Journal of Adolescence 53 (2016) 141e151

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Adolescence
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jado

An examination of the reciprocal relations between life

satisfaction and social problem solving in early adolescents
Xu Jiang a, *, Michael D. Lyons b, E. Scott Huebner c
a
University of Memphis, Department of Psychology, 400 Innovation Dr., Memphis, TN 38152 United States
b
University of Virginia, Clinical and School Psychology Department of Human Services, 405 Emmet St., Charlottesville, VA 22904, United
States
c
University of South Carolina, Department of Psychology, 1512 Pendleton St., Columbia, SC 29208, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Theoretical and emerging empirical advances in the life satisfaction (LS) and social
problem solving (SPS) literature suggest that LS and SPS may have bidirectional relations.
The main purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis of bidirectionality between LS
Keywords: and two components of the SPS, orientation (SPS-O) and skills (SPS-S). Two waves of data
Life satisfaction were collected from a sample of 733 adolescents at a middle school over a 6-month period.
Social problem solving
Cross-lagged panel analysis results showed that statistically, LS significantly predicted SPS-
Adolescents
O and SPS-S after six months; however, neither SPS-O nor SPS-S significantly predicted LS
after six months. These findings suggest LS may function as an antecedent of SPS-O and
SPS-S among early adolescents, which lead to a main implication that both SPS and LS
could be the direct aims of educational and psychological programs to promote SPS
development in early adolescents. Additional implication and future directions are
discussed.
© 2016 The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier
Ltd. All rights reserved.

Cumulative evidence indicates that a low level of psychopathology is not equivalent to mental health (Cowen, 1994;
Greenspoon & Saklofske, 2001; Huebner et al., 2004; Keyes, 2002; Suldo & Shaffer, 2008; Wilkinson & Walford, 1998). As
such, researchers have begun to view a deficit-focused model for studying human functioning as inadequate and are
beginning to explore how humans develop optimal psychological functioning. One well-established construct related to
optimal psychological functioning is individuals' levels of life satisfaction (LS), which is defined as a person's evaluation of the
quality of her or his overall life (Diener, 1994).
By and large, theories and empirical research tend to posit that LS is the consequence of individual differences and a by-
product of social and economic resources and success (Evans, 1994). This notion has been the underlying assumption of
numerous studies, despite predominantly correlational results, which revealed the linkages between a wide array of desirable
outcomes (e.g., improved coping, positive intrapersonal functioning and school performance) and LS in youth (for a review,
see Huebner, Hills, Siddall, & Gilman, 2014; Proctor, Linley, & Maltby, 2009). However, this assumption has been challenged in
recent decade. Specifically, there is emerging evidence to support the notion that LS can be an antecedent, not merely a
consequence of desirable outcomes. For instance, higher LS was found to predict stronger cognitive engagement in school

Abbreviations: LS, life satisfaction; SPS, social problem solving; SPS-O, social problem solving orientation; SPS-S, social problem solving skills.
* Corresponding author. Fax: þ1 901 678 2579.
E-mail addresses: xjiang2@memphis.edu (X. Jiang), mdl8s@virginia.edu (M.D. Lyons), huebner@mailbox.sc.edu (E.S. Huebner).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.09.004
0140-1971/© 2016 The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
142 X. Jiang et al. / Journal of Adolescence 53 (2016) 141e151

(Lewis, Huebner, Malone, & Valois, 2011), higher academic achievement (Ng, Huebner, & Hills, 2015; Suldo, Thalji, & Ferron,
2011) and decreased peer victimization (Martin, Huebner, & Valois, 2008) in early adolescents.

