Apc 19: 11. However, the frequent use of the same word in other visions is not
necessarily significant for considering similarities between Apc 1 and 19 overall. The
use of another order to write (yp('Xyrov)in Apc 1: 19 only marks a minor parallel which
does not add much weight to the current discussion. In Apc 1 the order to write stands
on its own, and is not followed by a beatitude as in Apc 19:9 or 14: 13.
A parallel that possibly contributes more to the current discussion is the lack of a
designation for the heavenly judge, because (as in Apc 14) this prominent figure in Apc
19: 11.21 is not referred to by name. but instead simply as a heavenly rider or. in the
case of Apc I and 14, as "one like a son of man". Further, the designation as 6 äpXwv
'row ßam? wv 'ri YfS in Apc 1:5 recalls chapter 19 once more, where, in Apc 19: 16.
20 1
we find the designation ßocrn ý3occcý?,
E(Ov Kai. Kt pioS icvpic)v for the
rider on the
horse.' 9
white
A further parallel between chapters 1 and 19 might be

provided by the use of the
expression µap rupia Iißov within both chapters (two times in Apc 19: 10 and in A pc
1:2 with the addition Xpuucov). In all mentioned occurrences, this expression is
provided in the sections before the actual vision of Christ takes place. An even stronger
link between Apc 1 and 19 might be the content of Apc 1: 1, where the revelation of
Christ is conveyed to the seer John by an angel. Apparently. Apc 19: 1-10 follows
exactly this samechain of events and has the vision revealedto John by an angel.
At the same time, it needs to be mentioned that Apc 19: 10 displays a major
difference from chapters 1 and 19: whereas the act of worship by John is clearly
interdicted in Apc 19: 10, the same act (i. e. falling down to the revealer's feet) is
accepted by Christ in Apc 1: 17-18. The reason for this contrast will have to be provided
at a later stage of this discussion, it

as probably contributes to the identification of the
author's christological concerns throughout his writing.
The overall structure of Apc 1 does not contribute to arguments in favour of a
holistic understanding of chapter 19. Still, the fact that parallels between chapters 1 and
19 exist may provide some evidence that Apc 19 should be interpreted with regard to
both passages (Apc 19: 1-10 and 11-21) together.
4.1.4. Unity of Apc 19: 1-21 through Comparison with Apc 4-5
Fewer parallels can be seen between Apc 4-5 and Apc 19. perhaps the most
being hymnic in both passages. In the doxologies in Apc 19.

striking the material
connected to either God or the Lamb in

similar attributes are mentioned which are also
19Cp. also YARBRO COLLINS: Apocal pse, 135.
?04
Apc 4 and 5. For instance, God is given the
prerogatives ij c oyri pia K(xi i1 Sofia Kai ýj
8vvaµtg in Apc 19: 1. Once more the glory is

given to God in Apc 19:7. As we haNe
listed above (see section 3.2.3. ) in detail, rl 86ä is

given to God in Apc 4: 8.9.11 and
-
together with the Lamb - in 5: 13 as well. The Lamb alone
also receives the glory in Apc
5: 12. Notably, the combination of 86ä and SvvaµnS is only paralleled in Ape 5 when
given to the Lamb. It is again the Lamb who is given an item once more, instead
of
taking a book as in Apc 5, in Apc 19:8 the Lamb receives a pure
and shining garment. It
has to be admitted, however, that features from the doxological

parts of Apc 4-5 are
mostly reflected in Apc 19:1-10. Accordingly, these observations can only be of value
for research on the relationship between God and the Lamb in

chapter 19. Therefore,
evidence for a deliberate attempt of John to link Apc 19: 1-10 and 11-21 more closely
together cannot be given on the basis of parallels between Apc 4-5 and 19.
Similarly, the occurrence of some other parallels has to be evaluated: As already
in Apc 4: 8 God is referred to as lravroxpä'cwp in Apc 19: 15. The 24 the four
elders and
living beings who are worshipping God and God's throne are also mentioned in Apc
19:4-5. As these features which are also present in the vision of Apc 4-5 are exclusively
described in Apc 19: 1-10, arguments for the unity of Apc 19: 1-21 cannot be derived.
Two other noteworthy similarities between Apc 4-5 and Apc 19 are, firstly. the
vision in Apc 4 being introduced by the seer's perception of an open door in heaven
(Apc 4: 1). In Apc 19: 11 it is then the entire heaven which is seen opened by John.2° One
may ask whether we can assume the character of the vision in Apc 4: 1 to be proleptic.
as in Apc 14. It is also noteworthy that the vision of the open heaven takes place within
the vision describing the heavenly horseman,and not at the introduction of the scenario
in
as Apc 4: 1. Secondly, we find a reference to the Lamb in Apc 19: 7-9. At first glance.
the appearanceof the Lamb appears not to be emphasisedvery strongly. However. «c
20See also AUNE: Revelation 1 ý-2', 1052-1053 or BOE: Gog, 246.
205
might consider the possibility that the author wanted to mention the Lamb in God's
vicinity - not unlike Ape 5. The reference to the Lamb in the opening sequence of
chapter 19 may allow for conclusions concerning the relationship between God and
Lamb, which we will have to examine thoroughly in the forthcoming section about the
christological concerns of Apc 19.
4.1.5. Summary
Generally, the discussion provided above has made apparent that the two
sections of Ape 19, namely verses 1-10 and verses 11-21 should best be regarded and
read together. Evidence for this assumption is derived from numerous parallels between
both sections of Apc 19, and from parallel settings and expressions from various other
passages of the Apocalypse. Christological significance might therefore be deduced by
further comparisons of both passages from Apc 19 hereafter.
4.2. The Christology of Apc 19
4.2.1. A Christological Interpretation of Ape 19: 11-21?
As in Apc 14:6-20, the first question for dealing with the Christology of Apc 19
be: Who is the heavenly figure on the white horse in Apc 19: 11-21? Can e
ww
must
doubt that the author referred to Christ in this passage?If so. the
assume without a
figure in Apc 19 must be obviously associated with Christ, so that the readership can
identify Christ. It is noteworthy that the author as in Apc

easily this person with -
14: 14-15 before naming this figure explicitly as Christ. A

- apparently avoided
Christ's appears again to have been avoided. It rather- seems that the
reference to name
206
name of the figure is once more referred to by a circumlocution. In Apc 19: 16
the name
of the rider on the white horse is provided: He is the "king of kings

and the Lord of
lords" (3c«n ßarnXgcwvicai xvptoq xvpiwv). However.
this designation already hints
at Christ as the heavenly horseman, as it is used more

often for Christ in NT literature.
For instance, 1 Timothy 6: 15 attributes a very similar designation to Christ (ö ßarnXi
uihv ßarnXvövtiwv iccd xvpLOSiwv KDpwvövi(ov). 21
For the discussion of how the figure in Apc 19: 16 has to be identified, it
also
needsto be emphasisedthat the similarity of the designation from Apc 19:16 seemsto
be closely related to Ape 1:5, where Christ receives a very similar title. 22 Further, the
same designation as in Apc 19: 16 is attributed to the Lamb (i. e. Christ) before in Apc
17: 14. Admittedly, the designation in Apc 17: 14 might represent a redactional
interpolation in order to link the Lamb and the heavenly rider from Apc 19.23However,
it is noticable that at least on the final revision of the Apocalypse an equation of the
Lamb and the rider on the white horse has been established.Apparently this designation
in Apc 19: 16 alone seems to be sufficient evidence that the prominent figure from Apc
19: 11-21 would have been clearly understood as Christ by the Apocalypse's readership.
More evidence for such an identification can easily be derived by comparison with other
passagesfrom within Revelation.
For instance, other references to a name within Apc 19: 11-21 seem to indicate
the identification of the rider on the white horse with Christ. Firstly, in Apc 19:12 the
rider is attributed to have "a name inscribed that no one knows but he himself' (ixo v
övoµY
a YPaµµEvov ö öu&i Sµot&v Ei ýj avi' oS) This m Ysterious name most likely
alludes to God's name, namely the tetragrammaton as it is probably reflected in the
Baruch in Paralipomena Jeremiae 6: 13,1 Enoch 69: 14 or by Philo (De vit.

prayer of
21Phil 2: 9-11 be in this context. See KNIGHT: Revelation, 128-129, RO«'LA\D:

might also comparable
Revelation, 145 and MOUNCE: Revelation. 353. See further HANNAH: Michael. 1-43-144.
22Cp. also SCHÜSSLER FIORENZA: Offenbarung, 128.
207
24
Mos. 2.114). But more importantly for the current discussion. this
unknown name
corresponds with passages from the Apocalypse as well. In Apc 2: 17 a nevv name.
which is unknown to all but the bearer, is promised to the faithful. (As we ha%e noted in
section 3.1.3.2., what is promised to the faithful in Apc 2-3 is often attributed to Christ
in later passages of Revelation. For instance the promise to sit at God's

right is later
fulfilled by Christ in Apc 5 and especially Apc 21-22. The promise of the new name and
the name of Christ in Apc 19:12 might therefore also be used correspondingly.)
Similarly, in Apc 3: 12 the faithful are promised Christ's new name. This also hints
strongly at the name given to Christ in Apc 19: 12.
A further "name" is attributed to Christ in Apc 19: 13: Here Christ is designated
as "the word of God" (,co' övoµa av'cov o XoyoS trot OEov). This designation can he
found elsewhere in the Apocalypse (Apc 1:2.9; 6: 9; 20: 4, and in the plural form in Apc
17: 19 and 19:9). In these other occurrences the expression refers to the word of God as
a "gospel", though, while in Apc 19: 13 the expression refers to Christ as the returning
25
Lord. A designation for Christ is
as the /Xöyo; also occurs, as well known in
similar
John 1: 1 and similarly in 1 John 1: 1. However, it appears that not too much weight
should be given to this parallel, as the Aöyo; is qualified by the genitive addition Tov
26
is not used in the Gospel of John. So at the
OEov. Such an additional qualification
discussion that the name given to the rider in Apc

current stage of this we can only state
19:13 does not by itself allow for an identification as Christ.
The way the rider is named in Apc 19: 11 might contribute to an identification of
horse is labelled äXTyeivoSin verse 11.

this figure as Christ: The rider on the white as
Such a designation recalls Apc 3: 7 and 14 where the same expression is used in the self-
23See AUNE: Revelation 11-?2,953 and MÜLLER: ;liessias, 166.

`' Cp. AUNE: Revelation 17-22,1056 and CULLMANN: Christologie, 32?.
25Cp. AUNE: RL'vL'Iation 17-22,1058.
20S
27
descriptions of Christ. Accordingly, such a reference in Apc 19:11
would have been
by
easily understood the Apocalypse's readershipas an allusion to Christ.
As all features now mentioned concerning the name Christ

of also rev eal details
of Christ's relationship with God, we will have to come back to a thorough discussion
on some of the features in a forthcoming section of this thesis. Nevertheless, some
certain features need to be unfolded now in order to demonstratethat the rider from Apc
19 most likely has to be identified as Christ.
Such an identification of the rider should be apparent by a closer look at the
description which is given to the rider's appearance.The eyes of the figure in Apc 19.12
are described as "eyes like fiery flames" (xpOa),

µoi, c 'rov öý nvpoS),and in Apc
cc cpa,
19: 15 (and 19:21) a sword comes forth from his mouth (EK tot 6iöµaioS aviov
Ex topEÜii(xt p%tyu a 646u). These descriptions are reminiscent of Christ's description
in the opening vision, where Apc 1: 14 (cp. Apc 2: 18) and Apc 1: 16 provide a nearly
28
identical portrait. (The latter feature most certainly also recalls the portrait of Christ in
Apc 14, where Christ is attributed a sharp sickle. The sickle probably resembles the
sword of Apc 1 and 19. Since the focus of Apc 14 is a vision of judgement in harvest
metaphors, the sword has been described as a sickle in the appropriate harvest
terminology. ) Also the diadems which are worn by the rider in Apc 19: 12 seem to
that the has to be Christ, because in Ape 14: 15 the

support the view rider regarded as
one like a son of man (whom we identified as Christ in section 2.2.6.) similarly wears a
These features in 1 and 14 which recur in Apc 19 would have

golden crown. chapters
definitely been Christ by the readershipof the Revelation.

understood as allusions to
26 See AUNE: Revelation 1--22,1058-1059 and CARRELL: Jesus, 216. See further PRIGENT:
also
Commentary, 544. See for the word in John 1: 1-18 and Revelation also GIESCIIEN: 4ngelomorphic.
254-255 and MÜLLER: "Wort". 314.
' Cp. SI. ATER: Community. 213, MÜLLER: Of/. 'nharung. , 26 and PR.IGE:NT: Commt'ntarti'. `42.
'R Cp. MEALY: Ycars. 65-66 and MATERA: ChristologD%212.
209
_
Some other features still deserve attention for
supporting the identification of the
horseman as Christ: Firstly, the rider is described as

ruling the people with an iron staff
(noiµavwi airoüS &1 (x& o rnbrjpä) in Apc 19: 15. Such imagery-
would possibly also
have recalled the description of shepherdimagery attributed to the Lamb,

mentioned for
instance in Apc 7: 17 and 12:5. A minor difference, however, is marked in Apc 19 by the
fact that the act of shepherding in verse 15 does not so much represent an
act of taking
care of the flock, but rather a juridical picture of fight and judgement. Nevertheless. we
might consider the multiple use of shepherd imagery applied to Christ in similar
terminology as another indication that readers of the Apocalypse would most certainly
have identified the figure from Ape 19: 15 as Christ.
Further, the rider's horse itself represents a noticeable feature which may help
to assure the rider's identity as Christ as well. In Apc 1:7 and 13 and also in Apc 14: 14-
15 the christophanies are opened with a vision of Christ on a white cloud. Accordingly,
the author displayed a number of features which connect chapters 1,14 and 19 with
each other: Firstly, the figure (i. e. Christ) is portrayed as sitting in

(K(x91JI¬voq) two of
the mentioned passages (Apc 14: 14-15 and Apc 19: 11 and 21). Secondly, the means of
locomotion is described with the heavenly colour white in the same passages. The
object the figure is seated on is a cloud in Apc 1:7.13 and Apc 14: 14-15. It seems that
the author has changed the cloud to a horse in Ape 19 because a description of a rider
in Apc 19 29 One
emphasises the military character of the situation more appropriately.
might ask whether the description of Christ as riding on the horse also represents a
deliberate allusion to the rider of the white horse in Apc 6: 2.3° Attributes given to both
29Cp. also PARK: Offenbarung, 46-49. The horse of the rider is also a symbol of victor", while the
white
other horses in Apc 19: 18-19 are symbols of the defeat of the rider's opposition on earth. A similar
identification of the horse as a means for stressing the rider's significance has been proposed by
ROLOFF: Offenbarung, 185: He assumes that the horse has been introduced in Apc 19 in order to
Zech 9: 9 (Mk 11: 1f; John 12: 14ff) Jesus is just
enhance the rider's significance in contrast to where
riding a donkey.
'1" Cp. CULLMANN: Christ, 161 and TAEGER: "Hell", 380. For a non-christological interpretation of
Apc 6: 1-8 see RISS!: "Rider", 403-418.
'110
riders, though, do not seem to correspond with each other very well. Moreover, a chain
of events is narrated in Ape 6 which includes three more riders.31Surely. such a feature
is missing in Apc 19. The possibility of an analogy between the two

riders of Apc 6:?
and Apc 19 therefore 32

appears slightly remote. Anyhow, as the horseman in Apc 6:2
bears no apparent signs of representing Christ, the discussion on a relationship between
these two riders seemsredundant, becauseno christological features which might help
to identify the rider in Apc 19 as Christ can be derived here.
Another interesting feature in the context of identifying the rider in Apc 19
might be the reference to this figure as the one who is treading the great winepress of
God's wrath. This feature is also mentioned in Apc 14: 19-20. The reappearance of this
image in Apc 19:15 certainly allows for an identification of both figures as Christ.
However, a christological interpretation has to be derived from chapter 19, and not from
Apc 14 where the figure remains unnamed. As Apc 19: 15 constitutes a reference back
in the text of Revelation, the identity of the one treading the winepress cannot be
considered as argument for the identification of the rider in Apc 19 as Christ.
The reference to the rider's garment being stained with blood (iµäiiov
ßcßaµµ vov a" (xrt) in Ape 19: 13 might have had an effect on the readers in order to
identify the rider as Christ, because the reference to blood in the Apocalypse often
alludes to Christ's death of atonement within the entire writing (e. g. Apc 1:5; 5: 9: 7: 14;
33
12: 11), but such an understanding of this passage is something of an imposition. The
blood on the rider's garment can also have an entirely different meaning: a divine
in to judge and destroy. This could, for example, have been a

warrior who comes order
traditional understanding as reflected in certain Hebrew Bible passages (Isa 63: 1-3).
31See for instance KRAFT: Offenbarung, 246-247. See for this also BOE: Gog, 247.
12 identification the horseman in Apc 6: 2 and the rider in Ape 19 can. ho%%eNer,
. The possibility of an of
Cp. for the possibility of an equation PRIGENT: Commenlan". 539. S\\ I ET:
not be entirely eliminated.
Revelation, 283 or TAEGER: "Hell", 369-389.
33See AUNE: Revelation 1--22,1057.
III
Therefore, the allusion to the bloodstained garment might only have favoured
an
understanding of the rider as Christ amongst the readership; however. evidence for an
identification with Christ is not provided without a doubt.34
A final argument in support of identifying the rider from Apc 19 as Christ can be
derived from the parallel setting of chapters 14 and 19. In both chapters. Christ is
addressedas the Lamb in the opening parts of the vision (Apc 14:1-5; 19:7-9); then.
rather abruptly, another figure appearsin order to judge the world. In Apc 14 evidence
could clearly be provided that the figure who appears on the white cloud there would
have definitlely been understood as Christ by Revelation's readers. Similarly, the
readership would certainly have identified the rider as Christ as well, because after
introducing the Lamb in Apc 19:7 the new figure in Apc 19: 11-21 bears similar
attributes as the one like a son of man from Apc 14 (and also from Apc 1).
Subsequently, it should have become apparent that the rider on the white horse
from Apc 19: 11-21 can be identified as Christ as the Lord who is returning. From this
point further christological issues from chapter 19 (such as the relationship between
God and Christ within this chapter, Christ's relationship with angels, and the relation
between Christ as the rider and Christ as the Lamb) can therefore be concluded.
4.2.2. The Relationship between God and Christ in Apc 19
4.2.2.1 The Names Attributed to Christ
As noted above in this chapter, certain mysterious names have been given to
Christ in chapter 19. Occasionally, these names have been identified as those which
'' See for the possible interpretations of the blood BOE: Gog. 248-251.
, I,
have been assigned to God in other contexts, or directly
alluded to God or his name
elsewhere.This rather superficial statementneedsto be illuminated further at this staue.
The first name which is attributed to Christ as the

white rider in A pc 19 is
probably35 his designation as "faithful and true" (n-LßiöSim' äkTj(1vc) in verse ]Y.
Parts of this name are referred to throughout the Apocalypse, partially alluding to Christ
(as irtßiös in Ape 1:5 and 2: 13, äXriBtvöc in Ape 3: 7. or both parts in Ape 3: 14 ). bile
ýv
in other occurrences they are simply used in order to exhort followers to be faithful
(Apc 2: 10; 17: 14). More significantly. itßt xai ä/XrjAlv6Sare also adjectives which
are assigned to God's words (Apc 21: 5) and God's revelation as such (Apc 2-1:
6). ý`'
(Also, God's judgements are described as C(Xilovai in Apc 19:2.) Thus, it can be
concluded that the adjectives ino r6S xai 6cA,

rlOiv6 commonly relate to God and the
Lamb in the Apocalypse. 37 From this rather simplistic observation we could already
derive a certain proximity between God and Christ in chapter 19. Both share a character
which is true and/or faithful. For God, these objects are an expression of how he acts (as
for instance his judgement is just and true), while Christ embodies truth and
faithfulness. This way of relating Christ and God is possibly continued in the following
description of Apc 19: 11. Here Christ is said to judge and fight with righteousness (rv
Six(xtoßvvf). Correspondingly. God's judgements are - using a similar Greek word -
also just (&Kaiai) ones in Apc 19:2. Apparently. the correspondence also consists of the
activity of judging. Accordingly, in Apc 19:2 and Apc 19: 11 another analogy between
35It has to be mentioned that the question of whether we deal with a designation here or not depends on
the decision in Apc 19: 11: In some manuscripts of the text (for instance the
of a textcritical problem
Codex Alexandrinus) the expression xaXoý)µevoc is not mentioned alongside the reference rcurröS icai
6cXri9ivöS. The version without Kaa,oüµevoS might be the shortest version, and may therefore be
Offenbarung, 326). but the time it seems that Code\
considered the original one (cp. MÜLLER: at same
Sinaiticus (and the majority of other Koine manuscripts) explain the content of the verse more
SLATER literature he in: Community, 212, esp. n. II).
apropriately (cp. for this and the quotes
3' See for this also RUIZ: Ezekiel, 509-5 10 and SLATER: Community, 212-213.
17 in where other objects (as the community) or God and
. For a distribution of these adjectives occurences
Lamb SLATER: (, ommuniti. 21 For an interesting interpretation of moT
the are referred to see -214.
ö Xr19i%ti KRAFT: Offenbarung. 247: KRAFT assumes the existence of a gematrical
xai see also
-)i?
God and Christ is expressed:both share the function
of being judges in the scenario of
Apc 19.
Another reference to Christ's name is

provided in Apc 19: 12. This time. the
character of the name is quite mysterious, because it is simply stated that the is
name
unknown to anybody but the bearer himself (övo ux yE ypa.

µµ£vov ö oü&IS oi&v Ei µi
(xv'r S). This unknown nature of the name arousesattention. As briefly mentioned above
(see section 4.2.1.), earlier passagesin Revelation also refer to

such an unknown and
secret name (cp. Apc 2: 17; 3: 12). Therefore, the readers of the Apocalypse might
already have certain associations in mind when reading this name. However, the actual
secret name is nowhere explicitly revealed in the Apocalypse. It is probably not the
author's intention that the secret name as such is unveiled - an equation with one of the
many names attributed to Christ within the Apocalypse, or even within this passageof
chapter 19 seems not very likely. 38 The significance of this name in Apc 19: 12 lies
its 39
within secrecy. In turn, the fact that the name is unknown is a most relevant
concept behind this feature, as it might recall the fact that God's name is unknown and
secret as well. We might therefore interpret the name in Apc 19: 12 as a possible allusion
to God's secret name which is in 40

the tetragra maton. Such an
commonly manifested
assumption allows for an important conclusion for analysing the relationship between
by '
God and Christ. Once more they are related closely together Revelation's author, as
phenomenon in these words. He regards the expressions as a translation of the Hebrew version for Amen,
which gematrically has the same value as Adonai.
38 Cp. GIESCHEN: Angelomorphic. 253 n. 32 and especially MÜLLER: Offenbarung, 327 and
also
KRAFT: Offenbarung, 248.
39 For interesting SLATER: Community, 215-216: SLATER compares the concept of
an suggestion see
the unrevealed name in Revelation with the concept of the messianic secret in Mark's Gospel. Indeed,
such a comparison seems suitable.
40Cp. PRIGENT: Commentary, 542, HANNAH: tlichael, 144-1 15 or GIESCHEN:. Angelomorpphic,
also
253. As already mentioned in section 4.2.1., a possible parallel for such an understanding of the secret
name might be provided in Par. Jer. 6: 13 and Philo's De vil. tfos. 2.114 (cp. ALINE: Revelation 17-22.
1056).
41 See for different arguments SLATER: Communin-, 214-216: SLATER
a similar conclusion with
excludes the possibility of an analogy between Christ's secret name and the tetragrammaton. lie rather
derives the connection between Christ's and God's name from the context of the Apocalypse, namely the
names of God and Christ mentioned in Apc 14: 1.
2H
they share a secret name which also reveals their common, but simultaneously veiled.
true being.
The next name given to Christ in Apc 19: 13

probably also contributes to the
discussion concerning the relationship between God and Christ. In verse 13 Christ is
called "the word of God" (ti0 övoµa aviov ö a,öyoq coi OEov). This designation on its
own already indicates a connection between God and Christ, as the genitive Tov 9F-ov
qualifies Christ here. Therefore, we can most certainly regard this name as an indication
for a manifestation of God in Christ. The expression "the word of God" occurs in other
passages of the Apocalypse as well (cp. Apc 1:2.9; 6: 9: 17:7: 19:9: 20: 4), but in none of
these passagesis the expression indicated to be a name. The reference to "the word of
God" as a name in Apc 19: 13 is probably indebted to certain traditions. We have
already expresseddoubts concerning a similar concept for such a name as preserved in
John 1: 1 (see section 4.2.1. ). Another tradition, however, might have been more
influential on Apc 19: 13, namely one preserved in Wisdom of Solomon 18: 15-19.42
Similar to Apc 19, Wisdom of Solomon 18, also (1) personifies the word of God, (2)
describes it with military motifs while (3) attributing the word as bearing a sword (Apc
19:15.20; Wisd. Sol. 18:15-16), and (4) causes the downfall of God's opposition.'"
Despite these striking contextual analogies, it seems most interesting here to emphasise
that the author of the Apocalypse probably adopted this concept, as in Wisdom of
Solomon 18, in order to stress that Christ in the shape of the word of God - is a
-
manifestation of God.
Interestingly, the designation of Christ as "the word of God" opens two
Firstly. the reference to the expression XöyoSin Wisdom 18

possibilities of wordplay.
42Though the parallel to Wisd. Sol. 18 in Apc 19 is closer, it is still possible that Apc 19 preser,,ed an
1,
echo of John cp. for this DUNN: Christolog 247.
.
4' Cp. SLATER: Community, 217. MÜLLER: Offenbarung, 329 and AUNE: Revelation 1058-
Wisd. Sol. 18 in the background of Apc 19 might also hast angelological
1059. The tradition from
implications (cp. GIESCHEN: 4ngelomorphic, 253-254 or with another assumed background
.
, fr,
might be a play on words (or even a mistranslation) derived from the corresponding
Hebrew term 1=Ì. Naturally, this Hebrew term means "word", but
the consonants
alone could also mean "pestilence". Such a personification of this disease is not
inappropriate for three reasons:
1) The context of Wisdom of Solomon 18 refers to the slaying

of Egypt's
firstborn as preserved in Exodus. Therefore, a personification of pestilence could indeed
be figure 44
also the acting of this passage. At the same time, a personified pestilence
would also fit into the context of Apc 19, because as we have shown in section 3.1.
- -
Christ could represent the destroying angel from Exodus in the Apocalypse. (We will
therefore have to deal with this possibility in the following section of this thesis as
well. )
2) A personification of pestilence as a messenger of God has also another
parallel, namely in 1 Chronicles 21: 14-16 where the Angel of the Lord (having a sword
in his hand) brings a plague to Israel. 45
3) Similarly, an error of translation occurs in Habakkuk 3: 5 (LXX), where the
Hebrew 1: 27 from the MT (referring to pestilence) has apparently been translated as
?oyoS.46Therefore, a confusion of the Hebrew expression seems more likely.
Similar to the mistranslation idea offered above, another play on words should
be briefly taken into consideration. It could be assumed that the author of the
Apocalypse aimed at another play on words between Aramaic and Greek translation for
the expression Xöyoq based on the Aramaic root -MM. The Aramaic word could
CARRELL: Jesus, 212-213) which will be dealt with in the following section on The Relationship
between Christ and Angels in this chapter.
'a Cp. AUNE: Revelation 17-22,1058 and MÜLLER: Offenbarung, 329.
'5 See MÜLLER: 01Jenbarung, 329 and AUNE: Revelation l7-22.1058.
46Cp. also AUNI Revelation 17-? ". 1058-1059.
:
216
obviously be translated as "word", but the sameterm also means "lamb". 4- If the
author
really intended to insert such an ambiguity deliberately, the significance of the name
"word of God" would be enormous. This name then would not only link Christ
with
God in terms of a personification of himself, but also the entire Lamb christology
would
be related even more closely to God. However, it can hardly be proven that John had
such a concept in mind when he created this passage in Apc 19. A corresponding
expression, as for instance co äpvtov toi OF-of),is not present in the Apocalypse.
Therefore, assumptions concerning the Aramaic-Greek play on words remain highly
speculative.
The fourth name for Christ in Apc 19 is his designation as "king of kings and the
Lord of lords" (pucrOx ö; f kxat? wv K(A K-opto; i pIwv), written on his garment and his
thigh48 in Apc 19: 16. Traditionally, this designation is given to God in various Hebrew
Bible and early Jewish passages, as is reflected for instance in Deuteronomy 10: 17;
Ezekiel 26: 7; Daniel 2: 37; Daniel 4: 37 (LXX); Ezra 7: 12; Psalm 136:2; 2 Maccabees
13:4; 3 Maccabees 5: 35; 1 Enoch 9: 4; 63: 2; 84: 2; IQM 14: 16; 4Q491 or 9
4Q381. ` (As
we have mentioned in section 4.2.1., similar names have also been attributed to Christ
in NT literature. )
Therefore, we can deduce that Christ and God are meant to be equated in the
Apocalypse once more, because Christ receives a name in Apc 19: 16 which is normally
reserved for God. By receiving such a name, Christ is apparently put on par with God in
4' Cp. for such a discussion concerning I En. 90: 38 TILLER: Commentary, 386-388, CHARLES:
Revelation 11,452 and LINDARS: "Lamb", 485. A similar phenomenon, namely the interchangeability of
"lamb" and "word", works in Hebrew, when a corruption of the word is assumed. Only the first Hebrew
letter distinguishes a lamb (7T) from a word (r1' 7 ). See also TILLER: Commentary. 386.
48The locations where the name is written have led to speculations concerning the location's significance.
Cp. for instance AUNE: Revelation 17-22,1062-1063, CAIRD: Revelation, 246-247 or KRAFT:
Offenbarung, 250-251. Important christological issues can probably not be derived from the location,
though. A discussion of the location's meaning can therefore be neglected here. The simplest explanation
be (similar to a wow explicativum): The name is written on the
might to regard the icai as an explanation
See MOUNCE: Revelation, 356.
namely on the piece that covers the thigh. similarly
9prment.
See for these passages and a thorough discussion of them MÜLLER: Of/enharung, 328, K \RR1, R:
Christus, 165-166 and esp. AUNE: Revelation 17-22.953-955.
? 17
50
this verse again. Here the Christology bears signs of an enhanced Chu-istologv.
`1
Accordingly, with the reception of this name. Christ's power is described impressive.
as
Alongside the equal status of God and Christ in Ape 19:16 another feature the
of
Apocalypse deserves attention in the current discussion. The same name given to Christ
in Apc 19: 16 also refers to the Lamb in Apc 17: 14. Subsequently. the rather simple
conclusions can be made that A) the Lamb is naturally to be identified as the same
figure as in Apc 19 (i. e. Christ), and that B) Lamb and God also sharea similar status.''
(Such an observation copes well with the results we have obtained concerning Apc 4
and 5.) It is not entirely clear whether the reference to the name "king of kings"
constitutes a redactional problem (i. e. a later interpolation in order to relate the Lamb
and the rider on the white horse with each other). Anyhow, at least the double reference
indicates the uniqueness and probably the consistency of the Christology of the
Apocalypse's final written stage.53
We can summarize that the different names which Christ received in Apc 19
between God Christ. 54The

generally confirmed a rather close relationship and emphasis
in Apc 19 (similar to Apc 5) seems to be an equation of God and Christ, as far as the
by
names which the latter is designatedare concerned.It has to be said at the same time
that the parallel from Wisdom of Solomon 18 might also raise the question of whether
or not angelological concerns are in the author's mind at the same time. Now we will
have to continue examining the relationship between Christ as rider and as Lamb and
God in the whole of Apc 19.
5° Cp. similarly POKORNY: Christologie, 77-78.

