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Experimental Effectiveness Estimation of Inhibitors on Oxidation

Degradation of Oil Impregnated Paper Insulation in Power Transformers

Article  in  i-manager s Journal on Power Systems Engineering · January 2017

DOI: 10.26634/jps.4.4.11392

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RESEARCH PAPERS

EXPERIMENTAL EFFECTIVENESS ESTIMATION OF INHIBITORS ON

OXIDATION DEGRADATION OF OIL IMPREGNATED PAPER
INSULATION IN POWER TRANSFORMERS
By
CHILAKA RANGA * ASHWANI KUMAR CHANDEL ** RAJEEVAN CHANDEL ***
* Ph.D Scholar, Department of Electrical Engineering, NIT, Hamirpur, HP, India.
** Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering, NIT, Hamirpur, HP, India.
*** Professor, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, NIT, Hamirpur, HP, India.
Date Received: 20/10/2016 Date Revised: 13/02/2017 Date Accepted : 15/02/2017

ABSTRACT
Power transformers are very important and expensive components of electricity transmission and distribution networks.
Though the failure rate of transformers is generally low, however, in the event of a failure huge repair costs and long
shutdown time are generally needed. The life of insulation decides the service life time of the transformers. Several
oxidation inhibitors are generally inhibited into the oil in order to improve the life time. These inhibitors reduce the
oxidation process inside the transformers insulation, and improve the dielectric strength. The present paper determines
and compares the effectiveness of 1,2,3-benzotriazole and 2,6-dibutyl-4-methylphenol inhibitors on the oxidation
degradation of mineral transformer oil subjected to higher accelerated thermal stresses. It improves the quality and the
service lifetime of the insulation in transformers.
Keywords: Transformer Oil, 1,2,3-benzotriazole, 2,6-dibutyl-4-methylphenol, Aging, Water Content, Flash Point,
Interfacial Tension, Breakdown Voltage.

INTRODUCTION transformers is generally low, however, in the event of a

Transformers are very expensive equipments of electricity
transmission system, and one of the most valuable
devices in an electrical substation. Therefore, in order to
have a continuity of power supply the health of these
devices has to be always excellent. However, the health
condition of power transformers mainly depends on the
health of their solid and liquid insulations [1]. Further, the
operating characteristics of these insulations are largely
influenced by thermal and electrical stresses. These
stresses inside the transformers accelerate aging, and
reduce the overall service life time [2]. At high
temperatures, oxidation of the insulation inside the
transformers progresses extensively. Due to this many
undesirable contaminants including solid particles and
water content accumulate within the transformer oil due
to oxidation [3]. Presence of these particles inside the
transformers changes the electrical and the thermal
properties of the insulation. Though the failure rate of
failure huge repair costs and long shutdown time are
generally unavoidable. Therefore, condition monitoring
(CM) of power transformers has become very essential for
the continuous and reliable operation of such vital
devices [4]. CM determines the insulation degradation,
and facilitates the timely maintenance of the transformer.
At the same time it enhances the serviceable life of the
transformers.
During the past few years, a number of researchers have
investigated the influence of thermal aging on the
performance of the transformers [2-5]. These studies are
good to determine the aging characteristics of the
insulations. It has been concluded that the insulation
characteristics are satisfactory for new materials but
decline with time and temperatures. This is due to the
oxidation of various components inside the transformers
[4]. Thus, anti-oxidants namely, 1,2,3-benzotriazole (BTA)
and 2,6-dibutyl-4-methylphenol (DBPC) are added in to