Social problem solving and mental health outcomes in early adolescence

Adolescence is a unique period of psychosocial vulnerability. For example, researchers have found marked declines during
early adolescence in interest in school (Elmore & Huebner, 2010; Epstein & Mcpartland, 1976) and intrinsic motivation to
learn (Gottfried, Fleming, & Gottfried, 2001), as well as increases in school failure and dropout (Simmons & Blyth, 1987).
Adolescence is also associated with deficits related to decision-making in a social context (Smetana & Villalobos, 2009) and
increases in risk-taking behaviors (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014).
One important factor associated with mitigating these psychosocial risks is social problem solving (SPS), which has been
defined as a cognitive-affective-behavioral process that allows a person to find the best solution to a problem or to make a
critical decision for a real-life situation (D'Zurilla & Nezu, 1982). According to Frauenknecht and Black (1995, 2003), SPS has
two broad components: orientation and skills (see Fig. 1). Further, SPS orientation (SPS-O) has cognitive, emotional and
behavioral aspects and together they reflect a person's appraisals, feelings, and general beliefs about his/her own problem-
solving ability when faced with a stressful situation. SPS skills (SPS-S) include a set of the cognitive and behavioral activities
during problem solving process in order to find effective solutions (for more details, see Frauenknecht & Black, 1995, 2003).
The majority of the SPS research has focused on the relations between negative mental health outcomes and SPS-S, with
the assumption that skill deficits in the problem solving process are antecedents of internalizing problems, such as an increased
risk for depression and suicidality (e.g., Becker-Weidman, Jacobs, Reinecke, Silva, & March, 2010; Speckens & Hawton, 2005),
and externalizing behaviors, such as aggression, risky driving, delinquency, and substance use (e.g., Jaffe & D'Zurilla, 2003;
Lochman, Wayland, & White, 1993). Particularly, in one study with college students, Dixon, Heppner, Burnett, Anderson,
and Wood (1993) found that deficits in SPS-S predicted future depression, but depression did not predict future SPS-S,
which suggested that lower SPS skills might be an antecedent, instead of a consequence, of greater levels of depressive
symptoms. A positive causal impact of enhanced SPS-S on psychopathology has also been suggested by some intervention
studies. For instance, SPS training has shown significant effects in helping children and adolescents with SPS-S deficits reduce
social adjustment problems and depressive symptoms (Frauenknecht & Black, 2004; Frye & Goodman, 2000; Nezu, 2004).
A few studies have revealed the impact of SPS-O on mental health outcomes. For example, in a 3-wave longitudinal study,
researchers found that adolescents who reported a more negative SPS-O experienced increases in fear, sadness, and hostility,
and decreases in joviality compared with adolescents who reported a less negative SPS-O, even when baseline levels of affect
were equivalent (Ciarrochi, Leeson, & Heaven, 2009). SPS-O is not always targeted in SPS intervention, but a meta-analysis
study showed problem-solving trainings that included SPS-O and SPS-S had larger effect sizes than those focusing on SPS-
S only (Malouff, Thorsteinsson, & Schutte, 2007).

Reciprocal relations: life satisfaction and social problem solving

Empirical and theoretical evidence suggests that LS is reciprocally related to a host of positive academic, psychological, and
social outcomes during adolescence. Although no study has explored the relations between SPS and LS, it is likely that better

Fig. 1. The social problem-solving model.

 X. Jiang et al. / Journal of Adolescence 53 (2016) 141e151 143

cognitive appraisal and skills, which are represented by problem-solving abilities in the present study, lead to higher LS (see
Evans, 1994). Evidence also supports that higher LS likely leads to better problem solving abilities. Specifically, findings from
various experimental studies suggested that inducing positive affects elicited positive thinking abilities (e.g., novel thinking,
cognitive flexibility, and interpersonal perspective taking), all of which lead to improved problem-solving performance on a
variety of tasks (for a review, see Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener, 2005). These findings support Fredrickson’s (1998, 2001)
“Broaden and Build” theory, which suggests that people who experience a preponderance of positive emotions, can expand
their thought-action repertoire for future use, or they can rest and relax to rebuild their energy after expending high levels of
effort. Though the construct of LS is not identical to positive affect, they are both indicators of subjective well-being and are
strongly correlated in adolescents (r ¼ .66, Huebner, 1991b). Therefore, we consider it is reasonable to propose the hypothesis
that LS predicts SPS, since like positive emotion, LS may afford many cognitive, psychological, and social advantages that can
facilitate an improved problem-solving process.