s' See also AUNE: Revelation 17-22,1063.
52A further feature which might be derived from this name is dependent on the connection between Apc
"word God" as combined elseýkhere in
19: 10 (the "testimony of Jesus") and the reference to the name of
Apocalypse (see 1.1.1.). Such a correspondence has mainly significance for the understanding
the section
for Christian See for thorough discussion ROOSE:
of prophecy and its importance the community. a
Zeugnis, 207-217, especially 314-216.
53See for unity and consistency of. Apc 17: 14 and 19: 16 also SLATER: Community. 220.
21S
4.2.2.2. Relationship between God, Lamb, and Rider
In this section, the relationship between God and Christ be

will analysed more
closely. Since Christ is depicted in two different images. namely the rider on the white
horse and the Lamb, these different depictions are worth taking into consideration
as
well.
The overall structure of Apc 19 is reminiscent of the narrative layout of Apc 4
and 5. In Apc 19:1-10 the emphasis seemsto be clearly on God (as in Apc 4), whereas
in the following section in Apc 19: 11-21 Christ is at the centre of the narration (as in
Ape 5). Reminiscent of the liturgical parts of Ape 4. Ape 19: 1-10 describes God mainly
in references to doxologies. God receives similar prerogatives as in the doxologies of
Apc 4 and 5, as for instance il 66E(x in Apc 19: 1 and 7. The same predicate has been
received by God several times in Apc 4 (Apc 4: 9.11), and together with Christ in Apc
5: 13. The same doxological element is, as has been noted in section 3.2.3., also
attributed to Christ alone in Apc 5: 12. Similarly, the prerogative i Svva ut given to
God in Apc 19:9 is also among those elements received by Christ in Apc 5: 12. The
prerogative i mori pia is exclusively given to God in Apc 19, but Christ is probably not
entirely out of view when this expression is employed here, it

since occurs in Apc 7: 10
(cp. Apc 12: 10) as well. The expression 6coi-qpia possibly alludes to the salvific deeds
of God and (via God) Christ simultaneously. The application of these prerogatives to
both God and Christ already hints at a close connection between them.
Despite the fact that the prerogatives are shared by God and Christ throughout
Revelation, it is obvious that the doxologies mainly refer to God. On the other hand, the
following description of the judgement deals in more detail with Christ. Again, as in
Apc 4 and 5, it seems that God in Apc 19 is rather passive. apparently playing a role in
" Cp. further MÜLLER: "Wort". 112-325.
2 11)
Apc 19:1-8 where he does not act as such. Instead, he is only referred to in liturgy
and
worship. He is praised for the judgement of Babylon and for taking revenge for his
servants (Apc 19: 1-3), and for conquering his kingdom (Apc 19:6)., ' In Apc 19, these
actions of God are, however, simply mentioned in praises; the actions as such do not
seem to be depicted. It may be assumed that God was deliberately not depicted as
acting, similar to Apc 4-5, in order to avoid a portrait of God which depicts him too
anthropomorphically. The deeds of God are answeredby worship and praises.
The Lamb is also briefly portrayed in Apc 19:7-9, but not described in much
detail, simply in two references to its wedding. Both occurences are set in a situation
which deals with the Christian community, as the event of the wedding apparently
provides enough reason to be celebrated by the community or to be addressedin the
beatitude of verse 9. The role of the Lamb here is therefore similar to Apc 14:1-5, as the
salvific aspectof Christ is the central motif in both passages.
In Apc 19: 5 a minor problem occurs which might have christological
significance. In verse 5a voice originating from the throne exhorts God to be praised. It
is not quite clear, though, who the speaker on the throne actually is. Occasionally, the
voice from Apc 19:5 has been identified as Christ's voice, because Christ is associated
in Apc 3:21 5:6 56If this the further christological

with the throne and as well. were case,
interest could be assumed in Apc 19. Christ would again be in the vicinity of God's
throne in this scenario. However, Christ can probably not be considered to be the one
from whom the voice originates. Firstly, the Lamb (and also God) never speaksdirectly
57 it
in the Apocalypse. Further, would seem strange if Christ would refer to God as "our
Cp. also Apc 1 1: 15-17 where Christ is included in claiming the eschatological kingdom. In Apc
notably
19 Christ is not explicitly mentioned as coregent in verse 6.
56Cp. KNIGHT: Revelation, 125 and BEALE: Revelation, 930.
57Cp. KRAFT: OJfrnbarung, 41.
220
God" and not as "my God". 58 Therefore. a hidden christological feature
appears
unlikely.
In ostensible contrast, Christ seemsto take over the

rather active part again in
Apc 19: 11-21. In this vision Christ is not simply referred to, he is described
as an active
figure. His actions ("fighting", "judging", "treading the winepress", etc.)

are portrayed
in detail, as is his appearence. Unlike God's depiction, a portrait of Christ is

not
shunned here. A number of predicates attributed to Christ parallel features which have
been mentioned in previous chapters of the Apocalypse (e.g. Apc 1 and 14). Still. the
features that can be seen here are not all christological in origin. For instance, the
description of Christ as a just judge also paralleled by the description of God's just
-
judgements in Apc 19:2 reflects the use of Isaiah 11:4-5 or Psalms 9: 8; 72: 2 and 96: 13
-
Vorlage. 59 In these passages from the Hebrew Bible God is described as a just
as a
judge. Accordingly, God and Christ share the feature of such a judge, which further
stresses an equation of God and Christ in Apc 19. A similar tendency of expressing such
an equation can also be seen in the following description of Christ bearing a blood
stained vestment (Ape 19: 13) and as the one treading the winepress of wrath (Ape
19: 15). These descriptions seem to reflect a depiction in Isaiah 63: 1-3, and possibly also
in Joel 4, where God is the acting and judging figure. Similarly, the features of the
sword coming out of Christ's mouth and the staff for punishing the nations resemble
such a divine attribute: The weapon coming forth from Christ's mouth is again
reminiscent of God's description in Isaiah 11:4.60 Here, it is a staff coming forth from
the mouth. The vision in Apc 19 possibly combines motifs from Isaiah 11:4 (a weapon
from the mouth), Psalm 2:8-9 (a staff to rule the nations). and maybe Isaiah 49.2 (a
58Cp. MOUNCE: Revelation. 343.

59See AUNE: Revelation 17-22,1053.
also
b0Cp. SWEET: Revelation, 283.
22
mouth as a sword). Parts of these descriptions, namely the weapon coming out of
Christ's mouth by which he is judging the people. also expressChrist's

statusas divine.
As in Apc 4 and 5, Apc 19 provides an image of God and Christ
as equals who
shareattributes and power. The more active role played by Christ here recalls Apc 4 and
5. Again it seemsthat Christ is a divine representative of God who is not subordinate
but rather an equal.
4.2.2.3. The Worship and the Wedding
Despite the equality we tried to affirm above, we must take notice of the features
that seem to represent a parting line between God and Christ. In Apc 19: 1-10, it can be
noticed that it is apparently only God who is worshipped by the figures surrounding the
throne. This initially seems to contradict what was expressed before in Apc 5, where
Christ received worship alongside God. On the other hand, Christ's role in the liturgical
section in Ape 19: 1-10 seems to be rather limited. He is only briefly mentioned in Ape
19:7 and 9. These different foci might suggest a tension between the imagery of the
wedding and the actual worship of God.
However, both of these observed features taken together might still imply a
deeper christological concern than is visible at first sight. Firstly, it has to be stated that
the reference to the Lamb in Apc 19:7 is closely connectedto Apc 19:6 as the messages
of both verses are set in parallel to each other. Both verses are introduced by the
exhorting voice in verse 6. Unlike the previous "hallelujahs" in Apc 19: 1.3.4 which
point back to the destruction of Babylon, the same expression is connected with the
61
Lamb's wedding and God taking over the rule of the earth The structure of verses 6
.
and 7 moreover seems to link them together, as the expression "hallelujah" ("praise
61Cp. also MOUNCE: Revelation, 346.

1»
God") correspondsto the exhortations from verse 7. In both
casesthe reasonto fulfil the
order is provided by the expression öit. 62 The reason to praise and celebrate is
given
both times by a verb in the aorist. Accordingly, one can

regard Apc 19:6-7 as a unit.
So we may conclude that two events of similar significance
are described here:
the beginning of God's kingdom and also the wedding of the Lamb. Both events are
closely connected, Apc 19:7 being a continuation of 'what has been announced in Apc
19:6.63The context of verses 6-7 is also closely related to Apc 19:1-5 by the fourfold
use of "hallelujah" and the same use of the expression öit. which gives reason for the
praise in Apc 19:1-3 and 6-8. Both sections feature two öil clauses, the second one.
being subordinated to the first, specifying the first one.64 Similarities between the
choruses in Apc 19: 1-3 and 6-8 do not end here. The first ö'rl clause provides the general
motive for the praise (the righteousnessof God's judgement in Apc 19:2 corresponding
to God's establishment of his reign in Apc 19:6); the second ö'rt clause states a
particular reason for the praise (namely the judgement of the great prostitute Babylon in
Apc 19:2 and analogically the wedding of the Lamb in 19:7). Both subordinated öil
clauses also feature a female figure (the great prostitute in verse 2 and the bride in verse
7) and a specification of what this figure is doing (corruption of the earth in verse 2 and
preparing herself in verse 7). A divine is

response given to the actions of both figures as
(avenging blood in 2 to dress in linen in 8). 65

well of verse and permission pure verse
It is of particular interest here that the Lamb's wedding (second ött clause in
verses 7-8) represents a specification of the announcement concerning the establishment
of God's reign (first öii in

clause verse 6). Christ appears to be declared as the key
figure for God's 66Accordingly, the coming of God's

establishing eschatological reign.
62See also JÖRNS: Evangelium, 154 and DEICHGRÄBER: Gotteshymnus. 57.

64Cp. RUIZ: E_ekiel, 494.
GsCp. RUIZ: Ezekiel, 495-496.
66Cp. RUIZ: Ezekiel, 499.
also
,,;
kingdom receives a christological focus any further
- statement concerning Christ or a
worship of the Lamb would have been redundant in the narrative structure of this vision.
Christ's overwhelmingly powerful statusneedsno further

enhancementhere.
Also, if Ape 19:7 has been regarded as a logical
consequence, or at least as a
continuation of what has been reported in verses 1-6 so far, verse 7 does not introduce
an entirely new topic. Apc 19: 1-6 describes God's judgement and the beginning of his
reign. Similarly, a new aeon is starting for the community, symbolized by the image of
the Lamb's bride. 67More importantly, a new task has started for Christ, namely his
role
as bridegroom. Such a role probably hints at a function as protector. Notably, the role of
bridegroom was traditionally filled out by God, as is reflected in a number of texts from
the Hebrew Bible (for instance in Isaiah 61-62; Hosea 2: 14-20 and especially Isaiah
68
54:5-8). Accordingly, in Apc 1969Christ once more fills out a position which is
traditionally reserved for God. From this observation it cannot only be deduced that
Christ is equal to God because he acts in a position which is normally attributed to God,
but one can also see where Apc 19 (in its preserved condition) places the emphasis. The
focus here is not on a discrepancy between God (as the one who is worshipped on the
one hand) and the Lamb (who is not worshipped but fulfills a role in the image of the
wedding), as such a discrepancy would not seem suitable in the Apocalypse, where
elsewhere (Apc 5 and 21-22) the worship of Christ is subject. Rather, the emphasis
seemsto be on the the new era which starts after the destruction of Babylon and on the
roles of God, Christ, and the community. God's is

arrival celebrated as the wedding of
70
the Lamb with the community. Their roles become intertwined here in Apc 19.
Therefore, God is portrayed as the sovereign, Christ as the protector and redeemer of the
67Cp, for instance AUNE: Revelation 17-22,1029-1030.

68Cp. also BEALE: Revelation, 941-943 or CAIRD: Revvelation,234.
69A is in other NT literature. as for instance Mk 2: 19-30 (Mt 9: 15. Lk 5: 35)
similar portrait also provided
and Eph 5: 25-32.
224
Christian community (depicted as the bridegroom), and the
community (described as
bride) as the faithful who may dwell in the presenceof God
and the Lamb. This picture
becomes much clearer in Apc 21-22 where the image
of the wedding and the bride is
continued.
The portrait of Christ as the Lamb and also the wedding banquet as
such are only
briefly described in Apc 19. In contrast to this compact depiction, the role of Christ
as
the rider on the white horse is provided in much more detail. The short description of
Apc 19:7-9 probably results out of the much more detailed description of the following
events. In fact, from Apc 19: 11 on the events of Apc 19: 1-9 seem to be rehearsed: Apc
19:1-5 describes the fall of Babylon, which as such has not been depicted in the
Apocalypse. (In Apc 18 the fall of Babylon is proclaimed, but it does not actually take
7'
place there. Apc 18 notably reports the incident in future tense.) However, the
judgement is described with considerable detail in Apc 19: 11-21, and further in Apc 20.
Similarly, the wedding is only briefly mentioned in Ape 19:7-9 (and to some extent in
Apc 18:23). A detailed portrait of the wedding follows later in Apc 21-22. One might
therefore assumethat Apc 19:1-9 has a somehow proleptic character; what is stated in
this hymnic part becomes more clearly visible in the following sections in Apc 19: 11-
22:5: judgement of the world and the destruction of Satan (as alluded to in Apc 19:6)
are explicitly narrated again in Apc 19: 11-20: 15, where a new creation and the new
kingdom of God and the Lamb are described In Apc 21-22:5.72Therefore, the events in
Apc 19:1-9 are most likely described rather briefly in order to leave room for the
detailed portrait which is about to follow. 73
" See also JÖRNS: Evangelium, 144.

72Cp. JÖRNS: Evangelium, 144-158. An impression ofa certain unit's within the passage Apc 19: 11-22: 5
be concluded from the Gog and Magog traditions from the Ezekiel background (Ezek
can almost certainly
38-39). See for a thorough discussion BOE: Gog, 235-382. (For Hebrew Bible traditions in Apc 21-22 see
MATHEWSON: Heaven, passim.)
73Cp. KRAFT: OJJi'nharung. 244.
-I-Ic
-
To summarise, it can be said that the Lamb's status is equal to that God. The
of
equality is especially emphasised by the image of the Lamb's wedding. For narrative
reasonsit was probably not felt necessaryto further stressthe Lamb's power in worship
language.
4.2.2.4. The Rider and the Lamb
As it has been demonstrated,the figures of the Lamb and the rider on the white
horse have to be identified as one and the same person, namely Christ. However, one
might wonder why the author of the Apocalypse addressed Christ as the Lamb in Apc
19:7-9 and then rather abruptly changed the title to the rider sitting on the white horse.
Such a change of title is not entirely uncommon in the Apocalypse; the same
phenomenon has already been observed in the discussion concerning Apc 14: 1-5 and 6-
20, where at first Christ is portrayed as Lamb and subsequently described as one like a
son of man. We might assume a similar reason here as for the change in Apc 14: the
setting of both is
chapters very similar, as both times a description of the Lamb is
followed by the portrait of Christ as a judge, who then receives another designation. A
similar structure is probably not a mere coincidence. Once more, the change of the
reference to Christ depends on the different situations and more importantly on the
people involved in the particular scenario. What we have demonstrated above (section
2.3. ) for Apc 14: 1-5 can clearly be for Apc 19: 1-10. In both passages, Christ is
repeated
described as the Lamb becausethe focus of the narration lies on his role as a protector
Christian This has been obvious for Apc 14 where Christ as the
of the community.
Lamb gathers the true believers on Mount Zion. Similarly, the Lamb is distinctly related
to the community in Apc 19:7-9 and also in the following section drawing on the same
image in Apc 21. Here this close relationship is depicted in imagery of a wedding. 1he
226
Lamb is depicted as the bridegroom, the community
as the bride. The following
scenarios (Apc 14:6-20 and 19:11-21. and to some extent also Apc 20) deal
with the
judgement of God's opposition on earth. As with Apc 14, for Apc 19
the division of the
description of Christ seems to be rooted in his varying functions

and therefore also in
the eyes of those by whom Christ is perceived in the different settings. In the
eyes of the
community, Christ is a redeemer and a shepherding figure. This is portrayed by
designating him as the Lamb, who gathers the community

and protects it. In contrast.
Christ is depicted as a judge in Apc 19: 11-21 (and Apc 14:6-20). As
eschatological
judge he is depicted as the one who eliminates those

who oppose God and his
community. Such a depiction in the Apocalypse is either provided in a metaphorical
way in Apc 14 (employing the image of a harvest) or it may be a description that is
more drastic. Apc 19: 11-21 therfore employs a more transparent means of portraying
the judgement in military language. The elimination of the kings of the earth is depicted
as a cosmological battle. Within this vision Christ is portrayed as "judging and fighting
in justice" (Apc 19: 11). 74He is the owner of royal names (Apc 19: 16) and designated as
ruler (Apc 19: 15). Features such as the sword (Apc 19: 15.21) and the riding of a horse
(Apc 19: 11.21) and the notion of him as the leader of the heavenly armies supplement a
depiction of Christ as an eschatological warrior-like judge and messianic king. In the
depiction of the battle, Christ is shown as the one who destroys those opposing him and
God. Clearly, the caretaking character of a Lamb is unsuitable here. In addition, John
also wanted to demonstrate that the true characterof Christ has only been understood by
those he is addressing, namely the Christian community. In his narrative, the opposing
people perceive Christ as the eschatologicaljudge. Again, the different situations define
how Christ is perceived; he is rightfully perceived as the eschatological leader of his
community which is displayed in his role as the Lamb. The opponents and nonbelievers
74 The justice of judgement and N%aris in contrast to the beast's injustice in Apc 11:7 and 13:7. cp.
227
regard him only as a judge, representing their entire misunderstanding of his
75An
significance and power. apparent discrepancy between the Lamb (Apc 19:7-9) and
the roles in the following section (Apc 19: 11-21) seems therefore be a stylistic device
of'
John in order to display righteousness of Christ's followers on the one hand

side and a
complete misunderstanding of the followers of the beaston the other.
This misunderstanding as a central motive for an identification of Christ

within
the Apocalypse might also be expressed by drawing on angelic categories for describing
Christ, as the following section of this thesis will attempt to demonstrate.
4.2.3. An Angelomorphic Christology in Apc 19?
4.2.3.1. Christ and the Angels in Ape 19
It is apparent thus far that the emphasis of Apc 19 most likely lies on an
identification of Christ and God or at least on the expression of a very equal status of
both of them. A closer look at Apc 19 also reveals that certain features of Christ within
this chapter also draw on angelological material and describe him with attributes that
are reminiscent of angelophanies.
One of these features which deserves to be examined more closely is Christ's
role as a military leader in Apc 19: 11-21. This role is commonly attributed to Michae176
in early Jewish texts (such as Test. Dan 6: 5: 2 En. 22: 5: 33: 9-10: 3 Apc. Bar. [Greek]
77
11:4; Apc. Esdr. 4: 24 and in both recensions of the Testament of '.-1braham ). Possibly.
Joseph Aseneth 14:8 and 15:12 identifies Michael as the leader of the heavenly
also and
SWEET: Revelation,282.
75 See SLATER: Communin", 221.
similarly also
76 See GIESCHEN:. 4ngelomorphic. 256.
also
77Cp. MICHL: "Engel". 244. CARRELL: Jesus. 207 and M1:1CH: Entwicklungs. vtailii"i. 250, esp. n. 378.
22S
78 These passagesmight
army. reflect an interpretation of passagesfrom the Hebrew
Bible, such as Joshua 5: 14-15 or Daniel 10: 13.21: 12: 1.79Occasionally. the role of the
angelic leader of heavenly armies is also attributed to other angels. as. for instance.
Phanael in 3 Apocalypse of Baruch [Greek] 2: 6; 10: 1.80 One might wonder whether
Christ received an angelic attribute by his description of the leader of the heavenl\
armies in Apc 19. Also, the army which is led here, dressed in white linen, might be
host (similar to Mk 8: 38; 13:27; Mt 25: 31). 81

reminiscent of an angelic
But also God himself can be designatedas leader of the heavenly forces, as he is
portrayed, for instance, in Exodus 15:3, Deuteronomy 7 and 10 or Psalm 68. Therefore,
the image of the leadership of the armies from heaven is not purely an angelic attribute,
it has also be considered to be divine. 82
However, the reference to Christ as the leader of the heavenly army is in tension
with another angelic feature from within the Apocalypse, namely with Apc 12:7, where
Michael plays the role of the military leader of a heavenly host. (An angelomorphic
interpretation of the role as military leader seems therefore to be more likely for the
)
Apocalypse. One might certainly consider that Michael's role in the Apocalypse is a
limited he is to by name only once and also the victory he achieves

rather one: referred
to be Satan has power (Apc 12: 12) after the battle in heaven is won.
seems partial - still
By contrast, Christ's role is far more important in Revelation. This is not

apparently
by the number of references to Christ. but it is also given

only reflected greater
by Christ's victory as a final one (Apc 19:11-20:10). It seems

emphasis characterising
therefore, that Christ's victory (by sacrificial death) is regarded as the crucial victory,
78Cp. GIESCHEN:. 4ngelomorphic, 129-131. However, the figure remains unnamed in these passages,
cj. CARRELL: Jesus, 207.
7 See for instance MACH: Entwicklungsstadien, 250. HANNAH: Michael, 38-40 or LUEKEN: tlichael.
27.
80See MACH: Entwicklungsstadien, 250 n. 378.
81See GIESCHEN: Angelororphic, 256.
R' Cp. CARRELL: Jesus. 207.
229
which is mirrored by Michael's partial victory in heaven. 83A contrast between \lichael
and Christ in Revelation seemsto be a device in order to demonstratethat Christ is the
more significant figure in the plot. However, we cannot deny

at this stage of the
discussion that Christ receives angelomorphic features in Apc 19 by controlling the
heavenly army.
Further angelomorphic attributes are given to Christ in Apc 19. One might
possibly regard the portrait of Christ as a rider to represent an angelic feature, because
angels are occasionally depicted as riders as well. Such a description of angelic figures
can be found in 2 Maccabees 3: 1-40, where Heliodorus' attempt to steal the treasury of
the Temple is prevented by an angel-like rider and his 84

company. However, the notion
of the rider in this passage does not really provide a parallel to Apc 19. Some minor
similarities between both texts do exist: in 2 Maccabeesand in Apc 19 the riders are not
explicitly labelled as an angel. In both occurences,the angelic figures are depicted as
riders with weapons (swords) carrying out God's judgement, but here the similarity
ends. The figure in 2 Maccabeesis not leading an army, and Christ does not share any
other features of this rider in Apc 19. It would be an invalid inference to assume that the
description of a prominent figure riding was angelomorphic, solely because of a single
be identified 85
parallel where the rider cannot even clearly as an angel.
A feature that certainly deservesmore attention in the current discussion is the
to Christ's in Apc 19:12. The feature of a secret name can also be

reference secret name
found in passages referring to angels, as for instance in 1 Enoch 69: 13-29 Michael is in
86 Further evidence for the secret name as a possible

possession of such a secret name.
feature is by Judges 13:17-18. where the angel of the Lord refuses

angelic also provided
s; See for this HANNAH: Michael, 127-129 and CAIRD: Revelation, 156.
84Cp. CARRELL: Jesus, 205-206. BARKER: Revelation. 304 and MACH: Ennt icklungsstadiell. 243.
85Angelic horsemen are also mentioned Hekhalot Rabbati 15:8-16: 2.. lfassekhi't Hekhalot 4 and Seeher
hei-Ra: im 2: 132. A relationship between these passagesand Apc 19 would be hard to establish, though.
86Cp. HANNAH: Michael, 145 and CARRELL: Jesus, 212-213.
to reveal his 87
secret name. At the same time one must not entirely foi-gtt that the
unrevealed name or an angel's name can be a device for connecting an angel with Gods
power. In Genesis 32:29, for instance, we might find evidence that an unrevealed name
addresses a divine being which is not explicitly an angel. More importantly. an angel
can also be a bearer of God's name, as in Exodus 23: 21. Also Metatron (3 En. ) and
Jaoel (Apc. Abr. 11) are explicitly referred to as angels who bear God's 88
name.
Therefore, the application of a secret name to Christ in Apc 19 might be evaluated as an
angelomorphic feature.
The parallel with the angel from Exodus 23 is worthy of further exploration,
since the portrait of Christ as the warrior-like judge also recalls the image of Wisdom of
Solomon 18:15-16. It seemsvery likely that both of these passagesappear connectedin
Apc 19, as both of them allude to the slaying of the firstborn of Egypt. Such a
connection is apparent in the case of the angel from Exodus 23 who has a similarly
secret name as Christ in Apc 19:12; both this angel and Christ carry out God's
punishment against God's opposition. The same task is also reflected in Wisdom of
Solomon 18, where the word of God punishes Egypt with his sharp sword and brings
death to those who oppose God. It seems sensible to assume that the names establish a
link of traditions in Apc 19. The functions and names from the acting figures of Exodus
23 and Wisdom of Solomon 18 were combined, and accordingly Christ received two
mysterious names (namely "the name only known to himself' in verse 12 and "Word of
God" in verse 13) together with the angelic function of the angel of the Lord from
Exodus 23 which is also reflected by Wisdom of Solomon 18. The sword which is
87See
also AUNE: Revelation 17-22,1055.
88SeeVOLLENWE. IDER: "Monotheismus", 28.
221
carried by Christ and the description of the eschatological battle portrays Christ truly as
death 89
destroyer.
an angel of and a
The description of the sword which is wielded by Christ

could at first glance be
interpreted as an angelomorphic attribute. One could rightly

point out a number of
passages from the Hebrew Bible where angels are wielding swords, for instance
Numbers 22:21-38, Joshua 5: 13-15,2 Samuel 24: 16-17,1 Chronicles 21: 15-16,2 Kings
19:35, Isaiah 37:33-37 or the aforementioned passagefrom Wisdom of Solomon 18:15-
15.90 Also 1 Enoch 88: 2,88: 90 or Testament of Levi 5: 3 (where angels give away
swords and subsequently humans receive their weapons by supernatural means) might
be linked to the motif of angels bearing swords. However, God can be described as
having a sword as well, seen, for example, in Deuteronomy 32: 40-42 and 33: 29 (cp.
Judg 7:20). Also, God can be the one who gives humans a sword, as can be seen in I
Enoch 90: 19. One cannot, therefore, clearly distinguish here between a clearly
angelomorphic or a genuinely divine attribute. Also, the sword in Apc 19: 15.21 (and
1: 16) is further qualified as coming out of Christ's mouth. The sword could be used as a
symbol or a metaphor for tongue, i. e. the sharp judging word. Since speech is frequently
compared to a sword (or a dagger) as in Isaiah 49: 2; Psalms 52: 2; 57: 4; Wisdom of
-
Solomon 18:15-16; 4Q436; Ahiqar 100b (2: 18); Ephesians 6: 17 and Hebrew 4: 12 -
is
such a context probably also referred to in Apc 19.91Still, the contextual parallel to
Wisdom of Solomon 18 (and also Ex 23) leaves room for an assumption of the sword
being an angelomorphic feature in Apc 19.
One might ask whether or not the portrait of Christ as fighting (noXµEt) in Apc
19:11 could possibly be interpreted as an angelomorphic feature, as Michael and other
described in a military image as fighters. Such imagery is, for instance.

angels are often
89 See for an identification of Christ as the destroying angel from Exodus also section 3.1.2.5. in this
thesis.
90SeeGIESCHEN:. Angeloinorphic.253 n. 29. Cp. also MACH: Entwticklungssiadien.250-251
'; 2
provided by Daniel 10: 13-20 and even in Apc 12:7. However, the assumption that this
is an angelomorphic feature is not persausive. Firstly, God

can be depicted as maging
war against his (or his people's) opponents, as indicated by 2 Chronicles 20: 15: Isaiah
31:4 and Zechariah 14:3. Fighting is therefore not only an angelomorphic feature. but
also a divine one. Secondly, it seems problematic to identify the fighting action in Apc
19 as a general angelic function, because angels fulfill numerous tasks in eschatological
scenarios. Therefore, the description of Christ as fighting in Apc 19 need not represent
an angelomorphic feature. However, the most interesting observation concerning an
angelomorphic Christology is the fact that Christ is carrying out tasks which Michael
and his angels normally perform (i. e. the battle against Satan and God's opposition).
The major element of Christ's description in Apc 19 which may be interpreted as an
angelomorphic feature therefore seemsto be the identical task of Michael and Christ. As
we have assumedabove, Christ's role seemsto be far more important to the author than
Michael's. Still, it is noteworthy that Michael and Christ are set parallel.
A final detail provided in Christ's description might also be interpreted as
element of an angelomorphic portrait of Christ in Apc 19: Similar to Apc 1: 14 his eyes
are also described as "like a burning flame" (äpOakRoi 6E

aviov cif (pa, itupoS) in Apc
19: 12. (Apc 2: 18 also provides a similar description using the expression (p), yya instead
of (p .) There seems to be little doubt that these descriptions of the glowing eyes
derive from the vision in Dan 10:6 where Gabriel is also portrayed with glowing eyes.92
Accordingly, the description of Christ's eyes in line with the vision of Daniel 10:6
seems to support the assumption that angelic categories are attributed to Christ in Apc
19. Such features are naturally not attributed to God within the Apocalypse, becauseof
the author's tendency to avoid applications of such anthropomorphic nature to God. One
may therefore consider that angelic features of an anthropomorphic background within
91See AUNF:: Revelation 1-5,98-99

and Revelation 17-22,1060-1061.
233
the Apocalypse are those we can most certainly define as angelornorphic features
of
Revelation's Christology. More on these features will have to be in
said the followwim,
chapter on Apc 1.
Three more minor features are worth mention in this discussion,

namely C'hrist's
garment (Apc 19: 13 and 16), the diadems on his head (Apc 19:12) and the
white
colouring of the horse (Apc 19: 11). The garment as such might not provide further
evidence in favour of an angelomorphic interpretation of Christ in Apc 19. The garment
(iµ('Xiiov) is described as stained in blood (fEßa. t Lvov aiµat, ) in verse 13, and in verse
16 the mysterious name is written on it (ovoµ(x 'yrypaµµevov). A garment is also referred
to in Daniel 10: 5 (and this description of an angel is again adapted in Ape 1)9-' and in
the description of an angelic figure in Ezekiel 9: 2; however, the features of the garment
in Apc 19: 13-16 seem to be rather unique. Presumably, the focus in Apc 19 is on the
blood and the name written on the garment, rather than the fact that Christ wears such a
garment. Also, the tradition that apparently underlies the description of the blood-
stained garment is Isaiah 63: 1-3, where God is the acting figure with blood on his
garment. The passage might show a messianic interpretation in Apc 19.94 An
angelomorphic attribute, though, is not as clearly provided by this feature in Apc 19 as
in Apc 1. In Apc 1 the emphasis is not on the garment's attributes; and so, in contrast to
Apc 19, the parallel setting of Christ and angels in Apc 1 allows for a conclusion of an
angelomorphic attribute. Possibly the author attempted to link Apc 1 and 19 closer
by different Hebrew Bible (i.

passages e. Dan 10:5-6. Ezek 9:2
together alluding to
Apc I Isa 63: 1-3 in Apc 19) which all mention the garment. In light of the
within and
close connection between Apc 1 and Apc 19, an angelomorphic interpretation of the
be The fact that the same image as in Apc 1: l 3 is also used

garment cannot ruled out.
92See GIESCHEN:, Ingelomorphic, 247.