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RESEARCH PAPERS

the transformer mineral oil in order to inhibit the oxidation details the outcomes of the test results. Subsequently, the
process [6]. These additives effectively slow down the percentage improvement in the dielectric characteristics
copper ion elution and trapping radicals. BTA effectively of the inhibited samples over the uninhibited samples has
inhibits the corrosion of copper and the oxidation of been determined in section 4. Finally, the conclusions are
insulating oil. Similarly, DBPC traps the radical chain drawn in section 5.
reaction which is the main factor behind the oxidation of 1. Experimental Work
the transformer insulation [7]. Though the effect of these
1.1 Samples Preparation
inhibitors is extremely good in improving the thermal
A series of samples inhibited with BTA, DBPC and mixed
characteristics of the transformer oil, however, only a few
inhibitors were prepared in the present work to determine
research articles on the significance and effectiveness of
the oxidation degradation of the mineral transformer oil
these inhibitors have been reported in the literature [2-6].
subjected to higher thermal stresses. As mentioned
Effect of oxidation on the thermal performance of fresh
above, every sample consists of transformer mineral oil,
and field transformer oil samples has been investigated in
TUK and copper strip [12]. Detailed specifications of the
[8]. In [9, 10] it is reported that the presence of inhibitors
materials used in the samples are as specified in Table 1.
increases the useful life of the oil thereby decreasing the
Before conducting the accelerated aging tests, the four
oxidation. Although the effect of these inhibitors on
conical flasks were initially cleaned with purified water,
transformers insulation is determined over the time and
and then dried out in an air-circulated temperature oven
normal working temperatures, however, the influence of
(set at 1000C for 24 hours). This removes all traces of
these inhibitors at higher accelerated thermal stresses has
humidity from the flasks. The cleaned and dried conical
not been investigated. However, it is very important to
flasks were cooled down to room temperature, and then
determine the effect of inhibitors at higher temperatures.
filled with uninhibited fresh mineral transformer oil. Further
The reason is that the degradation rate of transformers
the oil filled and unsealed conical flasks were placed in
insulation is very high at higher temperatures [3, 11].
the temperature oven, and subjected to a temperature of
During normal operating conditions, the transformers are
900C for 24 hours. It is done to remove the moisture
generally subjected to different faults including low,
content which may get added during the preparation of
medium and high temperature faults. These faults
the test samples. Three of the samples were filled with BTA,
increase the oil temperature to a large extent (>7000C). In
DBPC and mixed inhibitors, whereas the other one is
such temperatures, the oxidation of the insulation is very
without additives. The quantity of the inhibitors as given in
high. Therefore, there is a great need to investigate the
Table 1 added in the samples has been in accordance
effect of oxidation degradation additives at higher
with the references [6, 13]. Finally, the prepared test
temperatures to determine the extent of oxidation of the
samples were tightly sealed with cork plugs surrounded
insulation and an increased service life of transformers.
with aluminum foil and Kaptan tape to avoid any ingress
Thus, the present work is an attempt in this direction.
of any outside contaminants. Details of the different
In the present paper, the effects of oxidation degradation
additives such as 1,2,3-benzotriazole and 2,6-dibutyl-4- Material/Item Specification
Transformer oil 1000ml
methylphenol on the thermal characteristics of the
Paper Thermally upgraded Kraft (TUK) – 2mill
transformers insulation have been investigated at higher Copper Strip 100mm (length) × 25mm (width) × 3mm (thickness)
accelerated temperatures. The work presented in this Conical flasks 1000ml capacity

paper has been organized as follows. Section 2 outlines Cork Rubber

0
Temperature oven (500±2) C, PID controller based
the details of the experimental setup. It includes the
Inhibitors BTA (0.66 g), DBPC (6.66 g), Mixed
samples preparation, accelerated aging process and (0.33 g of BTA+ 3.33 g of DBPC)

the different diagnostic tests of transformers. Section 3 Table 1. Detail Specifications of the Materials

