coatings

Review
Research Progress of Failure Mechanism of Thermal
Barrier Coatings at High Temperature via Finite
Element Method
Zhong-Chao Hu 1,2 , Bin Liu 3, *, Liang Wang 2, *, Yu-Hang Cui 1 , Yan-Wei Wang 1 , Yu-Duo Ma 1 ,
Wen-Wei Sun 1 and Yong Yang 1, *
1 School of Material Science and Engineering, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300130, China;
zchu_siccas@126.com (Z.-C.H.); cuiyuhanghebut@163.com (Y.-H.C.); wywfxj999395@163.com (Y.-W.W.);
myd981974318@163.com (Y.-D.M.); sunwenweihebut@163.com (W.-W.S.)
2 Integrated Computational Materials Research Centre, Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Shanghai 201899, China
3 Corrosion and Protection Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Superlight Materials and Surface
Technology (Harbin Engineering University), Ministry of Education, Nantong ST 145, Harbin 150001, China
* Correspondence: liubin@hrbeu.edu.cn (B.L.); L.Wang@mail.sic.ac.cn (L.W.); yangyong@hebut.edu.cn (Y.Y.)




Received: 16 June 2020; Accepted: 20 July 2020; Published: 25 July 2020


Abstract: In the past decades, the durability of thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) has been extensively
studied. The majority of researches emphasized the problem of oxidation, corrosion, and erosion
induced by foreign object damage (FOD). TBCs with low thermal conductivity are usually coated on the
hot-section components of the aircraft engine. The main composition of the TBCs is top-coat, which is
usually regarded as a wear-resistant and heat-insulating layer, and it will significantly improve
the working temperature of the hot-section components of the aircraft engine. The application of
TBCs are serviced under a complex and rigid environment. The external parts of the TBCs are
subjected to high-temperature and high-pressure loading, and the inner parts of the TBCs have
a large thermal stress due to the different physical properties between the adjacent layers of the
TBCs. To improve the heat efficiency of the hot-section components of aircraft engines, the working
temperature of the TBCs should be improved further, which will result in the failure mechanism
becoming more and more complicated for TBCs; thus, the current study is focusing on reviewing the
failure mechanism of the TBCs when they are serviced under the actual high temperature conditions.
Finite element simulation is an important method to study the failure mechanism of the TBCs,
especially under some extremely rigid environments, which the experimental method cannot realize.
In this paper, the research progress of the failure mechanism of TBCs at high temperature via finite
element modeling is systematically reviewed.

Keywords: thermal barrier coatings (TBCs); finite element method; thermal-mechanical; TGO
(thermally growth oxide); failure mechanism

1. Introduction
Since the application of gas turbines in related industrial fields in the 20th century, the research
of gas turbines has performed a vital function in promoting the development of national energy.
The efficiency of gas turbines has been affected by gas temperature and compressor compression
ratio [1]. With the demand for combustion efficiency and thrust weight ratio of gas turbines becoming
stricter and stricter, hot-section components have undergone development from alloy to single-crystal
nickel-based superalloy materials under the continuous exploration of researchers since the 1940s.
The working temperature was also raised from 760 to 1150 ◦ C. Nevertheless, they are still unable to

Coatings 2020, 10, 732; doi:10.3390/coatings10080732 www.mdpi.com/journal/coatings

Coatings 2020, 10, 732 2 of 25

meet the performance requirements of high temperature resistance, high strength, corrosion resistance,
and so on. It needs coating protection to avoid damage of the substrate. With the increase in working
temperature, it is more and more difficult to further raise the working temperature of gas turbine
material. Thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) and high-pressure air cooling are required to reduce the
working temperature of the aircraft (Figure 1). However, the assembly of cooling equipment not
only increases the load of the aircraft, but also brings potential safety hazards, which limits the flight
distance. Therefore, plasma-sprayed TBCs have become one of the crucial means to reduce the working
temperature of the hot-section component of aero-engines and gas turbines. TBC technology has become
a core technology to provide cooling to aircraft engines and turbine blades. The existence of TBCs
enables working parts to withstand higher temperatures and protects them from wear, oxidation, and
erosion. The application of advanced TBCs on the hot-section components of gas turbines can ensure
that the substrate works at high temperatures, which will significantly improve the thermal efficiency
of the aircraft [2,3]. With the development of TBC technology and its wide recognition, it has attracted
the attention of quite a few scholars. Carter et al. [4] illustrated the common failure mechanisms
found in gas turbine blades, many factors that shorten the lifetime of gas turbine were considered,
such as mechanical damage, high temperature damage, high temperature exposure, creep failures, etc.
Clarke et al. [5] emphasized that the improvement of thrust-weight ratio and reliability of gas turbines
is closely related to the development of thermal barrier coating technology. There is an acute need
for high-temperature protective coatings in the fields of aerospace, energy, and the nuclear industry.
Many scholars have carried out various research works on TBCs [2,6–14]. It has been found that
the failure caused by TBCs is unavoidable under the conditions of high temperature and long-term
usage. During thermal cycling, the failure of atmospheric plasma-sprayed thermal barrier coatings
(APS-TBCs) usually occurs in the surface layer near the interface. This is due to the thermal mechanical
stress caused by the mismatch of the thermal expansion coefficient between the adjacent layers in the
TBCs during thermal cycling. The existing method of APS leads to crack propagation at the interface.
With the release of energy in the process of grain growth, transverse or longitudinal cracks are formed.
The uneven distribution of cracks will lead to the delamination of coatings during cooling, the coatings
on the surface of hot-section component will peel off, thus affecting the service life of gas turbines [15].
Reliability and durability are two key factors determining the service lifetime of TBCs [14]. Reliability
requires that the TBCs have strong bonding strength, high thermal insulation, low residual stress, and
outstanding high-temperature oxidation resistance. The durability of TBCs requires that the TBCs have
a long service lifetime under actual working conditions [13,14]. Distribution of temperature field and
residual stress are two important aspects of TBCs under actual application conditions. Effective thermal
conductivity or thermal insulation effect is usually calculated by the distribution of temperature field
across the whole coatings. The temperature distribution of TBCs can be calculated via finite element
method (FEM). Residual stress is also essential to TBCs, and it will affect the failure modes and service
lifetime of TBCs. In fact, residual stress will occur in the TBCs during the manufacturing process.
Additionally, under the conditions of thermal shock and high-temperature oxidation, residual stress
can be also induced, which makes the coating peel off directly. It is a common phenomenon that
the coating peeling restricts the wide application of TBCs. TBCs usually operate under alternate
cooling and heating conditions. Therefore, improving thermal shock resistance is a direct and effective
way to prolong the lifetime of TBCs. With the renewal of the engine, the higher thrust weight ratio
leads the TBCs to the direction of ultra-high temperature, low thermal conductivity, and long lifetime.
Correspondingly, the research on the structure system and preparation technology of ultra-high
temperature TBCs, as well as the characterization of advanced TBCs in a complex working environment
need to be further explored [16]. However, the preparation of TBCs with excellent performance via
experimental method is a complex process, and there are many unknown factors, which need further
exploration. The finite element simulation is helpful to optimize the preparation process and the
coating structure, save research time and cost, and make the research work more efficient. Finite
element simulation can help us to find the optimal process and the coating structure under specific
Coatings 2020, 10, 732 3 of 25

target conditions [17]. Before designing excellent TBCs, the layered structure, micro-structure, and
Coatings 2020,
Coatings 10,10,
2020, x FOR PEER
x FOR REVIEW
PEER REVIEW 3 of 25 25
3 of
related manufacturing technology of various TBCs should be understood. The moving process of the
spray gun in plasma-sprayed TBCs is denoted in Figure 2. The following is the research status of the
process
process of of
thethe
spray gun
spray gunin in
plasma-sprayed
plasma-sprayed TBCs
TBCs is denoted in in
is denoted Figure
Figure 2. 2.
The following
The followingis the research
is the research
dominating factors affecting the failure modes and life evaluation of TBCs.
status
statusof of
thethe
dominating
dominating factors affecting
factors thethe
affecting failure
failuremodes and
modes andlifelife
evaluation
evaluation of of
TBCs.
TBCs.

Figure
Figure
Figure 1. Hot-section
1. 1. Hot-section
Hot-section component
component
component model
model
model of thermal
of of barrier
thermal
thermal coatings.
barrier
barrier (a)
coatings.
coatings. The
(a)(a)
TheTheinterior appointments
interior
interior appointments
appointments of of
of
thethe
the turbine;
turbine;
turbine; (b)(b)
(b) Yttria
Yttria stabilized
Yttria
stabilized zirconia
stabilized
zirconia (YSZ)
zirconia
(YSZ) thermal
(YSZ) thermal
thermal barrier coatings;
barrier
barrier coatings;
coatings; (c)(c)
(c) thermal
thermal
thermal barrier coatings
barrier
barrier coatings
coatings
(TBC)
(TBC)coated onon
coated thethe
turbine blade.
turbine Adapted
blade. Adapted with permission
with permissionfrom
from[13]; Copyright
[13]; Copyright 2016 Elsevier.
2016
2016 Elsevier.
Elsevier.

Figure
Figure2. (a) The
2. (a) microstructure
The of of
microstructure as-sprayed
thethe coating
as-sprayed (b)(b)
coating Raster pattern
Raster in in
pattern x–yx–y
thethe plane forfor
plane oneone
cycle of of
cycle gungunmovement
movement[18].
[18].

2. Structure and
2. 2.
Structure and Preparation
Preparation Technology
Technology of TBCs
ofof
TBCs
Structure and Preparation Technology TBCs
2.1. Structure Model of TBCs
2.1. Structure
2.1. Model
Structure Model of of
TBCs
TBCs
TBCs have been widely used in many industrial fields related to energy and power because
TBCs
TBCs have
have been
beenwidely used
widely usedin in
many
many industrial
industrial fields related
fields relatedto to
energy
energy and
andpower
power because
becauseof of
of their excellent high-temperature resistance, high thermal insulation, and corrosion resistance.
their excellent
their high-temperature
excellent high-temperature resistance,
resistance, high
highthermal
thermal insulation,
insulation, and corrosion
and corrosionresistance.
resistance.TBCs
TBCs
TBCs are an important inorganic coating, which consists of the ceramic oxide layer and bond-coat.
areare
ananimportant
important inorganic
inorganic coating, which
coating, which consists
consists of of
thethe
ceramic
ceramic oxide
oxidelayer
layerand
andbond-coat.
bond-coat. While
While
While spraying on the base of superalloy material, the influence of high temperature on the hot-section
spraying
spraying ononthethebase of of
base superalloy
superalloy material,
material, thethe
influence
influence of of
high
hightemperature
temperature onon
thethe
hot-section
hot-section
components has been reduced, thus the service temperature is reduced and the working efficiency of
components
components has
hasbeen
beenreduced, thus
reduced, thethe
thus service
service temperature
temperature is is
reduced
reduced andandthethe
working
working efficiency of of
efficiency
gas turbine has been improved [19]. The common TBCs can be divided into three types: double-layer
gas turbine
gas turbinehas
hasbeen improved
been improved [19]. The
[19]. Thecommon
common TBCs
TBCs can bebe
can divided
divided into
intothree types:
three double-layer
types: double-layer
structure coatings, multi-layer structure coatings, and functional gradient coatings, as shown in
structure
structurecoatings,
coatings,multi-layer
multi-layerstructure
structurecoatings,
coatings,and andfunctional
functionalgradient
gradientcoatings,
coatings,asasshown
shownin in
Figure 3.
Figure
Figure3. 3.
Coatings 2020, 10, 732 4 of 25
Coatings 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 25

Figure 3. Main structural

structural systems of thermal
thermal barrier
barrier coatings.
coatings. (a) Typical
Typical double-layer
double-layer thermal
thermal barrier
barrier
coating; (b) multi-layer
multi-layer thermal barrier coating; (c) Electron beam-physical vapor deposition (EB-PVD)
gradient thermal barrier
barrier coating.
coating.

2.1.1. Double-Layer Structure Coating

2.1.1. Double-Layer Structure Coating
As for the classical double-layer structure coating, TBCs are composed of a ceramic layer and
As for the classical double-layer structure coating, TBCs are composed of a ceramic layer and
bond-coat. The thickness of the ceramic layer is generally less than 300 µm, and the thickness of the
bond-coat. The thickness of the ceramic layer is generally less than 300 μm, and the thickness of the
bond-coat is generally less than 150 µm. The ceramic surface made of oxide ceramics has the functions
bond-coat is generally less than 150 μm. The ceramic surface made of oxide ceramics has the functions
of heat insulation and corrosion resistance. In addition, the bond-coat consisting of metal alloys can
of heat insulation and corrosion resistance. In addition, the bond-coat consisting of metal alloys can
enhance the bonding strength between the substrate and the ceramic surface and weaken the mismatch
enhance the bonding strength between the substrate and the ceramic surface and weaken the
of thermal expansion between the two layers, and at the same time enhance the high-temperature
mismatch of thermal expansion between the two layers, and at the same time enhance the high-
oxidation resistance of the substrate [20].
temperature oxidation resistance of the substrate [20].
2.1.2. Multi-Layer Structure Coating Model
2.1.2. Multi-Layer Structure Coating Model
Multi-layer structure coatings are composed of a ceramic layer, bond-coat, and multi-layer
Multi-layer structure coatings are composed of a ceramic layer, bond-coat, and multi-layer
immediate layer with different functions, in which the immediate layer can include a self-healing layer
immediate layer with different functions, in which the immediate layer can include a self-healing
and/or an insulation layer.
layer and/or an insulation layer.
Double-layer TBCs are a widely used coating structure model because of their high thermal
Double-layer TBCs are a widely used coating structure model because of their high thermal
insulation, high interfacial bonding strength, and relatively low preparation cost. However, the thermal
insulation, high interfacial bonding strength, and relatively low preparation cost. However, the
and physical properties of the ceramic layer and the bond-coat are quite different. During cooling from
thermal and physical properties of the ceramic layer and the bond-coat are quite different. During
the high temperature, residual stress is easy to induce in the coating, and cracks occur easily at the
cooling from the high temperature, residual stress is easy to induce in the coating, and cracks occur
interface, which eventually contributes to the ceramic layer falling off and the service lifetime would not
easily at the interface, which eventually contributes to the ceramic layer falling off and the service
reach the expected value. Moreover, the service process of TBCs at high temperature and the complex
lifetime would not reach the expected value. Moreover, the service process of TBCs at high
environment of high-pressure results in many unfavorable factors which can accelerate the failure of
temperature and the complex environment of high-pressure results in many unfavorable factors
the TBCs, such as thermal stress, mechanical stress, chemical reaction of coatings at high temperature,
which can accelerate the failure of the TBCs, such as thermal stress, mechanical stress, chemical
and thermal corrosion. In order to prolong the service lifetime of coatings and reduce the failure of the
reaction of coatings at high temperature, and thermal corrosion. In order to prolong the service
coating under various factors, the concept of multi-layer TBCs has been proposed. Compared with
lifetime of coatings and reduce the failure of the coating under various factors, the concept of multi-
double-layer TBCs, multi-layer TBCs add several layers with different functions between the ceramic
layer TBCs has been proposed. Compared with double-layer TBCs, multi-layer TBCs add several
layer and the bond-coat. The interlayer coating can be a sealing layer, a heat insulation layer, a thermal
layers with different functions between the ceramic layer and the bond-coat. The interlayer coating
stress control layer, or a non-diffusion layer, etc [21]. Different multi-layer structure coatings have
can be a sealing layer, a heat insulation layer, a thermal stress control layer, or a non-diffusion layer,
different bond-coats, and their properties are also different [22]. For example, the blocking layer that
etc [21]. Different multi-layer structure coatings have different bond-coats, and their properties are
has been fabricated by Al2 O3 can reduce the diffusion of oxygen atoms, prevent oxidation reaction in
also different [22]. For example, the blocking layer that has been fabricated by Al2O3 can reduce the
the coating, and slow down the oxidation failure of the bond-coat.
diffusion of oxygen atoms, prevent oxidation reaction in the coating, and slow down the oxidation
failure of the bond-coat.
Coatings 2020, 10, 732 5 of 25