Q3See also ROWLAND: "Vision", 1-2.
94Cp. ALINE: Revelation 17-22.1057.
234
in Apc 15:6 (despite different vocabulary) seems to hint at an understandin,,T of
garments as angelomorphic features of Revelation's Christologv 95 Similarly,

. the
garment (iµäilov) is also worn by the angel-like 24 elders in Apc 4: 4. An
angelomorphic interpretation of the garment could therefore only be derived from

a
tradition-historical background. However, the prominence
of the garment motif in the
Apocalypse, worn by Christ and angels on the one hand

side and by the members of the
community (Apc 3: 4-5.18,6: 11 and also Apc 19:8) and the martyrs (Apc 7: 13-14)
on
the other, makes it nearly impossible to distinguish where a specifically angelic
understanding of the clothing might be in 96 The motif of wearing garments is

view.
certainly not an angelomorphic feature in the Apocalypse. We are probably best advised
to regard only those passages as featuring an angelomorphic description, where

an
exclusive and tradition-historical parallel to an angelophany is present, i. e. Apc 1: 13
(paralleled by Apc 15:6).
With respect to the diadems, several things need to be made clear: Firstly, the
term only occurs three times in the Apocalypse, twice to refer to either the dragon (Apc
12:3) or the beast (Apc 13: 1). In addition, similar to the dragon and beast, crowns are
ascribed to the locusts in Apc 9: 7. Only once are the &a5lRwra attributed to Christ
(Apc 19: 12). It seems, therefore, problematic to regard the diadem as an angelic feature
at all. Apparently, the author just wished to contrast God's opposition (i. e. dragon and
beast) once more with Christ by again employing anti-imagery. 97 Such an interpretation
is persuasive because the diadems of dragon and beast are numbered (reflecting a
has diadems. 98
certain strength) whilst Christ an unspecified number of Accordingly. the
diadems attributed to Christ simply express his superior power over dragon and beast.
95See for this STUCKENBRUCK: Veneration, 226-228.

96See for the different applications of the garments also GRUENWALD: tfvvicisnl. 65.
97Cp. for this assumption KRAFT: Offenbarung, 248 and LOHSE: Offenbarung, 78-79.
98See 353.
also MOUNCE: Revelation,
235
However, we may possibly also derive an angelological
concern from the
reference to the diadems in Apc 19. In other passages in the Apocalypse. crowns are
mentioned as decorations. Occasionally, these crowns are worn by angelic figures. such
as the 24 elders in Ape 4: 4 and 10 and even by the angelomorphic Christ in Ape 14: 14.
Accordingly, one may ask whether diadems, crowns, or similar decorations for the head
might represent an angelic feature in the Apocalypse. This is probably not the case as
the crown can be found in descriptions of various figures. In Ape 2: 10 and 3: 11 the
crown represents a symbolic reward for the community, in Apc 12: 1 it is worn by the
woman and in Apc 9: 7 by the locusts. In these descriptions a specific angelic interest is
hardly in view. In Apc 6:2 one of the horsemenreceives a crown. Like Christ in Apc 19,
he also rides a white horse. (Whatever decision might be made on the identity of this
rider from Apc 6 is not crucial for the current discussion.) However, the overall
employment of the crown as a motif in the Apocalypse probably indicates that crowns
and diadems are generally given to the those who are victorious (Apc 2: 10; 3: 11; 12: 1;
14: 14; 19: 12) in contrast to those who only appear to be strong (Apc 6: 2; 9: 7: 12:3;
13: 1). In any case, they are not attributed to angels. Therefore, it cannot be concluded
that crowns or diadems are an exclusively angelomorphic feature of the Apocalypse.
Similarly, the white colour of the horse in Apc 19:11 should not be evaluated as
angelomorphic feature of the rider. Certainly, the colour can be found in christophanies
which are indebted to angelophanies (Apc 1: 14; 14: 14; 19: 11). However, garments and
robes are elsewhere described as being white like garments of the community (Apc
2: 17; 3: 4-5; 3: 18; 7: 9.13), of the angel-like 24 elders (Apc 4: 4), and the heavenly army
(Apc 19: 14). Further, white is horses in the description of Christ in

applied to not only
Apc 19:11, but also in non-christological (or non-angelological) contexts as in Apc 6: 2:
19: 14. The throne in Apc 20: 11 is also depicted as white. According]},. a simple
interpretation the colour white seems to be out of question. It seems

angelomorphic of
2 ;6
that this colour either relates the described objects with heaven and sometimes also
with
judgement and victory. 99 (More

on the colour white will have to be said in the chapter
on Apc 1, and in Appendix 5.)
A potential parallel for Christ's description in angelic categories in 3 Enoch
might be promising, because some of the elements which are attributed to angels there
seem to match with Apc 19. In 3 Enoch 17: 8, a certain group of angels (the 72 princes
of kingdoms corresponding to the 72 nations of the world) are crowned with kingly
crowns (cp. the diadem in Apc 19: 12 and the crown in Apc 14: 14). They wear special
garments (cp. Apc 19: 13.16), ride horses (like Christ in Apc 19: 11-21). and hold a
sceptre (cp. the staff in Apc 19: 15). Further, like Christ in Apc 19: 14, they are
accompanied by heavenly armies. The number of parallels between the angels in 3
Enoch and Apc 19 seems to be rather impressive. However, the dating of 3 Enoch -
written centuries after the Apocalypse indicates that an influence of the angelological
-
concepts on Apc 19 is It
entirely out of question. can only be assumed that the author of
3 Enoch created his own angelological concept which coincidentialy matches the
description of Christ in Apc 19, or that both passages draw on similar material for their
representations. Such passages might involve Daniel 10:5-6 (for the garment), Psalm 2
(for the staff/sceptre), or Daniel 10: 13.21; 12: 1 (for the leadership of a heavenly army).
Admittedly, an identification of possible background texts in 3 Enoch 17:8 remains
speculative, as the use of the imagery employed here is far too common to uncover
traditions as exclusive Vorlagen. Nevertheless, we might regard 3 Enoch as a

certain
Apc 19, demonstratesthat the predicates given to Christ in

valuable parallel of which
Apc 19 are elsewhere understood as angelic prerogatives. Therefore. the assumption of
being in the Christology of Apc 19: 1 1-21 is further

angelomorphic attributes employed
ý9Cp. PARK: Offenbarung, 262-165.
217
supportedby the parallel display of some of the sameattributes given to the 72 angels in
3 Enoch.
4.2.3.2. The Role of the Angels in Apc 19
4.2.3.2.1. The Angel in Apc 19:17
Having investigated the question of whether or not Christ has angelomorphic
attributes in his description from Apc 19, it is worth asking what role angels play in this
vision and how they relate to Christ. At first sight it might be tempting to analyse such
an inquiry very briefly, because angels are not often mentioned. Only Apc 19: 17
in
explicitly refers an angel; standing the sun (Eva äyyF-XovE6i6)ia & iw ýjkiw) and
to
inviting the birds to God's feast. However, more on angels is expressedin Apc 19 than
it seems at first glance. Despite the angel in Apc 19: 17 two more notions in the entire
chapter seem to be concerned with angels, namely the refusal of worship in Apc 19:9-10
and possibly also the portrait of the heavenly army in Apc 19:14.
Regarding the angel from Apc 19:17, only a few things can be said with respect
to the author's christological concerns. The angel is certainly not a prominent angel, as
he is simply described as "one angel" (i va äyycA,ov), and there is nothing to relate him
to any previously mentioned in the Apocalypse. An identification with Christ is also
definitely out of question, becausehe bears none of the attributes which would make
such an identification possible. The only detail which arousesattention is the reference
to his position "in the sun" (EUTCOtaarv t Such a description might be
reminiscent of the angel from Apc 10, whose face is shining like the sun. Similarly.
Christ's face is portrayed as shining like the sun in the opening vision in Ahc 1: 16. In
.
238
Apc 1 and 10, though, the description has
a more epiphanical character alluding to the
angel's or Christ's brightness.
A further detail of the angel from Apc 19:17 that

might be interpreted as relevant
for the Christology of the Apocalypse is the
angel's posture: he is "standing" (£6ütTa)
like the Lamb in Ape 5: 6 (Eairlicöc). However,

as demonstrated above (see section
3.1.3.2. ), the standing posture in the Apocalypse

cannot be interpreted as an exclusively
angelological feature. Also, a link between this angel and the Lamb (in order to
proof
for an angelomorphic feature of the Lamb) can hardly be
established on the basis of one
minor detail like the posture.
In Apc 19: 17 no proper description is provided for the

angel. He is depicted
similarly to the eagle in Apc 8: 13 or the angel in Apc 14:6 ("in midheaven"). These
figures are messengers, either giving a message to those

on earth (as with the eagle and
the angel from Apc 14 from midheaven) or to the birds (from the sun, i. e. an even
higher position than midheaven). The change of position from to the

- midheaven sun -
could possibly be arranged according to the audience of the message:By analogy to the
message given to those on earth from a position from midheaven, the birds are spoken
to from an even higher place.' 00
But aside from this rather speculative explanation, the position of the angel
standing in the sun in Apc 19 is not entirely unknown: Angels closely associated with
the sun can be found in Hellenistic writings101and in a number of early Jewish texts.
such as 2 Enoch 11:4,3 Apocalypse of Baruch [Greek] 6:2; 7:4, Sepher ha-Raum
2.148.102A similar concept has also been preserved in Ascension of Ls-aiah4: 18.
Although some other texts describe angels' faces in in terms of a sun, such passages
seem not to be relevant in the current context, but certainly are relevant in the following
100For interpretation of the midheaven see Appendix

another possible -3.
101For see MICHL: "Engel", 57.
evidence
102Cp. AUNE: Revelation 17-22.1063 and MICHL: "Engel", 71.
21 9
chapteron Apc 1 and the description of Christ's face shining like the sun. Generally. the
author seems to take some interest in angels being somehow

connected with stars or
planets. It is worth asking if such a connection also reflects details of the author's
Christology. (For a more thorough discussion of this issue, seeAppendix 4.)
4.2.3.2.2. Angels as Part of the Heavenly Army in Ape 19:14
In Apc 19: 14 the heavenly army which is following Christ into final battle is
briefly referred to as riding on white horses and dressed in white pure garments. This
passage does not refer to angels explicitly. Within the context of the Apocalypse,
though, it is probable that this heavenly army has to be identified as consisting of
angels, parallel to Michael's army in Apc 12:7. Admittedly, the way the army is
described does not in itself warrant such an identification. However, it seems likely,
because of Hebrew Bible traditions (such as Gen 32: 1-2 or Josh 5: 14-15 and maybe Dan
8: 11), 103that the army can be regarded as an angelic force. If this identification is
permissible, despite its weaknesses, Apc 19: 14 can be regarded as another passage
giving evidence for Christ's superiority over angels, because the angels follow Christ
into battle as their leader.
4.2.3.2.3. The Angel in Apc 19:9-10
One of the passages with more significance for the author's christological
dealing to be by John in
conception is the passage with the angel refusing worshipped
Apc 19:9-10. A christological concern of this is,

passage of course. not verN apparent at
first sight. because Christ is in these verses. The acting figures are
not emphasised
103See also AUNE: Revelation 17-22.1059.
240
limited to John himself attempting to worship an
angel. and the angel who in response
to John's action refuses to be worshipped. But before this passage

will be analysed
further and the christological implications that may be hidden in this

passage dealt with.
it seems appropriate to compare Apc 19:9-10 briefly with Apc 22: 8-9.
where a' cry
similar scenario can be found. Both Revelation passages share the following
elements:
(1) The first person singular narrator (i. e. John) falls down, (2) before the angel's feet in
order to (3) worship him, but (4) the angel responds by (5) requesting not to be
worshipped, stating (6) that he is a fellow servant (6) along with John's brothers (7)
giving a further description of the faithfulness of the mentioned group finishing with (8)
the command to worship God. 104Both passagesalso share a similar structural setting,
dealing with the punishment of Babylon (Apc 17: 1-19: 10) and the New Jerusalem (Apc
21: 9-22: 9). 105The major difference between Apc 19: 10 and the parallel in Apc 22: 8-9 is
the explanation following the the statement that the angel considers himself as a fellow
servant along with John's brothers. In Apc 19: 10 the angel puts himself on par with the
seer and his "brothers who hold the testimony of Jesus" (xai tthv ä&&Xgxü
v ßov icöv
Exövicwv 61v µapvoptav h- ov), wheras in Apc 22: 8-9 the angel's position is defined by
a comparison to (1) the seer himself, (2) his brothers, the prophets (Kai iwv && q bv
ßov Tciw irpognyr3v) and (3) "those who keep the words of this book" (Kai Ttv
ir1povvtiwv ion XöyooS 'tov 3t Xiou coviov). The emphasis on the prophets in Apc
22:8-9 probably results from the author's need to legitimise himself and his messageof
Revelation in the eyes of the Christian community he is 106One might

addressing.
actually wonder which version of the angel refusing to be worshipped represents the
Other differences between Apc 9-10

19: and 2-1.8-9 do exist. which
original version.
inconsistencies between both given passages: (1) in Ape 19:9 the speaker
may appear as :
1`4For 10 22: 8-9 AUNE: Revelation /7-22.103

a synopsis of Apc 19: and see
105See for detailed synopsis of the similarities between these passages in Apc 17: 1-19: 10 and 2 1:9-22: 9
a
STUCKENBRUCK: Veneration, 247.
is not clearly identified, (2) the conclusion of Apc 19:10 ("these
words are true") seem
to be more suitable for a final vision (as for instance Apc "'2:8-9) rather than
a
penultimate vision, and (3) John's second attempt to worship the angel in Apc 22: 8
appears to be a repeated mistake. 107 It seems that the number of inconsistencies
increases if one assumes Apc 19: 10 to be a secondary version of the

angel's refusal to
be worshipped. 108Therefore, it can be concluded that Apc 19: 10 was probably

used as a
source for Apc 22: 8-9.109Deciding which version of the refusal is the "original" is not
crucial for christological concerns, though, and misses the point of the author's
intention. The double use of the refusal tradition' 10within the Apocalypse serves not
merely to underline the author's own prophetic message, but to emphasise the
importance of God - who is clearly referred to as the one who must be worshipped in
-
contrast to angels. The double use indicates the significance that this topic has for the
'" Assuming both versions of the refusal are relevant for the author (despite
author.
some apparent inconsistencies) allows these passages to unfold their meaning in the
context of the Apocalypse.
For Ape 19:9-10 alone a christological interest is already quite apparent, because
a theological interest is related with a christological message in Apc 19: 1Ob as in verses
7 and 9 before. 112Therefore, it can be concluded that the author wished not only to
(i.
make a statement expressing angelological concerns e. to downplay angels by having
them refuse worship), but also to stress Christ's importance by addressing the
106Cp. STUCKENBRUCK: Veneration, 253-255.

107See STUCKENBRUCK: Veneration, 250.
108Cp. for this STUCKENBRUCK: Veneration, 250 n. 129.
109See AUNE: Revelation 17-22,1037 and KRAFT: Offenbarung, 278.
110See for the STUCKENBRUCK: 1'eneration, passim and "Refusal". 679-
use of the refusal tradition
696.
111Cp. STUCKENBRUCK: 255-256. ROOSE's that Apc 19: 10 and 22: 8-9 are
Veneration, view
Revelation (Cp. ROOSE: Zeugnis. 205. ) seems to be
exclusively focussing on the authority of the entire
too narrow minded.
112Cp. STUCKENBRUCK: Veneration, 250 n. 129.
242
significance of the "testimony of Jesus" in Apc 19: 10b. 113 The angel's role seems
therefore not only be limited in relation to God «ho is the one to

- whom «orship must
be offered - but also to Christ, as having the "testimony

of Jesus" equals the speaking
angel and the seer.
Despite this rather obvious christological message in Apc 19: 10b. a further
conclusion concerning the relation between Christ and angels in the Apocalypse can be
derived: Ape 19:9-10 introduces the scenario of John throwing himself at the feet
of the
revealing angel in order to worship him. Obviously, this attempt to worship the angel is
turned down by proclaiming the reception of worship as God's exclusive privilege. (The
same procedure recurs in Apc 22: 8-9. ) As mentioned, this scenario is introduced rather
abruptly and does not as such fit into the given context without difficulties. One passage
in the Apocalypse, however, must arouse suspicion in this context; namely the
somewhat similar scenario in Apc 1. Here the seer falls down at the feet of the
angelomorphic Christ. It is not entirely surprising that in this vision John's attempt to
worship Christ in such a way is not turned down. In fact, whereas Christ is represented
in Apc 1:7-20 in terminology which relates to angels, on the other hand Christ seems -
as we have frequently observed now - superior to angels in the entire writing. One
might therefore ask whether or not the author wished to express some christological
concern by the dual refusal tradition (Apc 19: 10 and 22: 8-9) in relation to the
angelomorphic Christ in the opening vision who accepts worship without hesitation.
It might be helpful here to ask for the order of composition regarding the
in Apc land the later following section where worship of angels is

opening vision
Some for Apc 19 being composed before Apc 1 is probably

refused. evidence regarding
by to the (po mentioned in Apc 1: 16 and 19: 15.

provided the reference sword t paia)
Notably, both of these occurences introduce a sword anarthrously. i. e. without the
I1' Against ROOSE: Zeugnis, 204. who exclusively interprets Ape 19: 10 by theological means.
ýlý
application of a definite article. However, in each of the following passageswhich
relates Christ with a sword, a definite article is provided for the "sword" (f po.«paia ). as
can be seen in Apc 2: 12 (here referring to the double edged sword. ziiv ponpaiav ti1v
& 'roµov), 2: 16 and 19:21. Such a distribution of the articles for the "sword" is
somewhat conspicuous, as it seemscorrect to introduce the sword without an article in
Ape 1: 16 and then use an article for the following passages which refer to the same
sword in Apc 2: 12 2:
and 16. In Apc 19: 15, though the same sword is then referred to
if
without an article as a new sword would be introduced, followed by the expected
return of the article in verse 21. The distribution of articles and especially the missing
article in Ape 19: 15 alone suggests Ape 19 was composed at an earlier stage than Ape
1. Additionally, it can be assumed that the context where the swords are mentioned also
it
make rather plausible that Apc 19 must have been composed before the opening
vision of Christ in Apc 1: The setting of Apc 19 and its apocalyptic context - probably
drawing on material from Isaiah 11:4 - is a more appropriate passage to mention the
sword coming forth from Christ's mouth than Apc 1: 16 or Apc 2: 12.16.11-
This assumption regarding the compositional state of Apc 19 being before Apc
could also explain the rather abrupt introduction of the scenario provided by Apc 19:9-
10. As we have already observed above, the author seems not only to express
angelological concerns related to his theology in this passage,but also a christological
interest. The process of relating theology. angelology and even Christology in Apc
19:9-10 might have caused the above mentioned inconsistencies and also could have
impression introducing thoughts rather abruptly as Apc 19: 1-10 deals

created an of such
with the triumph of God. Introducing angelological (and christological) concerns might
therefore appear to be disturbing at first sight. However, the christological concern in
Ape 19:9-10 which is per se not very transparent might actually even he enlarged by the
J ý-_". 1060. 'ce further

See for the same conclusion AUNE: Revelation 1-5.98 and Revelation
-44
contrasting situation in Apc 1. It is possible that the topic
of the angel who refuses to be
worshipped directly relates to Ape 1 where, by contrast, Christ permits the

act of
worshipping him (despite an angelic appearance). A combination of these passage',
provides the readership of the Apocalypse then with two clear messages. namely (1) the
theological concern that angels - being subordinate to God must not be

- worshipped,
and (2) that the apparently exclusive privilege of God to be worshipped does
not
exclude Christ from receiving such worship. Especially the fact that Apc 19: 10 refers to
God alone being worthy of receiving worship must arouse suspicion when related to
Apc 1. If Apc 19: 10 (and Ape 22: 8-9) are examined on their own regarding the sharp
contrast between God and angels stated here, it is clear that the author wished to express
a distinct and unique character of God as being the one who has to be worshipped (in
contrast to angels). Taking the Christ's acceptance of worship by in Apc I into account.
we may assumethat the author wanted to resolve another conflict as well. Not only does
a comparison between Apc 1 and 19 allow for the conclusion that Christ, even if
portrayed angelomorphically, is worthy of worship. The characterisation of worship as
God's exclusive privilege also strongly hints at putting God on par with Christ or even
at an equation of Christ and God, who according to Apc 1 and 19 (and also Apc 5: 6-14)
may then both be worshipped. We may therefore conclude that the christological
implications of Apc 19 are especially highlighted by a comparison with Apc 1. The
underlying christological concerns of Apc 19 are then unfolded more transparently in
Apc 1 which was probably written at a later stage than Apc 19.
However, such a conclusion is not entirely without difficulties. An equation of
God and Christ and their equal status results in a clear cut distinction between God and
Christ on the one hand side and angels on the other hand side. Given such a sharp
contrast between angels and God and Christ. it is certainly peculiar that the author
FEKKES: Isaiah. 117.

"4:
elsewhere presents an angelomorphic portrait of Christ, namely in Apc 1.14 and also in
Apc 19 itself. As we have said above (see section 2.3.2). such an apparentcontradiction
a
of clear distinction between angels and Christ and an angelomorphic representationof
Christ at the same time might be the result of a deliberately created conflict. BN such
means the author is able to convey that, for him, Christ (and God) is clearly superior to
angels, but at the same time he could have appealed to a readership which held angels in
high regard by providing an angelomorphic description of Christ. Accordingly-, the
significance of angels is drastically downplayed, as their power and importance are
limited in comparison with Christ. The author might have tried a subtle approach in
order to address readers who had respect for angelic powers (and maybe even
considered angels worthy as recepients of worship). Besides the prominence of angels
in the plot of Revelation, even Christ is described with attributes which are traditionally
used in portraits of angelic figures. Such a description of Christ maintains a clear cut
division between Christ (along with God) and angels. Simultaneously, by means of an
angelic description, Christ absorbs the significance angels might have held in certain
communities. By this subtle approach Christ becomes the one who represents all those
angelic powers which might have been important for a certain part of John's readership,
and, at the same time, Christ is shown to be far superior than any angel could ever
possibly be: he is the one who - along with his prominent role in the Apocalypse - may
the presenceof a rather high

also be worshipped. Such a conception seemsto underline
Christology in the Apocalypse.
4.3. Conclusion
The study the whole of chapter 19 contributes significantly to an

of
John's Christology. It has been demonstratedthat the interpretation of

understanding of
246
the entire chapter (i. e. Apc 19: 1-10 and 11-21) together
assists in delineating a
perspective for the Christology underlying the Apocalypse as a whole. Christ emerges
as the key figure throughout. Even if one focuses on exclusively christological features
in Apc 19 (i. e. looking at Christ isolated from God or angels), his

crucial role is
apparent. He is the active figure of Apc 19115who displays immense powers by judging
the world and waging war against the anti-divine opposition. Also the identification of
Christ as the Lamb in Apc 17:14, mirrored in the portrait of Christ as the judge in Apc
19:16, shedslight on the author's conception of Christology; the redemptive meaning of
Christ as the Lamb is given the same weight as his role as judge. The display of these
different functions is probably the result of two different perspectiveswhich the author
implicitly addressed; the Christian community itself is given a full understanding of
Christ as a saviour while the opposition regards Christ as a destructive power. Still,
Christ's juridic activities have salvific meaning for the Christian community, as
portrayed in wedding imagery.
However, the entire significance of John's christological concept in Apc 19 can
only be understood by making comparisons between Christ and God and Christ and
angels. Such comparisons demonstrate the author's awareness of differentiating
between the divine and the angelic, while highlighting Christ's powers and importance
for certain purposes. In relation to God, Christ is described as an equal. Such equality is
not only reflected in the shared reception of worship (as a comparison with the opening
in but is further, displayed by

vision chapter 1 made transparent), and more openly,
Christ's description with divine attributes and names. The clear emphasis on equality
between God and Christ excludes any interpretation that seeksto establish a subordinate
position of Christ towards God.
15 See Christology, 211.

also MATERA:
Christ's relation to angels is portrayed in a dual
way : On the one hand side.
Christ is clearly superior to angels, which is reflected in his relationship

with God (as
being equal) and also by attributes applied to Christ. The leadership
over an angelic
host, his powers, significance for the community, and possibly even the relation
of
Christ with angels expressedby allusions to astronomy demonstrateChrist's status as
far superior to angels.
Certain imagery and traditions employed by the author have been identified as
supporting an angelomorphic interpretation of Christ in Apc 19. Other elements
provided in the description of Christ remained unclear as regards an assumed
angelomorphic Christology as they did not strictly allow for an exclusive interpretation
as angelic imagery (in turn, they might occasionally be interpreted as divine attributes as
well). Still, their presencein Apc 19 might have been influential amongst some readers
for regarding Christ as an angelomorphic figure.
The resulting contradiction between Christ's equal status with (A) God and his
superiority over angels and (B) his portrait which draws on angelic categories could be
best explained on basis of a deliberately created model of Christology, defining Christ
as a divine being who remains angelic solely in his description in order to appeal to a
certain readership which held some respect for angelic beings. Nevertheless, the angelic
features in Christology serve to enhance,and not detract, from Christ's status.

