1

Cognitive Neuroscience

Introduction to Neuroscience
Definition: Neuroscience is the study of how the nervous system develops, its structure, and
what it does.
Neuroscientists focus on the brain and its impact on behavior and cognitive (thinking) functions.
They also investigate what happens to the nervous system when people have neurological,
psychiatric, and neurodevelopmental disorders. They are involved in a much wider scope of
fields today than before. They study the cellular, functional, evolutionary, computational,
molecular, cellular and medical aspects of the nervous system.

History of Cognitive Neuroscience

Mind and Brain: Cognitive Neuroscience Approach

Cognitive neuroscience aims to provide a brain-based account of cognitive processes (thinking,
perceiving, remembering etc.) made possible by technological advances in studying the brain that
are safer and less crude than, say, Penfield’s method.
Goal of cognitive neuroscience is to provide and explain the correspondence between brain and
mind and structure and functions.
Historical Foundations:
Do mental experiences arise in the heart (e.g. Aristotle ca. 384 BC) or brain (e.g. Plato,
Hippocrates ca. 460 BC)
How can a physical substance (brain/body) give rise to mental experiences? i.e.
MIND–BODY PROBLEM
Dualism – mind and body are separate substances (e.g. Descartes).
Dual-aspect theory – mind and body are two levels of explanation of the same thing (e.g.
like wave-particle duality).
Reductionism – mind eventually explained solely in terms of physical/biological theory.
These issues still relevant to modern cognitive neuroscience.
Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564):
He was one of the first person to study the anatomy solely for the purpose of structure. Though
there were some errors in his work on brain convolutions.
Rene Descartes (1596-1650):
He gave a mechanistic view of the brain in his book De Homine (1662). Also identified pineal
gland as the gateway to the soul.
 2
Cognitive Neuroscience

Luigi Galvani (1737-1798):

He was a professor of obstetrics and he was one of the early person to notice and experiment with a
frog by giving static electricity to its brain to move its leg. And detected the electricity in the
nerves of the frogs.
Franz Joseph Gall (Phrenology):
He identified that different parts of cortex serve different functions. Also, described that
differences in personality traits manifest in differences in cortical size and bumps on skull. He also
worked on crude division of psychological traits (e.g. "love of animals") and not grounded in
science.
Early anatomists believed ventricles important and cortex was often schematically drawn or
misrepresented like intestines until 18th century. Gall and Spurzheim provide an accurate depiction
of it.
Functional Specialization:
Although phrenology is discredited, the notion that different regions of the brain serve different
functions has stood the test of time. Modern cognitive neuroscience uses empirical methods to
ascertain different functions. It does not assume that each region has one function or each function
has a discrete location (unlike phrenology), but does assume some degree of specialization of
neurons in particular regions.
Cerebral Holism (Diffuse Representation):
Pierre Flourens (1824) set up lab to attack Gall’s mind brain equivalence. He demonstrated that
main division of brain were responsible for largely different functions. By removing cerebrum, all
perceptions, motor functions and judgement were abolished. Removal of cerebellum affected
equilibrium and motor coordination. Also, destruction of brain stem can cause death.
He also noticed that extensive cortical lesions in birds and rabbits showed little behavioral change,
which led him to believe that these functions are represented diffusely around the brain.
Swing Back to Localization:
Bouillaud (1825) noticed that large series of speech is lost with frontal lesions.
Marc Dax (1836) noticed that LH damage, right hemiplegia and aphasia linked.
Paul Broca (1861) found convincing evidence of speech laterality on a patient named Tan. Patient
with left frontal lesion (Tan) who could not speak but had otherwise good cognitive abilities which
suggested a specialized language faculty in the brain.
Carl Wernicke (1874) noticed that temporal lesion disturbs comprehension and developed
connectionism model of language and predicated conduction aphasia. He later observed a patient
with poor speech comprehension, but good production and suggests at least two language faculties
in the brain (comprehension vs production) that can be independently affected by brain damage.
He noted that the faculties were inferred from empirical observation (unlike phrenological
faculties). This inference can be made without necessarily knowing where in the brain they are
located. This approach later became known as COGNITIVE NEUROPSYCHOLOGY.
 3
Cognitive Neuroscience

