CIVL 4651

HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES

LECTURE NOTES

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR

cbayindir@itu.edu.tr
Office #: Hydraulics Lab 216- See syllabus for details

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 1

 COURSE OUTLINE
Week 1: Closed conduit flow.
Week 2: Head loss and minor losses.
Week 3: Analysis of pipe networks.
Week 4: Multiple reservoir pipe networks.
Week 5: Open channel flow. Uniform flow. Best hydraulic cross section.
Week 6: Specific energy. Rapidly varied flow. Hydraulic jump.
Week 7: Gradually varied flow. Water surface profiles.
Week 8: Hydrologic processes. Surface runoff. Hydrograph analysis.
Week 9: Reservoir and stream flow routing.
Week 10: Probabilistic hydraulics and hydrologic design.
Week 11: Water distribution and management.
Week 12: Water for hydroelectric generation.
Week 13: Design of spillways and energy dissipaters.
Week 14: Flood and storm water. Miscellaneous.

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 2

 Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Closed conduit is called a pipe (round x-section) or duct (if it is not round x-section).

Laminar or turbulent flow:

Laminar flow: Re<2100;

Transitional flow: 2100≤Re<4000;
Turbulent flow: Re≥ 4000;
Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 3
 Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Entrance region and fully developed flow:

For laminar flow

For turbulent
flow

Pressure and shear stress:

For horizontal pipe flow no gravity effects are

present, the pressure drop is balanced by the
viscous forces.

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 4

 Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
If the fluid is flowing full in a pipe under pressure with no openings to the atmosphere or air/water
interface, it is called a ‘closed conduit flow ’ or ‘pressured flow’. The typical example: pipe flows.

Considering the cylindrical piper with diameter D

and the incompressible, steady flow in this pipe,
i. e. dV/dt=0, the pressure force components
can be written as:

The body weight along flow direction:

The shearing force along flow direction:

Combining these terms, the EOM becomes:

Since the flow is steady and incompressible, as well as the pipe diameter is constant flow
velocity will not change. Thus, acceleration=0
Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 5
Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
The governing equation reduces to:
giving

On the pipe wall r=D/2 and the shear stress at pipe wall becomes:
Combining these two equations we get:

or by using r=D/2-y

So that shear stress varies linearly

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 6

Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
The Laminar Flow (Hagen-Poiseuille Flow)
Shear stress in a Newtonian fluid is defined by:

Using this expression in gives:

By integrating the last expression we obtain:

Using the BC of u=0 @ y=0 the constant
can be evaluated as cons=0

Additionally if we use the

shear velocity (friction velocity): and kinematic viscosity: we get

or
Mean flow velocity
which shows a can be computed
parabolic using:
behavior

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 7

Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
The Laminar Flow (Hagen-Poiseuille Flow):

which leads to using and

which is the mean velocity for laminar flow. This relation shows that
pressure drop per unit length and mean velocity are proportional.

Since the flow is steady and incompressible we can calculate the flowrate by:
For horizontal pipe,
α=0 giving:

Turbulent Flow:

In high Re flows, the flow in the viscous

sublayer is laminar, but turbulent in the center
zone (core).

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 8

Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Turbulent Flow: i) Inside viscous sublayer: Since viscous sublayer is thin we can argue
that: which leads to:

Carrying out the integral gives

where the cons=0 can be found using

the BC of u=0 @ y=0, as before. Using we get:

which indicates a linear velocity profile in the viscous sublayer, verified by

experiments!