2.1.3. Functional Graded Thermal Barrier Coatings Model

The structural characteristics of functional graded coatings are as follows: the composition of
bond-coat and ceramic material between the coatings from metallic substrate to ceramic surfaces
exhibit continuous gradient changes [23].
In view of the premature failure of ceramic coatings, functional gradient coatings were proposed
by Japanese scholars in the 1990s. The structure and mechanical properties of functionally graded
coatings are continuous, with the composition of the coatings due to the gradient change between
the ceramic layer and the metallic substrate. This continuous structure can effectively alleviate the
thermal stress between the ceramic layer and the metallic substrate, and effectively improve the thermal
shock resistance of the coating [24]. Functionally graded TBCs have excellent thermal shock resistance
compared with double-layer TBCs, but the preparation is difficult and the repeatability limits the
practical application of functionally graded TBCs.
Besides the above three coatings, there are also coatings structure models such as thick coatings
and double ceramic TBCs. Thick coatings have a large thickness and good thermal insulation,
which can be used to improve the combustion temperature of fuel, such as double ceramic TBCs.
In addition, they play an important role in improving fuel combustion temperature and reducing
exhaust emissions. Nevertheless, the increase in thickness also leads to the increase in temperature
gradient and thermal stress in the coating. The increase in thermal stress and the temperature gradient
will cause failure of the coating far away from the substrate interface before the interface cracking.
This design of a double ceramic layer structure combines the advantages of two different ceramic
materials and complements each other’s shortcomings. The structure of double ceramic coatings is
to add an intermediate layer with a small difference in thermal expansion coefficient between the
zircon coating and the transition layer. Wang et al. [14] discovered that the thermal shock resistance of
La2 Zr2 O7 /YSZ double ceramic coatings has significantly improved compared to that of single La2 Zr2 O7
coatings. La2 Zr2 O7 /8YSZ double ceramic coatings were fabricated by Xu via Electron Beam-Physical
Vapor Deposition (EB-PVD) [25]. Besides, the thermal cycle test at 1373 K in an air furnace indicates
that the double ceramic layer TBCs have a higher thermal cycle lifetime than that of single ceramic
layer TBCs (LZ and YSZ). The research shows that this design can greatly prolong the thermal cycle
lifetime of coatings and significantly increase the service temperature of coatings. It will be one of the
effective ways to flourish ultra-high temperature TBCs in the future [26].

2.2. Preparation Technology of Thermal Barrier Coatings

The preparation methods of TBCs include electron beam-physical vapor deposition, (EB-PVD) [27],
plasma spray physical vapor deposition (PS-PVD) [28], and atmospheric plasma spray (APS) [29],
as shown in Table 1.
Coatings 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 25
Coatings
Coatings2020,
2020,10,
10,x xFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 6 6ofof2525
Coatings
Coatings2020,
Coatings 2020,10,
2020, 10,x xFOR
10, FORPEER
732 PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 6 6ofof2525 6 of 25
Coatings 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 25
Table 1. Comparison of EV-PVD, PS-PVD, APS.
Table
Table1.1.Comparison
ComparisonofofEV-PVD,
EV-PVD,PS-PVD,
PS-PVD,APS.
APS.
YSZ Microstructure Table
Table
Table
Failure Mechanism 1. Comparison
1.1.Comparison
Comparison of EV-PVD,
ofofEV-PVD,
EV-PVD,
Finite PS-PVD,PS-PVD,
PS-PVD,
Element APS. APS.
APS.
Model Experiment Model Reference
YSZ
YSZ Microstructure
Microstructure Failure
FailureMechanism
MechanismTable 1. ComparisonFinite
FiniteElement
Element
of EV-PVD, Model
Model
PS-PVD, APS. Experiment
ExperimentModel
Model Reference
Reference
YSZ
YSZ
YSZ Microstructure
Microstructure
Microstructure Failure
FailureMechanism
Failure Mechanism
Mechanism Finite Element
FiniteElement
Finite Model
ElementModel
Model Experiment
ExperimentModel
Experiment Model
Model Reference
Reference
Reference
YSZ Microstructure Failure Mechanism Finite Element Model Experiment Model Reference
Typical characteristic with ◆ In the process of thermal shock
Typical
Typicalcharacteristic
characteristic with ◆
with ◆InInthe
the _ In the
process
processofofprocess
thermal
thermal of
shock
shock
columnar grain, the with with ◆cooling,
◆InInthe cracks areofof
easy to cooling,
form from
EB-PVB Typical
Typicalcharacteristic
columnar
columnar
characteristic
grain,
grain,
Typicalthe
the
Typical cooling, the
cooling,
characteristic
characteristicwith
with
process
thermal
process
cracks
cracksare
are
thermal
shock
easythermal
easy
◆ In the processtotoformshock
shock
form
of from
fromshock
thermal
[3,8,27–33]
EB-PVB adjacent
EB-PVBcolumnar
columnar columnar
grain,
grain,the grains
the pores
cooling,and
cooling, propagate
cracks
cracks
cracks areare
are along
easy easy
easy the
to
totoform
form interface,
form
from
from
[3,8,27–33]
[3,8,27–33]
EB-PVB
EB-PVBadjacent
adjacent columnar
columnar
columnar grains
columnar grain,
grains
grain,pores
thepores
the and
and propagate
propagate
cooling, along
along
cracks arethetheinterface,
easy interface,
to form from [3,8,27–33]
[3,8,27–33]
are
EB-PVB leaned
adjacent with each
EB-PVB
columnar other pores
grains leadingandto premature
from pores failure
and the ofinterface,
TBCs.
propagate [3,8,27–33] [3,8,27–33]
adjacent
are
areleaned
columnar
adjacent
leanedwith each
adjacent
with
grains
columnar
each other pores
grains
other leading
columnar grains
leading totopropagate
and propagate
premature
pores along
along
failure the
failureofof
and propagate
premature
interface,
TBCs.
along the interface,
TBCs.
are
areleaned
leanedwith
with each
eachother
other leading
leading along the
totopremature
premature interface,
failure
failureofoffailure
TBCs.
TBCs.of TBCs.
are leaned
are leanedwith each
with eachother
other leading to premature
leading to premature
failure of TBCs.

★ The gap and F The pore gap

areand
thepore
mainare defects
★★The
Thegap
gapand and
the pore
pore
main are
arethe
defects main
theWith
main
which defects
defects
which exist ★in the columns. the
Typical characteristic with ★ ★The
Thegap
gapand The
and poregap
pore and
are
are pore
the are
main
theWith
main the main defects
defects
defects
which
whichexist
exist in
exist
inthein
the columns.
the columns.
columns. With the
With
the
PS-PVD Typical characteristic
Typical characteristicwith
with immersion
which
which exist
existof
which
in inhigh-speed
the
the
exist in
columns. the
columns. corrosives,
columns.
With
With the
thethe the
With [3–8,28,30–33]
PS-PVD feather-like Typical
columnar
Typical characteristic
characteristic with of
with the immersion of [3–8,28,30–33]
PS-PVDTypical
PS-PVDTypicalcharacteristic
characteristic
PS-PVD
feather-like columnar with immersion
with immersion
coating will ofhigh-speed
high-speed
immersion
be corroded
corrosives,
corrosives,
of high-speed
quickly,
the
the the
corrosives, [3–8,28,30–33]
[3–8,28,30–33]
[3–8,28,30–33]
PS-PVD feather-like
PS-PVD columnar
feather-like
feather-like immersion
immersion
columnar
columnar
coating willof ofhigh-speed
high-speed
high-speed
be corroded corrosives,
corrosives,
corrosives,
quickly, thethe
the [3–8,28,30–33]
[3–8,28,30–33]
feather-like
feather-likecolumnar
columnar coating
resulting will
in the be
coating corroded
will
failure be quickly,
corroded
ofquickly,
the quickly,
coating.
coating
coatingwill
resulting will bebecorroded
coating corroded
willofbe quickly,
corroded
resultingininthethefailure
resulting in the
failure ofthe
thecoating.
failure of the coating.
coating.
resulting quickly,
resultingininthethefailureresulting
failureofofthe incoating.
the
thecoating.
failure of the coating.
N A continuous crack
▲ A continuous network
▲ crack
A continuouscannetwork
formcrack can
network can
Exhibit
Exhibit lamellar lamellar
structure
Exhibit lamellar▲ structure
▲AAaccording
continuous
structure
continuous crack
crack network
networkcan can
Exhibit lamellar structure form according
form to the
according to the
connectivity
to of
the connectivity of
Exhibit lamellar structure
characteristic.
characteristic. Micro-pores
characteristic. ▲ ▲AAaccording
form continuous
Micro-porescontinuous tocrack
crack
the network
network
connectivity can
can
ofof
Exhibit
Exhibit lamellar
lamellar
characteristic. structure
structure
Micro-pores form according
inter-splat crack to
connectivity
and
inter-splat the connectivity
of inter-splat
intra-splat
crack and crack,
intra-splat crack,
APS characteristic.
and micro-cracks Micro-pores
Micro-pores
APS and are and
micro-cracks form
form
are according
according
inter-splat crack toto thethe connectivity
connectivity of
of [8,13,16,34–38]
[8,13,16,34–38]
APScharacteristic.
APS characteristic. Micro-pores
Micro-pores inter-splat
which crackand
crack
which
willcrack
result and
and
will
in
intra-splat
theintra-splat
intra-splat
result
crackin the crack,
crack,
crack
growth growth [8,13,16,34–38]
APS and
andmicro-cracks
distributed
are
micro-cracks
micro-cracks are inare
distributed
at random at
the inter-splat
inter-splat
random
which in crackand
theresult
will and
in intra-splat
the intra-splat
crack crack,
crack,
growth
[8,13,16,34–38]
[8,13,16,34–38]
APS
APS and
and micro-cracks
micro-cracks are
are which
along thewill crack,
result
along
lamella which
the in the
lamella
interface will
crack result
interface
or throughin
growthor through [8,13,16,34–38]
[8,13,16,34–38]
distributed distributed
at random
distributed atceramic at
in
random in the random
the which
whichinwill
will result
result in inthe the crack
crack growth
growth
ceramic
distributed atatrandom
distributedthe randomininthe thealong
alongthethe the
lamella crack
lamella
lamella growth
interface
interface
interface. ororalong
through
through
ceramic
ceramic ceramic lamella
along
alongthe interface.
the lamella
lamella interface
interface ororthrough
through
lamella the
interface.
lamella interface. lamella interface or
ceramic
ceramic
lamella
lamellainterface.
through lamella interface.
interface.
Coatings 2020, 10, 732 7 of 25

2.2.1. EB-PVD
EB-PVD is a commonly used technology for preparing TBCs. Its working principle can be
depicted as follows: after the vacuum chamber is vacuumed to a certain degree, the electron gun
will shoot an electron beam, bombard the evaporated materials in the water-cooled crucible, and the
evaporated materials will condense to the preheated substrate surface in the form of atoms or
molecules, forming a columnar structure of coating on the substrate. The pores between the columns
and the interstices in the column provide favorable conditions for the transfer of heat and oxygen,
resulting in a decrease in heat insulation performance and the easy oxidation of the coating structure,
which is conducive to alleviating the thermal stress caused by the difference in thermal expansion
coefficient of the coating, and improve the anti-thermal fatigue and thermal shock resistance of the
materials [16,38,39]. However, it cannot be ignored that due to the existence of a large number of
pores perpendicular to the coating surface and the intragranular gap between the adjacent columnar
grains, it will not be conducive to the thermal insulation of the coating. In the process of thermal
shock, cracks can easily form pores and propagate along the interface, leading to premature failure
of TBCs. Evans et al. [40] investigated the composition of the coatings and their thermal properties
using EB-PVB. Van sluytman et al. [39] prepared ZrO2 –Y2 O3 –Ta2 O5 TBCs. It was found that the
coating sintered and contracted under the constant oxidation temperature of 1450 ◦ C, resulting in the
generation of residual stress in the TBCs, leading to premature peeling failure of the coating. Therefore,
as for the TBCs prepared via EB-PVB, the separation of different layers can lead to the final failure.

2.2.2. PS-PVD
Plasma spraying-physical vapor deposition (PS-PVD) is a new multi-functional film and coating
preparation technology based on low-pressure plasma spraying. This technology combines the
technical advantages of APS and EB-PVD and can be used for vapor deposition in the form of spraying.
PS-PVD uses a high-power plasma spray gun (180 kW) to work under ultra-low pressure (150 Pa).
Under this condition, the plasma jet of PS-PVD expands rapidly, making its length up to 2000 mm
and diameter up to 400 mm. It can realize gas-liquid-solid multiphase coating deposition and obtain
non-line-of-sight deposition [28]. Rare earth doped zirconia (ZrO2 : 1.7Y2 O3 –1Gd2 O3 –1Yb2 O3 at.%)
TBCs were fabricated by Deng [28] via PS-PVD. There was a large quantity of pseudo-columnar crystal
structures in the coatings. The pseudo-columnar crystal size in PS-PVD is obviously large and resistant
to fracture. However, the gaps and pores are the main defects which exist in the columns. With the
immersion of high-speed corrosives, the coating will be corroded quickly, resulting in the failure of
the coating.