Back to Holism:
John Hughlings Jackson (1835-1911) presented his hierarchy on Central Nervous System (CNS)
which was highly interactive.
Korbinian Brodmann (1868-1918) established the basis for comparative cytoarchitectonics
which is the arrangement of cells in a tissue, especially in specific areas of the cerebral cortex
characterized by the arrangement of their cells and each associated with particular functions, of the
mammalian cortex.
Camillo Golgi (1843-1926) presented silver chromate stain which showed dendrites, soma and
axons.
Santiago Ramon y Cajal (1852-1934) is considered to be the father of modern neuroscience for
his most consuming work on slicing, soaking, staining and affixing to glass slides, slivers of the
cerebellum of the embryo of a small bird. Then he carefully drew what he saw under the
microscope.
The Return of the Brain: Cognitive Neuroscience
• 1970s: structural imaging methods (CT, MRI) enable precise images of the brain (and brain
lesions).
• 1980s: PET adapted to models of cognition developed by psychologists.
• 1985: TMS is first used (a non-invasive, safer equivalent of Penfield’s earlier studies).
• 1990: Level of oxygen in blood used as a measure of cognitive function (the principle
behind fMRI).
The Methods of Cognitive Neuroscience:
Cognitive Neuroscience used three basic methods to study the structure and functioning of the
brain through different neuroimaging techniques. The three basic methods were,
• Temporal resolution
• Spatial resolution
• Invasiveness
The active brain overview was after that defined as cognitive activity is associated with increased
activity of neurons. Neurons performing similar functions tend to cluster together (functional
specialization).
Neural activity generates electrical signals – measured by electrophysiological techniques.
Also, neural activity leads to oxygen consumption and this leads to localized changes in blood
flow (a haemodynamic response) – measured by functional imaging (PET, fMRI).
The Human Nervous System
The basic functional and structural unit of nervous system is neuron. It forms entire parts of NS.
In humans and other vertebrates, the nervous system can be broadly divided into two sections:
the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.
• The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and the spinal cord. It is in the CNS
that all of the analysis of information takes place.
 4
Cognitive Neuroscience

• The peripheral nervous system (PNS), which consists of the neurons and parts of neurons
found outside of the CNS, includes sensory neurons and motor neurons. Sensory neurons bring
signals into the CNS, and motor neurons carry signals out of the CNS.
Neurons: A cell specialized to transmit electrical nerve impulses and so carry information
from one part of the body to another. Neurons are the building blocks of the nervous system.
They send and receive information all over the body using both chemical and electrical signals.
The most common way information is transmitted through a single neuron electrically and then
transmitted to the target cell chemically. The structure of neurons is designed for the most
efficient transmission of these signals.

Classes of neurons: Based on their roles, the neurons found in the human nervous system can be
divided into three classes: sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons.

• Sensory Neurons: Sensory neurons get information about what's going on inside and
outside of the body and bring that information into the CNS so it can be processed.
• Motor Neurons: Motor neurons get information from other neurons and convey
commands to your muscles, organs and glands.
• Interneurons: Interneurons, which are found only in the CNS, connect one neuron to
another. They receive information from other neurons (either sensory neurons or
interneurons) and transmit information to other neurons (either motor neurons or
interneurons).
The basic functions of a neuron
If you think about the roles of the three classes of neurons, you can make the generalization that
all neurons have three basic functions. These are to:
1. Receive signals (or information).
2. Integrate incoming signals (to determine whether or not the information should be passed along).
3. Communicate signals to target cells (other neurons or muscles or glands).
These neuronal functions are reflected in the anatomy of the neuron.
Anatomy of a Neuron:
• Dendrites
A short-branched extension of a nerve cell along which impulse received from other cells at a
synapse are transmitted to the cell body.

• Cell Body

Spherical part of the neuron that contains the nucleus. The cell body is connected to the dendrites
which brings information to the neuron and the axon which sends information to the other
neurons.
 5
Cognitive Neuroscience

• Nucleus:
It is the archivist and the architect of the cell. It contains the genes, consisting of DNA.

