A TERM PAPER

ON
MODELS OF ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

Submitted by:

AILEEN P. DUMAG
PhD Students

Submitted to:

DOLORES C. SABBALUCA, PhD

Professors

1st Semester
2020 – 2021
INTRODUCTION

William Pollard submits that ‘To change is Difficult. Not to change is fatal.
‘Change is a fundamental part of the organization and there invariable in most
organizations Szamosi and Duxbury (2002). To avoid business failures, these changes in
business must be managed accordingly.
In modern society past events, procedures and processes get out-dated at an
alarming rate due to the emergence of new trends in the daily lives of individuals. This
adaptation from old to new is a process that can simply be referred to as change. In
business, there is an emergence of contemporary trends with the overall goal of achieving
greatness in the market by outsmarting competitors. These changing situations in
business life require the right management for prosperity. Changes in business take
varied dimensions and both being processes, there is a starting point. To effectively adopt
and implement change, it is subject to human resource. The ‘right people’ have a massive
impact towards successful implementation of change. (Jim Collins, 2000). Change
management therefore restructures and prepares individuals for organizational changes.
The common changes in an organization appear in the form of budgets, salaries
and remuneration, tasks, and processes. Mastery of change considers time,
communication processes and the effect that such changes have on the people involved.
(Everett Rogers, (1960).
Organizational effectiveness is the main concern of all higher education institutes.
Over the years there have been many different models of effectiveness along with the
criteria for measuring organizational effectiveness.
Recent studies share different opinions in defining the influence of organizational
identification on the commitment process of their employees towards the organization.
One of the main reasons why organizational commitment is explored so much is its
positive relationship with organizational outcomes (Mowday, Porter & Steers, 1982).
Some researchers argue that commitment is an emotional connection between people and
organizations (Porter, 1968; Kantor, 1968; Lee, 1971).
 On the other hand, organizational identification (OI) expresses the way in which
individuals compare themselves with the organization and define their membership in
this organization (Mael & Ashforth, 1995). Conflicts might arise when an individual is
not able to identify him or herself with the organization, which might reflect on
organizational performance. McGregor (1967:145) stated that, "When an individual
genuinely identifies himself with a group, leader, or cause, he is in effect saying that the
goals and values associated with that cause have become his own. He then self-
consciously directs his efforts toward those goals and gains intrinsic satisfaction through
their achievement."
From the perspective of McGregor, it can be concluded that there is a form of
psychological or emotional connection between the employee and the organization.
Mowday et al. (1979) stated that “highly committed employees are thought to be
motivated to exert high levels of energy on behalf of the organization” (p. 236).
Employees are an indispensable component in organizations, especially in order
to fulfill organizational goals. Therefore, it is necessary that employees perform in a
highly efficient and productive way. The importance of people is often taken for granted
but it is a necessity to know organizations are made of people and it is people who
provide leadership, stewardship and followership. They also constantly learn new and
innovative things that help to support organizations to achieve great goals (Warigon,
2012, p.1).
Employees are supposed to contribute to the goals of an organization and there is
a high significance of understanding how employee’s behavior influences an
organization. It is a matter of fact that the performance of employees is generally
influenced by their motivation and there are several reasons why motivation is such an
important issue in public management.
In general, managers have the task of achieving organizational goals by increasing
the efficiency and effectiveness of their employees (Re’em, 2011, p. 8). In order to
perform well, employees do not only have to be skilled for their job but they also have to
understand what they are required to do (Re’em, 2011, p. 8). That means that motivation
is needed to make employees perform more effectively and efficiently because if the
motivation of an employee is equal to zero, even the most talented worker will not be a
supportive part of an organization.
The individual characteristics of workers influence their motivation, whereby
these characteristics are those which are brought to the work situation like the types of
individual needs that are satisfied or not satisfied by the activities that occur with the
work in public organizations (Perry& Porter, 1982, p. 90). Additionally, the job
characteristics also affect motivation because it relates to what a person is doing at work
which implies the nature of the job and the collection of tasks that the individual has to
do (Perry& Porter, 1982, p. 90).
The characteristics of the work environment do also have an influence on
motivation. They can be divided into two categories: immediate work environment
characteristics and organizational actions (Perry& Porter, 1982, p. 90).
Organizational actions include the provision of system rewards, provision of
individual rewards and the creation of an organizational climate whereby the immediate
work environment characteristics relate to transparency of organizational success for
employees, personal significance reinforcement or stability of expectations (Perry&
Porter, 1982, p. 91-92). Additionally, the external environment characteristics also play
an important role for public service motivation. They cannot be controlled by the
organization directly and they relate to the socionormative, political, demographic,
economic and technological changes that also influence the work in public organizations
(Perry& Porter, 1982, p. 93).
One important factor according to motivation is leadership. Leadership gives
managers the ability to affect the behavior of their employees in an organization. As it
was mentioned before, motivated employees are one of the most important results of
effective leadership and thus successful managers are also successful leaders because
they have great influence on their employees in order to help accomplishing
organizational goals (Naile& Selesho, 2014, p. 175). The achievement of organizational
goals is not enough in order to keep employees motivated but helping them to accomplish
their own personal and career goals is an important part of their motivation (Naile&
Selesho, 2014, p. 175).
To sum it up, there is a kind of circular flow: the more motivated the employees
are, the more effective is the leader and the more effective the leader is, the more
motivated are the employees (Naile& Selesho, 2014, p. 175). Even though there is
already a basic understanding of the impact that leadership has on motivation, it would be
useful to have an even better understanding to have recommendations on how motivation
and therefore also performance and goal achievement can be increased.
Because of this Related Literature and Studies, this study come up to summarize
the different Models of Organization and Management and the factors that affecting the
leaders and their members.