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RESEARCH PAPERS
Figure 1. (a) TUK (b) Copper Strips (c) Rubber Cork (d) Kaptan Tape (e) Sample in Conical Flask
(f) Air-circulated PID Controlled Temperature Oven with Samples Placed in Conical Flasks
materials used in the samples are as given in Figure 1 (a) to
(f).
1.2 Accelerated Aging
Accelerated aging tests were conducted at different
temperatures ranging from 1000C to 2200C. Initially, the
prepared samples were thermally stressed at 1000C for 72
hours. It was clearly observed from several test results that
the changes in insulation characteristics over the
temperatures are very significant at 72 hours [14, 15].
Therefore, every test temperature was maintained up to
72 hours. Further, the samples were cooled down to room
temperature, and several diagnostic tests were
performed. Subsequently, another set of samples was
prepared using the same experimental procedure, and
0
subjected to 120 C for 72 hours duration. Similarly, the
0 0 0 0
samples were aged at 140 C, 160 C, 180 C, 200 C and
0
220 C respectively. Each of these oil samples was
handled and stored in accordance with ASTM D 923 [16].
1.3 Diagnostic Tests
Five different tests namely Breakdown Voltage (BDV),
Interfacial Tension (IFT), flash point, Water Content and
Ultra Violet Visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy were conducted
on inhibited and uninhibited aged test samples. It is
mentioned here that BDV is one of the prominent
diagnostic test which is used by the experts to assess the
health condition of the transformer oil [17]. The maximum
voltage that can be applied across the oil without any
electrical breakdown is called as breakdown voltage of
oil. Any significant reduction in BDV indicates the presence
of oil degradation products, cellulose breakdown
products, and water content. These contaminants
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November 2016 - January 2017
increase the contents of free-ions and ion-forming
particles. The significant reductions in oil BDV indicate that
the oil is no longer capable of performing its vital insulation
and cooling functions [18]. The break down voltage test
was performed as per the guidelines given in ASTM D 877
[19].
The second diagnostic test which was performed on the
samples is interfacial tension. It determines the presence
of polar contaminants and oil decay products [20]. These
contaminants extensively reduce the interfacial tension of
the transformer oil. This is due to the high affinity towards
water and oil molecules [21]. Generally, new mineral oil
exhibits high value of interfacial tension before aging. It
decreases with aging and thermal stress. This test was
performed in accordance to ASTM D971 [22].
Further, the samples were analyzed with another
important diagnostic test called flash point. It is the safety
property of the oil. This test provides information about the
risk of fire [23]. It is desirable that the fresh insulating oil
should have very high flash point (i.e. >140°C) [24]. Flash
point decreases with thermal aging. The test was
performed as per the instructions of ASTM D93-16 [25].
The forth diagnostic test which was performed on the test
samples is Columetric Karl Fischer Titrator test. It
determines the amount of water content present within
the transformer oil. The water content inside the oil
samples increases due to heat dissipation. An increase in
the water content reduces the insulating properties of the
oil [26]. Excessive water content results in the breakdown
of the insulation. It ultimately creates a big loss of
transformer performance and revenue loss. The water
3
RESEARCH PAPERS
content measurement test was conducted in
accordance to ASTM D 4643-08 [27].
UV-Vis spectroscopy test was also performed on the test
samples in order to determine their oxidation stability over
the temperature. UV-Vis test play an important role in
different power transformer condition monitoring
applications [28]. Spectroscopic measurements are
widely used to determine the energy levels of atoms and
molecules. Therefore, all the test samples were analyzed
with UV-Vis Spectroscopy test. It measures the absorbance
of ultraviolet or visible light by a sample over a range in the
spectrum [29]. The shift in the absorbance curve to longer
wavelengths indicates an increasing concentration of
dissolved decay products [30]. This test was performed in
accordance to ASTM E275 [31].
2. Results and Discussion
In total thirty-two samples were prepared and thermally
stressed at different temperatures, and then the above
mentioned diagnostic tests were performed in
accordance to ASTM standards. The complete
description of these tests is discussed in the subsequent
sub-sections.
2.1 Breakdown Voltage
Breakdown voltage test has been performed on inhibited
and uninhibited oil sampels. Figure 2 (a) shows the BDV test
set up, and Figure 2 (b) details the change in BDV of
inhibited and uninhibited oil samples which were explored
to different temperatures.
In uninhibited oil sample, it has been observed that BDV
Figure 2. (a) BDV Test Set up Installed at TIFAC-CORE Centre, NIT Hamirpur (b) Variation of BDV
of Inhibited and Uninhibited Mineral Oil Samples over Accelerated Temperatures
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falls down by more than 50% when the temperature
ranges from 1000C to 1400C. Further, the deterioration in
BDV is more than 80% at 2200C. In contrast, BTA inhibited
test sample BDV decreases 40% at 1400C, and nearly
70% at 2200C. Similarly, BDV of DBPC inhibited sample
deteriorates by 49% at 1400C, and 74% at 2200C. The
change in BDV of oil sample having mixed inhibitors is
quite similar to that of DBPC inhibited oil sample. It is
concluded here that the deterioration in BDV of
uninhibited oil sample is more as compared to that of
inhibited oil sample. This is due to the increased water
content and impurities over the accelerated
temperatures. The water content within the transformer oil
propagates the creation of gaseous substances, and the
presence of impurities sharply breaks these gaseous
substances. This process is continued till the breakdown of
the oil takes place. Thus the presence of inhibitors inside
the mineral oil improves its dielectric strength thereby
extending the service life of transformers.
2.2 Interfacial Tension
Interfacial tension of inhibited and uninhibited oil samples
aged at different accelerated temperatures has been
determined, using the test set up shown in Figure 3 (a). The
changes in IFT as per the accelerated aging are shown in
Figure 3 (b).
It was observed from the test results that there is a 26%
reduction in IFT of BTA inhibited oil sample at 1400C,
whereas it is 36% in case of BTA inhibited oil sample at the
same temperature. IFT falls down to nearly 79% from its
rated value at 2200C for BTA oil sample. At the same
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RESEARCH PAPERS