• Axons

The axon arises from the cell body at a specialized area called the axon hillock. In motor
neurons and interneurons, it's at the axon hillock that the action potential is initiated.
Towards its end, the axon splits up into many branches and develops bulbous swellings known
as axon terminals (or nerve terminals). These axon terminals make connections on target cells.

• Myelin Sheath

It is a fatty white substance that surrounds the axon of some nerve cells, forming an electrically
insulating layer.
Three key functions of Myelin Sheath are:
1) Protection of the nerve fiber.
2) Insulation of the nerve fiber.
3) Increases the rate of transmission of nerve impulses.

• Nodes of Ranvier

The gaps present in the myelin sheath of a nerve. Key functions of Nodes of Ranvier include:
a) Allowing nutrients and waste products to enter / leave the neuron.
b) Allowing nerve impulses to move along the neuron through a process of de-
polarization and re-polarization of the nerve membrane.

• Schwann Cells

Each Schwann cell protects one length of axon, around which it twists as it grows -
enveloping the axon. Schwann cells are the cells that lay down the protective myelin sheath
around the axon of medullae nerve fibers.
• Terminal Buttons:
It is located at the end of the neuron and are responsible for sending the signals on to the
other neurons.

• Synapses

A tiny gap across which a nerve cell or neuron can send an impulse to another neuron. When a
chemical or electrical impulse makes that tiny leap across one of the synapses, which a person
has throughout his/her nervous system, the body can do what the brain tells it to do.
 6
Cognitive Neuroscience

• Neurotransmitters:
A chemical substance which is released at the end of a nerve fiber by the arrival of a nerve
impulse and by diffusing across the synapse or junction effects the transfer of the impulse to
another nerve fiber, muscle fiber or some other structure.
• Vesicles:
In a neuron, synaptic vesicles or neurotransmitter vesicles stores neurotransmitters that are
released at the synapse. Vesicles are important for nerve impulse between neurons.
• Receptors:
They are at the top of the dendrites which receives neurotransmitters from the terminal button of
another neuron.

• Nerve Impulse:
A signal transmitted along a nerve fibre. It consists of a wave of electrical depolarization
that reverses the potential difference across the nerve cell membranes.
• Action Potential:
The action potential threshold in a neuron is the point of depolarization at which the neuron
fires, transmitting information to another neuron. Psychologists use the concept of action
potential threshold to explain how neurons send information to each other.
• Resting Potential:
The resting membrane potential of a neuron is about -70 mV (mV=millivolt) - this means that the
inside of the neuron is 70 mV less than the outside. At rest, there are relatively more sodium ions
outside the neuron and more potassium ions inside that neuron.
• Depolarization:
Depolarization is the state which the cell membrane change from positive to negative charged
outside the cell and from negative to positive charge inside the cell.
• Repolarization:
Repolarization refers to the change in membrane potential that returns it to a negative value just
after the depolarization phase of an action potential has changed the membrane potential to a
positive value.
 7
Cognitive Neuroscience

Nervous System

The nervous system has two major parts: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral
nervous system (PNS). The central system is the primary command center for the body, and is
comprised of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system consists of a network of
nerves that connects the rest of the body to the CNS.
The two systems work together to collect information from inside the body and from the
environment outside it. The systems process the collected information and then dispatch
instructions to the rest of the body, facilitating an appropriate response.

Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes all of the parts of the nervous system outside of
the brain and spinal cord. These parts include all of the cranial and spinal nerves, ganglia, and
sensory receptors. PNS is divided into two main parts:

A) Somatic Nervous System

The somatic nervous system (SNS) is a division of the PNS that includes all of the voluntary
efferent neurons. The SNS is the only consciously controlled part of the PNS and is responsible
for stimulating skeletal muscles in the body.

B) Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a division of the PNS that includes all of the
involuntary efferent neurons. The ANS controls subconscious effectors such as visceral muscle
tissue, cardiac muscle tissue, and glandular tissue.
There are 2 divisions of the autonomic nervous system in the body: the sympathetic and
parasympathetic divisions.