5. The Christology in Ape 1
5.1. The Structure and Unity of Ape 1
The Christology of the Apocalypse unfolds

with the narrative. The initially rather
blurred visions become more clear and understandablein the

progression of John's
message.Therefore, it makes sense to deal with christological details of Apc 1 after
observing the Christology of John in chapters where the interest in Christ and the way in
which he is described is central (e.g. Apc 5,14 and 19).
A first step for a christological interpretation of Apc 1, then, is to

analyse the
structure of this chapter and define what might be christologically relevant. From here,
further insight may be gained on how the author prepared to provide his views
concerning Christology and Christ's relation to angels and God throughout his writing.
Chapter 1 falls into three sections; Apc 1: 1-3 (the introduction), Apc 1:4-8 (the
prescript), and 1:9-20 '

(the commission of John). The prescript can be subdivided into
verses 4-6 (the actual prescript) and verses 7-8 (which announce the eschatological
coming of Christ). Already it seems obvious that a division of Apc I cannot be absolute
because certain verses correspond with information provided in other passages. For
instance, Apc 1:7-8 is part of the prescript, but it also relates to Apc 1:9-20 because both
passages deal with the second coming of Christ in a rather enigmatic language. A
division of Apc I should therefore be regarded as being made on assumptions regarding
formal aspects of the text, rather than as a strict division of contextual units. 2
We have further reason to assume that the author has linked Apc I as a whole
together. The chain in which the revelation is announced to proceed in Apc 1: 1-2 is
1 See for division of Apc I for instance MÜLLER: <)tlcnharung. 65. or

such a commonly accepted
STUCKENBRUCK: Veneration, 209-211.
,4O
strictly reflected in Apc 1:4.9. Also, the expression "the testimony
of Jesus" (µapzvpia
'Iißov) used in Apc 1:2 and 9 seems to link the
passages closer together. It can also be
observed that a certain christological interest seems to hold together the three
mentioned
structural units: In each of the three sections a christological concern is detectable, in
Apc 1: 1-4 Christ is part of the chain of revealing what is

about to happen, in verse 4-6
Christ is given praise by listing his deeds (followed by

a cryptical allusion to the
forthcoming appearance as in Apc 1: 13), and from

verse 13 onwards a rather detailed
description of Christ's appearance is provided. Also Apc 1:5

and 1: 17-18 seem to link
the entire chapter together, as the description of Christ as the firstborn of the dead in
verse 5 (ltparkOKo; uiw vExpwv) is mirrored in verses 17-18, where Christ is the First
and the Last One (ö irpth'roq Kai o i'ßx(xtioc) and "was dead and is alive" (EyF-vötiiv
vcKpöS xai i8o6 t thv ciju). As the narrative proceeds, Christ becomes more and more
the focus of the events described. It seemsthat God is nearly fading out of the narrative
as events proceed, as he is hardly mentioned after verse 8. At this stage it could almost
be assumed that Ape 1 is rather christocentric in its description of the events. Therefore,
it is possible that, for the author, theological concerns have to be expressed in
christological messages; or, in other words, an appropriate way for John to talk about
God is to talk about Christ.
In line with the way the author unfolds his story here, we may assume that the
main concern of Apc 1 is an outline of the author's Christology. This can of course be
verified by to
numerous allusions passagesof Apc 1 elsewherein the entire Apocalypse.
Accordingly, it seems appropriate to demonstrate how and where the author established
links between Apc 1 and other sections from Revelation.
2 Cp. SLATER: Communrnv, 87.

also
150
5.1.2. Parallels between Ape 1 and Ape 2-3
The vast numbers of allusions to Apc 1 within Apc 2

can barely be denied.
Especially the attributes given to Christ in Ape 1: 13-20 are

referred to in each of the
verses from Apc 2-3 which introduces a new message to another of the seven
3 but
communities, references to other passages from Apc 1 are also clearly made.
Occasionally, the wording varies slightly between the parallel references to Christ;
sometimes in Apc 2-3 the material from Apc 1 is even extended. It is useful here to list
the christological references from Apc 1 which are mentioned in Apc 2-3 again in a
table in order to demonstratethe author's intention to connect Apc 1 and 2-3.
Figure 4: Table of References to Christological Attributes from Apc 1 in Apc 2-3
Ape 2/3 Resembled in Ape I Difference

2: 1 holding the seven stars 1:20 -
2: 1 walking between the 1:12-13 nxptnaiwv in 2: 1 is
lampstands unique
2: 8 the first and the last 1: 17 -
2: 8 having been dead, being 1: 18 minor: change of tempus
alive
2: 12 having the sword 1: 16 -
2: 16 out of the mouth 1: 16 reference to mouth
delayed
2: 18 eyes like fire 1: 14 -

2: 18 feet as burnished bronze 1: 15 -
3: 1 having the seven stars 1:20 reference to spirits only
and spirits in 3: 1
3: 7 having the keys of David 1: 18 keys for Hades in Apc
1: 18
3: 14 the faithful witness 1:5 -
'c1
It can be clearly seen that only minor differences between
the christological
in Apc 1 2-3 4 Some

references and exist. of these differences can easily be explained as
the author's attempt to link the following sections in the Apocalypse to his introduction:
the reference to the spirits (itvEVµati(x) in Apc 3: 1 (which is absent in 1:20) could
-\pc
.
be a device to link the introduction to Apc 5: 6 where the Lamb is described having
as
authority over these same spirits.
The other differences between christological referencesin Apc 1 and Apc 2-3
cannot be explained so easily. The description of Christ as walking (ncpinaTwv )
between the lampstands, absent in Apc 1:20, might depend on the context of Apc 2: 1.
Such a reference to Christ is a reminder (or maybe even a warning) to the readership
that Christ is present in their communities. The relationship between Apc 1: 18 and 3 :7
is less clear. A connection between these two verses may certainly be assumed,'
becauseboth times the "key" (1 E'Ii) is mentioned.
The description of the key (as the "key of David") in Apc 3: 7 draws on Isaiah
22: 22; 6 a Hebrew Bible background for the keys of Death and Hades cannot be found.
One might speculatewhether or not a link between these two keys might be established
as they both have power over certain domains (i. e. the underworld and spirits). Such an
key the Key David, 7 but evidence for

understanding of the could probably underlie of
be 8 Therefore, the link between both verses

this concept for Apc 1: 18 cannot provided.
is only establishedrather loosely by simply alluding to the key as such.
' See for between Apc 1 Apc 2-3 also FARRER: Images, 192, and HEMER:
a close connection and
Letters, 3 1. HEMER, who concentrates on 1:9-20, ignores 1: 1-8.
4 See
also SLATER: Community, 108-112.
5 Cp. AUNE: Revelation 1-5,103.
6 See KRAFT: Offenbarung, 80.
also
7 The key Solomon therefore possibly represent his power over spirits.
of David could allude to and might
R p. for this KRAFT: Offenbarung, 80.
Jewish (b. Taan. 2a. Gen. Rah. 73,: 1. Deut. Rah.
However, it is interesting that in certain earls, writings
7:6, and Midrash Psalm 78: 5) the ownership of keys for the revival of the dead is God's privilege, ý%hich
Revelation 1-5.103. ) One might consider that
is not shared with angels. (Cp. for this evidence AUNE:
distinguish him from angels as being far
Christ was attributed such a key in Apc 1: 18 in order to clearly
Such is of course disproved hý the presence of the
superior by receiving divine attributes. a conclusion
angel in Apc 20: 1 with exactly those keys.
252
The other differences that have been listed
above are minor and can therefore be
considered to be not important for the current discussion. Generally,

a connection
between Apc 1 and Apc 2-3 by means of alluding to
christological features from the
opening vision can be attested. Notably, this connection is achie\ ed exclusively by
allusions to christological features from Apc 1. The fact that the

echoes of christological
features in Apc 2-3 are not just limited to elements from the actual ChristophanI (; \pc
1: 13-20) but extend to other parts from Apc 1 (i. e. Apc 1:5 and 12) also underscores the
unity of Apc 1 as such.
5.1.3. Parallels between Ape 1 and Ape 4-5
The number of obvious parallels between Apc 1 and Ape 4-5 does not seem
enormous, but some features might be worth mentioning briefly. For instance, Apc 4-5
might possibly be regarded as a structural parallel to Apc 1, because both times one can
observe a transition of the focus of the narrative from God to Christ. In Apc 1 the focus
is first on God before the Christophany deals in much detail with Christ's appearancein
Apc 1: 13-20; similarly the emphasis shifts from God to Christ (in form of the Lamb)
from Apc 4 to 5.9 Christ's significance in Apc 5 is - amongst a number of other features
also stressedby his as the one who made inhabitants of the earth to priests for
- role
God (Apc 5: 10), repeating exactly what has been expressed above in Apc 1:5.10
Notably, the underlying scheme of Exodus traditions within Apc 5 is thus alread\
1:5 5: 10 based the tradition from Exodus

alluded to in Apc 1. since Apc and are on
kingdom (Ex 19:6). ' Apc 1 appears to resemble a kind of

concerning a priestly
9 Cp.
similarly HEMER: Letters, 1.
10See for the between Apc 1:5 and 5: 10 also ULFGARD: Future,
relationship
ýý;
christological programme or preparation which unfolds in the following chaptersof the
Apocalypse.
5.1.4. Parallels between Apc 1 and Apc 14
The parallels between Apc 1 and Apc 14 are, compared to the already mentioned
passages of Revelation, rather obvious. Firstly, many of the elements from the
Christophany in Apc 1 are repeated in Apc 14: 14-15: Christ is addressed with the same
designation here as in Apc 1: 13, namely as the "one like a son of man" (öµotov uiöv
(cv9nov). The use of this designation is limited to Apc 1 and Apc 14, therefore a
deliberate connection seems probable. Also, the sharp sickle which is attributed to
Christ in Apc 14: 14-16 might be reminiscent of the sharp sword wielded by Christ in
Apc 1: 16. A feature that definitely deserves attention is the reference to the cloud in
Apc 14: 14-15. The white cloud is not mentioned in the actual Christophany in Apc
1: 13-20, but it is alluded to rather enigmatically in Apc 1:7. As christological features of
Apc 1:7 and 1: 13-20 are combined in Apc 14 it may be deduced that a wholistic
interpretation of Apc 1 is intended by the author.
5.1.5. Parallels between Ape 1 and Ape 19
In Apc 19 a number of parallels to Apc 1 can also be found. Most of these
features from Apc 1: 13-20, as for instance the garment (Apc

parallels are christological
1: 13: 19: 16), eyes like a fiery flame (Apc 1: 14; 19: 12), or the wielding of a sword (Apc
from Apc 1:7 might he reflected by

1: 16; Apc 19: 15.21). In addition, the white cloud
the white horse in Apc 19: 11.
251
However, it is not only these features from the Christophany. but
also structural
elementswithin Apc I and Apc 19 that correspond with each other: The "testimony
of
Jesus", for instance, is mentioned in the passages preceding the
actual Christophan} in
both chapters (Apc 1:2.9; Apc 19: 10). In either occurrence (Apc 1:'
and 19: 19) the
"word of God" and the "testimony of Jesus" are connected as parallel statements,
appealing to the faithfulness of readers and eventually including them in the
forthcoming salvific process (cp. Apc 1:9; 6: 9; 12: 17; 14: 12 and 20: 4). 12 Furthermore,
the designation given to Christ in Apc 19: 16 seems to be alluded to in Apc 1:5. and
even the chain in which the revelation proceeds, provided in Apc 1:1. is followed
precisely in Apc 19. Another minor feature that deserves some attention is the presence
of doxological material in Apc 19:1-8 and the macarism connected with the order to
write in Ape 19:9. These details are not exactly present in Apc I as such. However, one
might find material in Apc 1 that corresponds with these elements. In Apc 1: 19 the
order to write down the revealed events is given, a macarism is missing though. A
proper doxology is also absent in Apc 1: in Apc 1:4-8 the predications given to God are
13
formelhaft, but not hymnic per se. However, verses 5-6 probably contain doxological
material. 14 One here that the opening vision presents some cryptic
might speculate
allusions in a rather formelhaft language, partially even doxological, which is unfolded
fully in the following chapters of Revelation, namely Apc 5,14: 1-5 and 19: 1-8.
Accordingly, observations on Apc 19 also seem to confirm that Apc 1 as a whole was
to
composed so as correspond with later chaptersof Revelation.
1' Cp. further DEHANDSCHtTTTER: "Witness". 283-288, and SLATER: Commwlihv. 89.
13 See JrJRNS: Evangelitun, 20-21. and MÜLLER: OYfenbarung. 70-71, against LÄl! CHLI.
"Gottesdiensstruktur", 359-378.
255
5.1.6. Underlying Hebrew Bible Traditions
The use of Hebrew Bible traditions within Ape 1 also seemto

confirm the unity of
this chapter. The most apparent tradition which underlies Apc 1 is derived from Daniel
7: 13, a vision concerning the coming of the Son of Man. This vision is clearly alluded
to in Apc 1:13 (including the similar designation "one like a son of man"), but the
coming of Christ in Apc 1:7 also echoes Dan 7: 13. Accordingly. the same description
from one single Hebrew Bible tradition seems to connect the introduction of Apc I with
the Christophany provided in Apc 1: 13-20.
Similarly, a tradition from Daniel 2:28 (A) links the introduction and
Christophany more closely together, namely the referenceto "what will happensoon" in
1 (ä &1 Ev 19 (ä RF-'rä 5 The

verses yEvE6Oat r(XEt) and µt? Et yEVE69at
slightly different expressions employed in both verses might depend on the context in
which the allusion to Daniel 2 is made: in Ape 1: 1 the allusion very generally appeals to
the situation of the Apocalypse as a whole; the author intends to show what - according
to him will shortly happen. In contrast to this general statement, Apc 1: 19 is more
-
specific, as the current situation (i«x ('X'dioiv) and the future (ä µ£X? i yEve 9ai. µEtä
iavia) are both referred to. This announcement seems to reflect the structure of
Revelation, as the present situation (xai ä Ei(yv) is addressed in the Letters to the seven
Churches in Apc 2-3 and the future - the things which are about to come (ä tWt
.
described in the following chapters 4-22.16 Therefore, it

ycv&aOw. tEiä iavia) - are
be here that Hebrew Bible traditions in Apc I also support the

might concluded
Apc I chapter which prepares the reader of the

assumption of as a preliminary
14See MÜLLER: Offenbarung, 70,and DEICHGRABER: Gotteshymnus. 34.

1sCp. BEALE: Daniel, 290-291.
16See The ä Xci from Apc I: 19 is notably
also HEMER: Letters, 3 1. phrase VE yEýýoOat pcT& taüra
by a Sei in Apc 4: 1. making such an identification of this expression as a
mirrored 7CV O Ut pc-r& TavTa
See for the Dan 2: 28 tradition also FEKKES: Isaiah, 127.
structural element even more likely. the use of
? 56
Apocalypse to understand the following content and helps to realise the
unfoldin-i of the
author's christological concerns.
5.1.7. Summary: Character and Composition of Apc 1
Our analysis of Apc 1 so far has made transparentthat this chapter plays
a major
role in introducing concerns of the entire Apocalypse, as well as preparing the
readership for the author's christological message.The connection between Apc 1 and
chapters 2-3,4-5,14 and 19 and the use of Hebrew Bible traditions within Apc I also
indicated that this chapter is best understood as a unit. A holistic interpretation of Apc 1
further supported an interpretation of this chapter as a nearly programmatic outline for
the entire Apocalypse. In Apc 1, the focus of the narrative seems to make a shift frone
God to Christ - something seen again in later chapters (for instance Apc 4-5). An even
more condensed account is Apc 1: 19, which contains the total structure of Revelation in
miniature.
The character of Apc 1 as a general introduction to Revelation does not
necessarily mean that this chapter was written as the first stage of Revelation's
composition. On the contrary, the amount of parallels between Apc 1 and other chapters
of the Apocalypse help to identify the introduction as a composition which was written
after Apc 4-22; it plausible that the general statements of Apc 1 were not
seems more
but to the forthcoming passagesof Revelation as

prescriptive reflective, used address
they were already written. (The use of the sword metaphors in Apc I and 19 supports
4.2.3.2.3. ) Apc 2-3 was probably written after Apc 1.

such an assumption, see section
because the changes that have been made in the Seven Letters to the communities.
in better explained as based on :\pc I than

especially the christological reflections. are
Christophany derived from. Consequently. A pc 2--' as

%ý also
as material the was
X57
composed after Apc 4-22, as many allusions in the Seven Letters
prepare for the
following narrative, for instance the reward
offered to those who overcome which
is
almost everywhere given to Christ as the victor in Apc 4-22. Such an application
of the
offered rewards to Christ might therefore reflect the author's view that Christ is the first
one who overcomes and receives the rewards offered in Apc 2-3 as the first individual
(cp. Apc 1: 17). If one may further assume that Apc 1:5 and its
message that Christ is the
firstborn of the dead (npo tötoxoq iwv vF- pöiv) and Apc 1: 17. which explicitly
designatesChrist as the First (ö itpwioq), are analogous with Apc 2-3.

which regards
Christ as the first one to receive the promised rewards, then Apc 2-3 seem to
presuppose
Apc 1.
Apc 1 is also crucial for an understanding of the author's Christology, as the
following passages of this thesis will attempt to demonstrate. At this stage of the
discussion it can only be verified that Christology in Apc i appearsto be a major issue
of the author, as the focus of the narrative changes from God to Christ within this
chapter. Moreover, the relationship between first Christ and God, and then Christ and
angels in the entire Apocalypse is probably already outlined in Apc 1.
5.2. The Christology of Ape 1
So far only the characteristics of Apc I that offer a possible outline for the
author's christological concept and the unity of this chapter have been dealt with. As a
logical consequence, it now has to be examined how Christology is conceptualised in
Apc I and how Christ is related to God and to angels within this chapter. The relation
between Christ and God or angels respectively may be 1

expressedwithin chapter or in
the following narrative of the Apocalypse: the somewhat blurred description of Apc I is
a whole. but it is unveiled in the following passages

not necessarily self-explanatory as
25 `
of the Apocalypse (similar to Apc 14 which is made more transparent in
chapter 19).
For instance, certain attributes and prerogatives ascribed to Christ
are repeated in later
chapters. Moreover, designations (e.g. one like a son of man)

and certain elements of
the narrative (e.g. the reference to Christ in terms of a judge or the worship
of Christ)
are referred to again in later visions in a more understandableway. In other words.
certain elements of Apc 1 do not only correspond with other christological features of
the Apocalypse, but these features can be understood solely in light of Apc 1. and vice
versa.
5.2.1. A Christological Interpretation of Ape 1: 9-20?
The first question one should addressfor an analysis of the Christology which is
preserved in Apc I is how far Christ is actually the one being referred to. In Apc 1: 1-8
Christ is clearly designated as 'IrlaovS XptaiöS each time he is mentioned (Apc 1: 1.2.5).
However, in Ape 1:9-20 and already in Apc 1:7 the description of Christ is rather
enigmatic. The acting figure, presumably Christ, is only once designated as "one like a
son of man". Elsewhere a designation is absent and this is

character only referred to in
the third person singular. At first sight, one might wonder whether or not Apc 1:9-20
deals with christological concerns at all. It seems very clear. though. that this passage
from Apc I provides a vision of Christ. Such an identity can almost certainly be taken
for granted due to the predicates that are attributed to Christ here which are given to him
in Apocalypse. for instance his eves being like fiery flames (Ape 1: 14
elsewhere the as
19: 12) forth from his mouth (Apc 1: 16: 19: 15). The
and or the sword coming
designation of Christ as the one who "was dead and is alive again" in :Apc 1: 18 also
figure Christ. A reference can also be

strongly hints at an identification of this as similar
found in Apc 1:5, where it is clearly applied to Christ. The identification IS lurther
25Q
warranted by Apc 1:7 where Christ is referred to by a conflation
of the two Hebrew
Bible traditions from Daniel 7: 13 and Zechariah 12: 10,
similar to Matthew 24:: 1 (as
already indicated in section 2.2.6. ). Accordingly. the identification of the

one like a son
of man being Christ seems to be certain. "
5.2.2. The Relationship between God and Christ in Ape 1
So far, the relationship between God and Christ in Apc 1 has only been
characterised in terms of narrative in this current discussion. We have observed that the
focus of narrative apparently shifts from God to Christ. Naturally, this is not everything
that can be said about Christology and theology concerning Apc 1. The author of
Revelation defines Christology by meansof relating God and Christ with eachother.
First features of God and Christ which correspond with each other can already
be found within Apc 1. For instance, in Apc 1:2 the expressions "Word of God" (Xö'yoS
,cob OF-ob)and "testimony of Jesus" (µapi)pia 'Irl6oü Xpi6ioü) are mentioned together.
The connection of these expressions by the word xai seems to be paratactical.
Therefore, the statement of Apc 1:2 concerning the offspring of the revelation which is
about to be reported seems already to express a certain equality between God and
Christ: The message of Revelation is the word of God, as it has its origin in God and it
is also the testimony of Jesus,becauseJesushimself witnessesthe content (seealso Apc
22:20). 18
Further details concerning the relationship between God and Christ in Apc I can
be derived by the analysis of the Drei: citenformel within this chapter. The
Dreizeitenformel occurs for the first time in the Apocalypse in Apc 1:4 and then in Apc
1:8, and it is both times exclusively applied to God himself. God is presented as the One
17See for thorough discussion YARBRO COLLINS: "Tradition", 536-547.

a
260
who is (o dSv),who was (o fjv) and who comes (o ýpxökEvoc). Additionally, in Apc 1:8
God is described as iö äý,cpaxai iö w and also as navcoxpäte p. Parts these divine

of
attributes are also ascribed to Christ. For instance,the first prerogative given to God in
Apc 1:8 recurs almost identically in Apc 1: 17. This time Christ
receives a self-
designation as "the first and the last one" (o npciYrOS

xai ö i'r11
axatog). Such a designation
resembles the prerogative given to God in Apc 1:8, represented by, the first and last
letters of the Greek alphabet. The deliberate use of these obviously parallel designations
once more suggests an equal status between God and Christ. The other features which
are mentioned in Apc 1:8 might also be mirrored in descriptions of Christ. God's
designation as almighty (rravioxpä'r(op) does admittedly not have a directly
corresponding christological feature within Apc 1. Possibly, though, Apc 1:5 (and
accordingly also Apc 19: 16) provides a parallel for this designation of God, as Christ is
also described in terminology of a ruler, namely the "Lord of the kings on earth" (o
(Xpxwv Ccovßw t? cov if q yfq). Accordingly, these designations also seem to be a
deliberate parallel indicating an equal statusof God and Christ.
A feature which points even more obviously at the equality shared by God and
Christ can be deduced by the use of the Dreizeitenformel. In Ape 1: 17-18, the
rewording of the three elements of the expression ö thy xai o qv xai o Epxö tEvoq seems
to refer to Christ's resurrection. Similar to God, Christ refers to himself (>y(ciµt) using
three different prerogatives, namely (1) o np&roS (2) xai o gc aioq and (3) ö 6)v.
Further, the aspects of time from the Dreizeitenformel as applied to God are preserved
in the christological in Ape 1: 17-18. God's character in Ape 1:4.8 is

self-designation
described throughout time, referring to past (o (ö 6v) and future (ö

T'jv). present
9pxöpEvoq). Such an order can also be found in the christological parallel in verse 18,
in Here Christ is probably depicted in past

where Christ is portrayed a similar manner.
`RCp. for this also MÜLLER: Oitcnharung. 67.

, 61
(Ey£v%olyvExpo;). present (ccöv£iµi) and possibly future ("xw
r& K4i; tov Aa\äzou
-Kai rob 46ov)19as well. Similarly, following the use of the Drei:
¬'itenformelin .-upc 1:4
applied to God, the attributes of Christ in Apc 1:5-7
might possibly follow the scheme
of time again. Within Apc 1:5 Christ is the faithful witness (present), the firstborn
of the
dead (resurrected in the past) and the ruler of the kings
of the earth (probably also an
interpretation of his future reign). However, the sequence from Apc 1:5-7
parallels even
more strikingly the Dreizeitenformel as it is applied to God. In verse 5 the author
provides a summary of various aspects of Christ, namely the faithful witness and the
one who has risen from the dead and who is Lord of the earthly kings. This entire verse
seems to provide a description of the present, while - analogous to the use of aorist
forms - the redemption from sins and making the believers into
priests happenedin the
past. The announcement of Christ's return in Apc 1:7 not only parallels God's coming
by the use of the future tense, but especially by the use of the same word (epxoµ(xt) for
coming. These similarities between God and Christ can be made more transparent in a
table.
Figure 5: The Application of the Dreizeitenformel to God and Christ in Ape I
Ape 1: 4.8 Ape 1: 17-18 Ape 1: 5-7
Present 6 wv ýwv eiµi 6 µäpnu mor6S (Apc 1:5)

,o
Past ö tjv ýyEVÖµrjvvexpös enoir1Ev (Apc 1:6)
Future 0 ýpxöµ£vos Exw T& xa.6; cpXErat (Apc 1:7)
We may therefore maintain that the use of the Dreizeitenformel in Apc I helps to
support an assumption that God and Christ are portrayed as equals in this chapter as
well. Further evidence that the author put God and Christ on par can be pro\ ided. The
19Christ's the keys can probably be interpreted as a feature resembles

%%hich a reference to
possession of
262
salutation in Apc 1:4-8, for instance, does not come from God
alone, but also from
Christ. Again, theological and christological contents are
connected with a paratactical
xai. This connection also strongly hints at an understanding of God and Christ as
equals. The material which is provided in the salutation might allow for further
conclusions. God is mentioned first, but this should not be misunderstoodas a hint of a
subordinate position of Christ who is referred to afterwards, since the significance of
Christ is clearly underlined in Apc 1:5-7 by attributing power to him in much detail. It is
also noteworthy that the reference to the seven spirits in front of God's throne in Apc
1:4 (and also in Apc 4: 5) receives a christological meaning in Apc 5: 6 later on in the
narrative. Therefore, the author seems to have set up a relationship between God and
Christ in Apc 1 which focuses on putting God and Christ on par rather than on
separating or distinguishing them from each other. Christ's significance in this
relationship is not only expressed by a description of attributes which he shares with
God, but also very directly by referring to God as father of Christ in Apc 1:6.
One might wonder whether or not Christ actually receives divine attributes in
Apc 1, because traditional material used in this chapter hints at an adaptation of
theophanical material in the Christophany. For instance, in Apc 1:10 John describes
hearing Christ's voice like a trumpet behind him (ijxovxa öitiaw µov cpwv'1vµ£yä qv
cif aäXiiyyo; ). This description recalls Ezekiel 3: 12, where the seer hears God's voice
behind him as loud as an earthquake.Accordingly, God's voice and Christ's voice may
be equated in Apc 1: 10. Such an equation is also made plausible by an echo of Exodus
19:16, a theophany with loud voices and the powerful sound of a trumpet.2°
A major argument for traces of a divine identity of Christ in Apc I might be
by description Christ's hair in Apc 1: 14: The portrait of the one like a
provided the of
be in the events which are about to come in the

the future, as the keys for the underworld will used
narrative of the Apocalypse.
20Cp. YARBRO COLLINS: "Tradition", 552.
263
son of man having white hair (xgxxk j aü,tov xai ai ipix vxai cif Fpiov ?Xvxöv c;
xu v) might allow for an association of this figure with God as preservedin Daniel 7:9.
Here, the "ancient of days" has garments white as snow and his head is pure as
wool.
Accordingly, one could consider that a divine character of Christ is deliberately
construed in Apc 1.21 However, in this case an exclusively divine character of Christ
cannot be deduced from this description. Firstly. Apocalypse of Abraham 11:2 de-scribes
Iaoel with the same 22

feature. Also Joseph and Aseneth 14:8-9 and 1 Enoch 46: 1 feature
an angelic figure which has white hair like the son of man figure in the Apocalypse.
Even the text of Daniel 7 itself might have undergone deliberate changes, thus
interpreting the ancient of days the like 23 Therefore,

as one a son of man. an angelic
description in Apc 1 likely. 24 The

understanding of such a seems very application of
divine attributes in angelological contexts can probably be evaluated as being a
development in Jewish angelology25which was then adopted in early Christian writing
as well. Such in is
a combination of attributes an angelological portrayal not exclusively
present in Apc 1, but might, for instance, also be found in The Martyrdom of Perpetua
Felicitas (Mart. Perp. 4: 2). 26

and
We might therefore conclude that various elements of the narrative in the
in Apc 1 indicate that the author wished to put Christ and

opening vision once more
God on par. However, hints for with which Christ is provided can also
angelic attributes
be located in this vision. A closer look at other possible angelic features of Christ
should therefore be undertaken.
21 See for such a consideration HOLTZ: Christologie, 121-122, MICHAELIS: "leuKv ". 253, or
HANNAH: Michael, 152.
22Cp. YARBRO COLLINS: "Tradition". 551-552, and GIESCHEN: Angelomorphic, 249.
23See for a brief discussion of the Danielic background and the possible identification of the ancient of
for discussion of different texts of Dan 7,
days as the son of man figure section 2.2-33-See a very thorough
identify days as one like a son of man. STUCKL\BRUCK:
which probably deliberately the ancient of
I'eneration, 213-216, and "Son", 268-276. 101-
ROV1'LAND: Heaven. 101-103. and "Alan".
24Cp. STUCKENBRUCK: Veneration, 218-219, and
107.
25Cp. STUCKENBRUCK: Veneration,219.
264
5.2.3. An Angelomorphic Christology in Apc 1?
Some of the attributes and features by which Christ is describedin Apc 1

secm to
reflect on angelic categories. In Apc 1: 14-16 especially, angelic features are obviously
applied to Christ; the one like a son of man receives different attributes from the
angelology in Daniel 10:5-6 and also in Ezekiel 1-9. These features from the Hehreýti
Bible are, for instance (1) the long garment (Ev E uJisvov no8rprj) as in Daniel 1U-6
and Ezekiel 9: 2, (2) being girded with a golden girdle (nEpw µ vov npöS roiq
µaaiot; ýwvrv xpvaav) as in Daniel 10:5, Ezekiel 9: 2 or Apocalypse of Zephaniah
6: 12, (3) having eyes as a flame of fire (ot äpOaXµoi w 'cob d (pX64IrupoS) as similarly
in Daniel 10:6, (4) having feet like burnished bronze (ot it68&c aüioü öµoiol
xaXxoXLßävq) üb Ev xaµivc it pwµevi1S)as Daniel 10:6 (LXX), (5) speaking with the
voice of many waters (71 cpcnvijaviov (j); cpwv1jiv&'rcov nod,? v) as also in Daniel
10:6.27
Some of these features are also applied to angels within the Apocalypse itself. For
instance, the description of Christ being "clothed" (EvSF-Svµevov)is reflected in Apc
15:6 where the seven angels are also clothed (>rv&Svµevot). However. instead of the
robe (no8rlprl) is attributed to Christ, these angels wear "pure bright linen" (? Ivov
which
belt Christ is in Apc 1:13 is

xaOapöv A,apitpöv). Also the golden with which girded
mirrored in the description of the seven angels in Apc 6.28

15: A somewhat similar
description of angelic beings is preserved in Ape 4-5 where the 24 elders, dressed in
having (Apc 4: 4). perform priestly tasks (Apc 4: 10-11: 5:9.

white and golden wreaths
26Cp.
also MUNOA: Powers, 74-75.
27Cp. STUCKENBRUCK: {Veneration, 211-213.
28Cp. STUCKENBRUCK: J eneration, 226-228.
265
in Apc 7: 12; 11: 17; 19:4). 29 This
and also specific kind of clothing worn by Christ and
angels (white garment and golden belt) might therefore reflect on priestly cate orics as
such, similar to Exodus 28: 4 or Daniel 10:5.30 In turn, the 24 elders in Ape 4
are also
reminiscent of angelic beings, because they present the incense with golden censers
before Jesus in Ape 5: 8. Therefore, one could assume that the partially priestly
functions, especially the white clothing and the golden items held by certain figures.
represent an angelomorphic feature for the author. At this point it is worth investigativ!
whether or not the combination of the colours gold and white could be a means of
representing an angelomorphic feature attributed to Christ. Since we find both colours
in christologically and angelologically motivated passages of the Apocalypse, this
question deserves some attention. (See Appendix 5 for further discussion of this issue.)
Besides some obvious features widely attested for angelic figures, Christ also
possesses certain other functions and attributes which are commonly associated with
angels. The key for Death and Hades (Exw i(q x iq tov Oaväiov xai tov 0ou) which
Christ has in Ape 1: 18 seems to resemble an angelic feature, since in Apc 20: 1 it is an
is in keys for the Underworld (gxovtia rlly x iv tfj äßv(Taou).

angel who control of
Accordingly, within the Apocalypse the ownership of these special kinds of ke}'s might
be a symbol which is probably understood as an angelic feature. One could almost infer
20: 1 be identified Christ. 31 However, against such an

then that the angel in Apc can as
identification it could be argued that the angel from Apc 20 bears no other signs or
features which would support a christological interpretation of this figure. Nevertheless
it is apparent that the feature the keys for Death and the Under orld within
of owning
hint of Christ in the opening vision

the Apocalypse seems to at an angelic character
when compared with Apc 20.
29Cp. GRUENWALD: t/i'sticism, 64-65.

; Gemeindeordnung, 144-150.
10See SLATER: Commun h', 97-100. See further SATAKE:
EIESCHEN: Angetomorphic, 250.
See for such a proposal
266
Another feature of Christ in Ape 1
which hints at an an`(It1o111otphlc
interpretation might possibly be the portrait
of his voice "like the sound of man\ waters"
(rý cpwvrl aviov ä bSth(wv 71OXA

ov) in Apc 1: 15b. Such
a voice can traditionally
represent a means by which angelic or angel-like figures are described (as

can be seen
in Apc. Abr. 17: 1; 18:2). 32In the case of Apc 1: 15 this
voice is used in the Christophany
as an attribute of the one like a son of man, thus the voice might be understood as
an
angelomorphic feature. This assumption is further

supported by the use of the
expression ij qx vrl avrov ü i& 'r wv iroXXthv in other passages in the Apocalypse itsel i.
On first sight, the expression recurs in Apc 14:2 and also similarly in Apc 19:6, both
contexts in which the "voice like many waters" is not explicitly applied to angels or
angelic beings per se. However, in both incidents the voices are probably related to
those who participate in an act of worship that could be readily associated with angels.
In Apc 14:2 the voice which can be heard is of those who are "redeemed out of the
world", a condition which is only related to Christ (i. e. the Lamb) in so far as he is the
by his 33
one who made this possible sacrifice. Similarly, a reference to the "voice like
many waters" is made in Apc 19:6, probably also a scene which describes an act of a
somewhat angelic worship. Notably, this reference is also made in the part of Apc 19: 1-
10 which is related to Christology, i. e. the theme of the wedding of the Lamb (as has
been discussed in 4.2.2.3. ). 34 Therefore, it be concluded that the

also section can
expression (xovi (xi rov ä i)66vrct)vnoW)v has an angelological character for the
author. 35 At the time, however, through means of narrative, the expression seems
same
deliberately connected with christological concerns. Thus the overall impression of the
-12Cp. STUCKENBRUCK: [ eneration, 219 and 225.