2.2.3. APS
Atmospheric plasma spraying (APS) [22,41] can produce the plasma arc which is driven by direct
current as a heat source. Actually, high-energy is the typical characteristic. Additionally, powder is
suspended in a carrier gas (inert protective gas). The coating is formed by impinging powder particles
on the surface of the substrate during spraying. The microstructure of the coating is related to the
properties of the spraying material, spraying parameters, and surface temperature of the substrate.
In order to prevent a turbine blade from being corroded, plasma spraying technology was applied
to prepare 8YSZ coating by Mack [42]. The formation and growth of cracks under thermal cycling
were elucidated by combining scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with the X-ray diffraction (XRD)
technique, and the corrosion velocity was observed by calcium-magnesium-aluminum-silicate (CMAS)
deposition. It was found that in a short period of time, there was an obvious CMAS attack on grain
boundaries, but the interaction between YSZ and invaded CMAS was without direct influence on the
pore structure and inner surface density. The densification of YSZ microstructures was observed only
at the later stage if a marvelous amount of CMAS was immersed. Wang et al. [13,14] prepared 8YSZ
TBCs by APS. The effects of horizontal and vertical cracks on the stress around the TGO (Thermally
Coatings 2020, 10, 732 8 of 25

Growth Oxide) layer during thermal cycling were studied. Dong et al. [43] fabricated YSZ coatings by
APS, finding that TGO with different thickness was prepared by controlling the isothermal oxidation
time of the bond-coat. Thermal cycling tests were carried out for different thicknesses of TGO at
1150 ◦ C, the duration of each cycle was 240 s. The results indicated that the YSZ coating has strong
adhesive strength, and excellent thermal shock resistance.
However, the influence of failure is related to TBC structure, the typical microstructure feature of
APS-TBCs depends on its typical lamellar structure, the low bonding strength is due to lots of void
defects in the APS-TBCs. Generally, the pores, the inter-splat cracks, and intra-splat cracks existing in
YSZ coating would affect the quality of APS-TBCs. Besides, the pores and inter-splat cracks distribution
affect the interface bonding rates, which are attributed to the process of APS. In APS-TBCs, a continuous
crack network can be formed according to the connectivity of interlaminar and intralaminar cracks,
which will result in crack initiation and propagation along the lamellar or through-lamellar direction.
A host of research results have showed that the cracks exist in the top-coat layer or near the TC
(top-coat)/TGO interfaces in APS-TBCs. During the thermal shock, these cracks can propagate along the
stratiform interface or through lamella under complex stress states [44–46]. The spallation of coating
frequently take place owing to the crack initiation along the layer interface, which is accountable for
the failure of APS-TBCs. As the spread of these cracks is random and irregular, it is very urgent to
determine the crack propagation behavior and coalescence mechanism [36].

3. The Factors Affecting the Service Lifetime of TBCs

3.1. TGO
Hundreds of different types of coatings are used to protect various engineering materials from
corrosion, wear, and erosion, and to provide lubrication and insulation. TBCs are regarded as the
coating with the most complex structure among coatings. They must work in the high-temperature
environment of aircraft and industrial gas turbines. Due to the diffusion and reaction of oxygen and
aluminum, an additional layer called TGO (thermally-grown oxide) is formed at the interface between
TC and BC (Figure 4). For the whole high-temperature oxidation, the oxides were primarily Al2 O3 and
a small amount of Cr and Co oxides at the TC/BC (bond-coat) interface [47]. During the development of
TGO, the local accumulation of TGO has a profound effect on the stress distribution near the interface.
Understanding the formation and stress distribution of TGO is the basis for predicting TBC’s lifetime,
which plays an important role in preventing further oxidation and corrosion of TBCs [11,48]. Due to
the diversity of reaction mechanisms in the oxidation process of TGO, many studies have illustrated
that TGO grows rapidly at the initial stage of oxidation. This is attributed to the following reason:
with an increase in temperature, Al2 O3 can be produced freely, resulting in the uneven growth of the
thickness of TGO and an increase in the roughness of TGO, and the accumulation of residual stress
with the increase in thickness, which results in growth stress in the thin layer of TGO [3]. The results
reveal that coating failure usually occurs at the TGO/BC interface. This phenomenon is mainly due to
the large stress produced by the growth of TGO layer and its interface [49].
Coatings 2020, 10, 732 9 of 25
Coatings 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 25

Figure 4. The
Figure Thecracking
crackingmodes
modes of TBCs with the
of TBCs withTGOs
the (thermally-grown oxides) ofoxides)
TGOs (thermally-grown differentofthicknesses:
different
(a) 1.3 µm, (a)
thicknesses: (b) 1.3
2.7μm, (c)2.7
µm,(b) 3.9μm,
µm,(c)(d)
3.95.0
μm, (d) (e)
µm, 5.0 6.5
μm,µm, (f) μm,
(e) 6.5 7.0 µm, (g)μm,
(f) 7.0 7.7(g)
µm.7.7 Reprinted with
μm. Reprinted
permission from [43]; Copyright 2012 Elsevier.
with permission from [43]; Copyright 2012 Elsevier.

Oxidationisisaccompanied
Oxidation accompanied by by growth
growth strains
strains and and associated
associated stresses;
stresses; the strainthe represents
strain represents
the overallthe
overall volume increase upon converting
volume increase upon converting the alloy to Al2O3—when the alloy to Al O
2 the —when the growth strain
3 growth strain is large enough, the stress is large enough,
the stress suppresses the internal TGO
suppresses the internal TGO formation, forming a critical stress.formation, forming a critical stress.
Once this valueOnce this valueitismay
is exceeded, exceeded,
cause
it may cause interfacial crack generation and propagation along
interfacial crack generation and propagation along the TC/TGO/BC interface, and the service lifetime the TC/TGO/BC interface, and the is
service lifetime
affected. As shown is affected.
in FigureAs 5, shown
Evans [3] in analyzed
Figure 5, Evans [3] analyzed
the intrinsic failure of theTBCs,
intrinsic
and failure
the growth of TBCs,
of TGOand
the growth
layer is the key of TGO
issue layer is thedurability.
of coating key issue of coating durability.
However, the thickness However,
and morphologythe thickness of TGO andvarymorphology
with the
increase in service time at high temperature. Therefore, it is necessary to study the evolution oftoTGO
of TGO vary with the increase in service time at high temperature. Therefore, it is necessary study the
layer
evolution
during thermalof TGO layer during
exposure. Influencedthermal exposure.
by the diversity Influenced by the diversity
of the high-temperature of the high-temperature
oxidation mechanism, the
oxidation diversity of TBCs is extremely complex, including the composition of materials, the
oxidation mechanism, the oxidation diversity of TBCs is extremely complex, including the composition
preparation
process, and the thickness of coatings. Therefore, different thicknesses and shapes of thethicknesses
of materials, the preparation process, and the thickness of coatings. Therefore, different TGO layer and are
shapes of the TGO layer are formed, which is of great significance to
formed, which is of great significance to stress distribution around the TGO layer and to the life predictionstress distribution around the TGO
layer
of TBCs. and to thethe
During lifethermal
prediction shock of cycle,
TBCs.growth
Duringofthe TGO thermal shockand
is observed, cycle, thegrowth
multilayer of TGO is observed,
accumulation of
and the
TGO multilayer
is observed in the accumulation
protrusion of ofthe
TGO is observed
surface roughness in the protrusion
of the TBCs. The of accumulation
the surface roughness of the
of TGO results
TBCs.
in The accumulation
the cracking of the topoflayer TGO[50].resultsThisin phenomenon
the cracking ofisthe moretopobvious
layer [50]. forThis
TBCs phenomenon
fabricated by is more
APS
obvious for TBCs fabricated by APS [43,51,52] (Figure 5). According
[43,51,52] (Figure 5). According to previous primary simulation work [53], we can also observe a similar to previous primary simulation
work [53], we
phenomenon thatcan thealso observe
growth rate ofa similar
TGO near phenomenon
the peak region thatisthe growth
higher thanratethatof nearTGO the near
valleythe peak
region.
region is higher than that near the valley region. Che et al. [54]
Che et al. [54] investigated that TGO grew unevenly at the peaks and valleys of the rough top coat/TGO investigated that TGO grew unevenly
at the peaks ◦ C.
interface after and valleysexposure
isothermal of the rough at 1050top°C.coat/TGO
TGO grew interface after isothermal
exponentially near the peaks exposure at 1050and
and valleys,
TGOwas
TGO grew exponentially
thick at the peaks, nearwherethe peaks
there areandlarge
valleys,
tensileandstresses,
TGO was thick at the
uniformity, andpeaks,
unevennesswhereattherethe
peaks. There is a significant difference in the distribution of stress between uneven and uniformdifference
are large tensile stresses, uniformity, and unevenness at the peaks. There is a significant TGO. For
in the distribution
uneven TGO, the maximum of stressout-of-plane
between uneven stress andof peakuniform TGO. increase
and valley For uneven 200%,TGO, and the maximum
the maximum
out-of-plane stress of peak and valley increase 200%, and the maximum
tensile stress along the interface of the TGO/surface layer is smaller than that of uniform TGO. Moreover, tensile stress along the interface
of the TGO/surface layer is smaller than that of uniform TGO.
compared with TBCs which were serviced under a uniform temperature field, in the case where TBC Moreover, compared with TBCs which is
were serviced
subjected under gradient,
to a thermal a uniformthe temperature
gradient will field, in the
affect thegrowth
case whererate and TBCstress
is subjected
distribution to a ofthermal
TGO.
gradient,
Thus, the
it is of gradient importance
significant will affect the to growth
considerratethe and stress
failure modesdistribution
of TBCs underof TGO. Thus, and
uniform it is non-uniform
of significant
temperature fields. Ranjbar-Far et al. [55] considered a nonhomogeneous temperature distribution.fields.
importance to consider the failure modes of TBCs under uniform and non-uniform temperature The
Ranjbar-Far et al. [55] considered a nonhomogeneous temperature
results indicated the residual stress distribution was significantly affected by thermal gradient. Based on distribution. The results indicated
theTCF
the residual stress distribution
experiments, Schulz et al. was significantly
[56] observed affected
that the by thermal
spallation of the TBCs gradient.
is mainlyBased on the with
correlated TCF
experiments,
TGO formationSchulz that iset al. [56] observed
influenced by uniform thattemperature
the spallation of the
field, andTBCs is mainly
the failure of the correlated
EB-PVD TBCs with TGOwas
caused by TC/TGO interfacial crack propagation, which easily results in the spallation and buckling ofwas
formation that is influenced by uniform temperature field, and the failure of the EB-PVD TBCs the
caused
TC layer.byTo TC/TGO
investigate interfacial
the effect crack
of propagation,
the thermal gradientwhich easilyon theresults in the spallation
TBC failure modes, theand buckling
growth of theof
the TC
TGO layer.
layers was Totaken
investigate the effect
into account by Shiof[4].
theThethermal
resultsgradient
indicated onthat
thetheTBC failuregradient
thermal modes,affected
the growth the
of the TGO layers was taken into account by Shi [4]. The results
vertical stress initiation and propagation. Meanwhile, the interfacial cracking behavior was dominated by indicated that the thermal gradient
affected
TGO the vertical
growth stress. The stress initiation
thermal and propagation.
protective performance Meanwhile,
and oxidation the interfacial
resistance cracking
of the TBCs behavior
were
influenced.
Coatings 2020, 10, 732 10 of 25

was dominated by TGO growth stress. The thermal protective performance and oxidation resistance of
the TBCs were influenced.
Coatings 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 25

Coatings 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 25

Figure 5. Schematics indicating the TGO growth modes and its implications for the development of
Figure 5. Schematics indicating the TGO growth modes and its implications for the development of
growth stresses. Reprinted with permission from [8]; Copyright 2001 Elsevier.
growth stresses.
Figure Reprinted
5. Schematics with permission
indicating from [8];
the TGO growth modesCopyright 2001 Elsevier.
and its implications for the development of
growthetstresses.
Dong al. [43] Reprinted
discussedwith permissionoffrom
the influence TGO[8];with
Copyright 2001
different Elsevier. on the failure behavior
thicknesses
Dong et al. [43] discussed the influence of TGO with different thicknesses on the failure behavior
of the TBCs. The results of thermal cycling tests of APS-TBCs with different initial thicknesses of TGO
of theindicated
TBCs.
DongTheet al.results of thermal
[43] discussed cyclingof
the influence tests
TGOofwith
APS-TBCs with different
different thicknesses on the
that with the increase in the thickness of TGO, the thermal cycling life decreases with the
initial thicknesses
failure behavior of
of the TBCs.that
TGOincrease
indicated The results
with of thermal
the increasecycling
in tests
the of APS-TBCs
thickness of with different
TGO, the initial thicknesses
thermal cycling ofdecreases
life TGO
in the power function, and there is a critical thermal cycling life which decreases significantly
indicated
with with
the increasethat with
in thethe increase
power in the
function, thickness
and thereof TGO,
is a the thermal
critical cycling
thermal life
cycling
the increase in TGO thickness. As shown in Figure 6, moreover, the typical failure modes were decreases
life which with the
decreases
increase
significantly in
with
affected by the
TGOpower function,
thethickness,
increase in and there
TGO the
making is a critical
thickness. thermal
As shownand
crack generation cycling life
in Figure which decreases
6, moreover,
propagation along thethe significantly
typical failure
TC/TGO/BC
with the increase in TGO thickness. As shown in Figure 6, moreover, the typical failure modes were
modes interface. Therefore,
were affected bytheTGOthickness of TGOmaking
thickness, has a significant
the crackeffect on the thermal
generation cycle life of TBCs,
and propagation along the
affected by TGO thickness, making the crack generation and propagation along the TC/TGO/BC
and the interface.
TC/TGO/BC uneven distribution
Therefore,and theaccumulation
thickness of TGO of TGOhaswill also affect effect
a significant the service
on thelifetime
thermal of cycle
the life
interface. Therefore, the thickness of TGO has a significant effect on the thermal cycle life of TBCs,
coatings.
of TBCs, To further investigate the effect of the service lifetime of TBCs, the thermal expansion
and and the uneven
the uneven distribution
distribution and accumulation
and accumulation of TGOofwillTGO alsowill alsothe
affect affect the lifetime
service service oflifetime
the of
mismatch should be considered.
the coatings. To further investigate the effect of the service lifetime of TBCs,
coatings. To further investigate the effect of the service lifetime of TBCs, the thermal expansion the thermal expansion
mismatch should
mismatch be considered.
should be considered.

Figure 6. Stress components and equivalent plastic strain (PEEQ) at the ambient temperature
considering the interface crack: (a) Mises stress, (b) S11, stress in x direction, (c) S22, stress in y
FigureFigure 6. and
6. Stress
direction, Stress
(d) components
components
PEEQ, and and equivalent
equivalent
equivalent plastic
plastic plastic
strain
strain. strain with
(PEEQ)
Reprinted (PEEQ)
at the at the ambient
ambient
permission [57];temperature
temperature
from considering
Copyright
considering
the interface
2017 ASME.crack: (a) Mises stress, (b) S11, stress in x direction, (c) S22, stress in y direction,inand
the interface crack: (a) Mises stress, (b) S11, stress in x direction, (c) S22, stress y (d)
direction, and (d) PEEQ, equivalent plastic strain. Reprinted with permission from [57]; Copyright
PEEQ, equivalent plastic strain. Reprinted with permission from [57]; Copyright 2017 ASME.
2017 ASME.
Coatings 2020, 10, 732 11 of 25
Coatings 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 25

3.2. Thermal
3.2. Thermal Expansion
Expansion Mismatch
Mismatch
The thermal mismatch
The mismatch stresses
stresses nearnearthe
theTGO
TGOlayer
layeroccur
occurduring
duringthermal
thermalcycling,
cycling, which
which is is
due to
due
thethe
to great differences
great in physical,
differences thermal,
in physical, and mechanical
thermal, and mechanicalproperties of adjacent
properties layers. The
of adjacent damage
layers. The
and failure
damage andoffailure
TBCs ofareTBCs
relatedare to the mismatch
related of the thermal
to the mismatch expansion
of the thermal coefficient.
expansion The cracks
coefficient. The
generated
cracks by the residual
generated stress may
by the residual stressnucleate and expand
may nucleate and to the interface,
expand which will
to the interface, affectwill
which the affect
stress
the
statestress
in thestate
TBCs in[54,58].
the TBCs [54,58].
Jiang et al. Jiang et al.pointed
[57] have [57] have
outpointed out atensile
a large local large local
stresstensile stresscoating
in the TGO in the
TGO
during coating during
cooling, and acooling, and a at
crack occurs crack occurs
the peak at the
value of peak
the TGOvalue of the TGO
interface. interface.Fan
In addition, In addition,
et al. [59]
Fan
haveetdiscussed
al. [59] have discussed
the effect of TGO theoneffect of TGO surface
the multiple on the multiple surface cracking
cracking behavior behavior
in APS-TBCs. Thein APS-
driving
TBCs. The driving force of the periodic surface crack and
force of the periodic surface crack and the mismatch of the mismatch of the crack propagation path
crack propagation path were discussed
were
by usingdiscussed by using
the extended the element
finite extendedmethodfinite element
(XFEM) method
and the (XFEM)
periodicand the periodic
boundary boundary
conditions. The
conditions. The stress
stress distribution wasdistribution
calculated and wasthe calculated and the crack
crack propagation pathpropagation
was simulated pathbywas
XFEM simulated
(Figureby 7).
XFEM (Figure
The results 7). The
indicate results
that indicate
the elastic modulusthat the elastic
of the TGOmodulus
layer playsof the TGO layer
a significant plays
role a significant
in controlling the
role
straininenergy
controlling
releasethe strain
rate. The energy release rate.
related fracture The related
mechanism fracture
was mainly mechanism
controlled by thewas mainly
mismatch
controlled
between the by top
the mismatch
coating and between the top coating
the bond-coat, whichand canthebebond-coat,
used as a which
guide can
for be
theused as a guide
well-designed
for the well-designed
strain-resistant strain-resistant APS-TBCs.
APS-TBCs.