• Sympathetic Autonomic Nervous System: The sympathetic division forms the body’s “fight or
flight” response to stress, danger, excitement, exercise, emotions, and embarrassment. The
sympathetic division increases respiration and heart rate, releases adrenaline and other stress
 8
Cognitive Neuroscience

hormones, and decreases digestion to cope with these situations.

• Parasympathetic Autonomic Nervous System: The parasympathetic division forms the body’s
“rest and digest” response when the body is relaxed, resting, or feeding. The parasympathetic
works to undo the work of the sympathetic division after a stressful situation. Among other
functions, the parasympathetic division works to decrease respiration and heart rate, increase
digestion, and permit the elimination of wastes.

Central Nervous System

The central nervous system (CNS) is made of the brain and the spinal cord. The CNS acts as the
control center of the body by providing its processing, memory, and regulation systems. The
CNS takes in all of the conscious and subconscious sensory information from the body’s sensory
receptors to stay aware of the body’s internal and external conditions. Using this sensory
information, it makes decisions about both conscious and subconscious actions to take to
maintain the body’s homeostasis and ensure its survival. The CNS is also responsible for the
higher functions of the nervous system such as language, creativity, expression, emotions, and
personality. The brain is the seat of consciousness and determines who we are as individuals.
Functions of the Nervous System
The nervous system has 3 main functions: sensory, integration, and motor.
• Sensory: The sensory function of the nervous system involves collecting information from
sensory receptors that monitor the body’s internal and external conditions. These signals are then
passed on to the central nervous system (CNS) for further processing by afferent neurons (and
nerves).
• Integration: The process of integration is the processing of the many sensory signals that are
passed into the CNS at any given time. These signals are evaluated, compared, used for decision
making, discarded or committed to memory as deemed appropriate. Integration takes place in the
gray matter of the brain and spinal cord and is performed by interneurons. Many interneurons
work together to form complex networks that provide this processing power.
• Motor: Once the networks of interneurons in the CNS evaluate sensory information and decide
on an action, they stimulate efferent neurons. Efferent neurons (also called motor neurons) carry
signals from the gray matter of the CNS through the nerves of the peripheral nervous system to
effector cells. The effector may be smooth, cardiac, or skeletal muscle tissue or glandular tissue.
The effector then releases a hormone or moves a part of the body to respond to the stimulus.

The Human Brain

An organ of soft nervous tissue contained in the skull of vertebrates, functioning as the
coordinating center of sensation and intellectual and nervous activity.
Parts of the Brain
The brain is made of three main parts: the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. Brain is divided
into three main parts as following:
The forebrain consists of the cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus (part of the limbic system).
 9
Cognitive Neuroscience

The midbrain consists of the tectum and tegmentum.

The hindbrain is made of the cerebellum, pons and medulla.
The brainstem often contains the midbrain, pons, and medulla and reticular formation.
Forebrain:
Forebrain is the frontal part of brain. It’s consist of
Telencephalon (Cerebral cortex, Basal ganglia, Hippocampus, Amygdala, Olfactory Bulb)
Diencephalon (Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Pituitary gland)
i) Diencephalon
• Thalamus: Located towards the center of the brain are two thalami (thalami is the plural
word, thalamus is the singular word), one on each side of the top of the spinal cord /
brain. They relay nerve signals between the cerebral cortex and the other parts of the
CNS (brain and spinal cord).
• Hypothalamus: Sometimes described as the 'control center' of the body, the
hypothalamus contains centers that control body temperature ("thermoregulation"),
hunger and hence eating, and water balance and hence thirst. It also produces
two hormones, Anti-Diuretic Hormones and oxytocin, which are then secreted from the
posterior pituitary See also more about the hypothalamus
• Optic chiasma: It is formed by the two optic nerves, one from each eye, crossing over
just above and anterior to the pituitary gland so that the optic nerve from the right eye
passes to the left-hemisphere of the visual cortex and vice-versa.
• Pituitary gland: The pituitary gland is a pea-sized structure located at the base of the
brain, just below the hypothalamus, to which it is attached via nerve fibers. It is part of
the endocrine system and produces critical hormones, which are chemical substances that
control various bodily functions.
The main endocrine gland is a small structure in the head. It is called the master
gland because it produces hormones that control other glands and many body functions
including growth. The pituitary gland consists of interior and posterior pituitary gland.
Interior pituitary gland secretes 7 important hormones while posterior pituitary gland
secretes Anti-diuretic hormone, which controls water balance and blood pressure.
Oxytocin, which stimulates uterine contractions during labour and milk secretion during
breastfeeding.
• Mammillary body: Mammillary bodies and their projections to the anterior thalamus via
the mammillothalamic tract, are important for recollective memory. The
medial mammillary nucleus is mainly responsible for the spatial memory.
ii) Telencephalon
• The Cerebrum or Cerebral cortex