The thickness of the viscous sublayer observed in experiments:

(Other definitons based on Blasius BL etc.. also exist)

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 9

Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Turbulent Flow: i) Inside viscous sublayer: An example:
For a pipe with D=10 cm and Q=2 lt/s and for water with kinematic viscosity of as υ=10-6
cm2/s, the shear velocity can be calculted as u*≈0.0045 cm/s. Thus the corresponding viscous
sublayer thickness becomes δ=11.6 υ/ u* ≈0.0026 cm, a very thin layer!
Turbulent Flow: ii) Inside central zone (core): The flow is turbulent in the core, thus the shear
stress becomes:
where does this term arises? Use Reynolds decomposition in NS for
turbulence

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 10

Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Turbulent Flow: ii) Inside central zone (core): The flow is turbulent in the core, thus the shear
stress becomes:
Momentum equations yield:

Time averaging gives:

The additional term rising on the RHS is the Reynolds stress

term:

Thus we can use the 2D eqn:

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 11

Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Fully developed turbulent flow in pipe: Turbulent shear stress:

Reynolds stress
If flow is laminar u’=v’=0 giving:

In the core, turbulent stress is

significantly greater than laminar
stress! Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 12
Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
where μT is the eddy viscosity. Instead
of eddy viscosity mixing lenght, l is also used:

Experiments indicate that l=0.4 y in the viscous sublayer where τ ≈τ0. Here 0.4 is the Von Karman’s
constant

We need a BC to evaluate this constant! The velocity at the bottom of the core= thevelocity at the
top of the viscous sublayer

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 13

Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
So the velocity profile in turbulent flow can be obtained using

The average velocity of the flow can be computed using

which gives the average velocity as

HW: Derive these equations.

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 14

Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Alternative definitions of the turbulent velocity profile:
Dimensional analysis and experiments give the
velocity profile far from wall as:

We do not use these equations in this course!!!

Power-law velocity
profile (n=7) is a
common choice:

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 15

Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Definition of rough and smooth pipe:
Until here we assumed that there is no roughness in the pipe: smooth pipe!
However in reality there is always a roughness which affects resistance, friction and head loss.

Remember the viscous sublayer thickness is

given by:

Based on this thickness, flows can be

classified into three subcategories:

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 16

Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Definition of rough and smooth pipe:
Based on this thickness, flows can be classified into three subcategories:

Hydraulically smooth
flow

Wholly rough flow

Transition flow

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 17

Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
For wholly rough flow:
To obtain the velocity profile we can go back to previous analysis and use:
However, in order to evaluate the cons. The BC will be different.
There is no viscous sublayer! Experiments suggests using:

which leads to

Similarly, the mean velocity in the pipe becomes:

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 18

 Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Head (Energy Losses): The total loss in the head (energy) is hL=hLmajor+hLminor
The quantity Head loss due to viscous Head loss due to various
effect in straight pipes pipe components such as
is termed as Darcy-Weisbach elbows, valves …
friction factor, f.
For laminar flow f=64/Re, f is independent of the relative
roughness ks/D.
For turbulent flow the experimental values are used, we will see
The energy equation is: the Moody’s chart shortly!

Assuming constant diameter (D1=D2 so V1=V2),

horizontal pipe (z1=z2), fully developed flow (α1= α2)

In general for the flows with V1=V2 and the

which gives the Darcy- elevation head terms are taken into account the
Weisbach equation as: energy equation becomes:

Nikuradse 1933 did experiments with

sand, gave experimental results for f.
Colebrook and Moody correlated his
original data.

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 19

Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Head (Energy Losses):

Energy grade line

Hydraulic grade line =

Piezometric line

For constant x-section,

V1=V2

We can define energy Using these

line slope (hydraulic slope), J: equations:

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 20

Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Head (Energy Losses):

Cavitation due to negative pressures may

damage pipeline elements!

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 21

Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Head (Energy Losses):
Using the definition of the shear velocity and previous eqn’s: We can describe the hydraulic
slope in terms of shear
velocity:

Mathematical relations between u* and V:

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 22

Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Head (Energy Losses):
The shear velocity, u* given in the last equation can be replaced with the V in the tables giving
Darcy-Weisbach friction factor, f,:

The Darcy-Weisbach friction

factor is found empirically as
discussed before. Summarizing
the empirical results:

In the literature for Re<105

the Blasius equation is also
used instead of this equation

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 23

Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Head (Energy Losses):

Summary of the Table:

1) For laminar flow (Re<2000), the friction factor depends only on the Reynolds number.