BODY/ DISCUSSION:
“Organizational behavior is directly concerned with the understanding, prediction,
and control of human behavior in organizations.” — Fred Luthans.
Organizational behavior is the study of both group and individual performance
and activity within an organization.
This area of study examines human behavior in a work environment and
determines its impact on job structure, performance, communication, motivation,
leadership, etc.
It is the systematic study and application of knowledge about how individuals and groups
act within the organizations where they work. OB draws from other disciplines to create a
unique field.
For example, when we review topics such as personality and motivation, we will
again review studies from the field of psychology. The topic of team processes relies
heavily on the field of sociology.
When we study power and influence in organizations, we borrow heavily from
political sciences.
 Even medical science contributes to the field of Organizational Behavior,
particularly in the study of stress and its effects on individuals.
There is increasing agreement as to the components or topics that constitute the
subject area of Organizational Behavior.
Although there is still considerable debate as to the relative importance of change,
there appears to be general agreement that Organizational Behavior includes the core
topics of motivation, leader behavior, and power, interpersonal communication, group
structure and processes, learning, attitude development, and perception, change
processes, conflict, work design, and work stress.

I. MODELS IN ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

Organizational behavior reflects the behavior of the people and management all
together, it is considered as field study not just a discipline. A discipline is an accepted
science that is based upon theoretical foundation, an inter-disciplinary approach where
knowledge from different disciplines like psychology, sociology, anthropology, etc. are
included. It is used to solve organizational problems, especially those related to human
beings.
There are four different types of models in Organizational behavior. We will
throw some light on each of these four models.
a. Autocratic Model
The root level of this model is power with a managerial orientation of authority.
The employees in this model are oriented towards obedience and discipline. They are
dependent on their boss. The employee requirement that is met is subsistence. The
performance result is less.
The major drawbacks of this model are people are easily frustrated, insecurity,
dependency on the superiors, minimum performance because of minimum wage.
b. Custodial Model
The root level of this model is economic resources with a managerial orientation
of money. The employees in this model are oriented towards security and benefits
provided to them. They are dependent on the organization. The employee requirement
that is met is security.
This model is adapted by firms having high resources as the name suggest. It is
dependent on economic resources. This approach directs to depend on firm rather than on
manager or boss. They give passive cooperation as they are satisfied but not strongly
encouraged.
c. Supportive Model
The root level of this model is leadership with a managerial orientation of support.
The employees in this model are oriented towards their job performance and
participation. The employee requirement that is met is status and recognition. The
performance result is awakened drives.
This model is dependent on leadership strive. It gives a climate to help employees
grow and accomplish the job in the interest of the organization. Management job is to
assist the employee’s job performance. Employees feel a sense of participation.
d. Collegial Model
The root level of this model is partnership with a managerial orientation of
teamwork. The employees in this model are oriented towards responsible behavior and
self-discipline. The employee requirement that is met is self-actualization. The
performance result is moderate zeal.
This is an extension of supportive model. The teamwork approach is adapted for