Aims and hypotheses

Despite cumulative evidence suggesting the importance of higher levels of SPS-O and SPS-S, research is limited in two
significant ways. First, the existing research has focused on the relations between SPS (both orientation and skills) and
negative outcomes (e.g., psychopathological symptoms). Current positive psychological research has repeatedly shown that a
deficit-focused model misses a comprehensive picture of adolescent functioning (e.g., Greenspoon & Saklofske, 2001).
Therefore, researchers should put forth more effort examining the relations between SPS and optimal psychological func-
tioning. Though a few studies examined correlations between overall SPS and LS in adult samples (absolute rs ranged from .15
to .46; D'Zurilla, Nezu, & Maydeu-Olivares, 2002; Chang, Downey, & Salata, 2004), considering the unique developmental
differences between adults and early adolescents (Eccles, 1999), similar studies with adolescent samples appear warranted.
Second, the majority of the studies on SPS and LS were cross-sectional in nature. Yet, the existing research has not explored
the longitudinal and potential bidirectional relations between SPS and LS. To address these gaps in the literature, this study
applied a cross-lagged panel design to empirically test the reciprocal relations between SPS (both orientation and skills) and
LS in a large sample of early adolescents. Based on the review of the literature, we hypothesized that 1) higher LS would lead
to better SPS-O and SPS-S over a 6-month period, and 2) better SPS-O and SPS-S would lead to greater LS over a 6-month
period in early adolescents.

Method

Participants

Packets of questionnaires were distributed to all regular education students in grades 6e8 in a middle school in a suburban
area in the Southeastern United States. Out of 1117 students in total, 733 students participated in the current study.
Approximately half of the participants were female (49.8%). The numbers of students in 6th, 7th and 8th grade were 220, 227
and 286, respectively. The majority of students were identified as White (n ¼ 673), followed by African Americans (n ¼ 26)
and other races (n ¼ 22). Twelve students did not identify their racial background. A small number of the students (n ¼ 87)
reported the status of having free or reduced lunch, which was considered lower socio-economic status (SES).
Attrition analyses were conducted to examine differences between participants who participated at both time periods
(Group 1, n ¼ 486) from those who participated at time 1 only (Group 2, n ¼ 247). No significant differences emerged between
the two groups on the key demographic variables (gender, estimated SES and race), with the one exception of grade level:
sixth graders were more likely to participate on only one occasion compared to seventh and eighth graders, c2 ¼ 11.783,
df ¼ 2, p < .01. There were no significant differences between Group 1 and Group 2 in the means of main variables (LS, SPS-O
and SPS-S) at Time 1.

Measures

Students' Life Satisfaction Scale (SLSS: Huebner, 1991a). The SLSS is a 7-item, self-report scale designed to measure global
youth LS. Participants responded to statements about their perceived quality of life using a 6-item Likert scale (ranging from
0 ¼ strongly disagree to 5 ¼ strongly agree). Items 3 and 4 were reversed keyed. A higher average score on the scale indicated
a higher level of global LS. Studies of the SLSS have provided evidence of good reliability for independent samples (e.g.,
Gilman & Huebner, 2006; Huebner, 1991b). Evidence also supports the validity of SLSS as the total scores have correlated
significantly with parent ratings of child LS reports (Dew & Huebner, 1994; Gilman & Huebner, 1997) and with other LS
measures (Huebner, 1991a). Alpha coefficients for the SLSS in this study were .810 at Time 1 and .847 at Time 2.
Social Problem Solving Inventory for Adolescents (SPSI-A; Frauenknecht & Black, 1995) is a self-report scale of social
problem-solving ability specifically for adolescents. The SPSI-A is scored on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 0 ¼ not at
all true of me to 4 ¼ extremely true of me. Evidence of good reliability of the SPSI-A has been provided for independent
samples (Frauenknecht & Black, 2003). The SPSI-A has displayed strong convergent validity with another problem-solving
measure, the Problem-solving Inventory (PSI; Hepper & Petersen, 1982), and discriminant validity with the Brief
144 X. Jiang et al. / Journal of Adolescence 53 (2016) 141e151

Symptoms Inventory, a widely used screening tool for psychological problems (Derogatis & Spencer, 1982; Frauenknecht &
Black, 1995).
A short version of the SPSI-A (Frauenknecht & Black, 2003) was used in this study. The two scales in the SPSI-A are Social
Problem-Solving Orientation (SPS-O) Scale, and Social Problem-Solving Skills (SPS-S) Scale. There are three subscales within
the SPS-O, representing the cognitive (COG), emotional (EMO), and behavioral (BEH) aspects of problem-solving orientation.
One item was removed due to a low item-total correlation in our analyses. The final version of the SPS-O scale thus included
eight items in the current study. All of the SPS-O items were reverse keyed; thus, a higher average score (after reverse scoring)
indicated a more positive problem-solving orientation. The alpha coefficients for the SPS-O subscale were .865 at Time 1 and
.852 at Time 2. The SPS-S scale has five subscales including Problem Identification (PID), Alternative Generation (ALT),
Consequence Prediction (CON), Implementation (IMP), and Evaluation (EVA). A total of 15 items were used in the current
study. A higher average score on the scale indicated a higher level of rational problem-solving skills. The alpha coefficients for
the SPS-S subscale with 15 items were .958 at Time 1 and .949 at Time 2.