Figure 3. (a) IFT Test set up Installed at TIFAC-CORE Centre, NIT Hamirpur (b) Comparison of
the Change in IFT of Inhibited and Uninhibited Mineral Oil Samples with Temperature

temperature, IFT reduces to 84% in case of DBPC inhibited
sample. Similarly, the deterioration in IFT of uninhibited test
0 0
samples is 53% at 140 C, and 85% at 220 C. These
significant decrements in IFT of all the test samples
indicate the presence of more oxidation contaminants.
Comparatively, uninhibited test samples consist of more
oxidation contaminants over the temperature as
compared to BTA and DBPC inhibited oil samples. Also it
was observed from the test results that the effect of
accelerated aging on the IFT of DBPC sample is higher as
compared to that of samples having BTA inhibitor.
2.3 Flash Point
Flash point of inhibited and uninhibited oil samples
exposed to different temperatures has been determined.
The experimental test set up of flash point is shown in
Figure 4 (a), and the results are detailed in Figure 4 (b). It
has been observed from the results that the influence of
accelerated thermal aging on the flash point of
uninhibited oil samples is quietly high as compared to that
of the samples having inhibitors. Based on the test results,
70% reduction in flash point of uninhibited oil sample at
2200C has been observed. At the same temperature,
52% and 48% decrements were found in case of BTA and
DBPC inhibited oil samples. Significant changes were
observed in uninhibited and mixed inhibited oil samples. It
is due to the combustible products present in the oil, and
low molecular weight hydrocarbons. The breakdown of
the oil at higher temperatures produces a large quantity
of low molecular weight hydro carbons. These hydro
carbons reduce the flash point of the oil. The changes in
IFT of mixed inhibited samples were quietly similar to that
of uninhibited oil sample.
2.4 Water Content
Water content present within inhibited and uninhibited
aged samples has been determined. Figure 5(a) shows
the test set up of Columetric Karl Fischer Titrator which

Figure 4. (a) Flash Point Test Set up Installed at TIFAC-CORE Centre, NIT Hamirpur (b) Variation
in Flash Point of Inhibited and Uninhibited Mineral Oil Samples with Temperature

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RESEARCH PAPERS

Figure 5. (a) Columetric Karl Fischer Titrator Set up Installed at TIFAC-CORE Centre, NIT Hamirpur (b) Change in
Water Content Present in Inhibited and Uninhibited samples for Different Temperatures