Figure
Figure 7.
7. Stress
Stress distribution
distribution for
for the
the TGO
TGO with
with different
different elastic
elastic modulus
modulus and
and surface
surface crack
crack locations:
locations:
(a) peak, ETGO = 400 GPa, (b) middle, ETGO = 400 GPa, (c) valley, ETGO = 400 GPa, (d) peak, ETGO = 40 GPa,
(a) peak, ETGO = 400 GPa, (b) middle, ETGO = 400 GPa, (c) valley, ETGO = 400 GPa, (d) peak, ETGO
(e)
= 40middle, ETGO
GPa, (e) = 40 GPa,
middle, (f) =
ETGO valley, ETGO(f)
40 GPa, = 40 GPa. EIn
valley, these cases, the crack length was selected to be
TGO = 40 GPa. In these cases, the crack length
20
was selected to be 20 mm, other parameters were consideredReprinted
mm, other parameters were considered to be same. with
to be same. permission
Reprinted from [59];
with permission
Copyright 2012 Elsevier.
from [59]; Copyright 2012 Elsevier.

Huang
Huang et et al.
al. [60]
[60] considered
considered the the effect
effect ofof interface
interface roughness
roughness on on strain
strain energy
energy release
release raterate (Strain
(Strain
Energy
Energy Release
Release Rate)
Rate) andand surface
surface cracking
cracking behavior
behavior in in APS-TBCs
APS-TBCs by by XFEM.
XFEM. The The driving
driving forces
forces of of
multiple surface cracks
multiple surface cracksin inthe
thecoating/substrate
coating/substrate system
system were
were predicted
predicted andand presented.
presented. It wasIt was
found found
that
that the interfacial
the interfacial roughness
roughness has a significant
has a significant effect oneffect on the
the surface surface roughness,
roughness, interfacial
interfacial stress stress
distribution,
distribution,
and propagation and modes
propagation
of cracks.modesSfar of
et cracks. Sfar et al. [61]
al. [61] established established
a TBCs a TBCsthe
failure model, failure
residual model,
stressthe
of
residual stressatofthe
the TC region thepeak
TC region
of TC/TGOat theinterface
peak of TC/TGO interface
due to thermal due to failure
mismatch thermal mismatch
was studied,failurewhich waswas
studied, which was
used to evaluate used to evaluate
the interface toughness theorinterface
to measure toughness or toof
the initiation measure the initiation
cracks. The of cracks.
stress concentration
The
nearstress
the TGOconcentration near the TGO
layer was discussed whenlayer was discussed
the vertical crack waswhen abovethethevertical crackofwas
peak value abovelayer
the TGO the
peak value of the TGO layer by establishing the TBCs failure model. Compared
by establishing the TBCs failure model. Compared with the horizontal crack, the vertical crack could with the horizontal
crack, the vertical
be partially released, crack couldinbestress
resulting partially released,near
concentration resulting
the TGOin stress
layer. concentration
When horizontal near the TGO
cracks exist,
layer. When horizontal
the maximum cracks
tensile stress exist, the
is located maximum
at the peak of thetensile
TGO/BC stress is located
interface. at the
When peak
there is of the TGO/BC
a vertical crack,
interface.
the stress When there is tends
concentration a vertical crack,near
to appear the stress
the crackconcentration tends
tip. The effect to appear cracks
of horizontal near the andcrack tip.
vertical
The
crackseffect of horizontal
on the stress around cracks
TGOand vertical cracks
is obviously on The
different. the stress around
existence TGO cracks
of vertical is obviously different.
can significantly
The
reduceexistence of vertical
the maximum cracksstress
tensile can significantly
concentration reduce
in thetheTGO maximum tensile stress
layer. Tolpygo concentration
et al. [5] observed that in
the
the TGO layer.
thermal Tolpygoof
mismatch et7YSZ
al. [5] coating
observed that theduring
occurred thermalthe mismatch
cycling of 7YSZ coating
furnace test, andoccurred
horizontal during
and
the cyclingcracks
interfacial furnace test, and
inclined nearhorizontal and interfacial
the TGO layer, resulting cracks inclined
in coating near
failure. In the
orderTGO layer,the
to study resulting
failure
in coating failure.
mechanism caused In by
order
TGO,to study
Wangthe et failure mechanism caused
al. [12,13,16,62,63] have doneby TGO, Wang et
a generous of al. [12,13,16,62,63]
research on crack
have done a generous of research on crack propagation in previous reports. Including the study of
horizontal cracks, vertical cracks, internal cracks, or interfacial cracks in coatings, the results indicated
Coatings 2020, 10, 732 12 of 25

propagation in previous reports. Including the study of horizontal cracks, vertical cracks, internal
cracks, or interfacial cracks in coatings, the results indicated that the stress concentration is related to
the location of vertical and horizontal cracks, as shown in Figure 8, and the crack length also affects
the failure of TBCs [5,13,14], especially for the thick thermal barrier coatings (TTBCs) fabricated by
APS, vertical cracks (also known as segmentation cracks) are distributed in the top-coat (ceramic layer);
usually, the length of segmentation cracks is more than half of the thickness of the coating. For the
thickness of the top coating, the existence of segmentation cracks will reduce the stress concentration
of TTBCs, thereby increasing the strain tolerance of the coating [58,64,65]. Therefore, it is useful to
ensure a significant improvement in thermal shock resistance. Although segmentation cracks are not
conducive to reduce thermal conductivity, the thickness of TBCs is enough, which will ensure that
TBCs still have a high thermal insulation effect [5]. In fact, the stress level and distribution play a crucial
role in controlling the failure of TBCs during thermal shock. The special microstructure of TBCs affects
the stress distribution and maximum stress level of TBCs. In particular, there were many segmentation
cracks in the TC layer, which released more or less energy and caused the stress concentration. Besides,
the geometric characteristics of segmentation cracks will affect the failure behavior of materials.
Although the existence of cracks can increase the strain tolerance and improve the thermal shock
resistance of materials, the propagation of segmentation cracks is still the main cause of coating failure.
Dong et al. [66] studied the distribution of temperature on a YSZ-free surface during crack coalescing
via FEM, then the influence of sintering of YSZ induced by heat-transfer overlapping on energy release
rate was quantificationally evaluated. Fan et al. [67] investigated the effect of the periodic surface
cracks on interfacial fracture of TBC systems via cohesive zone model (CZM). The results indicated that
the spacing of surface cracks has a significant effect on the initiation and propagation of cracks in TBC
systems. For short interfacial cracks, it can be concluded from the simulation results that suitable high
surface crack density can improve the durability of the TBC system. The delamination behavior of the
interface often occurs when the vertical crack propagates to the interface. Therefore, controlling the
delamination behavior is very important for delaying the failure of TBCs. Bake et al. [68] discovered the
initiation and propagation of cracks near the interface, and the direction of crack propagation tended
to the BC/TGO interface. The results indicate that the morphology and deformation of TGO play an
important role in the nucleation and propagation of cracks. Wei et al. [69] analyzed that an increase in
the transverse growth strain of TGO would lead to premature peeling of coatings, and the bond-coat
and creep of TGO have only a slight shrinkage effect. If the stress of TGO is low, the cracking of ceramics
occurs. However, growth of the TGO tends to increase the interfacial stress within the TBC system
and would affect the surface crack density. Zhu et al. [70] found that cracks easily propagate from
the surface to the interface with the surface crack density decreasing, while the cracks generate and
propagate along the surface with high surface crack density. The saturated crack density decreases with
the increase in ceramic coating thickness. Furthermore, the surface crack density has a significant effect
on the initiation and propagation of interface cracks. The interfacial delamination length decreases
with an increase in surface crack density, and the interfacial delamination would not occur before
reaching the critical surface crack density. It can delay the delamination of the coating and improve
the thermal shock resistance and durability of the coating with reducing the thermal matching and
increasing the interfacial adhesion strength of the coating. The TGO growth rate, which may accelerate
the failure of TBCs, was affected via oxidation temperature and time. Experimental simulation was
confirmed by Trunova [71]. The failure modes and lifetime of the APS-TBC were influenced, the large
extent on the thermal load conditions were taken into account. It promotes delamination cracking in
the TBC close to the TBC/TGO interface during thermal cycling. The failure crack path to transfer to
TGO was affected during the introduction of high temperature residence time, and caused the final
failure to be almost completely within TGO. The experimental results indicated that the observed
damage evolution was mainly caused by the formation of cracks, the connection of single cracks,
and crack propagation. Within a certain residence time, the degradation of the TBC system is affected
by the degradation process connected with the adhesion layer, and damage accumulation is influenced
Coatings 2020, 10, 732 13 of 25

by TGO
Coatings growth
2020, stress,
10, x FOR PEERleading
REVIEW to a reduction in cycle lifetime. In addition, the toughness value is
13 of 25
affected by cracks during the thermal cycle; it is possible to learn from the available research findings
that several crack
propagation paths,propagation
such as crack paths, such as
bridging, crack
will bridging,
enhance will toughness
fracture enhance fracture toughness [72].
[72]. Considering the
Considering the influence of high temperature and TBC exposure time, a
influence of high temperature and TBC exposure time, a model of interface fracture toughness of model of interface fracture
toughness
thermal of thermal
barrier coating barrier coatingThe
is proposed. is proposed. The modelinisthe
model is expressed expressed
form of an in the form oftype
Arrhenius an Arrhenius
showing
type showing temperature-dependent
temperature-dependent characteristics, characteristics,
and also shows and also
the shows theof
dependence dependence
the densityofofthe density of
microcracks
microcracksalong
distributed distributed along the
the interface ofinterface
the coating.of theAscoating. As the experimentally
the experimentally measuredmeasuredmicrocrack microcrack
density
density exhibits
exhibits thermal thermal cycle-dependent
cycle-dependent behavior, behavior, therefore,
therefore, the proposed
the proposed interface interface crack toughness
crack toughness model
model
was wastoused
used explain to explain the experimentally
the experimentally obtainedobtained toughness
toughness value.value. Kiyohiro
Kiyohiro et al. et al.observed
[73] [73] observed
that
that the area and thickness of TGO in blasted TBC (B-TBC) specimens is much
the area and thickness of TGO in blasted TBC (B-TBC) specimens is much lower than that of the non- lower than that of the
non-blasted
blasted TBCTBC(S-TBC).(S-TBC).
An An indentation
indentation testtest
waswas performed
performed to to evaluatethe
evaluate theTC/BC
TC/BCinterface
interface fracture
fracture
IFC), ,confirming
toughness (KIFC) confirmingthat theKKIFC
thatthe IFC of
of the
the B-TBC
B-TBC specimen
specimen was
was significantly
significantly higher
higher than
than that of
that of
the S-TBC specimen. These results indicate that grinding and sandblasting
the S-TBC specimen. These results indicate that grinding and sandblasting effectively improve effectively improve the
oxidation resistance and adhesion strength of the TBC system. Therefore, Therefore, the the microcracks
microcracks causedcaused byby
thermal mismatch
thermal mismatch failure failure are an important factor for evaluating interfacial toughness
interfacial toughness or predicting
crack initiation.

Figure
Figure 8.8. Crack
Crack propagation
propagation paths
paths in
in the
the TBCs
TBCs for
for different
different crack
crack positions
positions and and TGO
TGO with
with different
different
elastic
elastic modulus:
modulus: (a)
(a)peak,
peak,EETGO =
TGO =
400
400 GPa,
GPa,(b) middle,
(b) middle,E E
TGO
TGO
= =
400 GPa,
400 (c)
GPa, valley,
(c) E
valley, E
TGO =
TGO =
400 GPa,GPa,
400 (d)
peak,
(d) peak, = 40= GPa,
ETGOETGO (e) (e)
40 GPa, middle, ETGO
middle, ETGO = 40
= 40 GPa,
GPa,and
and(f)(f)valley,
valley, EETGO
TGO ==4040 GPa.
GPa. Reprinted
Reprinted with
with
permission from [59]; Copyright 2012 Elsevier.
Elsevier.