The cerebral cortex is the outermost thin layer of the brain that covers the outer portion (1.5mm
to 5mm) of the cerebrum. It is the largest part of the brain divided into two regions called
 10
Cognitive Neuroscience

Hemispheres, right associated with creativity and left associated with logic. It is covered by
the meninges and often referred to as grey matter.
Cerebral Cortex Functions:
The cerebral cortex is involved in several functions of the body including:
• Determining Intelligence
• Determining Personality
• Motor Function
• Planning and Organization
• Touch Sensation
• Processing Sensory Information
• Language Processing
The cerebral cortex is divided into two hemispheres each of which is sub-divided into four lobes,
the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the temporal lobe and the occipital lobe.

a) Frontal Lobe (Higher mental functions) associated with reasoning, planning, parts of
speech, movement, memory formation, personality, emotions, and problem solving.
• Primary Motor Cortex (Precentral Gyrus)
Cortical site involved with controlling movements of the body.
• Broca Area:
Controls facial neurons and speech production. It is located on Left Frontal Lobe.
Broca’s Aphasia: Results in the ability to comprehend speech, but the decreased motor
ability (or inability) to speak and form words.

b) Parietal Lobe associated with movement, orientation, recognition, reading, perception of

stimuli.
• Primary Somatosensory Cortex (Postcentral Gyrus):
Site involved with processing of tactile and proprioceptive information.
• Somatosensory Association Cortex:
Assists with the integration and interpretation of sensations relative to body position and
orientation in space. May assist with Visio-motor coordination.
• Primary Gustatory Cortex:
Primary site involved with the interpretation of the sensation of Taste.

c) Occipital Lobe associated with visual processing and color perception.

• Primary Visual Cortex:
This is the primary area of the brain responsible for sight -recognition of size, color, light,
motion, dimensions, etc.
• Visual Association Area:
Interprets information acquired through the primary visual cortex.
 11
Cognitive Neuroscience

d) Temporal Lobe associated with perception and recognition of auditory stimuli,

information retrieval (memory and memory formation) and speech.
• Primary Auditory Cortex:

Responsible for hearing.

• Primary Olfactory Cortex:

Interprets the sense of smell once it reaches the cortex via the olfactory bulbs.

• Wernicke’s Area:

It is responsible for language comprehension and is located on the Left Temporal Lobe.
Wernicke’s Aphasia
Language comprehension is inhibited. Words and sentences are not clearly understood, and
sentence formation may be inhibited or won’t make sense.
• Arcuate Fasciculus:
A white matter tract that connects Broca’s Area and Wernicke’s Area through the Temporal,
Parietal and Frontal Lobes. Allows for coordinated, comprehensible speech. Damage may
result in:
Conduction Aphasia:
Where auditory comprehension and speech articulation are preserved, but people find it
difficult to repeat heard speech.

Particular areas of the cerebral cortex process specific types or categories of sensory, motor and
integrative signals. Of the many functional areas of the cerebrum, only the forebrain (frontal
cortex) and the visual center are labelled above.

• Gyri: Elevated ridges “winding” around the brain. (singular, gyrus).