Procedure

This study used an extant dataset from a school engagement and well-being project, comprised of two waves of data,
which was described by Lyons, Huebner, and Hills (2015). The approval for the original project was obtained from the local
school district and the university's institutional research board. Then parent consent and student assent were obtained prior
to beginning the data collection. Participating students completed the questionnaire in a regular classroom setting during one
approximately 30e40 min session in October and another session in April. The data were collected via teachers and compiled
by school district personnel. All identifying information was removed from the student data prior to receipt of the dataset by
the researchers.

Data analysis procedures

We first conducted confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) to test the factor structure of the LS, SPS-O, and SPS-S in the sample
at baseline. Second, we tested if factor loadings were invariant across time for each construct to ensure relations between the
factor and other external variables can be compared across groups or time (Chen, Sousa, & West, 2005). Next, we tested the
structural model shown in Fig. 2. Specifically, we tested the autoregressive effects of the latent variable on itself over time
(Paths A1, A2, and A3). We also assessed crossed-lagged effects of LS at Time 1 on SPS-O and SPS-S at Time 2 (Paths B1 and B2),
and the crossed-lagged effects of SPS-O and SPS-S at Time 1 on LS at Time 2, respectively (Paths B3 and B4), with controls for
prior levels of the predictors.
Three fit indices were considered when evaluating the degree of model fit. The model fit was considered good or close
if the RMSEA was less than .05 (Browne & Cudeck, 1992; Hu & Bentler, 1999) and adequate if less than .08 (MacCallum,
Browne, & Sugawara, 1996). If the SRMR achieved a value of less than .08, the model fit was considered good (Fan,
Thompson, & Wang, 1999; MacCallum et al., 1996). For the CFI, a value of .95 or greater is considered an adequate fit
and a value .90 or greater was considered acceptable (Bentler, 1990; Hu & Bentler, 1999). To identify sources of misfit
within a specified model, we inspected the modification indices and conducted a sensitivity analysis to investigate the
changes in the estimates of important parameters in alternative specifications. We also took in consideration our
knowledge of theoretical and substantive research in LS and SPS when the models were re-specified. To determine if the
changes in model fit between the two nested measurement models estimated were significant, the chi-square difference
(likelihood ratio) test was first considered. A significant result of the chi-square difference test usually suggests that the
constraints on the more restricted model may be too strict. However, when the sample size is large, a small discrepancy
from the model that may be of no practical or theoretical interest can lead to rejection of the model on the basis of the
chi-square test. Therefore, goodness-of-fit indexes were also considered in the present study. According to Cheung and
Rensvold (2002), a difference of larger than .01 in the CFI would indicate a meaningful change in model fit for testing
measurement invariance.

Results

We calculated the descriptive statistics for SPS-O, SPS-S and LS at both times using SPSS 22.0 (IBM Corp., 2013). Table 1
displays the means and standard deviations for variables and for the first-order indicators of the second-order factor at
each time point. Then, we conducted a series of analyses to test the measurement and structural models through SEM
procedures using Mplus 7.0 (Muthe
n & Muthe
n, 2012). The full-information maximum likelihood method (FIML) was used to
handle missing data.

Measurement model for SLSS

CFA procedures were used to examine the factor structure for a self-report of SLSS. The latent construct of LS at each
occasion was indicated by seven indicators. Item level screening revealed that two items in the SLSS displayed high levels of
kurtosis (>2.0; Boomsma & Hoogland, 2001; Muthe
n & Kaplan, 1985) on both occasions (Items 1 and 5). Thus, the models of
 X. Jiang et al. / Journal of Adolescence 53 (2016) 141e151 145

Fig. 2. The measurement models for all latent variables and the structural equation model.
Note. LS ¼ life satisfaction, SPSO ¼ social problem solving orientation, SPSS ¼ social problem solving skills, COG ¼ cognitive component, EMO ¼ emotional
component, and BEH ¼ behavioral component, PID ¼ Problem Identification, ALT ¼ Alternative Generation, CON ¼ Consequence Prediction,
IMP ¼ Implementation, EVA ¼ Evaluation. The structural models are shown in the center within the frame with dash lines. The paths are indicated by solid
lines with arrows. Residual covariance of the first order factor with same numbers in a small circle (e.g., ①) was constrained to be equal.