3.3. Roughness
3.3. Roughness of
of the
the Interface
Interface
The effect
The effect of
of interface
interface roughness
roughness on on the
the evolution
evolution of of TGO
TGO thickness
thickness and and growth
growth stress
stress was
was also
also
investigated, which showed the effects of growth stress evolution in the
investigated, which showed the effects of growth stress evolution in the thermally grown oxide on thermally grown oxide on
the failure mechanism of TBCs. During thermal load, the failure of plasma-sprayed
the failure mechanism of TBCs. During thermal load, the failure of plasma-sprayed TBCs frequently TBCs frequently
occurs in
occurs in the
the top
top coatings
coatings nearnear thethe interface. Therefore, itit is
interface. Therefore, is necessary
necessary to to study
study thethe non-uniform
non-uniform
growth mechanism of TGO on the rough interface. Inhomogeneity
growth mechanism of TGO on the rough interface. Inhomogeneity of the temperature field of the temperature field results
results in
in inhomogeneity
inhomogeneity andand roughness
roughness of of TGO.
TGO. Withthe
With theincrease
increaseofofthe theroughness,
roughness,the the thickness
thickness of of TGO
TGO
increases unevenly
increases unevenly during
during the the growth
growth of of TGO.
TGO. TheThe rough
rough interface
interface notnot only
only causes
causes inhomogeneous
inhomogeneous
growth of TGO, but also affects the stress distribution of TBCs (Figure 9).
growth of TGO, but also affects the stress distribution of TBCs (Figure 9). A lot of research A lot of research has been done
has been
by Evans
done [3,7,8],[3,7,8],
by Evans and it was
and found
it was that
found thethat
durability and stability
the durability are limited
and stability areby delamination
limited along the
by delamination
interface between the TGO and the bond-coat. The interfacial cracks
along the interface between the TGO and the bond-coat. The interfacial cracks at BC/TGO/YSZ at BC/TGO/YSZ tend to produce
tend
energy release. As rumpling is suppressed, the mode delamination
to produce energy release. As rumpling is suppressed, the mode delamination is related to the is related to the rate of energy
rate
release.
of energyActually, as the energy
release. Actually, as therelease
energyrate is equal
release rate istoequal
the type II toughness
to the of the interface,
type II toughness it was
of the interface,
found
it was that
foundthethat
lowerthelimit
lower of TGO
limit leading
of TGO to delamination
leading can be predicted.
to delamination However, However,
can be predicted. this method of
this
predicting
method the critical the
of predicting thickness
criticalhas not been
thickness hasrealized
not been due to typedue
realized II toughness
to type II being well-known
toughness being well-and
difficult to measure. Meanwhile, Shen et al. [74] observed that the thickness
known and difficult to measure. Meanwhile, Shen et al. [74] observed that the thickness of TGO in of TGO in the valley area
the valley area decreased with the increase of roughness, and the TGO obviously increased with the
increase of the interface roughness at peak; after 1000 h oxidation, the maximum tensile stress and
compressive stress gradually increase, with the increase of the roughness, the interfacial fracture
begins to increase in ten degrees. In the past decades, many researchers have discussed the
Coatings 2020, 10, 732 14 of 25

decreased with the increase of roughness, and the TGO obviously increased with the increase of the
interface
Coatings roughness
2020, at peak;
10, x FOR PEER after
REVIEW 1000 h oxidation, the maximum tensile stress and compressive 14 stress
of 25
gradually increase, with the increase of the roughness, the interfacial fracture begins to increase in ten
relationship of crack
degrees. In the propagation
past decades, many between the surface
researchers of TBCs and
have discussed thethe stress distribution
relationship of the TGO
of crack propagation
[75]. Guo et
between theal.surface
[76] considered the effects
of TBCs and of interfacial
the stress roughness
distribution and [75].
of the TGO thickness
Guo of
et TBCs
al. [76]onconsidered
the shear
mechanical properties of EB-PVD-TBC interfaces. It was found that the residual
the effects of interfacial roughness and thickness of TBCs on the shear mechanical propertiescompressive stress
of
was related to interfaces.
EB-PVD-TBC interfacial roughness
It was found and thethe
that thickness
residualofcompressive
TBCs via Raman
stress spectroscopy.
was related to The stress
interfacial
intensity
roughness of and
TBCsthe increases with
thickness of the
TBCsincrease of TGO.
via Raman Therefore, large
spectroscopy. stressintensity
The stress often occurs at theincreases
of TBCs thicker
TGO layer.
with the increase of TGO. Therefore, large stress often occurs at the thicker TGO layer.

Profileof
Figure9.9.Profile
Figure ofthe
thetop
topsurface
surfaceof
ofthe
theTGO
TGOlayer
layerafter
after500
500hhoxidation
oxidationunder
underoperating
operatingconditions:
conditions:
(a) the main view and (b) the top view. Reprinted with permission from [77]; Copyright 2019 Elsevier.
(a) the main view and (b) the top view. Reprinted with permission from [77]; Copyright 2019 Elsevier.

Theinterfacial
The interfacialroughness
roughness also also has
hasan anobvious
obviouseffect
effect ononthe
theresidual
residualstress
stressof ofTGO
TGOand andthe thelifetime
lifetime
of TBCs,
of TBCs, thethelarge
largeresidual
residual compression
compression in the
in thermally
the thermallygrown oxide near
grown oxidethe nearinterface [8]. In addition,
the interface [8]. In
the thermal activation creep process is deformed under high-temperature
addition, the thermal activation creep process is deformed under high-temperature oxidation. oxidation. Wang et al. [16,78]
Wang
characterized
et the failure behavior
al. [16,78] characterized the failure of APS-TBCs
behavior of under the three-point
APS-TBCs under the bending
three-point (3PB)bending
test using acoustic
(3PB) test
emission (AE) technology. The results indicated the changes in acoustic
using acoustic emission (AE) technology. The results indicated the changes in acoustic emission emission parameters (number
of acoustic emission
parameters (numberevents, amplitude
of acoustic emission of acoustic
events, emission,
amplitude and ofenergy of acoustic
acoustic emission, emission)
and energyas wellof as
stress versus strain during thermal load. The change of curve has a good
acoustic emission) as well as stress versus strain during thermal load. The change of curve has a good correspondence. The results
of AE analysis and
correspondence. Thecross-section
results of AE observation
analysis and indicated that main
cross-section cracks tend
observation to propagate
indicated that maintowards the
cracks
TC/BC interface. The actual failure of APS-TBCs is due to the shedding
tend to propagate towards the TC/BC interface. The actual failure of APS-TBCs is due to the shedding of the metallic coating on the
substrate,
of and the
the metallic propagation
coating of horizontal
on the substrate, andcracks along the interface
the propagation of the cracks
of horizontal substrate/bond-coat
along the interface under
bending moment. Sun et al. [79] compared different samples using real
of the substrate/bond-coat under bending moment. Sun et al. [79] compared different samples using three-dimensional morphologies
via finite
real element modeling,
three-dimensional and pointed
morphologies out that
via finite this modeling
element modeling,methodand pointed is an outeffective
that thistoolmodeling
to obtain
valuableisresearch
method progress
an effective tooloftostress
obtain distribution in TBCs. The
valuable research results
progress ofofstress
finitedistribution
element analysis in TBCs.indicated
The
that the residual stress of TBCs is driven by the shear stress and
results of finite element analysis indicated that the residual stress of TBCs is driven by the the axial stress of La Zr 2 7 (LZO).
2 shearO stress
The the
and failure ofstress
axial TBCs of originates
La2Zr2O7from (LZO). theThecorner and of
failure propagates parallelfrom
TBCs originates to thetheinherent
cornerlayered structure
and propagates
of APS-TBCs.
parallel The actual
to the inherent failure
layered mode of
structure and cross-sectional
APS-TBCs. SEM failure
The actual morphology mode and verified the failure
cross-sectional
mechanism. Importantly, the local stress changes significantly due
SEM morphology verified the failure mechanism. Importantly, the local stress changes significantlyto the inhomogeneous growth of
TGO.toFinite
due deformation would
the inhomogeneous growth not of be TGO.
neglected in the
Finite oxidationwould
deformation process. notTherefore,
be neglected a theoretical
in the
model of oxidation stress based on finite deformation was established, and
oxidation process. Therefore, a theoretical model of oxidation stress based on finite deformation was the effect of a rough interface
on stress state
established, andwas studied.
the effect Besides,
of a rough the local accumulation
interface on stress of TGOwas
state willstudied.
have a profound
Besides, impact the local on
the stress distribution
accumulation near have
of TGO will the interface,
a profound andimpact
the stresson field of thedistribution
the stress rough interface nearwill
thealso changeand
interface, the
growth rate of TGO at different locations (Figure 10). In a word, the rough
the stress field of the rough interface will also change the growth rate of TGO at different locations interface leads to uneven
growth 10).
(Figure of TGO, and uneven
In a word, the roughgrowth leads leads
interface to increased
to uneven roughness
growthof ofTGO.
TGO,The androughness
uneven growth of TBCs has
leads
a significant
to impact on of
increased roughness stress
TGO. distribution,
The roughness the failure
of TBCsmechanism,
has a significantand service
impactlifetime.
on stress distribution,
the failure mechanism, and service lifetime.
Coatings 2020, 10, 732 15 of 25
Coatings 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 25

Figure 10.
Figure 10. (a–c)
(a–c) shows the distribution
shows the distribution of
of the
the normal stressσσ
normalstress at room temperature after 100 cycles
22 at room temperature after 100 cycles in
in the defect-free model, porous model, and lamellar model, respectively. Similarly,
the defect-free model, porous model, and lamellar model, respectively. Similarly, (d–f) shows
(d–f) shows the
the shear
shear σstress
stress σ distribution in the corresponding models. Reprinted with permission from [36];
12 distribution in the corresponding models. Reprinted with permission from [36]; Copyright
Copyright
2019 2019 Elsevier.
Elsevier.

3.4. Foreign Object

3.4. Foreign Object Damage
Damage
TBCs
TBCs used
used on on many
many hot-section
hot-section components
components of of aero-turbines
aero-turbines are are faced
faced withwith various
various adverse
adverse
conditions
conditions in inthetheprocess
process of of
service. One
service. Oneof the
of special conditions
the special that should
conditions be paidbeattention
that should is foreign
paid attention is
object damage (FOD). In this case, the hard foreign matter particles often found
foreign object damage (FOD). In this case, the hard foreign matter particles often found in the air path in the air path of the
operating aero-turbine,
of the operating which are
aero-turbine, impacted
which by the leading
are impacted by the edge of theedge
leading Highof Pressure
the High Turb (HPT) blade,
Pressure Turb
even
(HPT)ifblade,
such aevensingle impact
if such will occur,
a single impact lead
willtooccur,
crackleadpropagation of the local TBCs,
to crack propagation of the thus
localeliminating
TBCs, thus
thermal
eliminating protection
thermalon the surface
protection on theof the hottest
surface part
of the of thepart
hottest whole engine.
of the whole FOD engine. particles inhaled
FOD particles
or released in the gas turbine may collide with coated components
inhaled or released in the gas turbine may collide with coated components and cause the failure and cause the failure of TBCs of
(Figure 11). Rotating blades are most vulnerable to impact damage because
TBCs (Figure 11). Rotating blades are most vulnerable to impact damage because their high rotational their high rotational speed
result
speed in large
result inparticle/TBC impactimpact
large particle/TBC velocity, although
velocity, the velocity
although associated
the velocity with the
associated withparticle itself
the particle
is relatively
itself low [40].
is relatively LotsLots
low[40]. of studies
of studieshavehaveshown
shown that
thatthe conditions
the conditionsleading
leadingtotoFOD FODin injet
jet engines
engines
are complex, and the impact angle, impact velocity, particle size, particle
are complex, and the impact angle, impact velocity, particle size, particle composition, and material composition, and material
temperature
temperature are are jointly
jointly affected. TBCs were
affected. TBCs were affected
affected by by the
the foreign
foreign body
body damage
damage (FOD) (FOD) particles
particles via via
finite
finite element
element method,
method, considering
considering aa diameter
diameter of of 44 mm,
mm, the the incident
incident angle
angle of of foreign
foreign bodybody andand blade
blade
temperature
temperature affecting
affecting thethe damage
damage analysis
analysis during
during impact
impact process
process was
was studied.
studied. It It was
was found
found thatthat the
the
impact
impact perpendicular to the surface is the most dangerous [80]. Rahaman et al. [81] observed that
perpendicular to the surface is the most dangerous [80]. Rahaman et al. [81] observed that aa
modulated
modulated TBC TBC structure
structure cancan better
better withstand
withstand impact
impact damage.
damage. As As shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 10, 10, the
the results
results
showed
showed that cracks mainly occurred along the lamellar interface, the visible delamination of
that cracks mainly occurred along the lamellar interface, the visible delamination of TBC
TBC
observed
observed nearnearthe theedge
edgeofofcoating.
coating.Larsen
Larsen[82] [82]provided
provided that thethe
that depths
depths of FOD
of FOD damage
damage datedate
follow the
follow
Weibull probability distribution. Although a few measurement depths
the Weibull probability distribution. Although a few measurement depths exceeded 1 mm, most exceeded 1 mm, most damages
were
damagesin the range
were of range
in the 0 to 400of µm. According
0 to 400 to previous
μm. According studiesstudies
to previous [82], it [82],
was it found that these
was found FOD
that these
events wouldwould
FOD events not directly lead to lead
not directly failure,to the type the
failure, of damage
type ofthat they represent
damage that they should
represent be considered
should be
in any design criteria developed to deal with FOD. Moreover, the information
considered in any design criteria developed to deal with FOD. Moreover, the information provided provided represents
the most widely
represents the most knownwidelydataknown
about data
the sizeaboutof actual
the size foreign bodyforeign
of actual damage bodyto fans
damage and compressor
to fans and
blades. More research is needed to understand how FOD may
compressor blades. More research is needed to understand how FOD may affect component affect component failure under high
failure
under high cycle fatigue conditions. An experimental simulation was conducted by Peters et al. [83],
studying the role of such foreign body damage affecting the fatigue crack growth threshold and large
Coatings 2020, 10, 732 16 of 25

Coatings 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 25

cycle fatigue conditions. An experimental simulation was conducted by Peters et al. [83], studying the
role of such foreign body damage affecting the fatigue crack growth threshold and large and small
and small crack early crack growth in fan blade alloys. The FOD was simulated by the high-velocity
crack early crack growth in fan blade alloys. The FOD was simulated by the high-velocity (the sizes of
(the sizes of these hard particles are in the millimeter regime, with impact velocities determined
these hard particles are in the millimeter regime, with impact velocities determined primarily by the
primarily by the blade speed and in the range of 100–350 m/s) impact of steel spheres on a flat surface,
blade speed and in the range of 100–350 m/s) impact of steel spheres on a flat surface, which was found
which was found to markedly reduce the fatigue strength, primarily due to earlier crack initiation.
to markedly reduce the fatigue strength, primarily due to earlier crack initiation. To further investigate
To further investigate the effect of the service lifetime of TBCs, the CMAS corrosion of TBCs should
the effect of the service lifetime of TBCs, the CMAS corrosion of TBCs should be considered.
be considered.

Figure 11. Image

Figure 11. Image of
of the leading edge
the leading of an
edge of an engine-run
engine-run high-pressure
high-pressure turbine
turbine blade
blade showing
showing severe
severe
foreign object damage. Note the large gray region which indicates bond coat exposed by
foreign object damage. Note the large gray region which indicates bond coat exposed by complete complete
removal of the
removal of the TBC.
TBC. Reprinted
Reprinted with
with permission
permission from
from [40];
[40]; Copyright
Copyright 2012
2012 Elsevier.
Elsevier.