this model. Self-discipline is maintained. Workers feel an obligation to uphold quality
standard for the better image of the company. A sense of “accept” and “respect” is seen.

II. GROUPS IN ORGANIZATION

A group can be defined as two or more interacting and interdependent individuals
who come together to achieve objectives. A group behavior can be stated as a course of
action a group takes as a family. For example: Strike.
a. Types of Groups
There are two types of groups an individual form. They are formal groups
 and informal groups. Let us know about these two groups.
 Formal Groups
These are the type of work groups created by the organization and have
designated work assignments and rooted tasks. The behavior of such
groups is directed toward achieving organizational goals.
These can be further classified into two sub-groups −
 Command group − It is a group consisting of individuals who
report directly to the manager.
 Interest group − It is a group formed by individuals working
together to achieve a specific objective. Example − A group of
workers working on a project and reporting to the same manager is
considered as a command group. A group of friends chilling out
together is considered as interest group or say members of a club.
 Informal Groups
These groups are formed with friendships and common interests. These
can be further classified into two sub-groups −
 Task group − Those working together to finish a job or task is
known as task group.
 Friendship group − Those brought together because of their
shared interests or common characteristics is known as friendship
group.
b. Reason to join Groups.
There is no reason answering why individuals join groups. Group helps individual
to feel stronger, have fewer self-doubts, and be more contrary to threats.
The following points help us understand the need of joining a group by
individuals:
 Security mirrors strength in numbers. Status pinpoints a prestige that
comes from belonging to a specific group. Inclusion in a group is
considered as important because it provides recognition and status.
  Self-esteem transmits people's feelings of self-worth. Membership can
sometimes raise feelings of self-esteem like being accepted into a highly
valued group.
 Affiliation with groups can meet one's social needs. Work groups
significantly contribute to meet the need for friendships and social
relations.
 Groups represent power. What mostly cannot be achieved individually
becomes possible with group effort. Power might be aimed to protect
themselves from unreasonable demands. Informal groups provide options
for individuals to practice power.
 People may join a group for goal achievement. Sometimes it takes
more than one person to accomplish a particular task.
c. Group Roles
The concept of roles is applicable to all employees within an organization as well
as to their life outside the organization. A role is a set of expected behavior
patterns attributed to the one who occupies the position demanded by the social
unit.
Individuals play multiple roles at the same time. Employees attempt to understand
what kind of behavior is expected from them. An individual when presented by
divergent role expectations experiences role conflict.
 Task-oriented Roles
Roles allotted to individuals according to their work and eligibility is
known as task-oriented roles. Task-oriented roles can broadly divide
individuals into six categories initiator, informer, clarifier, summarizer,
reality tester and information seekers or providers respectively.
 Relationship-oriented Roles
Roles that group individuals according to their efforts made to maintain
healthy relationship in the group and achieve the goals are known as
relationship-oriented roles. There are five categories of individuals in this
 category namely: harmonizer, gatekeeper, consensus tester, encourager,
and compromiser.
 Individual Roles
Roles that classify a person according to the measure of individual effort
put in the project aimed is known as individual roles. Five types of
individuals fall into these roles: aggressor, blocker, dominator, cavalier,
and avoidance.