33Cp. STUCKENBRUCK: ['eneration, 222-224.
Cp. STUCKENBRUCK: Veneration, 224-225.
interpretation of the "sound of man,, waters" has
An interesting aspect which might support an angelic
been mentioned by BAUCKHAM: Climax, 387: In Hebrew the phrase "many waters" (: '-" =`M) has
the same numerical value in gematry as the phrase "the angel Gabriel" (tx'7-= 7i't~7=1).
, t,,
employment of the tradition of the "voice like many waters" in the Apocalypse
seemsto
confirm an angelomorphic character of Christ speaking with such a voice in Apc 1: 15.
A further attribute ascribed to Christ in the

vision of Apc 1 is the appearance of
his face as "shining like the sun in full strength" (f öync

cn troü wS 6 ijXtoScxxim cv tp
Svväµei aviov). As such, elements from this description
reappear in angelological
contexts elsewhere in the Apocalypse.
Excursus Two: The Face like a Sun as an Angelomorphic Feature of Christ
The description of Christ's face as shining like the sun is not unique in the
Apocalypse. The strong angel from Ape 10: 1 also shares such a depiction, since he is
similarly described as iö npoa wnov owTov co ii
toS. 36 As we have said above (see
section 2.2.8. ), terminology in epiphanical visions might be limited and therefore
repeated in descriptions of God, angels or Christ. For instance, the Great Glory in I
Enoch 14:20 or Ezekiel 1:27 is described in similar terminology, a direct reference to a
face shining like the sun is missing though. 37A description of an Egyptian goddess who
is called "Face like a Sun" is also provided in so-called hermetic literature. 38 Howw ever,
one may doubt that the author of Revelation was aware of such traditions as used in this
astrological context. In a christological context such a reference to a sun-like face is
made in the narrative concerning the transfiguration of Christ in Matthew 17:2 and also
in Apocalypse of Peter 2, where Christ is shining seven times as bright as the sun. Also
the righteous ones can be described by referring to their bright faces radiating like the
sun or stars (cp. Jude 5: 3139 or 4 Ezra 7: 97, Test. Job. 31: 5, b. Ber. 17a, Dan 12:3,1 En.
38: 4,2 Bar. 51: 3 and Mt 13:43,4° Apc. Petr. 6-7 [Gr]: 15 [Eth] or possibly I En. 104:2).
Especially for angels or angel-like figures the description as shining and radiating seems
to be widespread. Angels can have an overall appearance like a sun, which is reflected
in Testament of Abraham 12:5 and 13: 1 [Rec A]. Testament of Abraham 16:6 [Rec A]
describes Death like looking like the 41 Evidence for the
also appearing an angel sun.
reference to a sun-like face in angelophanies can be found in Joseph and Aseneth 14: 9,
2 Enoch [Rec. J and A] 1:5,19: 1-242 or Apocalypse of Zephaniah 6: 11.43 One may
assume that the radiance of the angels or angelic beings with such a shining face
resembles a reflection of God's glory as vividly reported in Ezekiel 1 or 1 Enoch 14.
How is one to interpret the evidence provided within an epiphanical context? Is
Christ possibly depicted as an angel with a christological attribute or is Christ's portrait
drawing on angelological features? Probably, the most important evidence for an
36See also AUNE: Revelation 1-5,99.

37Cp. GIESCHEN: Angelomorphic, 249-250, and GRUENWALD: ;1f1"siicism,6-1.
38For the BOLL: Offenbarung, 51-53.
evidence cp.
39See LOHSE: Offenbarung, 22. STUCKENBRUCK: I'eneration, 213. and MÜLLER: (Qflenharung. V.
a° Cp. ALINE: Revelation 1-5.99.
41See for the interpretation of this passage MACH: Entwicklungsstadien, 179-180.
42Cp. for the cosmological functions of angels in the hymn of 2 En. 19 also SCHAFER: Rivalität, 25-26.
4' See 250. ALLISON: Abraham, 94 and 117, and \l. 'NE: Revelation
also GIESCHEN: Angelomorphic,
1-5,99.
268
interpretation of 1: 16 derives from Revelation itself, namely from Ape 10: 1.16: 8
and
possibly also 19: 17 where angels are associated with the feature of a face like
a sun
(Ape 10), or are at least connected with the sun by having
power over it (.Apc 16) or
being near it (Apc 19). Also, the use of the attribute of the face
as shining like the sun is
not widely attested in New Testament literature. Evidence in the New Testament is
limited to Matthew 17:2, where Christ's face is shining like the
sun44and his garments
turn white, whereas in the other synoptic Gospels a reference to Christ's face is notably
absent. Therefore, one can hardly argue that the connection of sun imagery with a
reference to Christ's face would be widespread within early Christianity. In turn, one
might wonder if the notion in Matthew 17:2 might resemble an almost angelomorphic
feature of Christ. In regards to Ape 1: 16, such a feature of Christ seems to be likel\
very
concerning the similar references and contexts where the sun is mentioned within the
Apocalypse itself.
The use of such an angelic attribute applied to Christ in Ape 1: 16 might also
raise another question. While certain other features used in the description of Christ in
Ape 1 occur again in Ape 14 and 19 (for instance the coming on some means of
locomotion or carrying a tool of destruction), the depiction of Christ's face as shining
like the sun seems to be unmatched in following christophanies. At first glance only the
angel in Ape 10 shares a description of the sun-like face. However, such a perception
might be misguided. The development of angelological descriptions regarding angels as
wearing crowns or wreaths might in turn have been influenced by the description of
angelic figures with faces comparable to the sun. This assumption becomes plausible
when one takes Testament of Abraham 7: 2-9 [Rec. A] into consideration: Here
Abraham is compared to a sun which has been taken away from Isaac so that only the
rays would be left. Such a description connects a sun-like appearence with the aura-like
45 The between
portrait of a wreath. connection sun and a crown or wreath emitting an
aura can further be seen in 2 Enoch 14: 2-3, where the crown of the sun when it sets is
taken by angels, in Apocalypse of Zephaniah 6: 11, where the angel's face is shining like
rays of the sun, and Joseph and Aseneth 5: 6,14: 9, where angelic figures wear ray-like
46 The the face can, in other strings of this development, also
crowns. aura of shining
manifest itself in a rainbow above the angelic figure's head (as in Apc. Abr. 11: 2 or in
the Apocalypse itself as in Ape 10: 1) or in the radiance of a diadem (as in Clement of
Alexandria's Strom. V 77 or probably also Ape 19: 12). 47
One may ask now whether or not the author of the Apocalypse was aware of the
between these different ways of representing a shining appearance bý
connection
different metaphors which traditionally have the same offspring by alluding to a certain
figure. Since the author ascribes some of these light-
radiance of a portrayed angelic
metaphors to Christ in the Apocalypse, one may possibly assume a certain awareness of
between these features: Christ might accordingly have received the
a connection
his face like the sun in Ape 1: 16, followed by an
angelomorphic attribute of radiating
he is depicted as wearing a crown (Ape 14: 14) and another.
analogous vision where
detailed he is diadems. It is fascinating in this context that in
more vision where wearing
from Ape 1.
the process of unfolding the somewhat blurred sequel of visions starting
followed by Ape 14:6-20 and finally by Ape 19: 11-21. the focus on representing Christ
44See for Mt 17:2 and Apc l : l6 also SWEET: Revelation, 72. SWEET regards the appearance of Christ's
face as shining like the sun as an allusion to the Sunday on which the event of Christ's transfiguration
FARRER: Images, 60. One might wonder \NNether or not the reference to
supposedly took place. See also
Elias ('HXIa- ýNho is also mentioned in
the sun (iXioS) might also be a deliberate in
pun order to allude to 1)
the transfiguration narrative.
45Cp. MACH: Entwicklungsstadien, 198.
46Cp. also MACH: Entwicklungsstadien, 181 and 198-202.
47See for this also RENGSTORF: "iptg", 339-342, and MACH: EntivicklungsshidiePl. 203-
269
in metaphors of crowns and wreaths actually shifts from the
more angelic light-
metaphor in Apc 1 to the more ambiguous crown in Apc 1.48
and from there to the
more royal and probably less angelic description of portraying Christ ww
ith diadems. In
the progress of the narrative Christ therefore appears to become increasingly royal
and.
at the same time, he seems to lose his more ambiguous angelomorphic character. The
fact that the author regards such sun-like appearance as an angelic feature becomes
clear
in the preceding narrative as well, since it can be found in clearly angelic
contexts (Apc
10: 1, maybe also the woman in Apc 12: 1) or in contexts which even ascribe the
wreath
to anti-divine powers (Apc 9: 7,12: 3). Therefore, even if one does not agree to the shift
of imagery as a means to dissociate Christ from angels in the preceding narrative
of the
Apocalypse, it should have become apparent that the description of Christ's face
as
shining like the is
sun an angelomorphic feature.
In terms of functions, Christ also makes an angelomorphic appearancein Apc 1.
since the way he acts in the opening vision could lead to the conclusion that Christ
representsan angelus interpres. Such an identification of Christ is presumably rooted in
the very opening in Apc 1: 1 where Christ is at first glance reminiscent of such an
interpreting angel. An assumption like this would then depend on the interpretation of
the expression 8tä tiov äy' ou w 'rov. One might infer that this expression refers to
49
Christ as God's messenger. This identification of Christ as an angel is weak, though,
since in later passages in the Apocalypse (e. g. Apc 17: 1) the revelation is indeed
by 50
transmitted angels. However, Christ's angelomorphic appearance as an angelus
interpres in Apc 1 may not have to be entirely dismissed since he performs the task of
an interpreting angel. In Apc 1: 10 the seer himself is addressed by the voice "like a
trumpet" which explains to him parts of the vision he is just receiving. This explanation
continues in Apc 4: 1. Such explanations are normally given by an angelus interzpres,

an
angel who interprets a vision to a receptionist. Accordingly. a function which seems to
be angelic in character is applied to Christ here. An angel as the means to explain to the
he is is known in Early Jewish or Hebre\\ Bible

seer the vision receiving commonly
48The feature be explained as an angelic feature or as a symbol

of Christ wearing the wreath could either
is in Apc 14 portrayed as a victor a
%%ith
that Christ has overcome by self-sacrifice and now consequently
aTTavoS as alluded to in Apc 2: 10.
49See for instance SCHMITT: "Interpretation", 262.
50See for more thorough discussion CARRELL: Jesus, 119-120.
a
'70
material (for instance in Jub. 1:27; Jos. Asen. 14: 14: Asc. Isa. 6: 13:. Ezra
1 4: 1: 1 En.
1:2; 21:5; 43:3; 72: 1; Dan 8: 15; Zech 1:10-11: 2:2; 2: 7-8; 4: 1-6: 5-6:8:
or also in 5Q15
and 1QH col. xviii 2351). Christ's role as interpreting angel in Apc 1:11-20 (and also
later in Apc 4: 1, as demonstrated in section 3.1.1. ) becomes

especially apparent
because, within the Apocalypse, angels with the very same function
are introduced in a
similar manner and fulfil exactly the same task, as can be seen in Apc 17:1: 21:9-10:
22: 1.6.8.52
We may therefore conclude at this stage that Christ is not only described in
terminology which is usually (in Hebrew Bible and Early Jewish passages) applied to
angels, as is for instance visible in the description of his appearance,but Christ's
functions also hint strongly at a somewhat angelic character of Christ within Apc 1.
However, the question whether Christ's role in chapter 1 might be reduced to that of an
angel can only be rhetorical in nature. Since an equal status between God and Christ has
been established above, Christ's status in Apc 1 can hardly be limited to that of an
angel. The overall impression one receives from chapter 1 hints at a description of
Christ as divine, since he apparently has an equal status to that of God. On the other
hand, the means of describing Christ in the opening vision also draws heavily on angelic
categories. The author not only employs traditional material which is reminiscent of'
angelic features within the portrait of Christ he presents in Ape 1. but he also attributes
functions to Christ which elsewhere (either traditionally or even within the context of
the Apocalypse itself) describe the activity of angels. Accordingly, the author combines
Christ's divinity with the portrait of an angelomorphic Christ.
It is remarkable that the seer himself sees Christ in angelomorphic appearance in
the opening vision. So far, have identified an angelomorphic portrait of Christ as

we
51See 120. SCHÄFER: Rivalität, 10-18, MACH: Entwick/ung. vstadicrr, 142-

also CARRELL: Jesus, and
144.
52Cp. STUCKENBRUCK: Revelation, 15 and esp. 31.
'171
part of an implied misunderstanding of Christ. The angelomorphic description possibly
served the author to demonstrate that such a perception fails to understand Christ's
ultimate meaning as salvific figure (a role ascribed to the Lamb). Surprisingly, in Apc 1
John describes himself as perceiving Christ in angelomorphic form. The same
angelomorphic terminology is then taken up in the messages to the Christian
communities in Apc 2-3. However, one can hardly assume that John wished to depict
himself (or the seven communities in Asia minor) as part of God's opposition. Probably
John wished to express a growing understanding of Christ and his ultimate meaning in
the following process of revelation which he, and therefore also the communities.
experience. Accordingly, the seer perceives Christ as a juridical figure in Apc I (and 2-
3), and Christ's meaning as redeemerbecomesthen unveiled in later passages(Apc 5,7,
14:1-5 and 19:7-9).
John's christological concept unfolds in Apc 1 as a conglomerate of divine and
angelomorphic attributes, while keeping a subtle but distinct border between Christ and
angels. A full understanding of this very special Christology provided in Apc I can only
be achieved by taking a closer look at the relationship between Christ and angels in this
samechapter.
5.2.4. The Relationship between Christ and Angels in Apc 1
The use of certain features and attributes concerning the angelomorphic Christ on
hand for a deduction of their relationship to each

the one and angels on the other allows
Apc 1: 1. first hint this relationship is

other. Already in the opening verse a concerning
Christ has the transmitted to John via "his

provided: here it is possibly who revelation
Admittedly, the pronoun w toü cannot certainly, he

angel" (& iov äyytkou w 'rov).
God himself. to Christ. or at least

related to Christ alone, it could allude to -\
. connection
'172
a connection that implicitly includes Christ in this
pronoun, is more than 1il;ely, thou,, h.
since Ape 22: 16 (ETcEµyf(x

rov äy'E?, V µov) makes use
of such an image as wwýe11.
If vve
may indeed assume that Christ can be included in the interpretation

of aü'roü in A pc
1: 1, a certain power of Christ over angels is expressed here: Christ

seems to be more
powerful than angels since he is either in direct command of them or at least included in
a chain of command which setshim above angels.
Such superiority of Christ above the angels is, in turn, almost

certainly reflected in
the description provided in Apc 1: 16.20. In this part of the vision Christ is depicted
holding the seven stars in his right hand (äaiýpaS >niä), which are then in verse 20
identified as the seven angels (('x'yyE?

ol) of the seven communities. As we have
attempted to demonstrate above (see section 3.2.3. ) the description of these angels held
in Christ's right hand (gxwv £v r SF-ýtäxnpi ockov) expresses a subordinate position
of the angels towards Christ. This description of Christ in direct command of angels can
be evaluated as an explicit statement of his superior status.
Christ's superior and somewhat extraordinary status in Apc I is also further
stressed by certain other features which are employed in his portrayal. This emphasis
can be derived from attributes and imagery exclusively used in the description of Christ.
whereas such imagery is avoided or at least simply absent in descriptions of angels. For
instance, the extraordinary position manifests itself in the resurrection which is clearly
in Christ's "I dead behold, I alive. "

alluded to in Apc 1: 18 self-designation was and am
In verse 7 one might also assume the existence of an enigmatic allusion to the
resurrection and Christ's death on the cross in form of the conflation of traditional
the lament for Christ's death

material from Daniel 7 (the coming on clouds) and
(according to the tradition from Zech 12: 10). Both references taken together accordingly
s' Cp. 120. The the pronoun avtov night be deliberately ambiguous.
also CARRELL: Jesus, use of
God. Therefore, the feature of sending the angel is not only attributed to
referring to both Christ and
Christ in Apc 22: 16, but also to God in Apc 22: 6.
273
refer to Christ's return after his death. In Apc 1:5, a referenceto Christ's
resurrection is
more obvious, since he is called the firstborn of the dead (npo rotoxoc tv \ýxpwvv0
öcpxwvtiwv fkxat4(ov).
At the same time the author ascribes another feature to Christ

which would also
be quite unusual for a description of an angelic being, namely the redemption of God's
people by blood. Such imagery is traditionally unknown or unheard of in scenarios
describing angels. Accordingly, the author stressesonce more Christ's significance and
the importance of his benevolent deeds (i. e. redeeming by self-sacrifice) and therefore
raises Christ's status certainly above that of an angel. This kind of significance is further
reflected in linking Christ and God in a father-son in

relationship Apc 1:6.
Regarding the relationship between Christ and angels, an even more significant
statement is made in Apc 1: 17. Here, Christ - who has just been described in
angelomorphic terminology receives worship from John, who falls down at his feet.
-
This part of the vision is reminiscent of Apc 19: 10 and 22: 8 where John is attempting to
worship angels. Whilst the angels refuse such an act of worship (explicitly reserving the
being God in Apc 1: 17 takes place. On

privilege of worshipped to alone), no such action
the contrary, Christ is not depicted as attempting to interdict John's worship, he actually
it the Christ is thus portrayed in such a way that it is

receives and permits worship.
for him to once more his equal status with God

suitable receive worship. underscoring
Simultaneously, the superior status of Christ over angels is made apparent in the context
of the three worship scenarios in Apc 1: 17: 19: 10: 22: 5.
It may therefore be concluded that despite some obviously angelomorphic

-
in description Christ in the opening vision - Christ's status as

elements the of provided
far is alluded to in Apc 1. lloý,. er,

cti,
both equal to God and superior to angels already
Christ's to appear slightly ambiguous through the

the author allows ultimate position
The full significance of Christ unfolds within the

use of angelomorphic categories.
24
narrative as a whole, especially in Apc 19 and 22. It might be interesting this
at point of
the discussion to see whether parts of the opening visions are employed again in order
to demonstrate this superiority of Christ towards angels.
5.3. The Unfolding of the Relationship between God, Christ and Angels
The significance of Apc 1 concerning Christology, theology and angelologv xýith
regard to the author's interests should not be underestimated.As we have demonstrated.
Apc 1 as a whole bears witness to the author's understanding of Christology with regard
to its relationship to angelology as well as theology. The character of chapter I as a
preliminary work which was probably written after the composition of Apc 4-22 reveals
details concerning the significance of christological aspectsin contrast to angelological
ideas. The difference between Christ (who is closely associated with God) and angels
(who are portrayed as servants of God) manifests itself in the portrait which is provided
of Christ and angels. Descriptions of Christ often relate him with God, thus marking (A)
the equality of Christ and God by ascribing similar functions and attributes to them.
Another means of associating Christ with God (which at the same time marks the
is by (B) the author's focus on the question of

subordinate position of angels) preserved
be Only few similarities can in contrast be seen in (C) scenarios

who may worshipped. a
describing Christ or angels which mostly maintain the distinction between angels and
God or Christ. However, (D) occasionally Christ apparently adopts angelic or
features the considers it appropriate in the given context.

angelomorphic when author
(A) Concerning the equality betlt, een God and Christ a number of occurrences
have been mentioned. In Apc I Christ bears certain

within the Apocalypse already
God, for instance the hits hair in Apc 1: 14.

attributes which associate him th
\Vi. as \t
God is doubt (as indicated in

However, such means of relating Christ with not without
'75
section 5.2.2.) and is barely the main focus of attention for the author in
order to relate
Christ with God. In turn, the author uses other features. i.
e. angelomorphic or
anthropomorphic imagery, in order to describe Christ. Howe\ er. these features are never
attributed to God. On the contrary, anthropomorphic features are clearly

avoided in
visions describing God. Conclusively, anthropomorphic or angelomorphic features are
certainly not a device consciously employed by John to ascribe to Christ divine
prerogatives.
While such means of establishing a close relationship between Christ and God
by describing their appearance remains doubtful. certain other patterns within chapter 1
allow for the conclusion of equality between Christ and God. A clearer means of
connecting God and Christ has been identified above: In Apc 1:2 the expressions"Word
of God" (Xö?og cov Ocov) and "testimony of Jesus" (µap rupia 'ITlaov Xpißiou)
correspond with each other by the paratactical connection (with the word x(xi) which is
achieved there. Such a tendency of connecting God and Christ (or the Lamb)
paratactically can be identified elsewhere in the Apocalypse. For instance, Apc 6: 16
describesa vision of the inhabitants of the earth attempting to avoid the face of God and
the wrath of the Lamb. Even if we consider the addition of the Lamb in Apc 6 as a gloss
(see section 3.1.2.3. ), more examples of a paratactical connection between God and
Christ can easily be provided: In Ape 5: 13 and 7: 10 a doxology is made to the one
Lamb. Similar to this inclusion Christ in

sitting on the throne (i. e. God) and the of
divine honours, he is also paratactically included in God's future reign in Apc

receiving
11: 15 and 12: 10. A tendency to connect God and Christ with the word Kai is continued
in Apc 21:22-23 and 22:3, where the Lamb is also found in the New Jerusalemsharing
God's throne and the power to reign. The from Apc 1:6 and 5: 10 that Christ
statements
has made people priests of God is also extended with a paratactical inclusion of Christ
2
in Apc 20:6, where people are made priests of God and Christ. By being
priests of God,
people are automatically also priests of Christ, '`

and vice versa.
A similar means of putting God and Christ on par in the Apocalypse is

the
author's tendency not to apply plural verb forms or pronouns to God and Christ. In Ape
11:15, God and Christ are addressedby a verb form in singular (pocm4vaEt). in other
passages a singular form of a pronoun is referring to both of them (e.g. autou ci ti in
Apc 22: 3-4 or Apc 1: 1). The absence of plural verb forms or pronouns referring to both
God and Christ together also indicates that Christ and God sharean equal status for the
author of Revelation. The communual sharing of singular pronouns or verbs which
addressthem as a pair stressesthis view and also maintains a monotheistic tendency by
avoiding any possibility of identifying Christ as a secondGod.55
Some other factors which attribute a certain divine status to Christ (as opposed
to a subordinate one) have to be taken into account here. We argued in our introduction
that a divine status of a figure can be constituted by (1) a participation in creation, (2) a
salvific meaning, (3) dominion over the earth, and to some extend also (4) the position
(and posture), (5) the appearance, (6) possession of a divine name and, finally. (7) a
temporal aspect alluding to eternity. Therefore, most of these features should be
mirrored in the Apocalypse if a divine status of Christ is actually in view. (Since the
topic of worship has in Revelation, its significance for Christ's role and a
a major role
divine status will be dealt with separately).
(1) Participating in the creation is a feature which is not explicitly ascribed to
Christ in the Apocalypse. However, one might possibly find traces that Christ is
he all created beings in Apc 5: 13. ,1

associated with creation, since receives worship of
is found in the fact that the action of Christ to make

close association with creation
`° Cp. for this SÖDING: "Lamm'. 110-116.

Cp. BAUCKHAM: Climax, 119-140. "Worship", 331. and Theology. 60-61.
people new priests and kings on God's domain is set in parallel %ith God's act of
creation in Apc 5 (see section 3.2.4.).
(2) A salvific meaning of Christ in Apc 1 and other passagesin the Apocal)
pse
can hardly be denied. Apc 1:5-6 in particular emphasises the salvific significance of
Christ, since he is the one who makes people God's priests and redeems by his blood.
The same image is repeated in Ape 5: 6-10. The motif of blood being shed by Christ
may further be alluded to in Apc 12:11 or 19:13. Moreover. Christ's statusasjudge has
salvific meaning as he eradicates those who oppose God and his community on earth.
Such a representationof Christ asjudge is alluded to not only in Apc 1:7-16, but further
in Apc 14:14-20 and Apc 19:11-21.
(3) The power to reign over the earth is not God's exclusive privilege in the
Apocalypse, it is also shared by Christ. A royal meaning of Christ is stated directly in
Apc 1:5 (where Christ is the Lord of the kings of the world) and further in Apc 19: 15-
16. Other imagery of Christ as a ruler is related to his position on (or at least near)
God's throne. As we have already stated, the content of the Apocalypse unfolds slowly
from Christ being located near God's throne in Apc 5: 6 to a point where he becomes a
the throne together with God in Apc 22: 1. The rulership of

co-regent who sits on same
is
the earth (and the New Jerusalem) therefore also a feature shared by God and Christ.
(4) Not much can be said concerning position and posture of God and Christ in
heaven (e. Apc 4-

Revelation. In contrast to God whose position is almost restricted to g.
from heaven in Apc 1:7: 14: 14: 19: 11.

5), Christ is often related to heaven (e.g. coming
in Apc 5: 6-13), but he can be depicted acting on earth

or being in the heavenly temple
does to be emphasised by the

as well (e. g. Apc 14: 1). However, the position not appear
in distinction. References to Christ acting on earth can most

author order to achieve a
likely be interpreted as allusions to his earthly life.
-"R
Similarly, the posture of Christ is not emphasisedthroughout Revelation. In
Ape
1, it is not described at all. In some following passages Christ is then portrayed
varyingly, either sitting (Apc 14: 14-15; 19: 11-21) or standing (Apc 14: 1). As has been
argued above (section 3.1.3.2. ), the different descriptions of the posture depend on the
context in which they are made. Statements which seem to be deliberately aimed at
demonstrating an equal status of God and Christ are representedby throne-imagery

.
With the possible exception of Apc 5: 6 (see section 3.1.3.2. ) an equal status of God and
Christ is emphasisedby the description of a sharedthrone (e.g. Apc 7: 10-12: 22: 1).
(5) Descriptions of the appearance of God or Christ provided in Revelation
cannot be evaluated at first sight as a feature which both of them share. Since God's
appearance is not portrayed in Revelation and anthropomorphic categories and
descriptions are deliberately avoided, equality between God and Christ can hardly be
expressed by such means. However, even despite the absence of corresponding portraits
of God and Lamb, the author makes at least one statement concerning the appearance of
Christ which hints at an equality with God: Apc 5: 6 describes the Lamb as having seven
eyes representing the same seven spirits which God commands in Apc 1:4. The overall
emphasis concerning the equal status of God and Christ in Revelation, however, seems
to be functions (as for instance, both being representedas judges, rulers or

on shared
having creative powers).
by
(6) Referencesto certain namesmight also representa means which a similar
God Christ is An association of Christ with God by name

status of and established.
becomes especially visible in Apc 19: 11-16. Here, Christ receives three different names.
In Apc 19: 11 he is called Faithful and True (cp. Apc 1:5). in Apc 19: 13 he is even more
directly associated with God since his name is "word of God" (cp. Apc 1:2). The closest
by is preserved in Apc 19: 16. «here

link between God and Christ established name
? 79
Christ's name is unknown but to himself. The secret name is (as has been
argued in
section 4.2.1.) probably an allusion to the tetragrammaton.
(7) The expression of a degreeof equality between God

and Christ also becomes
very apparent by ascribing an equal temporal aspect to both of them. namely the
repeateduse of patterns from the Dreizeitenformel in the introductory chapter. which is
then employed in other visions in Revelation. The recurring use of the phrase in \pc
:
1:8; 1: 17; 21: 6 and 22: 13 in a somewhat chiastic arrangement (concerning the themes
of
parousia and new life)56 addresses God and Christ. Since the connection of the
phraseology from the Dreizeitenformel is exclusively employed when statements about
God or Christ are made (and is nowhere connected to angels) the equality between God
and Christ is apparently prepared in Apc I already.
A preexistent status of Christ cannot be derived without a doubt from the
Apocalypse. In Apc 1:5 Christ is the lrpcoEoToxogic3v vcxpwv (firstborn of the dead). A
Christ is 57 but it be dismissed 58

preexistence of not stated per se, can also not entirely,
especially since Christ is the äpx' v-1; xii6EC,c tioü A£ov in Apc 3: 14. A temporal
statement about Christ stressing his special status within creation seems not unlikely
here.59
A further hint that the author wanted to allude to Christ's preexistencecan be
found in Apc 13:8. Here the worshippers of the beast are characterisedas those whose
name is not written in the book of life of the Lamb which was slaughtered. However.
the syntax of this verse provides the difficulty of how the expression änö xaTaßoX-
Grammatically it would be possible to

Kougov is related to the rest of the sentence.
the "before the foundation of the world" as explanation of either the

regard reference
Lamb being before the foundation of the world, or the names being written in the boo}:
56Cp. BAUCKHAM: Theology, 56-58.

"Cp. KNIGHT: Revelation, 34.
S8Cp. AUNE: Revelation 1-5,38-39.
280
of life from the foundation of the world. Taking into account the parallel from \pc 1-: 8
.
(which has a slightly different emphasis and lacks the
expression änö xaiaßoXJj;
xöaµov), the text preserved in Apc 13:8 leaves the impression

of having been reworked
in order to make the Lamb appear as being slaughtered before the foundation
of the
world. (cp. also the parallel in I Pet 1:20. )60 Since the preserved text from Apc 13.8
interprets the Lamb as predestined to die before the creation

of the world, a preexistent
character of Christ can be assumed in this passage. The reference to the predestination
of Christ having to die before the foundation of the world might then even he
a
cornerstone for the author's Christology. Christ's salvific death which is bound to
happen before the world's existence demonstrates that God and Christ are clearly in
control of the world despite the chaos it is in. 61
So far, most of the features and prerogatives we have discussed clearly relate
Christ to the divine side. Only the appearance and the posture of Christ does not entirely
match descriptions provided of God. In turn, the syntax within the Apocalypse helped to
establish the impression of an equal status shared by God and Christ. Still, some other
similarities and dissimilarities have to be observed before a final decision concerning a
divine status of Christ should be made.
(B) A special role is played by the question of who may and who maY not he
in the Apocalypse. This question apparently has major significance for the
worshipped
author, since reference to rightful and wrong worship can be found throughout the
Apocalypse. On the side of those who must not be worshipped are certainly the beast
dragon in Apc 13. They (and those who follow them) are subject to divine
and the
judgement (Apc 19-20). With the explicit rejection of worship to God's opposition
directed idolatry. Worshipping idols is polemically

comes a general statement against
`QCp. AUNE: Revelation 1-S. 256.

