MATHEMATIC MODELLING OF DYNAMIC

SYSTEMS （Ch. 2）

A mathematical model of a dynamic system is

defined as a set of equations that represents the
dynamics of the system accurately or, at least,
fairly well.

The dynamics of many systems, whether they are

mechanical, electrical, thermal, economic,
biological, and so on, may be described in terms
of differential equations.

Simplicity versus accuracy make a compromise

between the simplicity of the model and the
accuracy of the results of the analysis.

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Linear system: a system is called linear if the principle of
superposition applies.

Linear time-invariant system and linear time-varying

system: A differential equation is linear if the coefficients
are constants.

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Transfer function

The transfer function of a linear, time-invariant,

differential equation system is defined as the ratio of
the Laplace transform of the output to the Laplace
transform of the input under the assumption that all
initial conditions are zero.
L[output ]
G (s) =
L[input ] zero initial conditions

Y ( s ) b0 s m + b1 s m −1 +  + bm −1 s + bm
= =
X ( s ) a 0 s n + a 1 s n −1 +  + a n −1 s + a n
Where n is the order of the system.

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Example: Satellite attitude control.

θ (s) 1
( s)
F= =
T ( s ) Js 2

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Notes:

1. The transfer function is a property of a system itself,

independent of the magnitude and nature of the
input. However, if the system transfer function is
known, the system response can be calculated for
various inputs.

2. The transfer function can be identified

experimentally.

3. The transfer function includes the units necessary to

relate the input to the output, however, it doesn’t
provide any information concerning the physical
structure of the system.

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Automatic control systems
Block diagrams

A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of

the functions performed by each components and of the
flow of signals. It shows inputs and outputs, signal flow.

Summing point:
Branch point:

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Automatic controllers

7
Classifications of Industrial controllers

Two-position or on-off control action:

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 U (s)
Proportional control: u (t ) = K p e(t ) = Kp
E (s)

U (s) K i
Integral control: u (t ) = K ∫ e(t )dt =
t

i 0
E (s) s

Proportional-Plus-Derivative control:

de(t ) U (s)
u (t ) = K e(t ) + K T = K p (1 + Td s )
p
dt
p d
E (s)

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Proportional-Plus-Integral-Plus-Derivative control:

Kp t de(t )
u (t ) = K p e(t ) + ∫ e (t ) dt + K T
Ti 0 dt
p d

U (s) 1
= K p (1 + + Td s )
E (s) Ti s

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 Open-Loop transfer function and feed forward transfer
function

· Open-Loop transfer function: G(s) H (s)

· Feed forward transfer function: G (s )

· Closed-Loop transfer function: C (s) G (s)

=
R( s) 1 + G ( s) H ( s)

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 Closed-Loop system subjected to a
disturbance

The response to the disturbance only:

CD ( s ) G2 ( s )
=
D( s ) 1 + G1 ( s )G2 ( s ) H ( s )
The effect of the disturbance is suppressed, if
G1 ( s )G2 ( s ) H ( s ) >> 1

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 The response to the reference only:

CR ( s) G1 ( s)G2 ( s) 1
= ≈ if G1 ( s )G2 ( s ) H ( s ) >> 1
R( s) 1 + G1 ( s)G2 ( s ) H ( s ) H ( s )

The transfer function is independent of the

controller and the plant. The variation of the
controller and plant do not affect the closed-
loop transfer function.

When H(S)=1, the output follows the input.

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Procedures for drawing a block diagram

1. Write the equations that describe the dynamic

behaviour of each component.
2. Take the Laplace transform of these equations,
assuming zero initial conditions.
3. Represent each Laplace transformed equation
individually in block form.
4. Assemble the elements into a complete block
diagram.

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Example: Draw a block diagram.

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Block diagram reduction
Examples

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17
18
Example:

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Modelling Nonlinear Systems

A system is nonlinear if the principle of superposition does

not apply.

Many physical systems involve nonlinear relationships

among the variables including saturation, dead zone, etc.

Although many physical systems are represented by linear

equations, in most cases actual relationships are not quite
linear. In fact, the linear systems are really linear only in
limited operating ranges.