• Sulci: Small grooves dividing the gyri.
Central Sulcus: Divides the Frontal Lobe from the Parietal Lobe.
• Fissures: Deep grooves, generally dividing large regions/lobes of the brain.
Longitudinal Fissure: Divides the two Cerebral Hemispheres.
Transverse Fissure: Separates the Cerebrum from the Cerebellum.
Sylvian/Lateral Fissure: Divides the Temporal Lobe from the Frontal and Parietal
Lobes.
• Corpus callosum:
The Corpus Callosum is the part of the mind that allows communication between the two
hemispheres of the brain. It is responsible for transmitting neural messages between both
the right and left hemispheres.
 12
Cognitive Neuroscience

• Basal ganglia

The basal ganglia (or basal nuclei) are a group of nuclei of varied origin in the brains of
vertebrates that act as a cohesive functional unit. They are situated at the base of the forebrain
and are strongly connected with the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and other brain areas.
They are responsible primarily for motor control, as well as other roles such as motor learning,
executive functions and behaviors, and emotions. Disruption of the basal ganglia network forms
the basis for several movement disorders.
• Hippocampus
The hippocampus is a small organ located within the brain's medial temporal lobe and forms an
important part of the limbic system, the region that regulates emotions. The hippocampus is
associated mainly with memory, in particular long-term memory. The organ also plays an
important role in spatial navigation.
• Amygdala
There are two amygdalae per person normally, with one amygdala on each side of the brain.
They are thought to be a part of the limbic system within the brain, which is responsible
for emotions, survival instincts, and memory. The amygdala in humans also plays a role in
sexual activity and libido, or sex drive.
• Olfactory Bulb
Olfactory bulb, structure located in the forebrain of vertebrates that receives neural input
about odours detected by cells in the nasal cavity. The axons of olfactory receptor (smell
receptor) cells extend directly into the highly organized olfactory bulb, where information
about odours is processed.

Midbrain:
Midbrain, also called mesencephalon, region of the developing vertebrate brain that is composed
of the tectum and tegmentum. The midbrain serves important functions in motor movement,
particularly movements of the eye, and in auditory and visual processing.
i) Tectum
The tectum (Latin: roof) is a region of the brain, specifically the dorsal part of the midbrain
(mesencephalon). This is contrasted with the tegmentum, which refers to the region ventral to the
ventricular system. The tectum is responsible for auditory and visual reflexes.
ii) Tegmentum
The tegmentum (from Latin for "covering") is a general area within the brainstem. It is a multi-
synaptic network of neurons that is involved in many unconscious homeostatic and reflexive
pathways. It is a motor center that relays inhibitory signals to the thalamus and basal nuclei
preventing unwanted body movement.
Hindbrain:
It includes the medulla, pons, and cerebellum. Together they support vital bodily processes.
 13
Cognitive Neuroscience

Hindbrain has two main parts:

Metencephalon (medulla oblongata)
Myelencephalon (pons, cerebellum)
i) Myelencephalon

• Medulla
The medulla oblongata (or medulla) is located in the brainstem, anterior to the cerebellum. It is a
cone-shaped neuronal mass responsible for autonomic (involuntary) functions ranging
from vomiting to sneezing. The medulla contains the cardiac, respiratory, vomiting and
vasomotor centres and therefore deals with the autonomic functions of breathing, heart
rate and blood pressure.
ii) Metencephalon

• Pons
The pons contains nuclei that relay signals from the forebrain to the cerebellum, along with
nuclei that deal primarily with sleep, respiration, swallowing, bladder control, hearing,
equilibrium, taste, eye movement, facial expressions, facial sensation, and posture.

• Cerebellum
The cerebellum (in Latin also called small brain) is a vital part of the brain and is
primarily responsible for motor control. This includes muscle tone, equilibrium, and balance as
it relates to movement. Additionally, it seems the cerebellum may actually have additional
functions, including some cognitive and emotional functions.