3.5. CMAS Corrosion of Thermal Barrier Coating

The faults
faultsofofaircraft in in
aircraft flight are are
flight mostly due to
mostly thetohigh
due thetemperature of turbine
high temperature of inlet. Theinlet.
turbine siliceous
The
minerals minerals
siliceous (dust, sand, and
(dust, volcanic
sand, ash) in the
and volcanic ash)air
inare
the mostly composed
air are mostly of CaO,ofMgO,
composed CaO, AlMgO, O
2 3 ,
AlSiO
2O23,,

and other mixed oxides (CMAS). They are sucked into an aircraft engine
SiO2, and other mixed oxides (CMAS). They are sucked into an aircraft engine before CMAS and before CMAS and engine
components occur atoccur
1240~1260 ◦ C. In the reaction, the molten CMAS will adhere to the TC surface
engine components at 1240~1260 °C. In the reaction, the molten CMAS will adhere to the TC
and penetrate
surface into the columnar
and penetrate gap of thegap
into the columnar molten phase.
of the Then,
molten CMAS
phase. solidifies
Then, CMAS into hard zone
solidifies during
into hard
cooling,
zone which
during changes
cooling, the mechanical
which changes theproperties
mechanicalof top coat. Erosion
properties of top of theErosion
coat. coating of bythe
both ingested
coating by
particles, from particles,
both ingested the operating
fromenvironment
the operating and particles as itand
environment degrades,
particlesis as
a perennial
it degrades, source
is aofperennial
concern,
a great of
source deal of research
concern, has
a great been
deal of done already
research [4,6].done
has been Cai et al. [84][4,6].
already discovered that
Cai et al. [84]thediscovered
permeation of
that
CMAS
the into TC changes
permeation of CMAS theinto
stress
TC distribution
changes thearound the tissue and
stress distribution induces
around thethe formation
tissue of cracks.
and induces the
Moreover, the
formation permeation
of cracks. of CMAS
Moreover, thewould lead to material
permeation of CMAS discontinuity,
would leadresulting
to materialin a slightly higher
discontinuity,
stress level
resulting in aaround
slightlythe microstructure
higher of the melted
stress level around CMAS/TC interface,
the microstructure CMAS
of the melted permeable
CMAS/TC layer,
interface,
and TC/BC
CMAS interface
permeable (Figure
layer, and 12).
TC/BC interface (Figure 12).
Secondly, creep of aero-engine components will occur during long-term operation at high
temperature, and the deformation may contact or squeeze other components, resulting in reduced
efficiency of the turbine. Therefore, the serious consequences of failure caused by CMAS are receiving
more and more attention. Wu et al. [85] found that the TC coating at the interface between CMAS and
YSZ was partially dissolved in CMAS, which induced the phase transformation of YSZ coating from
tetragonal phase to monoclinic phase, and further resulted in the porosity and thermal conductivity of
the coating decreasing. Su et al. [86] simulated the effect of CMAS penetration on the delamination
crack of EB-PVD-TBCs at interface by the finite element method. The immersion of CMAS into the
EB-PVD-TBCs columnar gap increased the in-plane modulus of the top coat. With the increase of
the in-plane modulus of top coat, the tensile stress level of delamination cracks above the interface
decreased. When the shear stress level decreases, the delamination crack tends to increase when
the delamination crack extends to the bending interface. However, once the crack extends to a flat
Coatings 2020, 10, 732 17 of 25

edge, CMAS penetration will begin to enhance its growth and the spallation of the coating will occur
(Figure 13). Zhang et al. [87] pointed out that CMAS penetrates into TBCs, and produces transient
thermal stresses due to different thermal expansion coefficients. It is easy to cause high in-plane tension
when CMAS penetrates into TBCs. The stress produced by the rapid cooling of the top coat promotes
the propagation of vertical cracks from the top surface to the bottom of the top coat. At the same
time, the accumulation of tensile stress in the outer plane makes the horizontal cracks easily appear
at the interface between the penetrating and non-penetrating areas of CMAS. Yang et al. [88] found
that the thicker the CMAS deposited, the easier cracks formed at the YSZ/BC interface during cooling.
Kim et al. [89] discovered that vertical cracks and holes appeared in TBCs during thermal shock cycles,
which had a significant impact on thermal fatigue life. Vertical cracks effectively adapted to the volume
change of coatings during heating/cooling cycles, resulting in thermal fatigue life of TBCs increased
significantly. Additionally, the uniformly distributed pores in the YSZ coating have a more significant
effect on the thermal fatigue of the TBCs by reducing the elastic modulus of the coating. Park et al. [90]
discussed the effect of substituting cerium for yttrium stabilizer on the thermal corrosion properties of
TBCs from a microscopic point of view. The results showed that even within one hour of the thermal
corrosion test, the penetrating salt was close to the interface of the bond-coat, and the reaction between
the penetrating salt and the tetragonal stabilizer in zirconia occurred, with the transformation from
tetragonal phase to monoclinic phase. Unexpected failures may occur under thermal shock conditions
in corrosive environments, especially in YSZ-TBC systems [89]. Therefore, the failure caused by CMAS
is closely related to the thickness of deposition and cracks. Cracks easily appear at the interface between
the top layer and CMAS during cooling, the difference of thermal expansion coefficient leads to the
generation of residual stress, which causes the failure of the coating. Additionally, the composition of
the material, the thickness of the coating, and the defects in the coating will affect the high temperature
corrosion rate
Coatings 2020, 10, of thePEER
x FOR hot-section
REVIEW components. 17 of 25

Figure 12.
Figure 12. (a)
(a) Distribution
Distribution ofof shear
shear stress
stress σσ12,, stress
stress in
in the
the y-axis
y-axis direction
direction σσ22,, and
and max
max in-plane
in-plane
12 22
principal stress σ around the microstructure with and without CMAS at different cooling
principal stress σMPS around the microstructure with and without CMAS at different cooling times, times,
(b) magnification of zone I with CMAS and zone II without CMAS shown in (a).
(b) magnification of zone I with CMAS and zone II without CMAS shown in (a). Reprinted with Reprinted with
permission from
permission from [84];
[84]; Copyright
Copyright 2019
2019Elsevier.
Elsevier.

Secondly, creep of aero-engine components will occur during long-term operation at high
temperature, and the deformation may contact or squeeze other components, resulting in reduced
efficiency of the turbine. Therefore, the serious consequences of failure caused by CMAS are receiving
more and more attention. Wu et al. [85] found that the TC coating at the interface between CMAS
and YSZ was partially dissolved in CMAS, which induced the phase transformation of YSZ coating
from tetragonal phase to monoclinic phase, and further resulted in the porosity and thermal
conductivity of the coating decreasing. Su et al. [86] simulated the effect of CMAS penetration on the
[89]. Therefore, the failure caused by CMAS is closely related to the thickness of deposition and
cracks. Cracks easily appear at the interface between the top layer and CMAS during cooling, the
difference of thermal expansion coefficient leads to the generation of residual stress, which causes
the failure of the coating. Additionally, the composition of the material, the thickness of the coating,
Coatings
and the2020, 10, 732in the coating will affect the high temperature corrosion rate of the hot-section
defects 18 of 25
components.

Figure 13. (a)

(a) Low
Low magnification
magnification backscattered
backscattered electron
electron image
image ofof region
region with
with delamination
delamination cracks,
cracks,
(b) backscattered electron image showing phase contrast at interface TBC/CMAS, (c) backscattered
electron image
imageshowing
showingphase
phase contrast
contrast in CMAS
in CMAS infiltrated
infiltrated crack,
crack, andbackscattered
and (d) (d) backscattered electron
electron image
image
showingshowing
CMASCMAS infiltrated
infiltrated crack.that
crack. Note Notethethat the intercolumnar
intercolumnar gaps ongaps
bothon bothofsides
sides of theremain
the crack crack
remain
aligned,aligned, indicating
indicating that delamination
that delamination is strictlyismode
strictly mode I. Reprinted
I. Reprinted with permission
with permission from [31];
from [31]; Copyright
Copyright 2018Nature.
2018 Springer Springer Nature.

4. Conclusions and Prospects

4. Conclusions and Prospects
• The performance of the material is dependent on the microstructure of the material.
• The performance of the material is dependent on the microstructure of the material. The dual-
The dual-ceramic coating has higher thermal insulation performance and can greatly prolong the
ceramic coating has higher thermal insulation performance and can greatly prolong the thermal
thermal cycle life of the coating, improving the service temperature of the coating significantly.
cycle life of the coating, improving the service temperature of the coating significantly. It is one
It is one of the effective ways to develop ultra-high temperature TBCs in the future.
of the effective ways to develop ultra-high temperature TBCs in the future.
•• At
At present, the factors
present, the factors affecting
affecting the
the service lifetime of
service lifetime of TBCs,
TBCs, such
such as
as TGO,
TGO, thermal
thermal mismatch,
mismatch,
and high temperature corrosion, are being studied. The damage of
and high temperature corrosion, are being studied. The damage of TBCs caused by CMAS TBCs caused by CMAS at at
high temperature is
high temperature is emphasized.
emphasized.However,
However,ititshould
shouldnot notbebe ignored
ignored that
that thethe uneven
uneven growth
growth of
of TGO will cause the accumulation of residual stress and affect the distribution
TGO will cause the accumulation of residual stress and affect the distribution of interfacial stress. of interfacial
stress. Additionally,
Additionally, the mechanism
the mechanism of the influence
of the influence of the distribution
of the distribution of horizontal
of horizontal and vertical
and vertical cracks
cracks
on the on the around
stress stress around TGO during
TGO during thermalthermal
cycling cycling is revealed
is revealed by finite
by finite element
element simulation.
simulation. The
The thermal
thermal shockshock resistance
resistance ofcoating
of the the coating canfurther
can be be further improved
improved by controlling
by controlling the density
the density of
of the
the segmentation
segmentation cracks.
cracks.
With the
With the development
developmentofofspace
spacetechnology,
technology, thethe
urgent need
urgent to achieve
need space-space
to achieve integration
space-space has
integration
become the focus of development in the research and development of supersonic missiles,
has become the focus of development in the research and development of supersonic missiles, space space rockets,
and space
rockets, andshuttle
spacevehicles. In the extreme
shuttle vehicles. environment
In the extreme of long-term
environment hypersonic
of long-term cruise, cruise,
hypersonic the severe
the
friction between the wing and the atmosphere creates extremely high temperatures.
severe friction between the wing and the atmosphere creates extremely high temperatures. Additionally,
the engine intake
Additionally, is subjected
the engine intaketoisextremely
subjected high thermal loads
to extremely and mechanical
high thermal loads andloads during flight.
mechanical loads
The traditional high-temperature resistant ceramic materials would not meet
during flight. The traditional high-temperature resistant ceramic materials would not meet the existing needs.
the
The development of a new generation of ultra-high temperature TBCs (working
existing needs. The development of a new generation of ultra-high temperature TBCs (workingtemperature above
1500 ◦ C) is also urgent. However, due to the influence of ultra-high temperature, the current material
processing equipment, and processing technology are also greatly limited.
How to design and prepare ultra-high temperature protective materials with good oxidation
resistance, ablation resistance, thermal shock resistance, and maintain a certain ultra-high strength
has become an essential technology to be solved urgently for new aircraft. In the complex ultra-high
temperature service environment, due to the limitations of experimental conditions, there are few
reports on the theoretical model of residual thermal stress experienced by ultra-high temperature
ceramic coatings at different temperatures.
Coatings 2020, 10, 732 19 of 25

In addition, the effect of the change of CMAS erosion on hot-section components of aviation
aircraft can be simulated by finite element calculations due to the change of CMAS corrosion.
The concurrent mode of catastrophic failure caused by the deposition probability of inhaled particles
and the relationship between different failures has not been fully studied. While the previous reports
mainly focused on the simulation of TBCs residual stress during thermal spraying and actual service,
the influence of cracks on the service lifetime of coatings should not be neglected.
Besides, how to reduce the experimental cost through simulation and optimize the process also
faces great challenges, Liu et al. [91] simulated the preparation process of PS-PVD to produce TBC by
the available finite element software ANSYS Fluent 16.0. The deposition quality of TBC was adjusted
by altering the size of the free plasma jet, spraying distance, and feeding powder rate, which provide
a basic method for further research on the transport of gas-phase materials for TBC in the boundary
layer. However, the spraying environment pressure was considered to be constant at 100 Pa and the
substrate temperature was constant at 1000 ◦ C. PS-PVD is seriously affected by the track of environment
pressure and temperature. Particles in the process of spraying are not taken into account in the
actual environment, which may lead to local temperature change caused by collision and splashing,
then affect the atmospheric pressure of the environment. In turn, the quality of the coating is affected,
including the formation of pores and cracks. Therefore, further research will make an effort to optimize
the preparation process of TBCs by simulation based on the working conditions.
At present, there are few studies on the lifetime prediction of TBCs. Therefore, under different
application conditions, there is still much work to be done on the lifetime prediction of TBCs. In order
to achieve this goal, the simulation of crack propagation is an important method and approach to
predict the lifetime of TBCs.
Although the virtual crack closure technique (VCCT), extended finite element method (XFEM),
and cohesive zone model (CZM) are used to solve the problems of crack propagation, simulation
is limited when there are multiple branching or connecting cracks, as shown in Table 2. There
are many random micro-pores and micro-cracks in TBCs. Crack growth in this kind of irregular
structure is a very important research area. In addition, for the crack growth at the blade of the engine,
the traditional way is to eliminate the residual stress generated by the crack by cold processing, such as
shot peening, or to prevent the crack from appearing by adding TiO2 and other substances at the crack.
However, the occurrence of cracks is often accompanied by the release of energy. How to effectively
control the cracks to spread in a favorable direction is also worth studying. There are no effective
methods and procedures to solve these problems. Therefore, the heat transfer and failure of TBCs are
still challenging issues which should be further investigated in the future.
 Coatings2020,
Coatings 2020,10,
10,xxFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 20ofof25
20 25
Coatings 2020, 10, 732 20 of 25

Table2.2.Comparison
Table ComparisonofofVCCT,
VCCT,XFEM,
XFEM,and
andCZM.
CZM.

Methodsofof Table 2. Comparison of VCCT, XFEM, and CZM.

Methods
Computational
Computational Descriptionofofthe
Description theModel
Model Advantages
Advantages Disadvantages
Disadvantages ReferencesNote
References Note
Methods of Computational
Mechanic Description of the Model Advantages Disadvantages References Note
Mechanic Mechanic

★★ItF
ItisisItextraordinarily
extraordinarily
is extraordinarily suitabletotocount
suitable
suitable countthe
to the
VirtualCrack
Crack energy release rateinin theprocess
process crack _◆◆ An initial
An crack
initial should
crack should bebe predefined
Virtual count
energy the energy
release rate release
the rate inofof
the
crack An initial crack should be predefined
predefined before the [37,92,93]
[37,92,93]
Closed
Closed growth
process
growth based
based ononthe
of crack the thought
growth
thought thaton
based
that the
the the beforethe
before thesimulation
simulationofofcrack
crackpropagation
propagation
Virtual Crack Closed Technique simulation of crack propagation Calculate
Calculate JJ
Technique
(VCCT) Technique
thought
energy
energy that the
required
required energy
equaltotorequired
isisequal workisofof
thework
the ◆The
_◆The propagationpath
propagation
The propagation pathof
path ofofthe
the [37,92,93]
thecrack
crack shouldCalculate
should be
be J integration
equal to the work of marking integration
integration
(VCCT)
(VCCT) marking
marking the
the crack
crack closed,
closed, whenthe
when thecrack
the crack crack
crack alsodefined
also definedbe
should before
before thesimulation
also the simulationprocess
defined process
closed, when
propagates atiny thedisplacement.
tiny crack propagates a
propagates a displacement. before the simulation process
tiny displacement.