determines the water content of the samples. Figure 5(b)
shows the variation in water content of inhibited and
uninhibited oil samples subjected to higher accelerated
temperatures. In case of DBPC and BTA inhibited oil
samples, the water content reaches its excessive level at
2200C. Similarly, the water content in uninhibited and
mixed inhibited mineral oils reaches its deteriorated level
0
at 180 C.
Therefore, a substantial increase in the water content of
uninhibited oil samples over the accelerated
temperatures was observed. Thus, the oxidation
degradation in BTA and DBPC inhibited oil samples is low.
This is due to the continuous stability loss of the oils. As a
result the oil becomes decomposed and oxidized after
overheating at the higher accelerated temperatures.
2.5 UV-Vis Spectroscopy
To determine the oxidation stability of inhibited and
uninhibited oil samples explored to accelerated
temperatures, UV-Vis spectroscopy test was performed.
The experimental set up of this test is shown in Figure 6. As
discussed above, UV spectrums of different aged
samples swing towards the higher wavelengths. The
trending of UV-Vis absorbance as a function of
wavelength for different types of aged samples is shown in
Figure 7 (a) to (d).
In Figure 7, UV spectrums of the samples which were aged
at different temperatures i.e. 1000C, 1200C, 1400C, 1600C,
1800C, 2000C and 2200C are represented by numbers
from 1 to 7 respectively. The red colored horizontal line
represents the base or reference line. It has been
observed from Figure 7(a)-(d) that the absorbance curve
shifts towards the higher wavelengths as per the
accelerated aging temperatures. It is due to the
presence of more oxidation contaminants and sludge
particles. Also a relationship exists between the areas
under the absorbance curves (Table 2) and the total
amount of dissolved decay products in oil.
During accelerated aging tests, UV-spectrums of inhibited
oil samples occupied less area under the absorbance
curve. Whereas UV-spectrums areas of inhibited test
samples are higher, and undetermined at 2200C. It
indicates the effectiveness of inhibitors in terms of
retarding the degradation rate of mineral oil. From Table
2, it has been observed that there is a huge amount of
sludge formation in all oil samples at 2200C. Hence the
aging test was terminated at 2200C. The absorption curve
of uninhibited oil sample was completely deteriorated at
2000C. In this stage, the color of all samples was quite
Figure 6. UV-Vis Spectroscopy Set-up Installed
at TIFAC-core Centre, NIT Hamirpur

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Figure 7. Comparison of UV Visible Spectroscopy Results of Samples having (a) without Additive
(b) BTA Inhibitor (c) DBPC Inhibitor (d) Mixture of BTA and DBPC

Sample Base Line After aging After aging After aging After aging After aging After aging After aging
at 1000C at 1200C at 1400C at 1600C at 1800C at 2000C at 2200C
Uninhibited 9.26 29.11 97.49 130.39 192.43 232.36 463.92 Undefined
BTA Inhibited 9.24 28.27 96.77 126.31 181.65 192.48 320.15 434.49
DBPC Inhibited 9.27 27.17 92.21 129.17 185.72 194.11 335.18 488.59
Mixed Inhibited 9.22 30.49 98.26 133.57 182.36 215.18 325.35 494.28

Table 2. Area U nder UV-Vis Spectrums of Uninhibited and Inhibited Aged Samples

dark, and the contaminants in oil samples were clearly
visible. Thus the BTA and DBPC inhibitors significantly affect
the quality of the transformers insulation.
3. Improvement in Insulation Properties
Based on the outcomes of different diagnostic tests it has
been concluded that addition of inhibitors into the mineral
transformer oil improves the oxidation stability and the
thermal performance. Moreover, these additives provide
improved thermal stability at higher temperatures. To
determine the percentage improvement in various
properties of insulation, let xi (where i varies from 1 to 4) be
BDV, IFT, flashpoint and water content of inhibited and
uninhibited oil samples respectively. The percentage
improvement in the dielectric characteristics of inhibited
mineral transformer oil over temperatures is obtained
using (1), and given in Table 3.
% improvement in xi of inhibited oil =
Average change in xi of inhibited oil sample
100 (1)
´
Average change in xi of uninhibited oil sample