Brain Stem:
The brain stem sits beneath the cerebrum and in front of the cerebellum. It connects the rest of
the brain to the spinal cord, which runs down your neck and back. The brain stem is in charge of
all the functions your body needs to stay alive, like breathing air, digesting food, and circulating
blood.
• Reticular Formation:
The reticular formation is a set of interconnected nuclei that are located throughout the brain
stem.
The reticular formation has projections to the thalamus and cerebral cortex that allow it to exert
some control over which sensory signals reach the cerebrum and come to our conscious
attention. It plays a central role in states of consciousness like alertness and sleep.
Central Core:
The Central Core is found in all vertebrates. Its five main regions help regulate basic life
processes, including breathing, pulse, arousal, movement, balance, sleep, and the early stage of
processing sensory information.
It consists of five major parts.
1) Thalamus 2) Pons 3) Medulla 4) Reticular Formation 5) Cerebellum
 14
Cognitive Neuroscience

Limbic System:
The structures of the limbic system are involved in motivation, emotion, learning, and memory.
The limbic system is where the subcortical structures meet the cerebral cortex.
It is very important because it controls behaviors essential to the life, such as the desire to eat and
drink. The cingulate gyrus is located in a fold of the brain, and is involved in sensory input for
emotions and regulating aggressive behavior. The diencephalon includes the thalamus and
hypothalamus.

NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL SENSING TECHNIQUE

A few years ago, neurologist had only a few tools and technique to use in the direct observation
and exploration of the human brain. These included excising of tissue electrical probes, EEG
recording, and postmortem examination. New instrument has been invented that have profoundly
accelerate our understanding of the brain and for our purposes. The new technology was
originally developed for the diagnosis of brain disorders but it has now become a valuable
research tool. Many of these new techniques scan the brain in one way or another. In such
procedures, a patient is placed in the center of the scanning instrument, which records impression
from within the cranium or other parts of the body. The scan produces a cross sectional image of
the brain or other body.
Types of Brain Scanning/ Neuroimaging:
1. Structural imaging: which deals with the structure of the nervous system and the
diagnosis of gross (large scale) intracranial disease (such as tumor) and injury.
2. Functional imaging: which is used to diagnose metabolic diseases and lesions on a finer
scale (such as Alzheimer's disease) and also for neurological and cognitive psychology
research and building brain-computer interfaces.
The purpose of a scan is to give your doctor a closer look at your brain and to provide
information that will assist in your diagnosis.
Types of Scanning techniques:
Scanning techniques include:
• Electroencephalogram (EEG):
An electroencephalogram (EEG) is a test used to find problems related to electrical activity of
the brain. An EEG tracks and records brain wave patterns. Small metal discs with thin wires
(electrodes) are placed on the scalp, and then send signals to a computer to record the results.
• Computed Tomography (CT Scan):
This scan combines an x-ray-type device with a computer. A CT scan makes use of computer-
processed combinations of many X-ray measurements taken from different angles to produce
cross-sectional (tomographic) images (virtual "slices") of specific areas of a scanned object,
allowing the user to see inside the object without cutting.
 15
Cognitive Neuroscience

CT produces a volume of data that can be manipulated in order to demonstrate various bodily,
Structures based on their ability to absorb the X-ray beam. Although, historically, the images
generated were in the axial or transverse plane, perpendicular to the long axis of the body,
modern scanners allow this volume of data to be reformatted in various planes or even as
volumetric (3D) representations of structures.

• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI):