▊ItisisIt
▊It notis essential
not not essential
essential to define
totodefine
define an an crack
aninitial
initial crack
initialsolve
▊Can cracktheproblems
problemsofofcrackcrack
▊Can solve the
Can solve
propagation thenon-continuous
with problems of crack
propagation with non-continuous ▼When the crack propagates
propagation with non-continuous ▼When
HWhen the
thecrack propagates
crack propagates tototoaa [94-97]Calculate
[94-97] Calculate
ExtendedFinite
Extended Finite characteristics
characteristics
characteristics complicatedinterface,
acomplicated interface,ititisisnot very
notvery effective
[94–97] propagation
Calculate
effective ofofthe
propagation
propagation the
Extended Finite Element
Element
Element ▊Thepropagation
▊The propagationpath pathofofthe
thecracks
cracksisisalso
also
The propagation path of the cracks very to effective
tomodel
model theto
the model the
problems
problems ofofthe of the crack at
theinterfacial
interfacial the inner
crack
crack theof
atthe
at the
inner
inner
(XFEM) (XFEM)(XFEM) notisessential
not essential tobe
bedefined,
defined, not dependent
also notto essential to benot dependent
defined, not problems
fracture of the interfacial top coat
onthetheinner
innerdetails
details fracture ofofthe
thetop
topcoat
coat
on dependent on theofof geometrical
geometrical
inner details of structurefracture
structure
only
only dependent
geometrical
dependent onthe
theexternal
structure
on external shapeofofthe
only dependent
shape the
structure
on the body
structure body shape of the structure
external
body
▲ Itcan
▲ ItNItcan can solve
solve
solve the
the
the problem
problem
problem ofofof
the
the theenergy
energy
energy dissipation based on the
dissipation based on the degradation ofof
dissipation based on the degradation
CohesiveZone
Zone degradation
interface of interface stiffness
stiffness ■Manyparameters
Many parametersshould
shouldbe beset
set [98-102]
Cohesive interface stiffness ■Many parameters should be [98–102] [98-102]
Cohesive Zone Model (CZM) N It is not essential to refine the mesh set
Model(CZM)
Model (CZM) ▲ ▲ItItisisnot
notessential
essentialtotorefine
refinethe
themesh
mesh ■Thecomputational
■The computationalcost costisishigh
high interfacial
interfacial fracture
interfacial fracture
fracture
during the simulation process, and the The computational cost is high
duringthe
during the simulationprocess,
process, and the crack
crack is simulation
not necessary to be and the crack
isisnot
notnecessary
necessarytotobe
prefabricated beprefabricated
prefabricated
Coatings 2020, 10, 732 21 of 25

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.-H.C., Y.-W.W., W.-W.S. and Y.-D.M.; Writing—Original Draft
Preparation, Z.-C.H.; Writing—Review and Editing, B.L., L.W., and Y.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 51701050,
51671208, 51672067), National NSAF (Grant No. U1730139), Training Program of the Major Research Plan of the
National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 91960107) and Natural Science Foundation of Heilongjiang
Province (JJ2016ZR1110, JJ2018QN0578). This work was supported by Key Laboratory of Superlight Materials &
Surface Technology (Harbin Engineering University), Ministry of Education. And this work was also supported
by the Youth Innovation Promotion Association of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (Grant No. 2017295),
Natural Science Foundation of Shanghai (No. 19ZR1479600). And this work was also supported by the National
Natural Science Foundation of Hebei Province (E2018202034).
Conflicts of Interest: We declare that we have no conflict of interest.

References
1. Mosayebnezhad, M.; Mehr, A.S.; Lanzini, A.; Misul, D.; Santarelli, M. Technology review and thermodynamic
performance study of a biogas-fed micro humid air turbine. Renew. Energy 2019, 140, 407–418. [CrossRef]
2. Rabiei, A.; Evans, A.G. Failure mechanisms associated with the thermally grown oxide in plasma-sprayed
thermal barrier coatings. Acta Mater. 2000, 48, 3963–3976. [CrossRef]
3. Evans, A.G.; Clarke, D.R.; Levi, C.G. The influence of oxides on the performance of advanced gas turbines.
J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 2008, 28, 1405–1419. [CrossRef]
4. Carter, T.J. Common failures in gas turbine blades. Eng. Fail. Anal. 2005, 12, 237–247. [CrossRef]
5. Tolpygo, V.K.; Clarke, D.R.; Murphy, K.S. Evaluation of interface degradation during cyclic oxidation of
EB-PVD thermal barrier coatings and correlation with TGO luminescence. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2004, 188,
62–70. [CrossRef]
6. Clarke, D.R.; Levi, C.G. Materials design for the next generation thermal barrier coatings. Annu. Rev. Mater. Res.
2003, 33, 383–417. [CrossRef]
7. Evans, A.G.; He, M.Y.; Hutchinson, J.W. Mechanics-based scaling laws for the durability of thermal barrier
coatings. Prog. Mater. Sci. 2001, 46, 249–271. [CrossRef]
8. Evans, A.G.; Mumm, D.R.; Hutchinson, J.W.; Meier, G.H.; Pettit, F.S. Mechanisms controlling the durability
of thermal barrier coatings. Prog. Mater. Sci. 2001, 46, 505–553. [CrossRef]
9. Levi, C.G. Emerging materials and processes for thermal barrier systems. Curr. Opin. Solid State Mater. Sci.
2004, 8, 77–91. [CrossRef]
10. Mumm, D.R.; Evans, A.G. Mechanisms controlling the performance and durability of thermal barrier coatings.
Key Eng. Mater. 2001, 197, 199–230. [CrossRef]
11. Padture, N.P.; Gell, M.; Jordan, E.H. Materials science—Thermal barrier coatings for gas-turbine engine
applications. Science 2002, 296, 280–284. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
12. Wang, L.; Zhao, Y.X.; Zhong, X.H.; Tao, S.Y.; Zhang, W.; Wang, Y. Influence of “island-like” oxides in the
bond-coat on the stress and failure patterns of the thermal-barrier coatings fabricated by atmospheric plasma
spraying during long-term high temperature oxidation. J. Therm. Spray Technol. 2014, 23, 431–446. [CrossRef]
13. Wang, L.; Yang, J.S.; Ni, J.X.; Liu, C.G.; Zhong, X.H.; Shao, F.; Zhao, H.Y.; Tao, S.Y.; Wang, Y. Influence of
cracks in APS-TBCs on stress around TGO during thermal cycling: A numerical simulation study. Surf. Coat.
Technol. 2016, 285, 98–112. [CrossRef]
14. Wang, L.; Wang, Y.; Zhang, W.Q.; Sun, X.G.; He, J.Q.; Pan, Z.Y.; Wang, C.H. Finite element simulation of stress
distribution and development in 8YSZ and double-ceramic-layer La2 Zr2 O7 /8YSZ thermal barrier coatings
during thermal shock. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2012, 258, 3540–3551. [CrossRef]
15. Gupta, M.; Nylen, P.; Wigren, J. A Modelling approach to designing microstructures in thermal barrier
coatings. J. Ceram. Sci. Technol. 2013, 4, 85–91.
16. Wang, L.; Ming, C.; Zhong, X.H.; Ni, J.X.; Tao, S.Y.; Zhou, F.F.; Wang, Y. Prediction of critical rupture of
plasma-sprayed yttria stabilized zirconia thermal barrier coatings under burner rig test via finite element
simulation and in-situ acoustic emission technique. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2019, 367, 58–74. [CrossRef]
17. Shanian, A.; Milani, A.S.; Vermaak, N.; Bertoldi, K.; Scarinci, T.; Gerendas, M. A combined finite
element-multiple criteria optimization approach for materials selection of gas turbine components.
J. Appl. Mech. 2012, 79, 061019. [CrossRef]
Coatings 2020, 10, 732 22 of 25

18. Tsipas, S.A.; Golosnoy, I.O. Effect of substrate temperature on the microstructure and properties of thick
plasma-sprayed YSZ TBCs. J. Eur. Ceram Soc. 2011, 31, 2923–2929. [CrossRef]
19. Cerri, E.; Maci, S.; Leo, P.; Zanon, G.; Petrachi, M.R. High temperature oxidation behaviour of CoCrTaAlY +
10%Al2 O3 coatings produced by HVOF. Metall. Ital. 2013, 105, 13–20.
20. Rajendran, V.; Dhineshbabu, N.R.; Kanna, R.R.; Kaler, K.V.I.S. Enhancement of thermal stability,
flame retardancy, and antimicrobial properties of cotton fabrics functionalized by inorganic nanocomposites.
Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2014, 53, 19512–19524. [CrossRef]
21. Yang, Y.; Wang, Y.; Tian, W.; Yan, D.R.; Zhang, J.X.; Wang, L. Influence of composite powders’ microstructure
on the microstructure and properties of Al2 O3 -TiO2 coatings fabricated by plasma spraying. Mater. Des.
2015, 65, 814–822. [CrossRef]
22. Yang, Y.; Yan, D.R.; Dong, Y.C.; Chen, X.G.; Wang, L.; Chu, Z.H.; Zhang, J.X.; He, J.N. Preparing of
nanostructured Al2 O3 -TiO2 -ZrO2 composite powders and plasma spraying nanostructured composite
coating. Vacuum 2013, 96, 39–45. [CrossRef]
23. Alami, A.H.; Allagui, A.; Alawadhi, H. Microstructural and optical studies of CuO thin films prepared by
chemical ageing of copper substrate in alkaline ammonia solution. J. Alloy. Compd. 2014, 617, 542–546.
[CrossRef]
24. Hasegawa, M.; Endo, T.; Fukutomi, H. Effects of heat exposure time and temperature on the delamination
behavior of air plasma-sprayed thermal barrier coatings under shear loading. Mater. Trans. 2016, 57,
1138–1146. [CrossRef]
25. Xu, Z.H.; He, L.M.; Mu, R.D.; Zhong, X.H.; Zhang, Y.F.; Zhang, J.F.; Cao, X.Q. Double-ceramic-layer thermal
barrier coatings of La2 Zr2 O7 /YSZ deposited by electron beam-physical vapor deposition. J. Alloy. Compd.
2009, 473, 509–515. [CrossRef]
26. Yang, C.X.; Li, Z.X.; Liu, L.T.; Ye, F.; Wu, S.J. High temperature behavior of a diffusion barrier coating evolved
from ZrO2 precursor layer. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2019, 357, 384–392. [CrossRef]
27. Taymaz, I.; Mimaroglu, A.; Avci, E.; Ucar, V.; Gur, M. Comparison of thermal stresses developed in Al2 O3 -SG,
ZrO2 -(12% Si + Al) and ZrO2-SG thermal barrier coating systems with NiAl, NiCrAlY and NiCoCrAlY
interlayer materials subjected to thermal loading. Surf. Coat. Technol. 1999, 116, 690–693. [CrossRef]
28. Deng, Z.Q.; Zhang, X.F.; Zhou, K.S.; Liu, M.; Deng, C.M.; Mao, J.; Chen, Z.K. 7YSZ coating prepared by
PS-PVD based on heterogeneous nucleation. Chin. J. Aeronaut. 2018, 31, 820–825. [CrossRef]
29. Nagabhushana, N.; Rajanna, S.; Mathapati, M.; Ramesh, M.R.; Koppad, P.G.; Reddy, N.C. Microstructure
and tribological characteristics of APS sprayed NiCrBSi/flyash cenosphere/Cr2 O3 and NiCrBSi/flyash
cenosphere/Mo composite coatings at elevated temperatures. Mater. Res. Express 2019, 6, 086451. [CrossRef]
30. Darolia, R. Thermal barrier coatings technology: Critical review, progress update, remaining challenges and
prospects. Int. Mater. Rev. 2013, 58, 315–348. [CrossRef]
31. Yang, J.S.; Zhao, H.Y.; Zhong, X.H.; Ni, J.X.; Zhuang, Y.; Wang, L.; Tao, S.Y. Evolution of residual stresses in
PS-PVD thermal barrier coatings on thermal cycling. J. Therm. Spray Technol. 2018, 27, 914–923. [CrossRef]
32. Rezanka, S.; Somsen, C.; Eggeler, G.; Mauer, G.; Vassen, R.; Guillon, O. A TEM Investigation of
columnar-structured thermal barrier coatings deposited by plasma spray-physical vapor deposition (PS-PVD).
Plasma Chem. Plasma Process. 2018, 38, 791–802. [CrossRef]
33. Rezanka, S.; Mack, D.E.; Mauer, G.; Sebold, D.; Guillon, O.; Vassen, R. Investigation of the resistance of
open-column-structured PS-PVD TBCs to erosive and high-temperature corrosive attack. Surf. Coat. Technol.
2017, 324, 222–235. [CrossRef]
34. Gao, L.H.; Guo, H.B.; Wei, L.L.; Li, C.Y.; Xu, H.B. Microstructure, thermal conductivity and thermal cycling
behavior of thermal barrier coatings prepared by plasma spray physical vapor deposition. Surf. Coat. Technol.
2015, 276, 424–430. [CrossRef]
35. Philips, N.R.; Levi, C.G.; Evans, A.G. Mechanisms of microstructure evolution in an austenitic stainless steel
bond generated using a quaternary braze alloy. Metall. Mater. Trans. A 2008, 39, 142–149. [CrossRef]
36. Crowell, M.W.; Schaedler, T.A.; Hazel, B.H.; Konitzer, D.G.; McMeeking, R.M.; Evans, A.G. Experiments
and numerical simulations of single particle foreign object damage-like impacts of thermal barrier coatings.
Int. J. Impact Eng. 2012, 48, 116–124. [CrossRef]
37. Wei, Z.Y.; Cai, H.N.; Feng, R.X.; Su, J.Y. Dynamic crack growth mechanism and lifetime assessment in plasma
sprayed thermal barrier system upon temperature cycling. Ceram. Int. 2019, 45, 14896–14907. [CrossRef]
Coatings 2020, 10, 732 23 of 25