LS were estimated via the maximum likelihood estimation method with robust standard errors (MLM estimator, Muthe
n &
Muthe
n, 2012).
The model without any covariance did not fit the data adequately, with CFI ¼ .927, the RMSEA ¼ .092 (CI [.073, .111]),
SRMR ¼ .053. The residual covariance of Items 3 and 4 showed the highest modification indices value (M.I. ¼ 46.616), sug-
gesting the parameters would improve greatly if this residual covariance was estimated in the model. The measurement
residual covariance represents systematic rather than random measurement errors in item responses; these errors may
€ reskog, 1990). In the context of the LS
derive from characteristics specific either to the items or to the respondents (Aish & Jo
measurement model, it is probable this residual covariance reflected the unique characteristics shared by these only two
146 X. Jiang et al. / Journal of Adolescence 53 (2016) 141e151

Table 1
Means and standard deviations for latent variables.

Latent constructs indicator variables Time 1 Time 2

M SD N M SD N
LS 3.83 .91 610 3.84 .96 473
SPSO 2.83 .87 489 2.90 .85 455
COG 2.85 1.07 523 2.95 1.00 481
EMO 2.71 1.01 507 2.77 1.02 470
BEH 2.90 1.03 508 3.00 1.04 469
SPSS 2.05 1.00 455 2.08 .94 341
PID 1.98 1.09 495 2.00 1.06 459
ALT 2.05 1.15 496 2.06 1.12 459
CON 2.08 1.17 486 2.12 1.14 459
IMP 1.87 1.18 478 1.78 1.11 460
EVA 2.33 1.05 482 2.42 1.04 461

Note. Total sample size is N ¼ 733.

LS ¼ life satisfaction, SPSO ¼ social problem solving orientation, SPSS ¼ social problem solving skills, COG ¼ cognitive component, EMO ¼ emotional
component, and BEH ¼ behavioral component, PID ¼ Problem Identification, ALT ¼ Alternative Generation, CON ¼ Consequence Prediction,
IMP ¼ Implementation, EVA ¼ Evaluation.
Scale Range: LS 0e5, SPSO and SPSS 0e4.

reverse keyed items (Item 3: I want to change many things in my life. Item 4: I wish I had a different life). Thus, we added
residual covariance between Items 3 and 4 and tested the model again. The re-specified model fit the data adequately, with
CFI ¼ .975, the RMSEA ¼ .056 (CI [.035, .077]), SRMR ¼ .027. Next, we examined the factor loading invariance of the SLSS over
time. Each factor loading of the indicators of the first order factor (LS) was constrained to be equal at both times. The model fit
the data closely, with CFI ¼ .960, RMSEA ¼ .048 (CI [.037, .060]), SRMR ¼ .055. The confirmed latent measurement model for
LS is displayed in Fig. 2.

Measurement model for SPS-O

The latent construct of SPS-O theoretically has a second-order factor structure (see Fig. 1). Item level screening
revealed that all items of the SPS-O showed normal levels of kurtosis on both occasions. Thus the models of SPS-O were
estimated via the maximum likelihood estimation method (ML estimator, Muthe
n & Muthe
n, 2012). The second-order
factor model fit the data adequately, with CFI ¼ .975, RMSEA ¼ .062 (CI [.045, .081]), SRMR ¼ .035. The factor loading
invariance of the SPS-O model over time was examined subsequently. First, the first-order factor loadings were con-
strained to be equal at both times. The residual covariances among the three first-order factors at each time were
constrained to be equal due to high linear dependency. The model fit was excellent, with CFI ¼ .972, RMSEA ¼ .037 (CI
[.029, .045]), SRMR ¼ .045. Next, all first- and second-order factor loadings at both times were constrained to be equal.
The model fit the data very well, with CFI ¼ .972, RMSEA ¼ .037 (CI [.029, .045]), SRMR ¼ .046. When comparing these
two nested models, the chi-square different test was statistically significant (Dc2 ¼ 13.587, df ¼ 2, p ¼ .011). However,
given that the test was based on a large sample size, and that there was no substantial difference in CFI values (.976 vs
.972), we concluded that there was no appreciable difference between the two models, and thus it was more appropriate
to accept the more restricted model. These results suggest that the factor loadings of the latent construct were invariant
over time and the construct of SPS-O was comparable across times. The confirmed latent measurement model of SPS-O is
displayed in Fig. 2.