2) For turbulent flow (Re ≥ 2000):

2.i) For smooth flows the friction factor is a function of the Reynolds number.

2.ii) For transition flows, the friction factor depends on Reynolds number and
relative roughness, ks/D.

2.iii) For wholly rough flows the friction factor is a function of relative roughness, ks/D

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 24

Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Approximate explicit forms of the Darcy-Weisbach forms:

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 25

 Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Head losses in a pipe: Moody’s chart can be used to find the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor:

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 26

 Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Head losses in a pipe: Moody’s chart: An example:

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 27

 Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Head losses in a pipe: Noncircular Cross Section: Hydraulic Radius
Pipes generally have circular cross sections. However, in the case of ducts we see noncircular cross
sections

For steady uniform flow, the acceleration=0

For circular pipes the hydraulic radius

becomes

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 28

 Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Head losses in a pipe: Noncircular Cross Section: Hydraulic Radius

Some examples:

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 29

Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Minor (Local) Losses: The total loss in the head (energy) is hL=hLmajor+hLminor
Head loss due to viscous effect Head loss due to various pipe
in straight pipes components such as elbows,
Now lets discuss minor losses: valves …

where is the loss coefficient

In many texts, KL is used to

represent this coefficient!

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 30

Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Minor (Local) Losses: Head loss due to abrupt expansion:
Time rate of change of momentum=
Net force

Continuity gives:

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 31

Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Minor (Local) Losses: Head loss due to abrupt expansion:
Applying the Bernoulli eq. between 1-2

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 32

Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Minor (Local) Losses: Head loss due to abrupt expansion:
which eventually leads to Borda-Carnot
eqn:

Loss coefficient can be found using:

Local energy loss is

due to geometry!

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 33

Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Minor (Local) Losses: Head loss due to abrupt expansion: An example:

Since A2>>A1, A1/A20, ξ1

Head losses also occur at the exits, where V2=0, all shapes lead to similar results!
Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 34
Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Head losses in a pipe: Minor losses: Head loss due to abrupt contraction:

Contraction coefficient,
Cc, defined as:

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 35

Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Head losses in a pipe: Minor losses: Head loss due to abrupt contraction: An example:
Question: At an abrupt contraction in a pressured pipe flow, Q = 1 m3/sec, D1 = 0.80 m, D2 = 0.40
m. Calculate the local head when contraction coefficient is CC = 0.60. Solution:

Alternatively:

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 36

Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Head losses in a pipe: Minor losses: Head loss due to abrupt contraction: An example:
Two reservoirs is connected with a pipe length
L. What is the elevation difference between the
water surfaces of the reservoir? Draw the
energy and hydraulic grade line of the system.

i) Minor head loss at

the entrance

ii) Major head loss

along pipe

iii) Minor head loss

at exit

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 37

Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Head losses in a pipe: Minor losses:
Head losses also occur due to changes in the pipe x-section:

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 38

Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Head losses in a pipe: Minor losses:

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 39

Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Head losses in a pipe: Minor losses:
However losses can be quite different if the contraction/expansion is gradual: Loss coefficient for a
typical conical diffuser
Optimum angle θ≈8 degrees

In a conical contraction however (it the flow direction in this figure is changed), quite different
results such as KL=0.02 for θ=30 degrees and KL=0.07 for θ=60 degrees can be observed!

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 40

Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Head losses in a pipe: Minor losses:
Bends in pipes produce greater head loss than the straight pipes, due to separated flow.

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 41

Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Head losses in a pipe: Minor losses:
Other important components of pipe systems are elbows, tees, reducers, valves, filters.

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 42

Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Head losses in a pipe: Non circular cross section:
No well defined diameter, instead use hydraulic diameter and hydraulic radius:
Hydraulic diameter is:

Reynolds number based on Dh

gives:

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr.

Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2

43
Week 1 & 2: Closed conduit flow. Head loss and minor losses.
Multiple pipe systems:

Need to solve the

system matrices for complicated and
unsteady flows.
Generally by computer!

Lecture Notes by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan BAYINDIR-Week 1 & 2 44