60Cp. for detail Revelation 6-16,746-748, and STUCKE\BRUCK: Revelation. 62.
more AUNE:
61See similarl\ SWEET: Revelation, 211
-211
IS]
attacked by a description of idols as not being capable of seeing. hearing
or walking
(Ape 9: 20), possibly implying a contrast to God (or maybe the
risen Christ) who is alive
as demonstrated in the repeated application of the Dreizeitenformel. In Apc 9: 20

the
worship of evil spirits is also dismissed at the same time.
A second group which may very obviously not be worshipped in the Apocalypse
are the angels: twice the author employs the motif of angels refusing to be worshipped
(namely Ape 19: 10 and 22: 9). Both times the angels explicitly refer to worship as God's
very own privilege. The employment of the refusal tradition in these two passagesof the
Apocalypse does not only demonstrate that at least for the author angels must not be
- -
worshipped. In comparison with the opening vision from Ape I. a statement concerning
the relationship between God and Christ is also made in this refusal. Because of the
explicit refusal of worship by angels, the scenario in Ape 1: 17 where Christ permits the
very same act of worship to himself, Christ is apparently not regarded as an angel by
John. The act of worship, only allowed to be received by God elsewhere in the
Apocalypse, is here expanded to be a suitable act of veneration towards Christ, who is
therefore clearly on the divine side despite his angelomorphic appearance. Other
passages in Revelation also allow for this conclusion. For instance, Ape 5: 13
the worship of God and the Lamb (though the Lamb is possibly
emphasises shared
connected to ideas; see sections 3.1.1. and 3.1.3.2. ). Further, the parallel
some angelic
between Apc 4 Apc 5 the impression of unity and equality of God

setting and supports
Lamb by God for his creation (Apc 4: 11), while Christ receives the same
and praising
kind of worship, the äýioS-formula in Apc 5: 9 for his salvific

also employing
to Christ as an equal to God can also he

achievement. A similar tendency regard
observed in Apc 7: 10.
who may be worshipped in

Therefore, it can be concluded that the question of
is idolatry and worship of the beast are

the context of the Apocalypse overtly answered:
'141
equally condemned. Angels must not be worshipped either. which is shown in the
angelic refusal of such acts of veneration by John. Worship must be given to God and
also to Christ, even if he is portrayed as angelomorphic or otherwise connected to
angelic categories. Accordingly, the emphasis on the question of the recipients

of
worship also reveals an equal status sharedby God and Christ. Worship then also marks
the line between Christ as a divine being and angels as non-divine. Such a result raises
another question, though, namely whether or not worship is the only category by which
a clear cut distinction between Christ and subordinate angels is established in
Revelation.
(C) In Apocalypse, one may regard God and Christ on the one hand and angels
on the other as strictu sensu distinct from one another. Such a distinction is reflected
clearly, not only by the prohibition of angels receiving worship but also in the display
and distribution of attributes and functions. A number of differences are already
apparent or at least alluded to in Apc 1. For instance, in addition to the notion of
worship being received by Christ (Apc 1: 17). which already distinguishes him from the
angels in Revelation, he is also described as superior becausehe is in control of them
(Apc 1: 16-20). Further demonstrating his significance and uniqueness. Christ
functions in Apc 1 which are not ascribed to angels in

accumulates attributes and
Revelation: In verse 5 he is the true witness and the firstborn of the dead (i. e. he rose
from death, further alluded to in Apc 1: 18), he is the one who redeems from death
(maybe also alluded to by the possessionof the keys in Apc 1:18) and who has made
people God's priests in a creator-like act. The tendency to apply an overwhelming
Christ throughout the For instance. he

amount of similar attributes to continues «vriting.
is described as the chosen one who is worthy to open the scroll in Apc 5, %hcrcas
incapable doing In the same vision his

angels who are present in this scenario are of so.
is Gods act of creation, as mentioned above (,

ýcctIon
redemption also set parallel with
28"
3.2.4.). The salvific meaning of Christ's death is further
stressedin Apc 7.13-17 where
the blood of the Lamb has the power to wash the clothes of God's
people. Another
display of unique powers of Christ is set in Apc 19
where Christ as the Lamb receiNes
glory in wedding imagery, marking his return as a major eschatoloiical event (Apc
19:7-9). Also the following vision concerning the judgement of the earth by Christ in
form of a heavenly warrior emphasiseshis unique character compared to that

of the
angels as he bears divine names.
Another statement concerning Christ which deserves attention is the reference to
God being the father of Christ. A relationship between God and Christ as father and son
is remarkable, since such honour is certainly not ascribed to angels in Revelation. One
might comment on the difference between Christ and angels here with reference to
Hebrews 1:5; a passage which has a theology (and especially a Christology) which is
very close to that of the Apocalypse.
Moreover, the other attributes mentioned are nowhere given to angels or angel-
like beings (like the 24 elders) in the Apocalypse. On the contrary, angels are clearly
subordinate to God (and to Christ), doing his bidding. Such is

subordinate status alreadi
reflected in Apc 1: 1 where God sends his angel to reveal the things that are about to
happen. Christ's superiority is also alluded to in Apc I since he controls angels
(represented by stars) by holding them in his hand (Apc 1: 16-20). Apc 2-3 also reflects
on a subordinate character of angels; they are recipients of Christ's messagesand
subject to commands and critique. In Apc 4-5 and 7 the tendency of ascribing a
to
subordinate character angels is continued. Angels (and angelic beings) offer worship
A is
to God and to the Lamb, but they do not receive any themselves. worship of angels
(by the angels themselves) in Apc 19 and 22. while in an obvious

explicitly prohibited
form is by Christ in Apc 1. In \pc 8-9 and 14-16

contrast the same of worship accepted :
juridical initiated by God. The mighty angel in Apc 10 testiflcs

angels carry out tasks
284
what he is announcing in God's name, also expressing God's superiority. Epen a
superficial glance at the entire Apocalypse provides overwhelming evidence tör the
apparent subordinate status of angels compared to God and Christ. Howe%cr. in certain
contexts Christ is portrayed ambiguously close to angels.
(D) Despite all the above mentioned similarities shared by God and Christ.
one
cannot neglect that Christ also has features that associate him with the angelic world.
Such descriptions can be categorisedby varying levels of angelomorphic Christology as
we established in the introductory chapter of the present thesis. An angelomorphic
description of Christ mostly draws on traditional material, i. e. either (1) visual or (2)
functional, occasionally an angelomorphic Christology is also established by (3) the
context in which Christ is represented.
(a) An angelomorphic Christology is established by visual means in Apc I
already. Here Christ's appearance is portrayed by alluding to various traditions which
deal with angelophanies. As shown above, most of the features ascribed to Christ are
derived from angelological contexts such as Daniel 7: 9.13; 10:5-6; Ezekiel 1; 9 or
Judges 5: 31.62 A similarly apparent display of angelomorphic features attributed to
Christ can be identified in Apc 14: 14-20 where Christ is portrayed by allusion to Daniel
7: 13 again. Moreover, the crown worn by Christ (similar to the elders in Apc 4) and the
(like the in Apc 14: 17-19) hint strongly at a description of

possession of a sickle angels
Christ which is deliberately arranged to let his appearance seem angelomorphic. Some
features have been for an angelomorphic description of Christ's

of the which used
in Apc 19, as eves like fiery flames (verse 12) or

appearance before are repeated such
holding a sword (verse 15).
in Apc I in the description

A feature employed in the Christophany also occurs
As have (section 2.2.8. ), not a lot of

of the mighty angel from Apc 10. we argued
62Cp. STUCKENBRUCK: [eneration, 211-213.

285
evidence for an understanding of this particular angel representing Christ can be
provided. However, the description of Christ (Apc 1: 15) and that of the angel (.
-upc
10: 1) refer to their feet being like pillars of fire. Such an angelomorphic feature
of
Christ is therefore not only provided by an allusion to Daniel 10:5-6 but also by a
parallel within the context of Revelation.
A final element worth mentioning is a somewhat parallel description of Christ
and angels as stars: Angels are portrayed as stars being held by Christ in Apc 1: 16-20.
Surprisingly, Christ then designateshimself as the morning star in Ape 22: 16. Whether
or not the description of Christ and angels as stars reflects on a distinction (i. e. Christ
being superior, since he is portrayed as the brightest star; see Appendix 4), a shared
metaphorical way of describing them is apparent.
(b) Another means to present Christ in angelomorphic features draws on
functions. For instance, in Apc 1: 18 (and similarly in 3: 7) Christ is in possession of the
special keys opening the gates to Death and Hades. In Apc 20: 1 it is suddenly an angels
who controls the Abyss with similar keys. More functional angelomorphisms can be
found in a combination of Apc 1: 10 and 4: 1 where the speaker, apparently Christ, talks
the the trumpet and explains forthcoming events to the seer in the manner
with voice of
interpres. In Apc 5 find further evidence for Christ being described as

of an angelus we
by him functions, namely an association of Christ with

angelomorphic ascribing certain
his
the Angel of Death (the Destroyer) from the Exodus tradition and possibly also
(The latter becomes questionable in the forthcoming development of

standing position.
Christ to the throne leads to a

the Apocalypse's plot, though, since the proximity of
God throne together. ) In Apc 14:6-20 the

description of Christ sitting with on the
functions is displayed Christ (Apc 14: 14-15) and the angels (tlpc
sharing of as well;
Apc 19: 14 indicates that

14: 16-19) carry out the same task of harvesting the earth. also
286
angelomorphic functions have been ascribed to Christ. since he is the leader of the
heavenly army here, a role which has been given to Michael in Apc 12:7 before.
(c) A third way of applying angelomorphic categories to Christ in

the Apocalypse
is by a given context. However, the application of contextual

angelomorphic features to
Christ is limited in Revelation. In Apc 14:6-20 we might find two

examples for an
angelomorphic Christology established by the given context. In Apc 14:15 an angel is
designatedas "another angel" just after Christ has beenmentioned in the

previous verse.
Such a description of the narrative sequencemight have been deliberately set up in
order to relate Christ to the angels mentioned before, in other words he may have been
depicted as angelomorphic. Such an interpretation does not only seem likely just on the
basis of the functional angelomorphism (Christ performing the same task as the angels
in Apc 14: 15-19), but also on the capability of the angel in Apc 14: 15 to give Christ the
command to harvest the earth. A subsequent impression that Christ is subordinate to this
angel makes Christ appear angelomorphic by context once more.
5.4. Conclusion
We have interpreted Apc 1 in the light of its significance for preparing the
Apocalypse's readers for the relationship between God, Christ and angels. Such an
is justified is the of Apc 1.

approach since this one of the central aspectsof narrative
The interest in outlining the relationship between God, Christ is

and angels reflected in
corresponding passages and sections where Christ. God or angels are related to each
other. The significance of certain statements regarding Christology (or theology and
angelology respectively) can only be understood with a holistic approach to the ; wort:.
For instance, an explicit to Christ (while just being

reference accepting worship
be surprising as such. The xvorship scene

portrayed angelomorphically) might not
297
accumulatessignificance in the narrative progress achieved by the
author. though. The
importance of Christ being worshipped despite an angelomorphic description
demonstratesthe author's concept of Christology. since in Apc 19:10

and 22:8-9 ancels
prohibit to be worshipped themselves. Instead the author lets the angels acclaim the
right to be worshipped as God's privilege. By the apparent contrast of these visions the
author not only expresses that Christ is more than an angel and may therefore he
worshipped, he even puts him on par with God, since the exclusive right of God to be
worshipped is now obviously shared by Christ. This equality between God and Christ is
further reflected in the visions of Apc 4 and 5 where angels worship God and Christ
without receiving any form of veneration themselves. As we have demonstrated, the
author has a certain interest to demonstrate the question of who may and who may not
be worshipped in his writing. Apc 1 displays an early answer to this question by making
the claim of Christ being worthy of receiving worship. Apc 5 qualifies further reasons
for Christ's worthiness as a recipient of worship. Other passages, such as Apc 9.19 and
22, clarify who may not be worshipped.
On the basis of establishing major issues of theology, Christology and
angelology Apc 1 can accordingly be considered as a preliminary work of the author of
Revelation in which he introduces God's and Christ's extraordinary status, and angels
demonstrates of issues
as servants of God and Christ. Further, the author an awareness
he deals with in the forthcoming chapters of his writings. For instance, the identity of
the one like a son of man in Apc 14 as being Christ is warranted by the detailed
description of this figure provided in Apc 1:7-20. Similarly, the same description allo\ý s
for an identification of the figure from Apc 19: 11-211,

the heavenly horseman. as Christ.
Christ has for the author and which he

Despite the significance that apparently
be in his must not neglect that Christ

already arranges to apparent opening vision one
In
has also clearly angelomorphic features in this sequence. comparison with the focus
'88
Christ an equal to God elsewhere in Revelation
on as a description of Christ in analogy
to that of an angel seems disturbing. especially since angels in Revelation are clearly
subordinateto God. Within Apc 1a solution for this problem is not provided or alluded
to, possible reasons for the author to describe Christ within the frame of such an
analogy must be elaborated within the limits of the entire writing.
Further, it may be asked whether the author wishes to express a subordinate
Christ. 63Since the tension between

statusof a subordinateand an equal status between
Christ and God is also not explicitly explained on the basis of Apc 1 alone, more reason
to solve the problem with a holistic approach to the Apocalypse is provided. This
approach prevents from leading to a conclusion of a general subordination based on
occasional hints, when the Apocalypse taken as a whole seemsto aim at expressingan
equal status.
Finally, in the present thesis we have so far attemptedto shed light on different
ways of portraying Christ in the Apocalypse. We have to summarize now whether the
different portrayals of Christ are still connectedor have to be regardedindividually.
63See for for instance KNIGHT: RCIlotion. 164.

such a proposal
28Q
Part C: Conclusion
6. Conclusion
We have demonstrated that the author of the Apocalypse

employed different ways
of expressing christological concerns. Representations of Christ are far from being
simplistic and unified, though; so how can we characterise the author's way of telliný-,us
his views concerning Christ? Where and for what reasons

are Lamb Christologv or
angelomorphic Christology employed? We may summarise the results brought forward
in this thesis by addressing some questions on how certain aspects

of Christology are
reflected in the Apocalypse.
6.1. Different Aspects of Christology in Revelation?
At first sight one can certainly ascribe various christological concepts to the
author of the Apocalypse. In Apc 1 Christ appears as the angelomorphically portrayed
eschatological figure, features which recur in Apc 2-3,14 and 19. However, in Apc 5a
different way of describing Christ becomes apparent, since he is suddenly portrayed in
the image of a Lamb. Such imagery is repeated in Apc 6-7 and in Apc 14: 1-5 and 19:7-
9. It has been proposed that the main christological images of the Apocalypse consist of
representations of Christ as the "one like a son of man", or Divine Warrior. and as the
Lamb. 1 One might surely agree to such a subdivision of christological intersection.
However, one must not ignore the fact that the different means of portraying Christ are
also closely connected. As have demonstrated in this thesis, the descriptions of

we
Christ as a son of man like figure and his portrayal as an eschatological warrior are
2Q( )
intrinsically linked with each other. The one like
a son of man from -upc 1 and 14 and
the warrior-like figure from Ape 19 share traditional

material by which they are
described; material which lets each of the descriptions

of Christ appear angelomorphic.
It might therefore appear redundant to attempt to separate these

aspects of Christolog}
from each other in the Apocalypse. One might

wonder if one should accordingly
understand the Christology of Revelation in terms of a polarity between an
angelomorphic portrayal of Christ and the other description which focuses on Lamb
imagery. Such a way of regarding the Christology of Revelation is not entirely
unjustified. As we have argued, the portrayal of Christ as the Lamb in Apc 5 (and also
in Ape 19) is not completely unconnected to angelic categories. For instance, Christ is
described as reminiscent of the Angel of Death in the Apocalypse, following the Exodus
tradition, while he is also the Passover Lamb in Apc 5. (We have identified such means
of talking about Christ as a deliberate device of the author to portray Christ in
paradoxes. ) Moreover, Christ might be attributed with possible angelomorphic features
while he is characterised as the Lamb, for example as being in a standing posture in
proximity of God's throne in Apc 5, or even taking over the function of an angelus
interpres in Ape 4. A connection between the different christological concepts might
thus be accomplished. In Ape 19, statements concerning Christ as the Lamb (7-9) are
linked with a vision of Christ as eschatological and partially angelomorphic figure (11-
21). Since Christ is portrayed as a very active and enormously powerful figure in
control of his community, possessing an equal status to God, one must ask why the
image Christ in angelomorphic categories in

author employs an almost antithetical of
certain parts of his writing.
1 See for instance SLATER: Community, passim.

6.2. A Reason for Employing an Angelomorphic Christolog, in Revelation?
If we consider the presence of an angelomorphic Christology in

the Apocalypse
we have to ask where and for what reasons the author wished to integrate such a
christological concept in Revelation. We have identified certain passages in the
Apocalypse which put a major emphasis on an angelomorphic portrayal of Christ.
namely Apc 14:6-20, Apc 1:7-20 (and 4: 1) and Apc 19:11-21. In all of these passages
Christ bears attributes or is ascribed functions which connect him with angelological
by
categories means of influence of traditional materials or contexts.
Despite one possible overlap (i. e. the standing posture of the Lamb in Apc 5: 6)
the author keeps the application of angelomorphic imagery strictly apart from
descriptions of Christ as the Lamb. Taking this polarity in view, we have been searching
for reasons as for why the author applied these two different aspects of Christology in
his writing. Since the varying Christologies are employed on separate occasions, we
have been able to deduce that the application of Lamb Christology on the one hand, and
an angelomorphic Christology on the other, represents most likely a portrait of Christ
according to two major functions. These functions reflect on the implied perception of
Christ. To those who see him without totally understanding his salvific meaning he
juridical figure. In contrast, to those who have (or gain)

appears as an angelomorphic
is
insight into Christ's significant nature, which - also according to MELANCHTHON
his benevolence his in history, Christ appears as the Lamb. In this

- and salvific role
is is his
facet of depicting christological concerns, Christ portrayed as the one who with
people (i. e. the Christian community), shepherdingand taking care of them.
depending
Such a distribution, deliberately implying a christological perception
becomes apparent in the

on an inside- or outside-group phenomeneon, especially
dualistic tendency is openly displa- cd by a

visions in Apc 14 and 19. The almost
29 ,
sudden change of Christ's functions in Apc 14. Christ is
explicitly ascribed the salvific
functions of the Lamb in verses 1-5, where he is taking

care of his followers. while he is
judging and harvesting the opposition of God and his people in

verses 14-20.
Similarly, a change of functions is taking place in Apc 19. At first. Christ is
described as the Lamb, which has a major significance for the Christian
comnmunity..
The relationship between Christ and his followers is portrayed through

wedding
imagery, placing Christ in the role of the groom, and the community
as the bride (Apc
19:7-9). In Apc 19: 11, Christ's role changes dramatically to that of an eschatological
warrior with angelomorphic features, carrying out the destruction of the anti-divine
forces.
The use of imagery applied to the two different perspectives of Christologv does
probably not have the single aim of showing the two different implied interpretationsof
Christ by Christians and opponents alone. The two Christologies expressing
understanding and misunderstanding of Christ might even have an antecedent in the
Exodus narrative. In Exodus the followers of God are saved by the blood of the
Passover Lamb, while the Egyptians (the opposition of God's chosen people) are
punished by the Destroyer. We have demonstrated that the author of the Apocalypse
might have adopted this tradition from the Hebrew Bible into his version of a ne,w
Exodus. The author applied similar features to Christ, making him appear as the sakific
Passover Lamb for God's people and the angelomorphic Destroyer of God's opposition.
The angelomorphic description of Christ in the introductory chapters 0 -3 )
is
differs from the clearcut distinction which marked by the use of insider and outsider
language. The seer himself also mis-perceives Christ as a juridical angelomorphic
figure. It is by an act of ongoing revelation that John (along with the seNcn
is Christ Lamb (e. in Apc 5.7,14 or 19). Such

communities) able to see as the salvific g.
Christ's by piece is not unique for John:

a technique of unveiling true meaning piece
293
similarly, the somewhat blurred and abstract vision from Apc 14:6-20 is explained more
specifically in Apc 19: 11-21.
Besides the attempt to employ a Christology which reflects

v arY'ing implied
perceptions of Christians and opponents, and the use of imagery from the Exodus
tradition which was almost metaphorically applied to Christ, a third reason for the
presence of an angelomorphic Christology in the Apocalypse exists. Since angels ha,,ea
prominent role in Revelation we may assume that they were highly regarded amongst its
readership. Given such a prominence, the christological concerns elaborated by lohn
appear to be an attempt to highlight Christ's significance, especially his role as a
In
redeemer. contrast to this significance, angels only perform minor tasks. However, a
readership with high regard for angels (or maybe even an almost angelic understanding
of Christ) might be by
appeased a christological concept which incorporates Christ in
angelomorphic features. This approach of the author appeals to a readership with an
angelological interest and subtly "corrects" the interest in angels towards an even more
significant Christ.
6.3. A Subordinate Christology in Revelation?
Given the prominence of an angelomorphic Christology in the Apocalypse, one
Christology in this might be generally indebted to a

might wonder whether the writing
Christ, or if the author might have wished to

somewhat subordinate portrait of
God Christ. As have tried to demonstrate in this

emphasise an equal status of and we
is God Christ on a par. This

thesis, the focus of the author clearly on putting and
Apocalypse, in Apc 1,4-s. 7. and 19.

tendency can be seen throughout the especially
God least connected intrinsically

where Christ is explicitly worshipped alongside or at
Only impression of a subordinate

sOmehoWNý
with the divine world. occasionally an
2q..
Christology may arise. For instance the standing posture of Christ in Apc 5:6
might lead
to a conclusion of a subordinate position. However, as %ý
e have tried to demonstrate.
such a conclusion would not be without doubt, since the standing posture can easily be
explained by circumstance or traditions. Moreover, elsewhere in the Apocalypse Christ
is sharing the throne with God (Apc 7: 10-12, Apc 22: 3).
A further crux for the Christology of Revelation is the angelic command given to
Christ in Apc 14: 15. Here an angel appears to be superior to Christ, since he can
command him to harvest the world with his sickle. Attempts to deny the ostensive
subordination of Christ appear to be unreasonable: an indication of subordinate
Christology in this vision might be due to a perception of doctrines in contemporary
theology, although the author himself may not even have wished to downplay the
significance of Christ here at all. On the contrary. the author might have had various
reasons for the angel's command (e. g. adoption of traditional material) which resulted in
an interpretation of Christ being subordinate. Moreover, the status of Christ as being
subordinate has no major significance for two reasons. (1) Christ is perceived by the
implied opposition (since Christ appears as the destructive juridical figure eliminating
God's opponents here), hence this description of Christ forms part of a partially
misunderstood perception of Christ. (2) As we have demonstrated, almost everywhere
in the Apocalypse the Christ's significance, his superiority over

else author emphasises
angels and his equal status with God. Accordingly, a single reference to a subordinate
Christ can hardly be a major part of the author's Christology.
6.4. How Elaborate is the Christology of Revelation?
Christology Revelation is vital for

We have demonstrated that the of
God on a par, Christ is

the author's theology. Christ and are not only
understanding
295
even represented as the active figure while God - despite his undisputed significance
-
appears to be more passive. One might almost consider the theology of the Apocalypse
as christocentric. However, God's almighty powers are nowhere found to be
compromised.
Occasionally a preexistent character of Christ in the Apocalypse has been
2
disputed. Certain passages (Apc 1:5; 3: 14; 13:8) seem to indicate, though, that
the
preexistence of Christ cannot be easily dismissed. Christ's role as that of a figure with
an almost similar role as that of God as creator, namely the parallel act of making
people priests of God (Apc 1:6; 5: 10), confirms the assumption of a preexistence of
Christ.
The theology of Revelation may probably not be considered as close to a
trinitarian theology, though, since the role of the Spirit appears to be limited. A
venerable character is not ascribed to the Holy Spirit, he is not worshipped or described
in much detail. The formula of Apc 1:4 referring to the seven spirits might at first sight
appear trinitarian. As we have argued, however, an interpretation of these spirits as
angels seems more likely. The focus of the Apocalypse lies clearly with theological and
christological concerns.
Generally, we may therefore characterisethe Christology of Revelation as complex
and elaborate. Especially the equal status shared by God and Christ hints at an
advanced, possibly even a so-called High Christology. The way in which the
Christology is arranged often shows the readership Christ's significance by some
Christology. For instance, Christ be described as the first

obvious traits of may openly
last dead is alive. His interpretation as Destroyer and

and the or the one who was and
displayed. Such
Passover Lamb - employing a similar paradox - is less obviously
in
hidden traits of Christologv and the amount of passages which christological (and
2 See for instance KNIGHT: Revelation. 164.

ýý>(i
sometimes theological or angelological) concerns are related with
each other does not
only underline the complexity of Revelation's Christologvý. We may

assume that the
writing might have been targeted at an audience who would

not only use the text for the
purpose of reading (or hearing) it at services; the complexity-

suggests that the main
purpose of the Apocalypse was contemplative reading of the text.
6.5. Further Possible Topics for Research
Since this thesis has a major emphasis on the relationship between
angelomorphic Christology and Lamb Christology in the Apocalypse, our results are
consequently limited to the questions raised in this connection. It may be promising to
continue this study regarding other christological concerns within Revelation, and raise
the question how these aspects are related to angelomorphic and Lamb C'hristolop.
Another feature which deservesmore attention is the notion of the rider on the white
horse in Apc 6. Since this figure shares elements of the the description of Christ
provided in Apc 19: 11.21, further research on his identity and relevance might be
rewarding. Moreover, the role of the Spirit and the way he is connected in the
christological and theological concept might be worth further investigation.
The development of the Christology as it has been preserved in Revelation may
also be reflected in other Christian writings. It might be worthwhile comparing this
Christology to other concepts of Christology in the New Testament in order to

special
the they are elaborated in Revelation are unique. A

examine whether or not aspects as
that christological ideas may not only reveal

comparison of other texts preserve similar
something about christological features of Revelation, but also the extent to which one
kinds "angelomorphic Christology". For instance:

may speak of different of a so-called
Galatians 4: 14 haNc all been

Hebrews 1-2, the Gospel of John, Colossians 2: 18. or
297
considered to contain an "angelomorphic" or "angel Christologv" by various scholar.
Sometimes even a shared world-view has been assumed for the different
authors of the
mentioned texts. In turn, it may be rewarding to show that there are different kinds of
"angelomorphic" Christologies which were formulated within the context of different
theological issues and thus arose for distinguishable reasons (as demonstrated for
Revelation in this thesis).
Similarly, it might be interesting to compare the special Christologv of the
Apocalypse with later Christian writings (such as the works of Justin Martyr. Ascension
of Isaiah or the Shepherd of Hermas) in order to see if Revelation possibly influenced
later texts in their understandingof an angelomorphic Christology.
298
Appendices
299
Appendix 1
Clarification of Linguistical Phenomena within Apc 14: 6-20
a) Verse 9
Within verse 9 the preposition rüiri,is used twice, but

with alternating cases in
each instance (bit cob µEtituov aviov.... Eni,'civ xEipa,aüioü). This kind of changeof
case after the preposition Eiri occurs elsewhere in the Apocalypse (e.g. Apc 5: 1: 8: 1:
12: 1-3; 13: 1). The shift in case is noteworthy in Apc 13: 16, because the same
is
vocabulary used here, though the cases of the substantivesare exchanged:uni rfq
xEtpöc avtithv ... il it co' µ£uonov a&tthv. This change of cases might therefore be
interpreted as a stylistic framework by the author. KRAFT considered rhythmical
for '
this change, in contrast to LOHMEYER,
reasons who assumed the reason for the
change would be 2 The bears for

achieving a consonance. change of case no relevance
the content; the meaning of the verse is not altered by the preposition ýirt.3 This is also
reflected by textcritical evidence: few variants confirm a double use of Eni ith
wt a
genitive case in both instances (E-'ii if; xEipö avioü), which indicates that a text with
changing cases was not very likely to have been misunderstood.
b) Verse 19
The construction 'ri v Xivov... tiöv j tyav in verse 19 is conspicuous, because the feminine
word A,iv6 is connected with a masculine adjective, though Xrlvroccould notably also
have been used in a masculine form. One might assume a solecism here, a grammatical
in the entire Apocalypse: a masculine form dislodges a

phenomenon very common

` Cp. LOHMEYER: Offenbarung, 122.
Cp. BLASS: DEBRUNNER: Grammatik. 186.
300
feminine form and subsequently leads to grammatical incongruence.4 Another
solution
has been proposed by BORNKAMM; he suggested that the change
of gender might
indicate an allusion to the Gehinnom5 - but this is speculative, as KRAFT rightfully
6
pointed out.
Even textcritical evidence is not strong enough to warrant changing röv µhyav to
a grammatically correct form (61v µf.-yöc?

iv 7
or Tob µcy('X?ov). Accordingly, the
assumption of having a solecism here seems to be more likely, especially since there are
more solecisms present within Apc 14:6-20 (as for instance in verse 1-' where of
is
iipovv'rES related to 'rthv äyiwv, or in verse 14 where Exwv is related to the accusative
8
form of the one like a son of man). As solecisms are generally very common and
widely distributed within the Apocalypse (e. g. Apc 3: 12; 4: 1; 5: 12: 10:2: 11:4: 11: 15:
9
19:6; 21: 9; 21: 14), we may be dealing with a stylistic device of the author. This
observation adds weight to the literary unity of the passage. More relevant observations
can be made by comparing the vocabulary and language of Apc 14:6-20 with the entire
text.
° Cp. BLASS; DEBRUNNER: Grammatik, 112-113.