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Sample type % increment in BDV % increment in IFT
BTA inhibited 118.53 121.35
DBPC inhibited 115.26 123.38
Mixed inhibited 105.09 104.06
Table 3. Percentage Improvement in Different Characterisitcs of Inhibited Oil Samples Over Uninhibited Sample
The significant improvements in BDV, IFT, flash point and
water content of inhibited oil samples were obtained over
the accelerated temperatures. As per the accelerated
temperatures, BTA inhibited sample has an average
18.53% BDV increament over uninhibited oil sample.
Whereas, DBPC and mixed inhibited oil samples have BDV
increaments of 15.26% and 5.09% respectively. Thus the
dielectric strength of the transformers insulation was
improved by using additives. Similarly, BTA inhibited
sample has an average 21.35% increment in its IFT as
compared to uninhibited sample, whereas DBPC and
mixed inhibited oil samples have 23.38% and 4.06%
increments. The percentage improvements in flash point
of BTA, DBPC and mixed inhibited samples are 12.52,
17.00 and 11.65% respectively. As per the variation in
water content, BTA, DBPC, and mixed inhibited samples
have 14.81%, 17.55% and 2.9% decrement over
uninhibited oil samples. Finally, it has been concluded
that the dielectric strength of BTA inhibted oil samples is
good over the different temperatures, whereas, IFT and
flash points of DBPC samples are better over the
temperatures. Also the water content in DBPC oil samples
is less as compared to other samples. Thus the inhibitors
effectively improve the quality of the transformers
insulation, and extends its service life time.
Conclusion
The present paper computes the effectiveness of
oxidation degradation additives in improving the thermal
characteristics of the transformer mineral oil at higher
accelerated temperatures. Two types of anti-oxidants
namely, 1,2,3-benzotriazole and 2,6-dibutyl-4-
methylphenol were added in to the oil in order to inhibit
the oxidation of the insulation and improve the quality of
the oil. The oil samples were thermally stressed at different
temperatures ranging from 900C to 2200C. It was
observed from the test results that the BTA and DBPC
additives extensively inhibit the oxidation of the
8 i-manager’s Journal on Power Systems Engineering, Vol. 4 l
% increment in Flash point % decrement in water content
112.52 85.19
117.00 82.45
111.65 97.11
transformers insulation at higher temperatures. Also it was
found that the oil sample having mixture of BTA and DBPC
inhibitors has poor thermal characteristics as compared
to that of BTA and DBPC inhibited samples. The inhibitors
added in the oil sample significantly improve the quality of
the insulation, thereby improving its service life time. The
present paper provides an extensive data set and a
comparative analysis on accelerated thermal aging of
transformer oil inhibited with BTA, DBPC and mixed
additives and shall be extremely important for power
transformers.
Acknowledgement
The authors are thankful to the authorities of the
TIFAC–CORE Centre and TEQIP-II of NIT Hamirpur India for
providing the necessary facilities and financial aid wide
grant number NIT/HMR/TEQIP-II/Research & Development-
19/2015/2157-63 to perform the experiments and
carrying out the present research. Authors are also
thankful to the Himachal Pradesh State Electricity Board
(HPSEB), India for providing the transformer oil samples.
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Chilaka Ranga received his B. Tech. Degree in Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Bapatla Engineering College,
Bapatla (AP), India in 2010. He received his M.Tech. Degree from National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur (HP), India, in 2012.
Presently he is pursuing his Ph.D. in the Department of Electrical Engineering at NIT, Hamirpur (HP). His areas of interest are
Performance Evaluation and Health Assessment of Power Transformers.

Dr. Ashwani Kumar Chandel has graduated in Electrical Engineering from Kerala University. He was awarded Postgraduation
Degree from Punjab Engineering College, Chandigarh. He was awarded Ph.D. Degree from Indian Institute of Technology,
Roorkee, India in 2005. Dr. Chandel joined the Department of Electrical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur,
HP, India, as Lecturer in 1991, where presently he is working as a Professor and Head of the Department. His research work has
been published in various International Journals of repute including IEEE, IEE, Elsevier Science, Taylor & Francis and others. He has
worked extensively in the area of Harmonic Estimation & Elimination, Condition Monitoring of Transformers and currently his
research interest continues in these fields. He is a Fellow of IETE, Member IEEE, and Life Member of ISTE.

Dr. Rajeevan Chandel received her B.E. Degree in Electronics and Communication Engineering from Thapar University Patiala,
India, in 1990. She is a double gold medalist of Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla, India, in Pre–University and Pre–Engineering
in 1985 and 1986, respectively. She received her M.Tech. Degree in Integrated Electronics and Circuits from Indian Institute of
Technology (IIT), Delhi, India, in 1997. She was awarded Ph.D. degree from IIT Roorkee, India, under QIP scheme of Government
of India in 2005. She joined the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, NIT Hamirpur, HP India, as a
lecturer in 1990, where presently she is working as a Professor and has been the Head of the Department twice. She has five
MHRD, MCIT sponsored projects to her credit from the Government of India. She has over 50 research papers in International
and National Journals of repute and over 75 in Conferences. Her research interest includes Electronics Circuit Modelling, and
Low–Power VLSI Design. She is a Fellow of IETE(I), Member of IEEE and Life Member of ISTE(I), ISSS.

10 i-manager’s Journal on Power Systems Engineering, Vol. 4 l

No. 4 l
November 2016 - January 2017

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