III. ROLES OF MANAGERS

Functions of a manager are the various roles played by the manager in an
organization. A manager is accountable for all the happenings in the firm and is
answerable to the management. The seven major roles played by the manager are:

 Planning − The basic step required for any project, big or small, is the planning
stage. The manager needs to plan the schedule and give the blueprint of how the
task is to be done with all the necessary details, and also the manager should
have a backup plan that if this doesn’t work then what next. Example − There is
a new project, how to start, human resource required, resources required, etc.,
everything should be planned.
 Organizing − Next comes the organizing part, where the manager needs to
synchronize and must make sure everything is going according to the plan.
Everything should work as per the plan, and if not then the manager needs to
investigate the issue and make it work as planned. Example − A software tester
is required, so organize the venue, date, and time to interview those eligible for
the post.
 Staffing − In simple words, staffing means grouping of people into different
teams and allotting different tasks to them. If the team members have some
disputes, then the team member needs to report to the team leader who will
forward it to the manager and the issue will be taken care of. Example −
Assembling a new team for a new project.
 Directing/Leading − It is a manager’s responsibility to guide the employees in
all situations to avoid conflicts and delay in the task. Manager must lead the
employees so that they can get a clear idea about what is to be done and how to
do it. Example − a team needs a team leader to look after each task that is
accomplished, in-process, or aborted.
  Coordinating − It means bringing all the employees together by forming an
efficient relationship and making them feel comfortable to share their views and
issues freely. Example − Coordinating the schedule for a project.
 Reporting − The manager must keep updated information about all the ongoing
tasks, and it is the sole responsibility of the manager to report the updated status
to the higher authorities, while all the employees are bound to report to the
manager. Example − Keeping the respective directors informed about the
progress on their respective projects.
 Budgeting − A task must be completed within the given time frame as well as it
should be cost efficient. The manager needs to be double sure that all the amount
invested in the project does not exceed the budget given and in case of
imbalance, the budgeting manager must report to the management. Example − If
budget allows to place three employees then five employees cannot be assigned
for the task.
 Controlling − Last but of course not the least role played by the manager is
having everything under control. Whether it is the budget, or resource allocation,
everything should be in order. Example − All members of a team cannot be
granted leave on the same day, as it affects work delivery.

IV. VARIOUS CHALLENGES OF A MANAGER

We have seen the different roles a manager as to play to maintain the workflow balance
in an organization. With all these responsibilities, there are some tough challenges a
manager must deal with while trying to balance everything. Following are some
challenges a manager must deal with −
 Managing workforce diversity − Manager should not create or encourage
discrimination among employees. Employees from different background, culture,
and ethnicity should be treated as equal and rewards should be given only based
on work.
 Improving quality and productivity − It is the sole responsibility of the
manager to increase the productivity without hampering the quality. It can be
done in two ways −
o Totally quality management − That is constant focus on customer
satisfaction by improving organizational process.
 o Process of engineering − Focusing on the manufacturing of the product,
so that the quality is not compromised.
 Responding to labor storage − If there is a labor shortage then the manager
should quickly respond to solve this problem by arranging for the workforce
required so that the product delivery is not delayed.
 Eradication of labor shortage − The manager needs to take quick action, if there
is a labor shortage and should assure with backup plans so that there is no labor
shortage in future.
 Improving customer service − Manager faces the challenge to constantly
improve customer service to survive in an ever-competitive environment.
 Improving ethical behavior − Managers should make sure that the employees
behave properly and maintain the decorum of the company. These are few major
challenges a manager faces while trying to complete a project. To maintain work-
life balance and for the betterment of the organization, the manager should try
level best to resolve these challenges.