Cp. BORNKAMM: "Xr1v6S",262.
6 Cp. KRAFT: Offenbarung, 199.
Cp. also KRAFT: Offenbarung, 199.
8 Cp. BLASS: DEBRUNNER: Grammatik. 112-1133.
AI.
BE, E. Revelation. T79-78()
9 Cp. for the discussion of the grammatical problem in Apc 14: 19 also
I1
Appendix 2
Angels and a Schema of Four Elements in Revelation?
The idea of the existence of a schema combining angels

with four elements in
the Apocalypse, as suggestedby YARBRO COLLINS or BETZ. appearspromising

at
first glance. Moreover, one might even be tempted to identify further
angels described
in the Apocalypse as being part of such a schema: The link between the
angel and fire in
Apc 14:18 (cp. also Apc 8:3-5) and also the connection betweenthe angel in Apc 16:5
and the element water' (possibly also in Apc 9: 14) is 2

quite obvious, since the elements
are explicitly referred to. Moreover, in case of Apc 16:5 the angel is closely aligned
with his element by the use of the genitive case specifying the appropriate element (i. e.
äyyýkou 'Cv vbäticwv). One could possibly even infer the existence of further angels that
3
are connected with "classical" elements. For instance, the angels described in Apc 7: I
are in control of the winds (KpuiovvTct; tiobq th c (xpu.; ävgµou;), and consequently
4
appear to embody angels of wind and air. (The angels from Apc 7 are reminiscent of
the angels mentioned in Mk 13:27 and Mt 24: 31.5) These angels might reflect a
traditional schema where angels in charge of certain elements or certain areas of the
world respond to God. 6 One for an angel of earth would be the angel
possible candidate
in Apc 16:2 whose action of emptying the first bowl affects the earth. The presence of
an angel of earth might also be given if the angel in Apc 10:2-8 is to be understood as
Cp. BARR: Tales, 131: BARR regards, without further explanation, the "angel of water" as a "guardian
idea of angels being aligned to
spirit". This thought might generally cope with the of an assumed schema
between this "angel water" and the nymphs of Greek
elements. BARR's thesis of a connection of
traditions, though, tends to be rather vague.
2 Cp. YARBRO COLLINS: "Tradition", 566 and MÜLLER: Otjenharung, 280.
3 Cp. MOUNCE: Revelation. 155.
also
"Cp. MÜLLER: Offenbarung, 176-177 and MICHL: "Engel", 11-4-115.
5 See BÖCHER: "Engel IV". 597.
6 Cp. 391-409 MÜLLER: (O/ 280.
also BETZ: "Apokalvptik". and .'nharung.
302
responsible for the element earth, since he is least
- at partially with his left foot
. -
standingthere (Ent tifq yi; ).
However, a first difficulty for the presenceof such a

schemais encounteredhere
as well. The angel in Apc 10 is not actually depicted as being in charge of earth.
Moreover, he is not even exclusively associated with one single element (earth). but
also equally with water, becausehis right foot is standing on the sea (mö&xavioü töv
öc tLv Ent vif 9aß,« (yr). Similarly, a clear connection betweenthe angels in 7: 1 to a
single element has to be questioned. These angels are in control of the winds. but they
are positioned on the four corners of the earth and have the power to do harm to earth
and sea. Since, in addition to the winds, sea and earth are associatedwith them, a
schemaof angels in control of distinct areasof God's creation as indicated by a certain
element would be hard to establish here as well. This is not unlike the sequence of
angels in Apc 16: 1-17, which is somewhat problematic if certain angels are made
responsible for one element: Apc 16: 1-2 refers to an angel who is affecting the earth
(iýv yi v) with his bowl, verses 3-4 mentions two angels executing powers over sea
(0600 aaßav) and rivers (noiaµouq), angels which are therefore apparently attached to
the element of water. In verse 5 "the angel of waters", one of the two latter angels. is
then depicted alone as responsible for the realm of water. A third angel with power over
water, namely the river Euphrates, then appears in verse 12. Moreover, an angel who
it burn the people on earth is described in this

pours his bowl into the sun causing to
But, in Apc 14: 18 (and 8: 3-5), he does not have direct control
vision. unlike the angel
over the fire.
Altogether, the portrait of angels provided in the vision of Apc 16 refers to no
less than five angels who have with three of them e\ecutln-,,
some power over elements,
Any schema of one angel controlling one

their juridical tasks by means of water.
As be it is moreover hard to align angels

element is clearly absent. should apparent.
30 '+
.
straightforwardly with the control of a single element: some angels,
as the might', angel
from Apc 10, are related to two elements. Angels connected to the
air are also not onl%-
to be found in Ape 7: 1. The angel flying in midheaven in Apc 14:6 might

also be taken
into account as linked to air and heaven. In Ape 16 the focus

seems to be on the entire
i.
creation, e. land, water, rivers and the heaven including the celestial bodies as the area
is
which affected by God's wrath and the bowls poured out by the angels.; In the other
visions where a schema of angels and elements could be assumed as well, the emphasis
is not so much on the elements as on the angels and the task they fullfill.
A consideration of traditional material concerning angels in connection ww

ith
elements might also shed further light on the possibility of a link between angels and
elements. Generally, the connection of angels and elements is not unheardof in early
Jewish, rabbinic and New Testament literature: Especially in Enochic literature a
connection of angels and elements or natural phenomenacan often be found. In I Enoch
6,8 and 69 angels' names are apparently linked with natural phenomena, namely
Ramiel (angel of thunder), Danel (angel of smoke). Ananel, Ezeqeel or Neqael (angel of
clouds), Baraqel (angel of lightning), Batarel (angel of rain) and Arameel (angel of
8 list for natural

earth). A similar of angels' names and their responsibiltiy elements or
forces is also preserved in 3 Enoch 14:4. Besides a simple allusion to elements and
is displayed in I Enoch
nature by the angels' names, such a connection more openly
60: 16-22 where angels are responsible for the sea, hail, snow, dew, thaw and rain. A
further angel in control of water can also be found in 1 Enoch 61: 10; 66: 2: another
is fountains (1 En. 65: 8). "Angels Heaven" are referred to in

angel connected with the of
1 Enoch 97: 29, though this reference probably addresses the different areas of heaven to
distributed than image. In 2 Enoch 5 and 6 angels

which angels are rather an elemental
7 See MÜLLER: Offenbarung, 278-281.

similarly
8 Cp. SCHÄFER: Rivalität, 26 n. 92.
9 See
also MICHL: "Engel", 70.
watch over the chambers of snow, ice, clouds and thaw. In Jubilees 2:2 angels are also
portrayed as being in charge of fire, wind, clouds, darkness, snow. hail, thunder and
lightning, cold and heat. 1° Some other spirits are labelled "spirits
of his creatures which
are in heaven and on earth".
In Jubilees 1-2 angels are closely connected with "spirits". One

might wonder
whether or not these spirits resemble 11

represent spirits or even angels themselves. Such
a connection between angels and powers described as 6ioi is may also be assumedin
case of Galatians 4: 3 and 9. These powers may be identical to the angels mentioned in
Galatians 3: 19, therefore establishing another example for a possible link between
in the New Testament. 12A between

elements and angels certain proximity angels and
6tiotxE ta could maybe also be assumed for Colossians 2: 18-2013where a "worship of
angels" (9prlrncF-ia ticov äy7$? ov) is dimissed, as are the "powers of the world"
(ßiotxEI(Xl tiov Koup. 0). 14
Further examples of angels being more obviously linked to elements can be
found. Often angels are connected to the element of fire. For instance, in Judges 6: 20
the angel of the Lord vanishes in the fire of a burnt offering to God. Mostly, the angels
have the form of fire, as for instance in 4Q403 1 col. ii 9, i5 in discussions concerning
or
86a, Sepher ha-Razim 6:3-8.1 En. 17:1.2

the content of Psalm 104:4 (as Exod. Rab. 25:
6
En. 29:3; 2 En. 1a [A] or Heb 1:7] and 4 Ezra 8:21-22).17Maybe Psalm 104 was also a
Vorlage for 3 Enoch 15 where Enoch himself is transformed into fire. indicating the
10Cp. for this SCHÄFER: Rivalität, 26-27 and LUEKEN: Michael, 53.
11Cp. MICHL: "Engel", 65.
12 See for SCHWEIZER: "Elements". 455-468 and esp.
a more thorough discussion also
MICHL: "Engel". 65 and ARNOLD: Svncrt'tism,
STUCKENBRUCK: Veneration, 104-107. Cp. also
183-185.
1' See for STUCKENBRUCK: 4 ýerutian.
E:
details on the nature of the so called "Colossian error"
more "Humilit. '.
ARNOLD: Syncretism, 190-194 and FRANCIS:
111-119, MACH: Entwicklungsstadien, 294,
109-134.
14Cp. further KURZE: 335-337.
cTotxciat,
15See NEWSOM: Sabbath, 229 and 235.
16See also LANE: Hebrews 1-8,28-29.
1' Cp. AUNE: Revelation 1-5,295.
305
angelic state into which Enoch is transfigured. Angels
can also be generally associated
with fire as in Pseudo-Philo Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum

38: 3 (Nathaniel beino in
charge of fire), 2 Enoch 1:5 (angels emitting fire from

their mouths). 3 Enoch 36: 2
(portraying angels bathing in fire) or Gabriel in 3 Enoch 14:3-4..

1lidrash Psalm 117 or
Sanhedrin 88b. Sometimes they control fire

as a means of executing judgement (e.g.
PsPhilo Ant. Bibl. 15: 5; 4 Macc 7: 11; Tg. 1 Kgs. 19: 11: Test. Abr. 12 [Rec.
A]). 18
Similar to angels having the form of fire, they

can also be describedas having
the form of wind. Normally a description of a form of fire is followed by the

attribute of
a form of wind or air (1 QH 1: 10-11 or Exod. Rab. 25: 86a, Pirqe R. El. 4.4 Ezra 8: 22.
Heb 1:7) following the tradition based on Ps 104.19(Demons

can also be in power of
winds as can be seen in Test. Sol. 22-23. ) Also in terms of responsibility angels can be
connected to the air (e.g. in 3 En. 14:3, Tg. 1 Kgs. 19:11, Gosp. Barth. 31-36) or to
heaven (e.g. 4 Ezra 6: 41).
An angel connected to water cannot just be found in Enochic writings or the
Apocalypse, John 5: 4 also gives evidence for such an angel. (This verse is only included
in some New Testament Codices, such as A, K, L, A or f 3. ) Here healing powers are
provided for ill people by an angel moving the water of a pool. Since the narrative
describesthe healing of a man who has been ill for 38 years and failed to be healed by
the water, one might assume that this passage - despite the conflict concerning the
healing on the Sabbath serves also to demonstrateJesus' healing powers (which are
-
instantaneous) as superior to the angelic powers.
Angels associated with the earth can rarely be found in traditional material,
maybe 1 Enoch 61: 10 might reflect on angels and a connection to the earth. But besides
18Cp. for later describing a connection bet%%een

also MICHL: "Engel", 65-94. See cabbalistic writings
fire LUEKEN: Michael, 52-55. Especially l_UEKEVs
angels and elements, especially and water,
(Sohar Num. Col. 117) is interesting, since a schema of 4 angels heing
reference to a cabbalistic passage
here. However, this does not contribute to this
connected to 4 elements is actually preserved writing
discussion as it has to be dated very late.
3 ()h
the fact that angels are only very vaguely connected to earth here, the
context doe-, not
allow for earth to be interpreted as an element here. since the dualism bet« een heaven
and earth is emphasised in the given passage. Such a connection between

earth as an
is
element and angels generally not widely attested,if at all. Other angelsare connected
with all sorts of elements or natural phenomena in other passagesof early Jewish
writings. For instance, angels are associated with light in Testament of Job 4: 1, or. in
rabbinic literature, with wind (Tg. 1 Kgs. 19: 11 ), earthquakes (Tg. 1 Kgs. 19: 11), the
sea (b. Baba bathra 74b; p. Pesachim 118b; Midr. Gen. Rabba 10:7d), the darkness
(Midr. Pesqitha Rabbathi 20: 95a), rain (3 En. 14:3). hail (3 En. 14:3; ttidrash Psalm
,
117), lightning, thunder, snow, sun, moon and stars (3 Erg. 14:3), \ atcr (:I tidy ash
Lament. 2: 2) and iron (Midrash Lament. 2: 2, cp. 1 En. 65: 8). 20
An angel of the invisible things is moreover preserved in Pseudo-Philo (Ant.
Bibl. 27: 10). A consideration concerning a connection between such an angel and the
Aristotelian element "aether" is doomed to be mere speculation, since no evidence for
this interpretation can possibly be provided. However, the material preserving the motif
of angels being appointed over elements and natural phenomena provided above and the
speculation concerning the angel of a realm of invisible things might raise mo
important questions: (1) Can one even assume a schema of 4 elements neglecting the
Aristotelian 5 And (2) the assumption of a schema of 4

classical view of elements? can
four be established on basis of the

angels being connected to the classical elements
material observed?
four angels and their connection to "the

(1) The attempt to establish a model of
four elements" (earth. fire, water and air)2' seems to neglect certain aspects of a
Certainly, earth, \v ind, fire and water

classical concept of what an element represents:

similarly
10Cp. MICHL: "Engel", 86-87 and 94.
21YARBRO COLLINS: "Tradition", 566.
307
are considered to be the four major elements in Greek philosophical
abstracts in a
development from Anaxagoras to Empedocles. However,
the number of ßtotxEicu after
the Presocratics is alternating, especially since the impact of

aristotelic philosophy. In
the metaphysical writings of Aristotle a further element is added,

namely the nether.One
might therefore wonder if aristotelic thoughts (concerning the fifth element) would be
entirely absent from the traditions of angels and their responsibility for
elelements if the
presenceof four elements from Greek philosophy is consideredto have had impact
an
on Jewish and Christian writings. In other words, the assumption of only four elements
from Greek philosophy having an influence on a traditional schema for

no apparent
reasonneglects the possibility of a fifth element. An exclusion of aetherfor an assumed
impact of Greek philosophy on an assumed schema without any reason seems
inappropriate.
At the same time, the weakness of an assumption of "the four elements" and
their link with angels might be based on presupposition of latter discussions on such a
connection. In early Jewish and Christian documents the presence of a schema of the
four elements being aligned to four angels could not be establishedwithout a doubt.
Even the existence of remainders of such a tradition in early Jewish and Christian
writings seems questionable. However, a development of aligning angels to the four
elements must have taken place. The influence of earlier Greek philosophy on those
Jewish and Christian writings up to the third Century CE cannot be sufficiently pro\ en.
Nevertheless, in later cabbalistic22or other occult and esoteric writings a fixed schema
four 23 However, for the current discussion it is

allocates the elements to varying angels.
22 See for by KNORR VON ROSENROTH:

evidence the collection of cabbalistic texts gathered
Kabbala.
23For instance in the occult 16`hcentury writing De Occulta Philosophica 11:7 by Heinrich Cornelius
Uriel with earth. 1
AGRIPPA connects Michael with fire, Raphael with air, Gabriel with NN ater and
illustration, Riple%'s wheel, in Theatrum Cht',n, Gunn
similar connection is also made in an alchemical Naturally
Britannicurn (1652). Further, a distribution of elements and angels can be seen in Calendarium .
Gabriel water and Urie1 earth. (Fsen in
Magicum (1620), NvhereRaphael represents fire, Michael the air, 's
In SHAKE `PE. \R(
literature one might find examples for a connection between angels and elements:
; nr
only relevant to acknowledge that a schema of four angels
with their appointment of
four elements has been developed. The starting
point of this development is by- no
means a traditional schema of this distribution in traditional early Jewish

or Christian
writings as such, though. The number of four angels might have been derived
at a later
time from a schema of four archangels (I En. 9: 1. Apc. Mos. 40,, 4pc. Esdr. 6:2), four
throne angels (Ezek 1:5-26), or four angels being held responsible for the four
directions (or the four corners of the world, like the angels in Apc 7: 124)
or seasons(I
En. 82: 10, Jub. 2:2). Into such a schema a constructed responsibility for these
angels
over four major elementsmight then fit well.
(2) The appointment of angels for controlling certain elemental

powers or the
view that angels are made of certain elements can certainly be established by the
amount of passagesprovided above. However, it should have become apparentat the
sametime that such traditional material does certainly not allow for a simplistic view of
angels' limited control of only 4 traditional elements(namely fire, water, air and earth).
On the contrary, angels have been considered to be responsible for all kinds of other
elements or natural phenomena as well, such as light, thunder and lightning, iron and
other substancesor occurences which cannot be directly linked to fire, water, earth or
air. Moreover, almost none of the passages dealing with angels and corresponding
elements - with a possible exception of I Enoch refers to four angels related to the
-
four classical elements. Most of the time, only one or two elementsare directly related
to angels, in many cases depending on the traditions based on Ps 104 connecting angels
with fire and wind. This observation makes the assumedexistenceof a schemaof angels
being connected to four traditional elements already appearquite unlikely. Even in case
to be too constructed for mo more

of 1 Enoch an assumption of such a schemaseems
) These distributions apparently lack the background of

The Tempest Ariel is labelled as a wind-spirit.
from esoteric and freemasonic writings might
early Jewish and Christian tradition. More examples
probably exist.
; pq
reasons: Angels in 1 Enoch are not related to the four elements as
such. though links
between angels and elemental forces are widely dispersed in
this writin`,. However, the
connection provided by the author of 1 Enoch is by no means

part of a schema where
angels are linked to so called classical elements, since (A) certain

elements such as air
or earth are not ascribed to the control of angels, elements which are even barely present
in this writing and (B) other angels seem to overlap being in charge
of what could he
considered as elements, barely providing a very exclusive portrait of angels assumed to
be part of a "traditional schema" (i. e. next to an angel of water, other angels are
portrayed as being associated with hail, rain, dew or other forms of vvater). The
impression one may get from the employment of a portrait of angels and their powers
over certain natural forces in 1 Enoch is twofold. Apparently, in most occurences,
angels who have control over elements or natural forces simply seem to reflect on how
God's will is performed in his creation. Angels therefore either carry out God's natural
by these forces, 25 they them with divine permission in order

order watching over or use
to carry out his will in judgement (i. e. for instance punishment with fire). A speci tic
interest in angels and an emphasis on them controlling only certain powers limited to
4
those who might elswhere represent classical elements cannot be derived here. The
focus appears in turn to be on God (and his servants) as being in power of all things.
The interest of cosmological concerns outrules a specific interest in limited elemental
speculations.
Similarly, it to assume a schema of four elements and cls

aný,
also seems absurd
for
being in charge of them in The Book of Jubilees. Firstly. angels are responsible
forces in of four elements and töur

various tasks and natural this writing. a clear schema
is Secondly. a clear connection of angels and

angels aligned with them not elaborated.
be from spirits in Jubilce. s

the elements earth and air would have to constructed certain
24Cp. AUNE: Re've'lation 6-16,450.

ýý1I
2:2. However, such an identification cannot be warranted from
the text. Finally. it
would be surprising to find a schema of four elements probably derived from Greek
-
philosophy - preserved in a Jewish writing which so openly opposesHellenistic ideas.
Also in other passages mentioned above, a

connection between anuels and a
limited pool of only four elements cannot be observed. Occasionally

angels are
described as being in charge of a vast numbers of elements (or
other natural
phenomena),not necessarily including all of the four classicalelementsof fire, air. earth
and water (e.g. 2 and 3 En. ). In other writings the control of angels over elemental
forces is limited and reduced to an elect number. The number of elements ascribed to
angels nowhere matches an even four (or five) as one might find in Greek philosophical
writings. A connection between these Greek and early Jewish \NTitings is, in addition.
also almost impossible to prove in most cases. Therefore, the existence of a schema of
four angels appointed to four elements remains an assumption which cannot be given
undoubtful evidence. Most examples of angels and their powers concerning natural
forces rather seem to represent a means of expressing God's government of his creation
which is reflected by his servants, the angels, who are put in charge of certain areas.
Thus, the connection of angels and elements is used to indicate God's power in all areas
of creation. Such image God's will carried out throughout his creation is then
an of
probably also preserved in the Apocalypse, especially in Apc 16, where numerous
angels with power over water are present. Despite this mainly cosmological concept of
in the background certain traditions of some of the

angelology, one can also see
listed based Ps 104 and later explanations of

passages above. Especially the tradition on
have heavily influenced descriptions of a connection betwcen

this Hebrew Bible text
fire This tradition might also have been

angels and elemental powers, namely and wind.
25See "Engel Ill", 587.

similarly GRÜZINGER:
adoptedin the Apocalypse, where angels are - as indicated above ali Lmedto fire
- .ýApc
8:3-5, and more evidently in Apc 14: 18) and to winds (Apc 7: 1).
Since the connection between angels and elemental forces in

general is
nevertheless a traditional concept that has been preserved in the Apocalypse.

certain
traditional traits of angels have also been adapted: the function of angels as God's
servants, which is not only visible by their commission but also in the limitations
imposed on the areas of their activity. Moreover, while angels are only concerned w ith
certain areas of creation, Christ's achievement of salvation for the whole world is
emphasised (cp. 3: 14 and 13: 8). Indeed, one might compare the setting of the
Apocalypse with the contrast between the angels' limited powers and Christ's universal
powers in Hebrews 1:5-14, where such a distinction between Christ and angels is
26
basis.
expressedon a similar
'`' Cp. similarly LANE: Hebrews 1-8,23-33.

312
Appendix 3
Wirkungsgeschichte of Ape 14
A direct influence of the angelomorphic Christologv

of Revelation on an
emerging angel-Christology in later Christian writings can hardly be

established. A hint
that the Christology of the Apocalypse might have been influential in the region of Asia
Minor has possibly been preserved in writings of Justin Martyr: In Apologia I 6: 2 Christ
is related to angels, notably by the words ä&? ov äyyýa,cov,' similar to Apc 14:15
...
More explicit designations for Christ as an angel can be found in Apologia 163: 19 and
Dialogus 34:2; 127:4.
A certain proximity between the christological concepts of Revelation and the
Shepherd of Hermas can also be observed: A prominent figure in the latter text is the
"Son of God" (cp. Apc 1:6) who is referred to as an angel (e.g. in Sim. VII 1:2 VIII 1:2
Mand. V 1:7). Despite the use of the "Son of God" title, which might tempt to regarding
this prominent figure as Christ, surprisingly, an identification as the angel Michael is
made (Sim. VIII 3: 3). Possibly, the author of the Shepherd of Hermas failed to integrate
2
angelological and christological traditional material without avoiding any conflict.
Such an emphasis on angelological ideas in this writing is certainly indebted to early
3
Jewish concepts of angelology. This strong link almost begs the question whether or
in Shepherd Hernias. 4
not a well organised christological concept is present the of
However, the angelic figure seems to be depicted in a way which distinguishes him
between Revelation and Justin Martyr see

Cp. BARBEL: Christos, 50-51. For a close connection
KRETSCHMAR: Trinitätstheologie, 213 n. 8.
Cp. GRILLMEIER: Christus. 12.
Cp. BROX: Hernias, 491.
a Cp. for this proposal STAATS: "Hermas". 100-108.
; i;
from traditional Jewish descriptions of Michael. ' Some
similarities between Re\ elation
and the Shepherd of Hermas might exist (e.g. the identification of the "Son
of God" as
an angel), but the differences between the two christological concepts

are apparent:
While Christ in Revelation is given angelomorphic characteristics, it is

not clear in
Shepherd of Hermas if Michael retains his own identity or has been

coalescedinto
6
Christ himself, that is, whether this angelic being has been absorbedinto Christolot-Iy.
A further feature marks the differences between Revelation and Shepherdof -Her,na.
s:
the latter does not contain a refusal of worship by an angel. Unlike Revelation.
therefore, Shepherd of Hermas does not make an effort to distinguish clearly between
the statusof Christ on the one hand and the statusof a prominent angel on the other.
Another document containing an angelomorphic Christology is Ascension of
Isaiah. However, a direct influence of Revelation on this Apocalypse cannot be
assumed, since evidence for a parallel christological structure between both texts is
meagre. Analogous to Revelation, the Christology of Ascension of'Isaiah is indebted to
Jewish angelology. 8 Especially the depiction of Christ as a heavenly being analogous to
1: 13-14 and 14: 14 is Christ in

angels in Apc reminiscent of the presentation of
9
Ascension of Isaiah 9: 27 [E]. The use of christological titles in both apocalypses might
be The description of Christ as a Lamb on the one hand, and as

also considered similar:
juridical figure (see below), corresponds with a t«wofi ld

an angelomorphic on the other
Isaiah, Christ is the "Beloved One" in a more

portrait of Christ in Ascension of where
he is designated as "Son" or "Jesus" in relation to the earthly

messianic sense, while
214-228 and H. \NNAH: alrchael.

5 Cp. GRILLMEIER: Christus, 153, GIESCHEN:. 4ngelomorphic,
187-192.
6Cp. BAKKER: "Christ", 257-258.
Cp. DENKER: Petrusevangelium, 106-107. 10-`09
483-487. SI'ý10 ETTI: and
8 Cp. KNIGHT: Disciples, 146, NORELLI: ascensio,
.
PESCE "Presupposti", 13-76.
9 Cp. KNIGHT: Disciples, 142-14-3).
I
Christ. 10 However, dependency

a of Ascension of Isaiah on Revelation
cannot he
assumedon the basis of these parallels.
The influence of Revelation, though,

might be seen in later recensions of
Ascension of Isaiah, namely in the "old Latin" versions. While
the longer and probably
original recension preserved in Ethiopic (E) describes an

almost docetic birth narrativ c.
starting with the introduction "et ego vere vidi", the Slavic (S)
and secondLatin (L2)
recensionsrefer briefly to one like a son of man who exists in the world
without beine
" The
recognized. cicumlocution of Christ as being one like a son of man reminds of
Apc 1: 13 and 14: 14. A table of the various traditions can help to identify the
probable
influence of Revelation here:
Figure 6: Comparison between the Latin versions of Daniel 7: 13; Apc 1: 12-13;
14: 14; Ascension of Isaiah 11: 2:
Asc. Isa. 11,2
Dan 7: 13 Ape 1: 12-13 Ape 14: 14 L2 S
Aspiciebam viderem et vidi et ecce Et vidi Et ecce vidi
... et ecce... ... ...
quasi similem similem similem similem ut
filius hominis Filio hominis Filio hominis filii hominis filium

hominis
The similarities between the Latin text of Apc 14 and the S and to some extent
Isaiah the vocabulary employ ýýi is

the L2 version of Ascension of are striking. since
identical. 12 A influence of the Latin Daniel 7: 13 recension seems

almost possible
10Cp. KNIGHT: Disciples, 154-155 and GIESCHEN: Angelomorphic, 218-2,19.

Cp. KNIGHT: Disciples, 66. X36-537.
14: 14 see also tiý)RI LI:.
1. asp »! rý,.
For the dependence of S and L2 on Apc 1: 12-13 and
Latin traditlon of Revelation on these %ersions.
However, NORELLI neglects the strong influence of the
1 5
unlikely, becausethe main verb and the circumlocution
of the Son of Ian title differs
from S and L2.
A similar concept as the angelomorphic Christology,

from Revelation can be
found in Apocalypse of Peter 6. Here Christ is

portrayed similarly ambiguous to the
description given in Ape 1:7-20 and 14: 14. Christ is

accompanied by angels who seem
to share his status (sitting at his right on the same throne). An influence
of Rev,clýition
on Apocalypse of Peter and the Christology within is apparent: As in Apc I and 14 two
visions of Christ's return are provided in the Apocalypse of Peter 2 and 6. Also the
features and attributes mentioned in the two visions

are almost identical, Christ is
coming on a cloud, is accompanied by angels, has a crown, he is shining like the sun
and has a juridical function. Further, the people moan at his arrival (..lpc. Penn.2,
cp.
Ape 1:7; Mt 24: 30). Moreover, the works of the people are significant for the process
of
judging them (Apc. Petr, 6, cp. Ape 14: 13); the means of punishment is fire (. pc. 1'cir.
-l
6; Ape 14: 10). These combined features are elsewhere only present in Revelation, Dan
7 can therefore not be the tradition in the background of Apocalypse of Peter 2 and 6.
Accordingly, we may almost certainly assume that the Christology of the 4pocalypsre0/
.
Peter is indebted to the concept of the Apocalypse of John.
An influence of the angelomorphic Christology of Revelation has also possibly
been preserved in a fragment of the lost writings of Irenaeus of Lyons. In Fragment
LIII13 Christ is designated as "Angel between angels" which is reminiscent of Apc 14:6-
20. He is also the "Shepherd of those who are saved" as in Apc 14: 1-5 and 7.17. The
following description of Christ "Bridegroom of the Church" recalls Ape

as
However, since other references to Christ in this passage are made from llebrew 13ihle
Christology Irenaeus' writing cannot he

traditions, the influence of Revelation's on
established with certainty.