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a test that uses a magnetic field and pulses of radio wave
energy to make pictures of organs and structures inside the body. In many cases, MRI gives
different information about structures in the body than can be seen with an X-ray, ultrasound, or
computed tomography (CT) scan. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is done for many reasons.
It is used to find problems such as tumors, bleeding, injury, blood vessel diseases, or infection.
MRI to show abnormal tissue more clearly.
MRI can look at the brain for tumors, an aneurysm, bleeding in the brain, nerve injury, and other
problems, such as damage caused by a stroke. MRI can also find problems of the eyes and optic
nerves and the ears and auditory nerves.
Head: MRI can look at the brain for tumors, an aneurysm, bleeding in the brain, nerve injury,
and other problems, such as damage caused by a stroke. MRI can also find problems of the
eyes and optic nerves camera.gif, and the ears and auditory nerves.
Spine: MRI can check the discs and nerves of the spine for conditions such as spinal
stenosis, disc bulges, and spinal tumors.
TYPES OF MRI:
On basis of functioning MRI has following types:
i. Flow-Sensitive MRI (FS MRI): This type of combines functional MRI with images of
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flow. FS MRI can be useful in planning the surgical removal of
a skull base tumor, spinal cord tumor, or a tumor causing hydrocephalus (fluid buildup on
the brain).
ii. Functional MRI (fMRI): fMRI produces MRI images in a faster sequence than
traditional MRI. The increased speed shows how oxygen is used in the brain. Prior to or
during surgery, fMRI may be useful for showing which areas of the brain control
important functions so that these areas can be avoided during the procedure.
Because fMRI is exquisitely sensitive to oxygen usage in blood flow, it is extremely
sensitive to early changes in the brain resulting from ischemia (abnormally low blood
flow), such as the changes which follow stroke.
iii. Dynamic CT or Dynamic MRI: Advances in computer technology have made it
possible to use existing scanning equipment to measure cerebral blood volume (CBV)
and cerebral blood flow (CBF). Contrast dye is injected, and the scanner immediately
starts taking pictures. These new methods provide even better tools for diagnosis.
iv. Angiography and MRI Angiography (MRA): Angiography is used to outline the
presence and position of blood vessels in the brain. MRA uses a rapid series of MRI
scans to follow the blood flow. It can be done with or without the injection of contrast
dye.
 16
Cognitive Neuroscience

v. Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS): MRS produces images that show function
rather than shape. This technique can show patterns of activity that may be helpful in
diagnosing specific tumors and conditions. This technique may also be used to determine
how advanced a tumor is.
• Positron Emission Tomography (PET, FDG-PET): Positron emission tomography (PET)
measures emissions from radioactively labeled metabolically active chemicals that have been
injected into the bloodstream. The emission data are computer-processed to produce 2- or 3-
dimensional images of the distribution of the chemicals throughout the brain.
The greatest benefit of PET scanning is that different compounds can show blood flow and
oxygen and glucose metabolism in the tissues of the working brain. These measurements
reflect the amount of brain activity in the various regions of the brain and allow to learn more
about how the brain works.
• Single Photon Emission Computerized Tomography (SPECT): Single-photon emission
computed tomography (SPECT) is similar to PET and uses gamma ray-emitting
radioisotopes and a gamma camera to record data that a computer uses to construct two- or
three-dimensional images of active brain regions. SPECT relies on an injection of radioactive
tracer, or "SPECT agent," which is rapidly taken up by the brain but does not redistribute.
Uptake of SPECT agent is nearly 100% complete within 30 to 60 seconds, reflecting cerebral
blood flow (CBF) at the time of injection.
• Magnetoencephalography (MEG): Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is an imaging
technique used to measure the magnetic fields produced by electrical activity in the brain via
extremely sensitive devices such as superconducting quantum interference devices
(SQUIDs). MEG offers a very direct measurement of neural electrical activity (compared to
fMRI for example) with very high temporal resolution but relatively low spatial resolution.
• Diffuse Optical Imaging: Diffuse optical imaging (DOI) or diffuse optical tomography
(DOT) is a medical imaging modality which uses near infrared light to generate images of
the body. The technique measures the optical absorption of hemoglobin, and relies on
the absorption spectrum of hemoglobin varying with its oxygenation status. High-density
diffuse optical tomography (HD-DOT) has been compared directly to fMRI using response to
visual stimulation in subjects studied with both techniques, with reassuringly similar results
HD-DOT has also been compared to fMRI in terms of language tasks and resting state
functional connectivity.
• Event-related Optical Signal (EROS): It is a brain-scanning technique which uses infrared
light through optical fibers to measure changes in optical properties of active areas of the
cerebral cortex. EROS takes advantage of the scattering properties of the neurons themselves,
and thus provides a much more direct measure of cellular activity. EROS can pinpoint
activity in the brain within millimeters (spatially) and within milliseconds (temporally). Its
biggest downside is the inability to detect activity more than a few centimeters deep. EROS
is a new, relatively inexpensive technique that is non-invasive to the test subject.