Classrooms are now considered to be the centres to facilitate learning among

children. Students are treated as creative learners. The teachers are supposed to create
congenial environment for facilitating learning. This demands creative thinking,
planning, organization and management of classroom processes on the part of the teacher.
It is very essential that teachers need to be trained in these areas to make them the
facilitators of learning in real and practical sense.
Planning is the foundation of all management. In education it involves teachers,
making curricular decisions regarding what students are to learn and instructional
decisions regarding the learning experiences to be provided in the classroom. The
scheduling of learning activities is a major planning task. Planning is ordinarily done
without the presence of students and even when students participate in the process, pre
planning on the part of the teachers is necessary. While planning cannot eliminate
unexpected events without planning all events become unexpected. Classroom
management is the organizational function that requires teachers to perform various tasks
like planning; organizing; coordinating; directing; controlling; communicating;
housekeeping and nurturing. The organizing function entails primarily the structuring of
student subgroups and defining of rules, as well as preparing for the implementing of
plans.
The role of teacher as an organizer is to link planning with all other roles of
communicating, motivating and controlling. Planning is one of the important attributes of
educational management. To achieve the aims and objectives of education, effective
planning with organizing, staffing, directing and controlling are required. 7 Plan is a
commitment to a particular course of actions believed necessary to achieve the desired
results.
According to Terry “planning is the selection and relating of facts and making and
using of assumptions regarding the future in the visualization and formalization of
proposed activities believed necessary to achieve desired results”. McFarland defines
planning as “a concept of executive action that embodies the skills of anticipating,
influencing and con.

V. TYPES OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT

1. Centralized and Decentralized Educational Management:
This type of educational management refers to the centralization of the
power and responsibility of educational administration, supervision and
control which results in educational management on one hand and division
and distribution of powers and responsibilities of educational
administration, supervision and control that results in educational
management. Among these two types of educational management,
decentralized educational management is the accepted type of educational
management in the present modern educational system.
The cause is that divisions and distribution of powers, responsibilities and
duties of any type can make every programme a successful one.
 In the centralized educational management all sorts of powers,
responsibilities in relation to educational management are vested in one
hand. He/she may be the real or titular head. Suppose in the field of
higher education the Director, Higher Education is the real executive
head and all sorts of powers and responsibilities remain in his/her hand.
The other associate officers are Additional Director, Deputy Director,
Assistant Director remain silent in this regard.
Then the principals of different colleges also remain silent in this regard.
But practically speaking this type of educational management is outdated
and useless in the modern educational system. The reason is that it was
prevailed when expansion of education was a charitable work for the
kings and emperors. But in the decentralized educational management the
powers, responsibilities are distributed and decentralized from the
Director Higher Education to the peon of a college in which everybody
involved in the field of higher education feels seriously the responsibility
of educational management. And at the same time they take the risk of
making educational management a successful one.

2. External and Internal Educational Management:

The External Management of educational programme means for those
elements, factors and supporting agencies which provide opportunities
and facilities for the smooth management of educational programme in
external perspective. In humanitarian perspective the external
management of educational programme refers to the persons or elements
who are indirectly involved in its management.
They are the community members, specialists, experts, administrators,
parents, supervisors and all other agencies. Their first and foremost duty
is to create a suitable and sound atmosphere and provide all sorts of
resources and help in moral ground. Besides they have to give
suggestions for participating and observing the management of
 educational institution. But they are active and internal involvement in
the process isn’t acceptable and desirable.
Internal Educational Management refers to management of any
educational programme is vested upon the persons who are actively and
internally involved in the management of every educational programme.
It categorically refers to the head of the institution or head
master/principal of the school and other teaching personnel, students and
non-teaching staff.
Besides the internal management means the duty is rendered by these
personnel as assigned to them in relation to planning, organizing,
coordinating, supervising, controlling, administering and evaluating. Here
it is essential to mention that although they are not officially assigned to
manage the programme and satisfy it but the degree or certificate that will
be given to them will be their expectation level.
Practically speaking, internal management has much more importance
than external management. The reason is that the elements of internal
management are actively involved in the process and the degree of
success of management depends upon them.