Other early Christian texts describe Christ in
anuelomorphic or angelic
categories. For instance, in the Pseudo-Clementines Christ is ascribed the

role of an
archangel and becomes identified with Michael (see e.g. Rec. II: 42). Howwever.
similarities between this writing and Revelation do probably not exist; the
angelomorphic Christology from the Pseudo-Clementines is derived from

traditions
Angel of the Lord. 14

about the
Similarly, other early Christian authors describe Christ in

angelomorphic
features, as for instance possibly in Gospel of Thomas (Logion 13)'5
or in GosJk'I of
Peter 10.16In other patristic literature Christ is also occasionally referred to as angelic
being, e.g. Lactantius (Institut. div. IV. 14.17-18), Methodius of Olympus (.tivmrrp.3.4),
Clement of Alexandria (Paid. 1.7), Origen (De Princ. I 3.4 ), Novatian (De Trin. 19)17or
depending on the tradition of the Angel of the Great Counsel Hippolytus of Rome
- -
(Comm. in Dan. 1-3), Origen (Comm. on Joh. 1.277).'8 Eusebius (Praep. Evang. 7.5).
Victorinus of Pettau interpreting Apc 10 christologically (Comm. in Apoc. 10) or
Dionysius the Areopagite (Hier. IV 1$1 D). At times, authors even warn of an angelic
understanding of Christ, is
as reflected in Tertullian (De Carne Christi 14.5). In Arrian
circles, Christ might also have been interpreted as angelic being, as witnessed by
Athanasius (Orat. contra Arianos 1.56). However, in none of the passages mentioned
to the Christology of Revelation can be established. Christ is either

above a connection
insofar he functions as a messenger.or insofar as h

understood as angel only as
derived from Isa 9:6 LXX). 19

representsthe Angel of the Great Counsel (e.g.
13For the text 192 n. II and ROBERTS: DONALDSO)N: Fathers.

see GIESCHEN: Angelomorphic,
1.577.
14Cp. GIESCHEN:. Angelomorphic, 2 10.
15Cp. KARRER: JohannesoJJ 148 n. 44.
nharung,
16Cp. DENKER: Petrusevangelium, 102-106.
ý' Cp. SCHEIDWEILER: "Engelchristologie", 126-139.
'9 Cp. further TRIGG: "Angel", 35-s 1.
further patristic literature
14See for thorough discussion of the above mentioned passages and
a very 189-I99.
BARBEL: Christos. 50-192 and 335-338. See also GIESCHE\:. 1nL.
clomorphic.
;r
Appendix 4
Angels, Stars and Planets -a Meaning for Christology?
A connection between angels and astronomy is. of

course. not only present in
Apc 19:17 where the angel is standing in the sun, but also in a number
of other passages
within the Apocalypse. For instance, in Apc 1:20 (and also in Apc 2: 1) angels are
explicitly identified as stars. These stars are notably held in Christ's right hand (Apc
1:16). One might wonder whether or not this feature of the angelsbeing held indicatesa
certain degree of subordination of angels towards Christ. The reference to the stars.
which are then immediately unveiled as angels, as being held by Christ seems to
propose that these angels are indeed subordinated to Christ. A further hint for this
assumption is the fact that the angels (represented by stars in Apc 1:20-2: 1) are
additionally mentioned as angels of the community in Apc 2-3. Each of the seven
communities addressed apparently has an its angel responsible for his communit%. In
turn, Christ is responsible for all the communities, which can be seen not only because
he gives the command to address all the angels in Apc 2-3. but also because his
in imagery in Apc 19-21.

responsibility is even further expressed the of the wedding
Other features which will be examined now seemto favour the interpretation that John
by imagery derived from

possibly also related Christ and angels with each other
astronomical traditions.
is,
In general, a connection between angels and stars (or occasionally planets)
in 1 Enocli 72: 1-,: 74:2:

widely attested. Angels can either be angels of certain stars, as
angel-lila beings, as
75: 3: 82: 7-8: 2 Enoch 4: 19:2. or the stars themselves can represent
? iR
in 1 Enoch 18:13; 21:3.1 In the Greek Magical Papyri
an equation of stars and aniiei',
be found (PGMI. 72;2 VII. 796-801; XIII. 144-47;XIII. 449-453).'
can also
A connection of angels and starsin the Apocalypse is

provided in the description
of the Angel of the Abyss (Apc 9: 11) who is described as a fallen

star in Apc 9: 1. The
portrait of an angel as a fallen star gives evidence that the myth of the fallen angels
- as
for instance in 1 Enoch 18: 13; 21: 6 has been preserved in the Apocalypse. It
- should be
emphasised here that the other falling star in the Apocalypse (Apc 8: 10-11) is
not
necessarily an angel. In turn, the phenomenon of this particular star can be explained
exclusively on astronomical grounds: The star's name "Aynveoc ("Vermouth") and its
poisenous effect on earth might be an allusion to the plant äptE uoia, of which
vermouth is a species ("Artemisia Absinthium"), and its connection with the
constellation of Scorpio.4 The description of this falling star as a burning torch might
also reflect a traditional description for a comet: A comet named Torch is, for instance,
in
also mentioned writings of 5
Nechepso-Petosiris. An angelological concern therefore
seems to be out of question in 8: 10-11.
The image of the fallen star as representing a fallen angel might have further
implications in the Apocalypse. A sharp contrast to such imagery might have been
provided deliberately in Apc 22: 16, where Christ is described as the "morning star" (6
ä(sz,jp ö Xa rpbS 0 npo IvöS). Such a reference certainly recalls Hebrew Bible passages
with a messianic meaning as Numbers 24: 17 or Isaiah 60:3.6 A messianicinterpretation
1Cp. MICHL: "Engel", 71, LUEKEN: Michael, 55-56 and MACH: Entwicklungsstadien, 178-179.
2 This text is 1-12 three follow the star to Bethlehem. However.
reminiscent of Mt 2: where the wise men
the angelophany occurs here in Mt 2: 19 after the vision of the star. Therefore, angelological concerns
in Mt 2. The appearance of the star
appear not to be connected directly with an astronomical phenomenon
to Apc 22: 16, but not linked to
seems to represent an interpretation of Num 24: 17, probably similar
angelology by Matthew. See DAVIES and ALLISON: Matthew, 233-235.
PGM XIII. 144-47, and similarly PGM XI 11.449453, are in analogy to Apc 1:20. because the stars are
similarly revealed as angels, cp. AUNE: Revelation 1-5.167.
° See for this BOLL: Offenbarung, 41-42.
explanation Apocalypse this
5 See for this Revelation, 283-284. A connection between the and
material MALINA:
particular text cannot be established, though.
Cp. KRAFT: Offenbarung, 281.
1 19
seems even more likely in light of Christ's
self-description as i ot; a Kai
To
Davis in Apc 22: 16. This designation, already
attributed to Christ in Apc 5:5 (together
with an allusion to Genesis49:9), supports a messianicinterpretation

of the designation
of Christ 7
as a morning star. Despite the clearly messianic
meaning of such a
designation of Christ, a deliberate contrast to the
angel from Apc 9 might have been
intendedat the sametime: As the angel in Apc 9, Christ is
associatedwith a star as %\e1I.
In contrast to the fallen angel, though, Christ
receives a special designation, namely that
of the morning star (i. e. the Venus). A connection between angels and the
morning "tar
can also be found in Job 38: 7 where the Sons of El (äyy0.

o0 praise God along ww
ith all
morning stars-8 Further, the morning star also appears at the beginning of an
angelophany in Joseph and Aseneth 14:2. Especially a reference in 3 Enoch 21:4
provides an interesting parallel, since in this passage some angelic creatures are not only
described as emitting brightness like the morning star, but are furthermore
attributed
crowns (cp. Christ in Ape 14: 14; 19: 12) and a face shining like a sun (cp. Apc 1: 16).
(Elsewhere, we find the designation as a morning star applied to Mordecai in Tg. L.

sth.
10:3.) This feature as such might therefore hint at an angelomorphic understanding of
the relation between angels and stars in the Apocalypse, now applied to Christ.
However, it seems exaggerated to regard this feature simply as an angelomorphic aspect
of Christology. Christ does, in turn, represent far more than an angel in Apc 22: 16.
because he is said to be in command of angels (Ape 22: 16a), and he is also the brightest
the further hints 9 Perhaps one may even consider

of stars, which at a superior position.
the designation of Christ as the morning star in Ape 22 as a deliberate attempt to
contrast Christ with the angel in Ape 9. As has been noted in section j. l 2.tß.. the fällen
.
Num 24: 17 and Isa 11: 1-10, together with Gen 49: 10-11. probably forma group of messianic proof-
Revelation 1--22.1226-1227 `«
texts, which have been adopted by early Christians. See also AUNE:
further HORBURY: Messianism, 92-93 and MOORE: "Jesus", 82-91.
8 In cp. for this MACH
some LXX writings of Job 9: 7 stars and angels are also connected,
Entwicklungsstadien, 182
i0
angel of Apc 9 may represent a parody of Christ who is not a fallen
angel. Instead, he is,
labelled as the brightest star, namely the morning star. It is

noteworthy that Isaiah 141
refers to the morning star as fallen. Though John would certainly hax known
c this
Hebrew Bible passage, an allusion to it seems out of question

as he would not have
designated Christ fallen ' 0

as a star. It has been considered that the Venus was a common
symbol for victory and power in "

antiquity, but no proper evidence for this theory has
been given. The prominence of the Venus in the Middle East12 is probably
more
significant for the author's choice to attribute it to Christ. The Venus along with sun
-
and moon - was considered to be one of the biggest celestial bodies. As sun and moon
were darkened before in the narrative of the Apocalypse (Apc 6: 12 8: 12) and even
described as redundant in the New Jerusalem (Ape 21: 23), the designation of the
morning star seems a rather logical choice of John. This also corresponds with the
reference to God and the Lamb as lamps in the New Jerusalem in Apc 22: 5.
Further attempts have been made of connecting Christ in the Apocalypse «ith
astronomical phenomena. For instance, the appearance of Christ as a horseman in Apc
19 has been considered to represent a comet called "Horseman" which is mentioned in
13
Nechepso-Petosiris (frag. 9). This comet is identified as the Venus, which could lead
between Christ being the Venus represented as a horseman

one to think of a connection
in Apc 19 and the same designation in Apc 22: 16. Such an assumption, though. can
hardly be established. Despite the fact that it is doubtworthy that John knew such
rather
Venus is by a horseman, no further parallels of

a passage where the represented
Venus in Vechepso-Pelosiri' can he

attributes between Christ in Ape 19 and the ,
divine light by Christ as in

9 The designation of the morning star is possibly a metaphor for the emmitted
John 8: 12, cp. BOLL: Offenbarung, 48.
10See also HOLTZ: Christologie, 157 and BOLL: Offenharung, 47.
HOLTZ: Christologie. 158.
See LOHSE: Offenbarung, 32. HEMER: Letters. 125-126 and
BOLL. O/t nharung. 48.
See for this MALINA: Revelation, 249-250 and Revelation, b.
\1ALIN. \: -2..
_...
13See for this attempt to establish a connection between Christ and a star
ý2l
observed. Therefore, one can certainly dismiss the speculative
assumption of an
astronomical interpretation of Apc 19.14
Another attempt of finding such a connection between

astronomy and Christ has
beenundertaken in the case of the Lamb: The referenceto Christ the Lamb in \pc 5
as ,
(and following passages)has been interpreted as an allusion to the
constellation :dries
(derived from the Greek expression (Vii; or the Phoenician Taleh). '' The
evidence for
such an interpretation is thin, though, as a connection between the Lamb's features and
astronomical interests cannot be established without a doubt.' 6 Moreover, rather
(i.
questionablepassages e. passageswith a rather late date or no visible connection to
the Apocalypse) have to be considered in order to assume a link between astronomy and
the Lamb. And finally, it needs to be said that the attempt to connect Lamb imagery to
astronomy completely neglects the Vorlagen from the Hebrew Bible.
Similarly, the attempt of regarding the angel-like 24 elders from Apc 4 as an
astronomical feature has to be dismissed: Their number might be derived from 24 stars
in Babylonian astrology, '? but a knowledge in the Apocalypse.

one cannot assume such
Additionally, an influence from the Hebrew Bible (e.g. 1 Chr 23) is again not taken into
In the of 24 elders might possibly be rooted in

consideration. other words, number
astrological backgrounds, but the author of the Apocalypse was certainly not a« are of
this.
in
An identical conclusion probably has to be repeated case of the 4 living
beings surrounding God's throne in Apc 4: The descriptions of the beings might have
8 have led to the description of

originated in babylonian astrological concepts' and may
not assume that

those beings as lion, eagle, ox and man. But again, we can certainly
'a Against MALINA: Revelation, 225-226.

BOLL: OJJenbarung, 44-47.
See for this interpretation MALINA: Revelation, 101-104 and
16For FREUNDORFER: Astrologie, passim.
a rejection of BOLL's arguments see also
"Cp. BOLL: Offenbarung, 35-36 and MALINA: Revelation, 93-97 for this proposal.
1gSee BOLL: Offenbarung, 36-38 and MALINA: Revelation, 97-100.
1 ,,
John was aware of this concept, as he probably adaptedthis idea from
the Ezekielian
Vorlage (Ezek 1:5-14) anyhow.
At this point, it may also be relevant to discuss briefly

the mcaning,of the
expression "midheaven" (Ev &rovpaVfiiLCu) which occurs three time in the Apocalyp.
c
(Apc 8: 13,14: 6 and 19: 17). It has been argued that the
use of this expression can
possibly also be traced back to astronomical backgrounds of the Apocalypse. The
expression "midheaven" apparently has some prominence in texts

referring to
astronomical concerns, as is for instance expressed in Firmicius Nlaternus- tlarhe, i,s

.
3.1.17-18.19 As two of the occurences of Ev µeuovpavr[mrt in Revelation are related to
angels (namely in Ape 14:6, and more subtile in Ape 19: 17), one might wonder whether
or not the author deliberately connected astronomy and angelology here. The answer to
this question is rather simple as the author nowhere directly relates the mentioned
angels with corresponding stars. Therefore, an astronomical concern does not appear to
be in the author's mind in the given passages. Again, one can assume that the
"midheaven" might have an astronomical background, especially in Apc 8: 13,20but it
remains questionable if a link between angels and stars is in view in the author's
composition of Apc 14:6 or Apc 19: 17.
A final feature that may be worth examining in the current discussion is the
description from Ape 16, is pouring his bowl out over the sun
of angels where an angel
(Ape 16: 8). Notably, his bowl out over a planet. namely the angel
another angel pours
A deliberately constructed
in Ape 16: 2 who directs his actions against the earth.
denied. though. because

connection between angels and planets can be almost certainly
directed the earth. The other ii\-c

both angels are part of a chain of seven plagues against
with any astronomical motifs.

angels who perform their task are not connected
BOLL: oijen/arung. 38-, 9 (Concerning

19See for discussionsof this text and its meaning for astronomy
\1. \LI\A Revelation. 1o2 (concerning the
the meaning of "midheaven" in Apc 8: 13 and 19: 17) and
position of Aries).
iýý
Moreover, nothing in Apc 16 warrants an identification these
of angelswith the planets.
rather their actions are directed against them. Therefore, an assumption

of the an,-,cls
from Apc 16:2 and 8 being deliberately associatedwith astronomy
would appearto be
very unreasonable.
We may summarize the above as follows: Angels

are frequently mentioned
alongside stars or even planets. However, a deliberate attempt of the author to associate
or even identify angels with those stars cannot be generally attested. In most cases
attempts to establish a link between angels and stars remains questionable, especially
since assumed connections could be better explained on the basis of Hebrew Bible
passages which have probably influenced certain images in the Apocalypse.
Astronomical concerns may have influenced those passagesof the Hebrew Bible (or are
perhaps just parallel to their content), but under no circumstances can a connection
between these older (e. g. Babylonian) concepts and Revelation be proven.
The reference to angels in Apc 1:20-2: 1 might be an exception to this, because
here an identification of these angels as stars is explicitly made. This statement also had
significance for the concept of the author's Christology: The angels are clearly
to Christ here, but also through the reference to Christ Lis

subordinated not only possibly
the morning star in Apc 22: 16, since Christ receives the predicate of the brightest and
important The notion of Christ and angels in connection with stars

most stars of all.
does therefore not seem to aim at astronomical concerns of the author, but rather at a
which in a rather metaphorical

christological and respectively angelological concept, -
way - demonstrates the author's view on Christ's superiority over angels.
`'° Cp. BOLL: Offenbarung. 38-39 and AUNE: Revelation 6-16.53ý.

Appendix 5
The Colours White and Gold in the Apocalypse
Since the colours gold (xp ao) and white (X¬1.

Köc) are often mentioned in the
Apocalypse in a context that is apparently reminiscent of angels for instancein Ape

-
4:4 where the 24 elders wear white robes and golden wreaths, or
also in Apc 14:14
where Christ is coming on a white cloud also possessinga golden crown - one might
wonder whether or not the combination of white and gold in the Apocalypse might
reflect an element with angelomorphic connotations.
Accordingly, it might be worth investigating the possibility of the existence of a
colour schemeof white and gold as an angelomorphic feature on the basisof other early
Jewish and early Christian writings featuring this combination of colours, and also on
basis of the Apocalypse itself.
In early Jewish writings and Hebrew Bible, an association of angels with the
colour white may certainly be established. Often angels are portrayed as being clothed
in linen, as for instance in Ezekiel 9: 2-11; 10:2; Daniel 10:5; 12:6.1 More explicitly. an
association of angels with white can be seen in Testament

of Levi 8:2 and 2 Maccahees
11:8,2 or in 1 Enoch 71: 1 and 2 Enoch 1:5; 22: 83. However, is

clothing of angels not
exclusively portrayed as white. An angel can occasionally be depicted wearing garments
for instance the garment of Yahoel in

of other extraordinary colours, as crimson
Apocalypse of Abraham 11:2.
garments could ha<

As a possible reminiscence of white angelic clothes. white
in I QS iv 7-8 or in Josephu`' Bellum

been given to initiates in Qumran as reflected col.
' Cp. MICHL: "Engel", 69 and MACH: Entwicklungsstth/11'n. 58.

2 See AUNE: Revelation 1-5,293 MICHL: "Engel", 69.
also and
3 Cp. MICHL: AItesten, 21.
ýý:
Judaicorum 2: 123.137.4 Against an overall angelic interpretation
of white `àrments. it
seems exaggerated, though, to regard white clothing as an exclusively angelic teature.
Adaptation of the motif of certain figures or groups wearing

white clothing indicate', a
participation in the heavenly world, maybe even an exaltation, but not necc,
saril\ a
transfiguration of a figure into an angel. It has to be stressed that the

white gernient
might be an optional feature of angels, but it is not cumpulsoraly present in scenarios
which report angelic appearances, in some scenarios the figures bearing white `garment
5
are moreover clearly men.
The New Testament literature seems to confirm that garments of angels are
for instance Mark 16: 6

5; Acts 1: 10; Matthew 28: 3 or John 20: 12.7
portrayed as white, as
Furthermore, such a tradition might be preserved in the Apocalypse itself, for example
in Apc 1: 14; 19: 14.8 Therefore, it is at first glance tempting to regard the colour white
as an angelic attribute, or even to think that mention of the colour denotes an
angelomorphic context. However, such a specific interpretation of white is doubtful for
Firstly, this be applied in a non-angelic context in the

several reasons: colour can
Apocalypse, as for instance the stone in Apc 2: 179, the horse of the rider in Apc 6: 2 or
God's throne in Apc 20: 11. Moreover, "white" functions generally as an expression
it is to clothing as is reflected in
referring to cleanness or purity; as such, often applied
to the 24 eldersin
Apc 3:4.5.18; 6: 11; 7:9.13-14. Certainly, the white garment attributed
10
Apc 4:4 does not exclude the possibility that they can be understoodas angelic beings,
4 Cp. FLETCHER-LOUIS: Luke-Acts, 186 and AUNE: Revelation 1-5.293.

5 See SATAKE: Gemeindeordnung, 142.
also
6 Cp. FLETCHER-LOUIS: Luke-Acts, 40.
between the appearance of Stephanus as an angelic
See also MICHAELIS: "7zuic6q", 255. A connection 59
MACH: Entwicklungsstadien.
figure in Act 6: 15 and 7: 55 has also been taken into consideration, cp.
Such remains doubtful, since the radiance ()I
and FLETCHER-LOUIS: Luke-Acts, 96-98. a consideration
between clothing and a possible .angelic
Stephanus' face is not explicitly described. A connection described.
of Stephanus is not
be established, since the garment
character of Stephanus can certainly not SATANE: Gemein'leordnunc'. 141-
8 For interpretation heavenly host in Apc 19: 14 see
an angelic of the
142 and section 4.2.3.2.2. of this thesis. SLATER:
to purity and righteousness. cp.
9 The the stone in Apc 2: 17 probably also alludes
colour of
Community, 129.
10SeeGRUENWALD: 1Asticism, 65.
326
but such an interpretation seems unlikely for the contexts
where members of the
Christian communities are promised a white garment. 't Here

the garments certainly
function to indicate the special status of those who follow Christ. linking
them to the
12The
heavenly world, specific detail attributed to these garments is accordingly
their
bearers' deed to overcome. But also Christ's salvific deed is
reflected since the
garments are washed in the Lamb's blood. 13Therefore, one might agree to
regard the
white garments mentioned in the Apocalypse as a metaphorical representation of the
purity of the eschatological community in Apc 3 and 6-7. Occasionally. as in Apr 4: 4
and 19: 14, an angelic interpretation, or at least a close association, of the figures
presented by means of wearing white clothing is also possible.
In other passages of the Apocalypse, the colour white might also indicate
juridical powers, as can be seen in Apc 14: 14 where Christ is coming on a white cloud.
The reference to the white cloud, the portrait of Christ sitting on it. and especiallythe
other features (i. e. Christ bearing a sickle and numerous other harvest metaphors) have
to be interpreted almost certainly as juridical features of Christ. Since the judgement
described in Ape 14 is an eschatological event, it appears logical to regard the colour as
for Christ heaven. '4 Such an assumption can be

a symbol a connotation of with
supported with the presence of a white throne in Apc 20: 11. The throne, elsewhere not
details is described as white in \pc

specified with concerning the colour, unexpectedly
20. In this eschatological vision of judgement the author stresses the radiance emitted
by God and his throne, giving evidence of his own understanding of the white colour as
for juridical and heavenly visions. At the same time.

a suitable attribute eschatological
God Christ as eschatological judges sitting can

it is notable that this shared feature of and
'' Seealso MICHAELIS: "?cuK6S",255.

Gemeindcordnujrg" HO.
12See for this interpretation als ULFGARD: Future. 1-85 and SA\TAKE:
13Cp. SATAKE: Gemeindeordnung 140-141.
. for interpretation of \%hite as heaýenlý colour
14See PARK: Offenbarung, 263. Cp, similarly an
similarly Christ. 160-161.
horseman from Apc 6: 2 as Christ CULL\IANN:
allowing for identifying the
; ý7
a white "seat" (the white cloud for Christ in Ape 14. the horse in
19
-upc and the throne
for God in Apc 20) actually seemsto stress
once more the equality betweenGod
and
Christ. Therefore, a subordinate angelic interpretation
of the colour white attributed to
Christ (as one might easily assume)already appearsto be
unlikely.
Similar to the colour white, it might first
at glance be intriguing to construethe
colour gold as a typical angelic feature, since references are

occasionally made to
golden items held or worn by angels. For instance, gold in connection

with angels can
be seen in 2 Maccabees 3: 25 and 2 Enoch 1:5 [A]. In the Apocalypse
the colour scoldiý
also present in scenarios which reflect on the presence of angelic beings, except for the
24 elders in Ape 4 or the angelomorphic son of man like being in Ape 14. for instance
in Ape 5: 8 (the elders having golden bowls full of incense). Apc 8:3 (an
angel with a
golden censer), Apc 15:6 (the angels having golden girdles), Ape 15:7 (the angels
having golden bowls), or the figure in Ape 21: 15 (with a golden measuring rod). In the
Christophanies of Ape 1 and 14, the colours white and gold might even appear to be
linked together and would appear to represent an angelomorphic element in the
description of Christ provided: In Ape 14: 14 Christ is coming on a white cloud ha%ing a
golden wreath on his head. In Ape 1:7-15 Christ is also coming on the cloud, having
moreover white hair, and his feet are depicted as burnished bronze XKoXiP&VV
(Xu. cx Ev
Kaµiv p 17rvpo) hvic). The latter attribute might not seem to allude to the golden colour
in a very obvious way, though it may refer to it indirectly: Either the expression
xaXxoXtßävcp directly reflects on the character of the metal gold as a shiny alloy of gold
16 in light its in the message to

and brass, or it could be interpreted of occurrence
Laodicea (Apc 3: 18). In the message, the author enjoins on the community to hui' gold
(from Christ) that is refined in the fire and also white clothes to wear. This exhortation
Is Cp. MICHAELIS: "Avxi ", 256.

similarly PARK: Offenbarung, 265 and \l \F: Revelation
16Cp. MOUNCE: Revelation, 5I. See for more detailed discussions of this cxpression
1-5,96 and HEMER: Letters, II I- 1l
ýýR
could also reflect on the description of Christ's feet in Apc 1:15 where
the feet are
described as gold-bronze (XaXxoXLßäv(o),which is notably further
classified as "burning
in a furnace" (Ev Kaµivw wupwµ.E,viS). The radiance being emitted here
might not
simply be a metaphorical description drawing on imagery from

a metalurgical refiners
process, but it may even represent an allusion to a purifying refinement. Similar to the
tendency of describing the promises to the true believers as being already fulliilled in
Christ, it could be possible that the purification-process which is

expected of the
community in Laodicea in Apc 3: 18 is alluded to as an event which has already
happened to and by Christ. Further evidence for imagery of purifying gold is also
preserved in the description of the New Jerusalem which is built of pure gold (X,pvcsiov
m0ocpov) in Apc 21: 18.21. Apparently, the dwelling place of the new community is also
expected to be purified, which is depicted in refinement imagery. One might wwondcr
whether or not the description of golden censer, as reflected in Apc 5: 8 and 8: 3 (and
maybe even in Apc 15:7), also vaguely alludes to the theme of gold purified hý fire. A
somewhat more transparent connection of the elders in Apc 4-5 and the angels in Apc
15 with the topic of purity is also established on the basis of their priestly functions. In
the instruments or items held in these passagesof Revelation might

other words, golden
function figures (e. the 24 elders or the angels in :1}ßr

allude to the priestly of certain g.
15), and thus imply a pure status of these figures anyhow. since priests are traditionally
Christ priestly functions in

portrayed as pure and clean (ep. Lev 21). might share such
himself, is also the one

Apc 1 as well. Moreover, Christ, bearing priestly attributes
them his blood (: Apc 1:

5:
explicitly making the people to priests by purchasing with
in Apc 7: 14. The colours

5: 8). Christ's blood also cleanses the garments of the people
be with the themes of purity and priesthood.

white and gold therefore seem to connected
feet in A pc I as an angclomorphic
In any case. an assumption of the description of the
'IQ
11
feature can probably not be establishedon basis the
of somewhathidden presenceof the
colour gold.
The overall employment of the attribute "gold" in

the Apocalypsealso seemsto
exclude further possible evidence of it being a clearly angelomorphic

attribute. For
instance, the seven lampstands (Apc 1: 12.20; 2: 1)
are identified as the communities
John is addressing. An angelomorphic element is not apparent in this

vision. Similarly,
the golden Altar of God in Apc 9: 13 clearly lacks a connection to angelic imagery The
.
fact that gold is not necessarily interpreted as angelomorphic
or even as heavenlyy
attribute is rather obvious in Apc 9: 20 where idols (which are golden) are drasticall\
rejected by the author. Even anti-divine powers can be portrayed with this attribute, as
the dramatic scenarios in Apc 9 and 17-18 demonstrate: In Ape 9: 7 the locust-ýýarriors
wear gold-like wreaths. These figures do however not leave the impression that the are
angelic beings at all. The non-angelomorphic character of gold as a colour is
emphasised more strongly in Ape 17:4 and 18: 12.16 where the Great Whore Babylon
(i. e. Rome) is attributed with gold. Here, the golden jewelr}, is applied to Babylon as a
means of indicating the unclean character of a personified anti-divine power. The fact
that gold is here in to show the impure character of Babylon becomes most
used order
apparent in Ape 17:4, where the golden cup of Babylon is filled with abominable things
and the filth her impureness (E"xov6a itotiijplov xpußobv zv tip XElpi aiYC yýµov
of
ßcSEXvyµä, äxä8apia The other details of the

r av xai aä zýS nopwicxS aüirlS).
description of the way Babylon is dressed also add up to such an impression: In contr.,Ist
followers Christ. Babylon is dressed in purple

to the clear and pure garments of the of
impurity. " Along with

depicting her image of splendor, luxury and
and scarlet, as an
the way cri' dressing, an

the description of Babylon's apparent wealth and pompous
This kind of critique is

accusation of the Roman economical system is also made. subtle
17Cp. MOUNCE: Rclvclalion.310-311 and BAUCKHANI: Climas. ý4-`5

hidden in Ape 18: 12. Gold and other precious
goods named in a catalo, ue
of trading
goods represent typical Roman luxuries. Such wealth is for being
- part of a system
belonging to the Roman emperor cult drastically
- rejected by John who Ives th '
items a very negative connotation. 18
Therefore, it cannot simply be argued that the

colour gold reflect,, an
angelomorphic feature or even a heavenly feature as such. The application

of the colour
gold in the Apocalypse is twofold: it is mainly a means to distinguish

purity (on the side
of the followers of Christ) and impurity (on the side of Babylon and anti-divine powwers)
from each other. Gold imagery can also be employed for heavenly
and angelic beings
(e.g. the 24 elders in Apc 4: 4 or the angels in Apc 15:6-7). Hov ever, these features
also
seemto hint at an understanding of gold as a marker for purity since it is apparently
exclusively pure figures who are described as bearing golden equipment.
An understanding of the two colours white and gold, even when taken together,
cannot be interpreted as an image for alluding to angelomorphic features, since such an
understanding depends on the circumstance in which the colours are employed h% the
author. Such context is - as demonstrated - not exclusively related to angelic material.
Moreover, within the context of angelic figures being described, the two colours are not
linked in few (e.g.: \pc

continuously mentioned together. They are only very occurences
1, Apc 4 or Ape 15). In these passagesthe focus seems to be on the exalted status of the
19
figures described, and does not appear to represent an angelic nature per se. In the
described. white and gold do not occur

other traditions mentioned where angels are
distinctly to angels in
together either. A traditional scheme of applying these colours
feature is therefore unlikely. A primarily an'clomorphic

order to describe an angelic
hardly he derived.
feature provided by the reference to these colours can accordingly
18Cp. BAUCKHAM: Climax, 350-371. See for the topic further KR: \1BJLL: Cult. passmm.
19Cp. SATAKE: Gemeindeordmmg. 144.
similarly
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ý.
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Durham E-Theses

by Matthias Reinhard Hoffmann

A copyright of this thesis rests

Thesis submitted for the degree of PhD

provide visions of Christ in which he is described in almost angelic categories. This

thesis attempts to affirm Christ's in

been challenged) and identifies such a portrait of Christ as a so-called angelomorphic

Christology (which is defined after an assessment of material concerning

angelomorphic and angel-Christology). Such a christological concept was deliberately

employed by the author of Revelation. The assumption of a Jewish as

an angelomorphic Christology are provided: Angelomorphic Christology is not regarded

as an isolated christological concept. In turn, the thesis compares angelomorphic

Christology with the prominent Lamb Christology of Revelation (especially Apc 5:

angelomorphic Christology serve the purpose of contrasting different functions of

eschatological juridical figure (described in angelomorphic patterns) to his opposition.

equality between God and Christ is established despite an angelomorphic portrait of

superior to angels and as an equal to God is displayed.

in this or any other university.

contributed to writing this thesis.

First of all, I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor. Professor

Loren T. Stuckenbruck. Without his guidance, encouragementand outstanding patience

the preparation of this work would have been impossible.

invaluable help in the quest for literature and biographical details.

in this project. My gratitude is beyond what can be expressedin words.

August 2003 Matthias R. Hoffmann

Philipp MELANCHTHON (1497-1560) - Loci communes, 1521

1.1. The Problem 1

Part B: Analysis of the Christology of the Apocalypse

2.1. Christology of the Apocalypse and its Connection to Angels 36

3. Lamb Christology in Relation to Angelomorphic Christology 118

3.1. Christological Aspects in Ape 4-5? 118

4. The Christology in Apc 19 196

4.1. The Structure and Unity of Ape 19 196

5. The Christology in Ape 1 249

5.1. The Structure and Unity of Apc 1 ?49

6.1. Different Aspects of Christology in Revelation? 290

Al. Clarification of Linguistical Phenomena within Apc 14:6-20 300

Figure 1: Comparison between the OG Daniel Traditions of Daniel 7: 13 with 45

1.1. The Problem

cannot be differentiated. The passagequoted above offers one of the sharpestexamples

of such overlapping categories. Angels are mentioned alongside a figure designated as

often been taken for granted.

This identification, however, is not unproblematic: Firstly, can it simply been

assumed that this figure is Christ if

(1: 12-20; 10:6; 14:14; 15:6; 16:15: 19:11-20). Thirdly-, if ww

lack of a thoroughgoing attempt to differentiate between angels and Christ, is it possible

mixing we find an expression of his respective christological and angelological

convictions. It is therefore important to compare theophanic and angelophanic traditions

and Christ within the Apocalypse.

An analysis of an overlapping of christological and angelic categories by the

NT) a more dogmatic understanding of Christology which has been predominant in

Apocalypse (see also section 2.2.9. ).

Accordingly, the purpose of this thesis is to explore passageswithin Revelation

identity. Further, the given context of passageswhich contain a description of Christ in

angelic terms or categories has to be examined. Such an analysis, together with a

prominent Lamb Christology) might demonstrate the author's awarenessand intention

to include a Christology which is indebted to angelic categories.