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 Linearization of Nonlinear Systems

If the systems operates around an equilibrium point and if the

signals involved are small signals, it is possible to
approximate the nonlinear system by a linear system.

The linearization procedure is based on the expension of

nonlinear function into a Taylor series about the operating
point and the retention of only the linear term. The higher
order terms of the Taylor series expension are nelglected if
the variables deviate only slightly from the operating point.

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Linear Approximation of Nonlinear Mathematical Models

Consider a system whose input is x(t) and output is y(t).

The relationship between y(t) and x(t) is given by:

𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥

The equation can be expended into a Taylor series

about the operating point 𝑥𝑥� and 𝑦𝑦� as follows:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑓𝑓 2+ ⋯
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥̅ + 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥̅ + (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥)
̅
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2! 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

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 The high order terms can be neglected if variation 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥̅ is
small.

𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦� + 𝐾𝐾 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥̅

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Where 𝑦𝑦� = 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥̅ , 𝐾𝐾 = �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥=𝑥𝑥̅

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 Consider a nonlinear system whose output y is a function
of two inputs 𝑥𝑥1 and 𝑥𝑥2 .

𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2

The equation can be expended into a Taylor series

about the operating point 𝑥𝑥1̅ and 𝑥𝑥̅2 as follows:

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥1̅ , 𝑥𝑥̅2 + 𝑥𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑥1̅ + 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥̅2
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥1 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥2

1 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑓𝑓 2+2
𝜕𝜕 2 𝑓𝑓 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑓𝑓
2
+ ( 𝑥𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑥1̅ 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1̅ 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥̅2 + 2 ( 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥̅2 +⋯
2! 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥12 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥1 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥2 1 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥2
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Near the operating point, the high order terms may
be neglected and the linear mathematical model of
the nonlinear system is given by:
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦� + 𝐾𝐾1 𝑥𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑥1̅ + 𝐾𝐾2 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥̅2
where
𝑦𝑦� = 𝑓𝑓 �
𝑥𝑥1, �
𝑥𝑥2

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝐾𝐾1 = �
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥
1 =𝑥𝑥̅ 1 ,𝑥𝑥2 =𝑥𝑥̅ 2

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝐾𝐾2 = �
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥
1 =𝑥𝑥̅ 1 ,𝑥𝑥2 =𝑥𝑥̅ 2 25
Example: Linearize the nonlinear equation

𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥

in the region 5 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 7, 10 ≤ 𝑦𝑦 ≤ 12. Find the error if the

linearized equation is used to calculate the value of z when
x=5, y=10.

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 Ch.3
Modelling electrical and electronic system
E (s)
Complex impedances Z ( s ) =
I (s)

Inductance di (t ) E (s)
e(t ) = L E ( s ) = LsI ( s ) Z (s) = = Ls
dt I (s)

E (s) 1
Capacitance e(t ) = 1 i (t )dt E ( s ) = I ( s ) 1 Z (s) = =
∫ I ( s ) Cs
C Cs

E (s)
Resistance e(t ) = Ri (t ) E (s) = I (s) R Z (s) = =R
I (s)

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Eo ( s ) 1
=
Ei ( s ) LCs 2 + RCs + 1
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Basic law governing electrical circuits are Kirchhoff’s
current law and Kirchhoff’s voltage law.

Example 3. Modelling PID controller.

Eo ( s ) R4 R2 R1C1 + R2C2 1
Answer:
= ( + + R1C1s )
Ei ( s ) R3 R1 R2C2 R2C2 s
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Example 4: the suspension system for one wheel of an
old-fashioned pickup truck is illustrated in the figure.
The mass of the vehicle is m1 and the mass of the wheel
is m2 . The suspension spring has a spring constant k1,
and the tire has a spring constant k 2. The damping
constant of the shock absorber is b . Obtain the
transfer function Y1 ( s ) / X ( s ) , which represents the
vehicle response to bumps in the road.

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 Dorf

Y1 ( s ) k2 (bs + k1 )
Answer: =
X ( s ) (m2 s 2 + bs + k1 + k2 )(m1s 2 + bs + k1 ) − (bs + k1 ) 2

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