3. Authoritarian/Autocratic and Democratic Educational Management:

Just like centralized management authoritarian management plays its
role. In centralized management the centralization of the power and
responsibility of educational management centered in and exercised by, a
central power, Organization or agency. It implies that all the policies and
programmes are planned, directed by one central agency. Here the central
agency may be a person, a group of persons as “core group.” So when the
powers and responsibilities center round a particular person or group then
the term authoritarian or autocracy comes into limelight.
In this context it will be suffice if will discuss authoritarian/autocratic
management where authority and control lies in one person or group or
institution. In this management the rights are absolute and supreme and
educational management is a state of monopoly. In this type of educational
management every aspect of education is controlled by one. And
educational administration becomes centralized being dominated by
bureaucracy, which controlls through strict administration of laws, rules and
regulations.
The business of the staff is to emphasize these laws, rules and central orders
and to see that these are properly carried out. The teacher as the real and
regular practioner becomes the mouthpiece of the central authority having
no professional freedom. This type of educational management generally
found in totalitarian or unitary states. In this type of states educational
management remains in the hand of the head of the educational institution
who exercises authority and control in a centralized form. It implies that he
directs every action of his teachers and students. He plans all the school
activities.
He tells the teachers and students what to think as well as what to do. He
takes decision and gives all directions to teachers and students. He thinks
himself as an only active agency in the management of every educational
programme of the institution. In this type of management ‘I-feelings’ are
pre-dominant and ego of one individual prevails.

Democratic Educational Management:

Now in the modern era democracy is unanimously regarded and accepted
“as the way of life.” This is not only applicable in case of a particular nation
but also for the entire globe/world. This very statement implies that in every
aspect of development the democratic principles, values and ideas must be
 adhered or accepted. Accordingly in the field of management it must be
accepted and implemented.
Being contextual in approach it can be visualized that in the field of
education democratic management is highly stressed. In other-words it can
be said that democratic educational management is the need of the day for
bringing wholesome educational development of every nation. Like other
educational managements “authority and control” are also the two basic
hallmarks in democratic educational management, which are exercised in
decentralized form.
Decentralization refers to the type of management in which control
is vested in the agencies or persons ranging from grass-root level to top
level. It recognizes the rights of all the agencies or persons who are linked
with the educational institution. In this type of educational management ‘we
feelings’ prevail in the educational institution with an environment of
mutual trust, accompanied by co-operative planning, group discussion,
participation of all the staff members and organization of the programme in
a joint-venture.
In this management teachers get proper scope for planning,
administering, organizing, directing, coordinating, supervising, controlling
and evaluating the assignments entrusted upon them. However like
democracy in democratic educational management the following principles
are highly stressed.

VI. Principles of Democratic Educational Management:

The principles of democratic educational management are:
a. Principle of sharing responsibility:
In the field of democratic educational management everybody who is
more or less involved in the process should take the responsibility to share
in the work.
 b. Principle of Equality:
As equality is the basic hallmark of democracy. It should be treated and
accepted in the field of democratic educational management. So all the
personnel who are involved in the process should get equal facilities,
rights and opportunities in doing their duty.
c. Principle of Freedom:
In the field of democratic educational management every person should be
given freedom to do their duty in their own jurisdiction. This will lead to
make the educational management of every educational programme
successful in democratic perspective.
d. Principle of Co-operation:
To make educational management of any educational programme a
successful one a greater cooperation should be ensured among different
persons involved in the field of educational management.

4. Creative Educational Management:

The creative management of every educational programme indicates the
uniqueness of the head of the educational institution in which the
programme is conducted. It means when the educational management of any
educational programme is done through utilization of creative talents
associated with this from top to bottom in a desirable and acceptable
manner.