Measurement model for SPS-S

The latent construct of SPS-S also has a second-order factor structure. The higher-order construct SPS-S is derived from five
first-order factors (see Fig. 1). Item level screening revealed normal levels of kurtosis for all items of the SPS-O at both times.
Thus, it was appropriate to estimate the models of SPS-S using the ML estimator (Muthe
n & Muthe
n, 2012). Five first-order
factors were allowed to co-vary due to high linear dependency and their residual variances were constrained to be equal
across time. The second order-factor model fit the data adequately, with CFI ¼ .964, the RMSEA ¼ .065 (CI [.056, .073]),
SRMR ¼ .032. Next, we examined the invariance of factor loadings of the SPS-S model over time. As described earlier, the
factor loadings of the first-order factors were constrained to be equal first and the model fit was good, with CFI ¼ .952,
RMSEA ¼ .043 (CI [.039, .047]), SRMR ¼ .042. Next, the factor loadings of all first- and second-order factors were constrained
to be equal. The model fit the data equally well, with CFI ¼ .952, RMSEA ¼ .043 (CI [.039, .047]), SRMR ¼ .043. The chi-square
difference test between these two models was not statistically significant (Dc2 ¼ .92, df ¼ 4, p ¼ .922). Also, the values of the
CFIs were identical (.952 vs .952). Therefore, we concluded that the difference between the two models was negligible, and
the more restricted model with equal first- and second-order factors should be used in the structural model analysis. The
confirmed latent measurement model of SPS-S is shown in Fig. 2.
 X. Jiang et al. / Journal of Adolescence 53 (2016) 141e151 147

Structural equation model

The proposed structural model is shown in the center within the dash frame in Fig. 2. The model fit statistics for the
structural model were acceptable, with CFI ¼ .919, RMSEA ¼ .033 (CI [.031, .035]), SRMR ¼ .062. The autoregressive effects of
all latent variables were significant, suggesting that the constructs remained stable over the six-month period (the co-
efficients were shown in Table 2). Regarding the cross-lagged effects, LS at Time 1 predicted both SPS-O at Time 2 (Path B1:
b ¼ .142, p < .01) and SPS-S at Time 2 (Path B2: b ¼ .131, p < .01). In contrast, neither SPS-O nor SPS-S at Time 1 predicted LS at
Time 2 (Path B3: b ¼ .035, p ¼ .48, Path B4: b ¼ .012, p ¼ .76). All parameter estimates are presented in Table 2. To provide a
clearer picture of the main results, the significant path coefficients of the autoregressive effects and cross-lagged effects in the
structural model are displayed in Fig. 3.

Discussion

LS has been found to be an outcome and predictor of a variety of positive social, psychological, and emotional outcomes for
adolescents (Proctor et al., 2009). However, much additional research is needed to clarify a full array of antecedents and
consequences of individual differences in LS, especially among children and adolescents (Huebner et al., 2014). Based on the
theoretical and empirical evidence, we hypothesized that reciprocal relations existed between LS and SPS (orientation and
skills) in early adolescents. Results partially supported the hypotheses because we found LS predicted SPS (both orientation
and skills) over the 6-month period, but SPS (neither orientation nor skills) did not predict LS over the 6-month period. These
two major findings are discussed further below.
After controlling for the baseline levels of LS and measurement error, LS significantly predicted SPS-O and SPS-S over six
months in this sample, which expands our understanding on the effect of LS on the SPS process. Specifically, the results
suggest that a positive evaluation of life in general (i.e., LS) can be an antecedent of higher levels of both a positive orientation

Table 2
Parameter estimates in the structural equation model.

Parameter Unstandardized estimate (S.E.) Standardized estimate (S.E.)