38. Wei, Z.Y.; Cai, H.N. Stress states and crack behavior in plasma sprayed TBCs based on a novel lamellar
structure model with real interface morphology. Ceram. Int. 2019, 45, 16948–16962. [CrossRef]
39. Shi, D.Q.; Song, J.A.; Li, S.L.; Qi, H.Y.; Yang, X.G. Cracking behaviors of EB-PVD thermal barrier coating
under temperature gradient. Ceram. Int. 2019, 45, 18518–18528. [CrossRef]
40. Wang, Y.G.; Yang, J.; Liu, J.; Fan, S.W.; Cheng, L.F. Fabrication of oxidation protective coatings on C/C-SiC
brake materials at room temperature. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2012, 207, 467–471. [CrossRef]
41. Van Sluytman, J.S.; Kramer, S.; Tolpygo, V.K.; Levi, C.G. Microstructure evolution of ZrO2-YbTaO4 thermal
barrier coatings. Acta Mater. 2015, 96, 133–142. [CrossRef]
42. Yang, Y.; Wang, Y.; Tian, W.; Yan, D.R.; Zhang, J.X.; Wang, L. Nanocomposite powder with three-dimensional
network structure for preparing alumina-titania nanocomposite coating with advanced performance.
J. Alloy. Compd. 2015, 622, 929–934. [CrossRef]
43. Mack, D.E.; Laquai, R.; Muller, B.; Helle, O.; Sebold, D.; Vassen, R.; Bruno, G. Evolution of porosity, crack
density, and CMAS penetration in thermal barrier coatings subjected to burner rig testing. J. Am. Ceram. Soc.
2019, 102, 6163–6175. [CrossRef]
44. Dong, H.; Yang, G.J.; Li, C.X.; Luo, X.T.; Li, C.J. Effect of TGO thickness on thermal cyclic lifetime and failure
mode of plasma- sprayed TBCs. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 2014, 97, 1226–1232. [CrossRef]
45. Wang, Y.; Tian, W.; Yang, Y.; Li, C.G.; Wang, L. Investigation of stress field and failure mode of plasma
sprayed Al2O3–13%TiO2 coatings under thermal shock. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2009, 516, 103–110. [CrossRef]
46. Wang, L.; Ni, J.X.; Shao, F.; Yang, J.S.; Zhong, X.H.; Zhao, H.Y.; Liu, C.G.; Tao, S.Y.; Wang, Y.; Li, D.Y. Failure
behavior of plasma-sprayed yttria-stabilized zirconia thermal barrier coatings under three-point bending
test via acoustic emission technique. J. Therm. Spray Technol. 2017, 26, 116–131. [CrossRef]
47. Wang, L.; Liang, J.X.; Liu, D.L.; Chen, W.P. A novel reliability-based topology optimization framework for
the concurrent design of solid and truss-like material structures with unknown-but-bounded uncertainties.
Int. J. Numer. Methods Eng. 2019, 119, 239–260. [CrossRef]
48. Zhang, W.; Zhang, J.; Wang, H.; Lou, W.; Liu, X. Influences of Cr and Co on the Growth of Thermally Grown
Oxide in Thermal Barrier Coating during High-Temperature Exposure. Coatings 2018, 8, 195. [CrossRef]
49. Wu, J.; Wei, X.Z.; Padture, N.P.; Klemens, P.G.; Gell, M.; Garcia, E.; Miranzo, P.; Osendi, M.I.
Low-thermal-conductivity rare-earth zirconates for potential thermal-barrier-coating applications. J. Am.
Ceram. Soc. 2002, 85, 3031–3035. [CrossRef]
50. Gupta, M.; Skogsberg, K.; Nylen, P. Influence of topcoat-bondcoat interface roughness on stresses and lifetime
in thermal barrier coatings. J. Therm. Spray Technol. 2014, 23, 170–181. [CrossRef]
51. Tang, F.; Schoenung, J.M. Local accumulation of thermally grown oxide in plasma-sprayed thermal barrier
coatings with rough top-coat/bond-coat interfaces. Scr. Mater. 2005, 52, 905–909. [CrossRef]
52. Sridharan, S.; Xie, L.D.; Jordan, E.H.; Gell, M.; Murphy, K.S. Damage evolution in an electron beam physical
vapor deposited thermal barrier coating as a function of cycle temperature and time. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2005,
393, 51–62. [CrossRef]
53. Sridharan, S.; Xie, L.D.; Jordan, E.H.; Gell, M. Stress variation with thermal cycling in the thermally grown
oxide of an EB-PVD thermal barrier coating. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2004, 179, 286–296. [CrossRef]
54. Matsumoto, M.; Hayakawa, K.; Kitaoka, S.; Matsubara, H.; Takayama, H.; Kagiya, Y.; Sugita, Y. The effect of
preoxidation atmosphere on oxidation behavior and thermal cycle life of thermal barrier coatings. Mater. Sci.
Eng. A 2006, 441, 119–125. [CrossRef]
55. Che, C.; Wu, G.Q.; Qi, H.Y.; Huang, Z.; Yang, X.G. Uneven growth of thermally grown oxide and stress
distribution in plasma-sprayed thermal barrier coatings. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2009, 203, 3088–3091. [CrossRef]
56. Ranjbar-Far, M.; Absi, J.; Mariaux, G.; Shahidi, S. Effect of residual stresses and prediction of possible failure
mechanisms on thermal barrier coating system by finite element method. J. Therm. Spray Technol. 2010, 19,
1054–1061. [CrossRef]
57. Schulz, U.; Fritscher, K.; Ebach-Stahl, A. Cyclic behavior of EB-PVD thermal barrier coating systems with
modified bond coats. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2008, 203, 449–455. [CrossRef]
58. Jiang, J.S.; Xu, B.Q.; Wang, W.Z.; Adjei, R.A.; Zhao, X.F.; Liu, Y.Z. Finite element analysis of the effects of
thermally grown oxide thickness and interface asperity on the cracking behavior between the thermally
grown oxide and the bond coat. J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power 2017, 139, 022504. [CrossRef]
59. Shen, W.; Wang, F.C.; Fan, Q.B.; Ma, Z.A.; Yang, X.W. Finite element simulation of tensile bond strength of
atmospheric plasma spraying thermal barrier coatings. Surf. Coat. Tech. 2011, 205, 2964–2969.
Coatings 2020, 10, 732 24 of 25

60. Fan, X.L.; Xu, R.; Zhang, W.X.; Wang, T.J. Effect of periodic surface cracks on the interfacial fracture of thermal
barrier coating system. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2012, 258, 9816–9823. [CrossRef]
61. Huang, J.B.; Wang, W.Z.; Lu, X.; Liu, S.W.; Li, C.X. Influence of lamellar interface morphology on cracking
resistance of plasma-sprayed YSZ coatings. Coatings 2018, 8, 187. [CrossRef]
62. Sfar, K.; Aktaa, J.; Munz, D. Numerical investigation of residual stress fields and crack behavior in TBC
systems. Mat. Sci. Eng. A 2002, 333, 351–360. [CrossRef]
63. Wang, L.; Zhong, X.H.; Shao, F.; Ni, J.X.; Yang, J.S.; Tao, S.Y.; Wang, Y. What is the suitable segmentation
crack density for atmospheric plasma sprayed thick thermal barrier coatings with the improved thermal
shock resistance? Appl. Surf. Sci. 2018, 431, 101–111. [CrossRef]
64. Wang, L.; Ming, C.; Zhong, X.H.; Ni, J.X.; Yang, J.S.; Tao, S.Y.; Zhou, F.F.; Wang, Y. Microstructure
and self-healing properties of multi-layered NiCoCrAlY/TAZ/YSZ thermal barrier coatings fabricated by
atmospheric plasma spraying. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2019, 488, 246–260. [CrossRef]
65. Karger, M.; Vassen, R.; Stoover, D. Atmospheric plasma sprayed thermal barrier coatings with
high segmentation crack densities: Spraying process, microstructure and thermal cycling behavior.
Surf. Coat. Technol. 2011, 206, 16–23. [CrossRef]
66. Jadhav, A.; Padture, N.P.; Wu, F.; Jordan, E.H.; Gell, M. Thick ceramic thermal barrier coatings with high
durability deposited using solution-precursor plasma spray. Mat. Sci. Eng. A 2005, 405, 313–320. [CrossRef]
67. Dong, H.; Han, Y.; Zhou, Y.; Li, X.; Yao, J.-T.; Li, Y. The temperature distribution in plasma-sprayed
thermal-barrier coatings during crack propagation and coalescence. Coatings 2018, 8, 311. [CrossRef]
68. Fan, X.L.; Lau, W.M.; Liu, Z.F. Nondissociative Adsorption of O2 on Ge(100). J. Phys. Chem. C 2009, 113,
8786–8793. [CrossRef]
69. Baker, M. Finite element simulation of interface cracks in thermal barrier coatings. Comput. Mater. Sci. 2012,
64, 79–83. [CrossRef]
70. Wei, Z.Y.; Cai, H.N.; Feng, R.X.; Zhang, H. The combined effect of creep and TGO growth on the cracking
driving force in a plasma-sprayed thermal barrier system. J. Therm. Spray Technol. 2019, 28, 1000–1016.
[CrossRef]
71. Zhu, W.; Yang, L.; Guo, J.W.; Zhou, Y.C.; Lu, C. Numerical study on interaction of surface cracking and
interfacial delamination in thermal barrier coatings under tension. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2014, 315, 292–298.
[CrossRef]
72. Trunova, O.; Beck, T.; Herzog, R.; Steinbrech, R.W.; Singheiser, L. Damage mechanisms and lifetime behavior
of plasma sprayed thermal barrier coating systems for gas turbines—Part 1: Experiments. Surf. Coat. Technol.
2008, 202, 5027–5032. [CrossRef]
73. Wu, Y.; He, W.T.; Guo, H.B. Improved fracture toughness and multiple toughening mechanisms of
NdPO4/NdYbZr2O7 composites. Ceram. Int. 2020, 46, 16612–16619. [CrossRef]
74. Ito, K.; Shima, T.; Fujioka, M.; Arai, M. Improvement of oxidation resistance and adhesion strength of thermal
barrier coating by grinding and grit-blasting treatments. J. Therm. Spray Technol. 2020, 1–13. [CrossRef]
75. Shen, Q.; Yang, L.; Zhou, Y.C.; Wei, Y.G.; Zhu, W. Effects of growth stress in finite-deformation thermally
grown oxide on failure mechanism of thermal barrier coatings. Mech. Mater. 2017, 114, 228–242. [CrossRef]
76. Seiler, P.; Baker, M.; Rosler, J. Influence of creep and cyclic oxidation in thermal barrier coatings. Int. J. Mater.
Res. 2012, 103, 50–56. [CrossRef]
77. Guo, S.Q.; Tanaka, Y.; Kagawa, Y. Effect of interface roughness and coating thickness on interfacial shear
mechanical properties of EB-PVD yttria-partially stabilized zirconia thermal barrier coating systems. J. Eur.
Ceram. Soc. 2007, 27, 3425–3431. [CrossRef]
78. Jiang, J.S.; Jiang, L.X.; Cai, Z.W.; Wang, W.Z.; Zhao, X.F.; Liu, Y.Z.; Cao, Z.M. Numerical stress analysis of the
TBC-film cooling system under operating conditions considering the effects of thermal gradient and TGO
growth. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2019, 357, 433–444. [CrossRef]
79. Wang, L.; Liu, C.G.; Zhong, X.H.; Zhao, Y.X.; Zhao, H.Y.; Yang, J.S.; Tao, S.Y.; Wang, Y. Investigation of crack
propagation behavior of atmospheric plasma-sprayed thermal barrier coatings under uniaxial tension using
the acoustic emission technique. J. Therm. Spray Technol. 2015, 24, 296–308. [CrossRef]
80. Sun, J.; Fu, Q.G.; Yuan, R.M.; Dong, K.Y.; Guo, J.J. Corrosion and thermal cycling behavior of plasma sprayed
thermal barrier coatings on die steel. Mater. Des. 2017, 114, 537–545. [CrossRef]
81. Golewski, P.; Sadowski, T. The Influence of TBC aging on crack propagation due to foreign object impact.
Materials 2019, 12, 1488. [CrossRef]
Coatings 2020, 10, 732 25 of 25

82. Rahaman, M.N.; Gross, J.R.; Dutton, R.E.; Wang, H. Phase stability, sintering, and thermal conductivity of
plasma-sprayed ZrO2 -Gd2 O3 compositions for potential thermal barrier coating applications. Acta Mater.
2006, 54, 1615–1621. [CrossRef]
83. Larsen, J.M.; Worth, B.D.; Annis, C.G.; Haake, F.K. An assessment of the role of near-threshold crack growth
in high-cycle-fatigue life prediction of aerospace titanium alloys under turbine engine spectra. Int. J. Fract.
1996, 80, 237–255. [CrossRef]
84. Peters, J.O.; Roder, O.; Boyce, B.L.; Thompson, A.W.; Ritchie, R.O. Role of foreign-object damage on thresholds
for high-cycle fatigue in Ti-6Al-4V. Met. Mater. Trans. A 2000, 31, 1571–1583. [CrossRef]
85. Cai, Z.W.; Jiang, J.S.; Wang, W.Z.; Liu, Y.Z.; Cao, Z.M. CMAS penetration-induced cracking behavior in the
ceramic top coat of APS TBCs. Ceram. Int. 2019, 45, 14366–14375. [CrossRef]
86. Su, L.C.; Yi, C.H. Effects of CMAS penetration on the delamination cracks in EB-PVD thermal barrier coatings
with curved interface. Ceram. Int. 2017, 43, 8893–8897. [CrossRef]
87. Zhang, G.H.; Fan, X.L.; Xu, R.; Su, L.C.; Wang, T.J. Transient thermal stress due to the penetration of
calcium-magnesium-alumino-silicate in EB-PVD thermal barrier coating system. Ceram. Int. 2018, 44,
12655–12663. [CrossRef]
88. Yang, L.; Yang, J.; Xia, J.; Zhu, W.; Zhou, Y.C.; Wei, Y.G.; Wu, R.T. Characterization of the strain in
the thermal barrier coatings caused by molten CaO-MgO-Al2O3-SiO2 using a digital image correlation
technique. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2017, 322, 1–9. [CrossRef]
89. Kim, J.H.; Kim, M.C.; Park, C.G. Effects of defects on the thermal fatigue behavior of detonation-gun sprayed
thermal barrier coatings. Met. Mater. Int. 2001, 7, 557–563. [CrossRef]
90. Park, S.Y.; Kim, J.H.; Kim, M.C.; Song, H.S.; Park, C.G. Microscopic observation of degradation behavior in
yttria and ceria stabilized zirconia thermal barrier coatings under hot corrosion. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2005,
190, 357–365. [CrossRef]
91. Wang, L.; Lia, D.C.; Yang, J.S.; Shao, F.; Zhong, X.H.; Zhao, H.Y.; Yang, K.; Tao, S.Y.; Wang, Y. Modeling of
thermal properties and failure of thermal barrier coatings with the use of finite element methods: A review.
J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 2016, 36, 1313–1331. [CrossRef]
92. Sun, Y.; Liu, M.B. Analysis of the crack penetration/deflection at the interfaces in the intelligent coating
system utilizing virtual crack closure technique. Eng. Fract. Mech. 2015, 133, 152–162. [CrossRef]
93. Lee, C.C.; Yang, T.F.; Wu, C.S.; Kao, K.S.; Fang, C.W.; Zhan, C.J.; Lau, J.H.; Chen, T.H. Impact of high density
TSVs on the assembly of 3D-ICs packaging. Microelectron. Eng. 2013, 107, 101–106. [CrossRef]
94. Sadowski, T.; Golewski, P. Detection and numerical analysis of the most efforted places in turbine blades
under real working conditions. Comput. Mater. Sci. 2012, 64, 285–288.
95. Guo, F.N.; Guo, L.C.; Huang, K.; Bai, X.M.; Zhong, S.Y.; Yu, H.J. An interaction energy integral method for
T-stress evaluation in nonhomogeneous materials under thermal loading. Mech. Mater. 2015, 83, 30–39.
[CrossRef]
96. Bhattacharya, S.; Singh, I.V.; Mishra, B.K. Fatigue life simulation of functionally graded materials under
cyclic thermal load using XFEM. Int. J. Mech. Sci. 2014, 82, 41–59. [CrossRef]
97. Benvenuti, E. XFEM with equivalent eigenstrain for matrix-inclusion interfaces. Comput. Mech. 2014, 53,
893–908. [CrossRef]
98. Xu, Q.G.; Lu, F.; Wu, X.R. Thermal cycling of EB-PVD/NiCoCrAlYHf thermal barrier coatings.
Mater. Sci. Technol. 2007, 23, 264–269. [CrossRef]
99. Van den Bosch, W.; Schreurs, P.J.G.; Geers, M.G.D. A cohesive zone model with a large displacement
formulation accounting for interfacial fibrilation. Eur. J. Mech. A-Solids 2007, 26, 1–19. [CrossRef]
100. Rangaraj, S.; Kokini, K. A study of thermal fracture in functionally graded thermal barrier coatings using
a cohesive zone model. J. Eng. Mater. Technol. 2004, 126, 103–115. [CrossRef]
101. Caliez, M.; Chaboche, J.L.; Feyel, F.; Kruch, S. Numerical simulation of EBPVD thermal barrier coatings
spallation. Acta Mater. 2003, 51, 1133–1141. [CrossRef]
102. Bialas, M.; Majerus, P.; Herzog, R.; Mroz, Z. Numerical simulation of segmentation cracking in thermal
barrier coatings by means of cohesive zone elements. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2005, 412, 241–251. [CrossRef]

© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).