Lassiez faire Educational Management:

This type of management gives freedom to the functionaries or personnel
involving in it. It means for ensuring proper management of educational
programme freedom as far as possible and practicable should be given to
everybody and they must exercise this freedom in a desirable and
acceptable manner.
VII. OBJECTIVES OF PLANNING, ORGANIZATION & MANAGEMENT OF
SCHOOL/CLASSROOM PROCESSESS
1. Understanding the vision, mission and goals of an institution in the
planning process.
2. Become aware of different plans and organizing skills required as an
elementary school teacher and head of the institution.
3. Develop an insight into the responsibilities and the leader in professional
growth, commitment, competencies, attitudes, school development plan,
physical and human resource management, time management and
community relations.
4. Train the teachers and head teachers in planning and executing the
curricular programs of the school.
5. Adopt ICT in the process of Planning and Organization of school
activities.
6. Understand the needs of alternative education and integrate it into the
curriculum.
7. Develop in the student teachers the classroom management skills.
8. Prepare the student teachers in using different tools and techniques for
continuous and comprehensive evaluation.

Management takes place within a structured organisational setting with prescribed

roles. It is directed towards the achievement of aims and objectives through influencing
the efforts of others.

CONCLUSION
Based on the Introduction and Discussion, the organizational effectiveness has
long been the subject of numerous studies through different models. Nevertheless, a
comparative result between some models of organizational effectiveness in higher
education shows some overlapping. For instance, Yorke's (1987) study indicated some
common features between Cameron’s (1978) model and Antia and Cuthbert's (1976)
model. Moreover, Kleeman and Richardson (1985) described some similarity between
their model and Cameron's (1978) model. However, the trace of some of Cameron’s nine
dimensions can be observed in two other models developed by Pounder (1999) and An et.
al. (2011).
This suggests the comprehensiveness of Cameron’s model for the assessment of
organizational effectiveness in higher education institutions. In addition, regarding the
main models of effectiveness, the Cameron’s (1978) model has a close relationship with
three main models, namely goal, system resource, and process.
Cameron (1981) noted out that, it pays attention to the fact that the organization is
effective as long as it can achieve the goals intended. It can obtain the resources from the
environment, and it can get along with all of its system processes in terms of the
performance of the organization. Based on this model, it should be taken into
consideration that there is not one single suitable model for the assessment of the
organizational effectiveness. Even though the organizations fulfill the criteria of each
approach, they may be judged ineffective.
This can reflect the ability of Cameron’s multi-dimensional model for a deeper
study of organizational effectiveness in higher education. Despite the fact that in different
situations some reforms in terms of number of items, dimensions and wording in the
original questionnaire have been made by some researchers (e.g. Anderson, 2000; Kwan
& Walker, 2003; Lejeune & Vas, 2009; Smart, 2003), the capacity of the model, and
reliability and validity of its questionnaire are well documented. Considering the
mentioned points, Cameron’s model of organizational effectiveness seems quite suitable
to be used for higher education studies.
Organizational commitment is of mutual interest for both the employee as well as
the organization. This thesis explains several relevant benefits for the organization
deriving from commitment. From the managerial perspective, the results can be used to
analyze levels of identification and commitment of individual employees.
 Hence, when discovering a gap between the employee’s identity and the
organizational identity, managers perhaps want to find out why this person is not able to
identify him or herself with the organization. Solutions for guidance towards
organizational identification can be provided, and the employees feeling of loyalty and
solidarity towards the organization might increase.
Identification enhances self-esteem, at the same time; the manager sends a signal
for making the employee committed to the organization. For example, team leaders may
help individuals through the commitment process, by providing them opportunities for
self development. In time the behavior of the employee will change, resulting in
reciprocity between identification and commitment. After all, it must be kept in mind that
organizational commitment is related to the performance of the organization.
As quoted by Brian Tracy, "The true measure of the value of any business leader
and manager is performance.". As I've found through working with all kinds of
companies all over the world, there are two simple rules for success as a manager. Rule
number one: Your life only gets better when you get better. Rule number two: Your
people only get better when you get better. There is no real limit to how much better a
person who really commits to getting better can get. Every manager has the potential to
become an excellent manager for the rest of his or her career."