Autoregressive effect
LS_T2 on LS_T1 .677**(.053) .626**(.042)
SPSO_T2 on SPSO_T1 .612**(.053) .621**(.045)
SPSS_T2 on SPSS_T1 .534**(.046) .549**(.041)
Cross lagged effects
SPSO_T2 on LS_T1 .132**(.049) .142**(.052)
SPSS_T2 on LS_T1 .110**(.045) .131**(.052)
LS_T2 on SPSO_T1 .041 (.059) .035 (.051)
LS_T2 on SPSS_T1 .016 (.059) .012 (.047)
Covariance of exogenous variables
LS_T1 with SPSO_T1 .212**(.036) .326**(.047)
LS_T1 with SPSS_T1 .128**(.030) .214**(.047)
SPSO_T1 with SPSS_T1 .064 (.028) .114 (.049)
Covariance of correlated residuals
LS_T2 with SPSO_T2 .079** (.027) .201**(.065)
LS_T2 with SPSS_T2 .077** (.023) .197** (.056)
SPSO_T2 with SPSS_T2 .002 (.021) .005 (.065)
R-square
LS_T2 .410**(.043) e
SPSO_T2 .463** (.051) e
SPSS_T2 .349** (.043) e
COG_T1 .801**(.028) e
COG_T2 .798**(.029) e
EMO_T1 .787**(.028) e
EMO_T2 .785**(.030) e
BEH_T1 .832**(.025) e
PID_T1 .783**(.021) e
PID_T2 .789**(.023) e
ALT_T1 .877**(.012) e
ALT_T2 .881**(.014) e
CON_T1 .863**(.014) e
CON_T2 .867**(.015) e
IMP_T1 .872**(.013) e
IMP_T2 .867**(.014) e
EVA_T1 .867**(.014) e
EVA_T2 .871**(.015) e

Note. LS ¼ life satisfaction, SPSO ¼ social problem solving orientation, SPSS ¼ social problem solving skills, COG ¼ cognitive component,
EMO ¼ emotional component, and BEH ¼ behavioral component, PID ¼ Problem Identification, ALT ¼ Alternative Generation,
CON ¼ Consequence Prediction, IMP ¼ Implementation, EVA ¼ Evaluation.
**p < .01.
148 X. Jiang et al. / Journal of Adolescence 53 (2016) 141e151

Fig. 3. The final structural equation model with significant path coefficients.
Note. The solid lines represent the paths that have significant coefficients. The dash lines represent the paths with non-significant coefficients, which are not
shown in this figure but can be found in Table 2. **p < .01.

towards problem solving and specific problem-solving skills, based on real life experience (in contrast to induced positive
emotions in experimental studies) in early adolescents. This finding supports Fredrickson's (1998, 2001) “Broaden and Build”
theory and offers important implications for educational and psychological practices related to improving SPS-O and SPS-S in
students. That is, mental health professionals should incorporate the target of improving LS (or “fostering happiness”) in
adolescents in their use of existing SPS training programs or in the development of new programs (see Fullchange, Furlong,
Gilman, & Huebner, 2016; Suldo, 2016).
After controlling for measurement error and baseline levels of SPS-O and SPS-S, respectively, SPS-O and SPS-S did not
predict LS over the 6-month period in this study. This finding suggests that self-reported SPS-O and SPS-S may not serve as
the antecedents of LS levels in early adolescents, at least over a six-month period within a school year, which also have
implications for educational and psychological practice. That is, professionals should not take for granted that adolescents
who appear to be independent problem-solvers are also the ones who are highly satisfied with their lives. These students may
not have apparent problems, but still can experience risk or adverse factors that prevent them from having higher levels of
well-being. These adolescents' well-being status, as indicated by LS, should be monitored and promoted as well.
Combined with the first major finding, this finding indicates that global LS is likely to be an antecedent of adolescents'
success in SPS, but not a consequence of SPS over a month period. When considered in light of the previous findings on SPS and
depression (Dixon et al., 1993) which showed that depression tends to be a consequence rather than an antecedent of SPS
deficits, our findings suggest that it is possible that SPS may have differing relations with LS and depression. These findings
further support the notion that psychopathology (e.g., depression) and well-being (e.g., LS) do not represent merely the
opposite poles of a continuum that share the same developmental trajectory or mechanisms. Instead, they are related, but
also distinct indicators of mental health (cf. Greenspoon & Saklofske, 2001; Suldo & Shaffer, 2008). In addition, although
highly speculative, future researchers may want to address the possibility that lower LS may serve as an antecedent of poorer
SPS, which in turn serves as an antecedent to psychopathological problems, such as depression. To evaluate this speculation,
researchers should use longitudinal designs, measure both well-being and psychopathology at the same time points, and test
it in samples at different developmental stages (e.g., early and late adolescence).

Strengths, limitations and future directions

This study has several noteworthy strengths. First, it addressed a gap in the research by examining the relations between
SPS and a positive psychological construct (LS) in an early adolescent sample. Second, the relatively large sample size and the
use of the two-wave longitudinal design afford more confidence in drawing inferences about the relations between con-
structs. Third, we tested all the constructs simultaneously in a cross-lagged panel model with the latent variables, which
enabled us to verify the direction of influence for the cross-lagged effects, after accounting for measurement errors and
establishing the time-invariant models at the factor loading level for all latent constructs.
 X. Jiang et al. / Journal of Adolescence 53 (2016) 141e151 149

Despite these strengths, several limitations of this study must be noted. First, this study relied exclusively on self-report
measures, raising the issue of method bias. As is the problem with any self-report technique, students' questionnaire re-
sponses may not necessarily yield an accurate picture of how students actually behave in real life situations. To more
accurately capture an adolescent's SPS-O and SPS-S, a multimodal assessment method incorporating self-reports and other
methods (e.g., ratings of adolescents' SPS completed by adults, observations of SPS in natural or laboratory settings) should be
considered in future research efforts. Second, the database in the present study consisted of a relatively higher income,
Caucasian sample from one school and did not adequately represent the ethnic and SES makeup of the United States. This
limitation may have affected the observed relations between LS and SPS, thus qualifying the generalizability of the inferences
that can be drawn from the findings. More research on more representative samples would be beneficial.
Third, the time lag (six-months) might not be sensitive enough (either too short or too long) to detect the effect of SPS
on LS in this population. The constructs measured in the SPS model focused on the “process” (versus outcome) of
problem solving. One possible reason is that early adolescents' reported levels of SPS-O and SPS-S during the problem
solving process may not exert direct and essential impact on their problem solving outcomes; which might confound the
effect of perceived SPS-O and SPS-S on their LS after six months. Early adolescence (approximately 11e14 years of age;
Eccles, 1999) is the time when self-identity and needs for independence emerge and begin to be shaped by many internal
and external influences (e.g., biological changes, experiences and relationships). Compared to late adolescents and early
adults, early adolescents are more dependent on others. As adolescents become more independent (e.g., less reliant on
adults' help), how they handle the problem-solving process may have a more direct impact on the problem-solving
outcomes, and may subsequently show stronger influence on their LS over time. To test this hypothesis, it is recom-
mended that researchers apply extended longitudinal designs (longer-term and more time points) to track the devel-
opmental trajectory of SPS and its relation with LS and mental health problems across early, middle, and late adolescence,
and young adulthood.
Lastly, the actual relations between SPS and LS via adolescents' self-reports may be more complex than what was modeled
in this study. To determine the impact of SPS-O and SPS-S on LS during adolescence, some developmental stage-sensitive
factors may be necessary to include in the model. For instance, considering that adolescents' thinking in the real world is
not only a function of cognitive, but also social and emotional processes (Keating, 2004), the interaction between cognitive
and emotional-motivational development during adolescence tends to complicate this cognitive process. The SPS process
conceptualized in Frauenknecht and Black's model (1995, 2003) reflects a highly “cold” cognitive process that occurs under
conditions of low emotion and heavily relies on rational thinking, in contrast with “hot” cognition, which refers to thinking
under conditions of strong feelings and tends to occur under emotionally charged situations (Bechara, Damasio, Damasio, &
Lee, 1999). To “cool down” the “hot” cognitive processing requires emotional self-regulation (Eisenberg, Fabes, Guthrie, &
Reiser, 2000). Based on these advances in cognitive and neuroscience research findings, researchers may consider testing
the potential moderation role of emotional regulation in the linkage between SPS (both orientation and skills) and LS.
In all, the link between the SPS and LS literature has been tenuous to date, and we hope to stimulate more research in this
area. SPS training has a long history and been described as the sine qua non of behavior change programs for youth (Elias, Gara,
Ubriaco, & Rothbaum, 1986; Frauenknecht & Black, 2003; Frye & Goodman, 2000; Nezu, 2004). Our findings suggest that
programs designed to simultaneously improve SPS and LS in adolescents may be beneficial for adolescents (e.g., see Noddings,
2002, 2013; Suldo, 2016 for examples). Pending further research to clarify the likely complex linkages between SPS and LS,
this study suggests that efforts on promoting more comprehensive mental health in adolescents are promising. These efforts
may set up a stronger foundation that can lead to an upward spiral in the overall well-being of adolescents.

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