Ethical Leadership- is leadership that is directed by respect for ethical beliefs and

values and for the dignity of others. It is thus related to concepts such as trust,
honesty, consideration, charisma, and fairness. A leader’s choices are also influenced by
their moral development.

What are the principles of ethical leadership?

There are five principles of ethical leadership which are respect, service, community,
justice, and honesty. These principles are at the core of ethical leadership. Respect
would be defined leaders that respect other and themselves. Respect is complex and
goes deeper than the respect that parents teach their children.

What is ethical leadership and why is it important?

The nurturing aspect of leadership can also raise an organization’s culture and
employee’s values to higher levels of ethical behavior. By demonstrating ethical
leadership we promote a high level of integrity that stimulates a sense of
trustworthiness, and encourages subordinates to accept and follow our vision.

Ethical consideration

 Informed consent
 Voluntary participation
 Do no harm
 Confidentiality
 Anonymity
 Only assess relevant components

Informed consent

Informed consent means that the person participating in the evaluation is fully informed
about the evaluation being conducted. Participants need to be made aware of the
purpose of the project, who or what group is funding it, how the finding will be used, if
there are any potential adverse impacts of their participation and who will have access
to the findings. The main purpose of informed consent is that the participant is able to
make an informed decision as to whether they will participate in the evaluation or not.
Additional information should also be provided in the event that the participant
becomes distressed in any way during their participation.
Voluntary participation

Voluntary participation means that people participate in the evaluation free from
correction. Participants are free to withdraw their participation at any time without
negatively impacting on their involvement in future services or the current program and
relationships with any of the researchers or research bodies involved. It can be
challenging to encourage high risk youth to become engaged in a program and it is
therefore difficult when participants choose not to continue in a program. It is the right
of participants to leave a program of this nature at any time, there no pressure should
be placed on those who choose not to continue . explanations are also not required.

Do no harm

Harm can be both physical and/or psychological and therefore can be in the form of
stress, pain, anxiety, diminishing, self-esteem or an invasion of privacy. It is imperative
that the evaluation process does not in any harm (unintended or otherwise)
participants.

Confidentiality

Confidentiality means that any identifying information is not made available to, or
accessed by anyone but the program coordinator. Confidentiality also ensures such
identifying information is excluded from any reports or published, it is very important to
consider how reports are worded to ensure that there is no opportunity for people to be
identified even though names are not used.

Anonymity

Anonymity is a stricter form of privacy than confidentiality, as the identity of the

participant remains unknown to the research team. This is more difficult to achieve than
confidentiality as participants in the context of social research are usually known to the
program coordinator.

Only assess relevant components

Only assess those components that are of relevance to the program/initiative being
conducted. High risk populations are sometimes being used as guinea pigs or a captive
audience to ask all sorts of questions in evaluations that are of interest to groups
conducting the program/initiative but nor relevant to the program nor will be to the
group who are involved in the program. It is important to keep evaluations as simple as
possible and to remain focused on the intention of the evaluation and what the data
gathered will used for.
 Moral decision is a choice made based on a person's ethics, manners,
character and what they believe is proper behavior. These decisions tend to not only
affect your well-being, but also the well-being of others.

Types of Morality
People base moral decisions on a variety of references including religious beliefs,
personal values, and logical reasoning. From this reasoning come two different types of
morality: absolute morality and relative morality.
Absolute morality is a more rigid belief structure that is based on the idea that
there is a right choice for every moral dilemma, which holds true for all situations. A
good example of this would be the Christian commandment, 'thou shalt not kill.' A
person who believes in absolute morality would believe this to be true in all situations,
even in the case of war.
Relative morality recognizes that different situations may call for different
actions that might not always adhere to a person's original values. Let's use the same
example, 'though shalt not kill.' A person who has relative morality would stick with this
belief but might have a different opinion when it comes to war or abortion, depending
on the situation.

Approaches to Moral Decision-Making

Over the years, philosophers have recognized five different frameworks for approaching
moral issues. These approaches developed over many years, ranging from Ancient
Greek times to the 19th century. Each of them is designed to deliver the most virtuous
and just resolution to a moral dilemma. The five approaches are:

 The Utilitarian Approach

 The Rights Approach
 The Fairness Approach
 The Common Good Approach
 The Virtue Approach

Utilitarian approach

-a decision by determining what is the most beneficial or causes the least amount of
harm. The ethical action in the approach is the one that causes the most amount good
for the largest amount of the people.
 Rights approach

- Is aligned more with the notion that human being have a right to choose freely and
should not be manipulated.

Fairness approach

-assumes that people should be treated equally regardless of their station in life, that is,
they should not be subject to discrimination.

Common good approach

-refers to actions that are taken or policies that are put into place in order to benefit not
only a certain group of individuals, but the society as a whole.

Virtue approach

-is approach to ethics that emphasizes an individual’s character as the key element of
ethical thinking, rather than rules about the acts themselves (Deontology) or their
consequences (consequentialism).

Principled or moral discernment

Moral Discernment- concern with or relating to human behavior, the distinction

between good and bad or right and wrong behavior.

Discernment- is not knowing the difference between right and wrong. It is known
difference between right and almost right.

Moral Development and Abstract Dilemmas

James Rest , a developmental psychologist who studied moral and ethical development,
identified four components of moral development:

 Moral sensitivity—the ability to interpret a situation in moral and ethical

terms;
 Moral judgment—the ability to determine a course of action in the context
of what is just;
 Moral motivation—the ability to select an appropriate course of action
among multiple good alternatives; and
 Moral character—the courage and skills to follow a course of action in
response to a situation.
These separate components, when braided together, constitute a moral whole involving
cognitive complexity, interpersonal sensitivity, the courage to take action, and the skills
to act appropriately. Rest spent his entire career demonstrating that it is possible to
assess an individual’s level of moral development and to design educational experiences
that enable an individual, over time, to become more consistent and mature in
exercising moral judgment.

The six stages are

1. “Authority” stage: What is moral is defined by the authority figure, who is to be

strictly obeyed by the follower.
2. “Reciprocity” stage: What is moral is defined by the authority figure, but the
follower seeks to bargain with the authority figure: “I will do something for you if you
will do something for me.”
3. “Good Girl/Nice Boy” stage: What is moral is defined by the peer group.
Followers seek to remain in good standing with their peers by following the rules
determined by the group. This leads to competition for power and influence among
peer groups.
4. “Law and Order” stage: What is moral is defined by laws that the majority makes
(which essentially control the competing interests of the peer groups). There is little
recognition that the rights of any minority can be overlooked by the majority.
5. “Social Justice” stage: What is moral is defined with consideration for what is
right and just for minority groups as well as the majority.
6. “Principled Reasoning” stage: What is moral is undergirded by principles of
goodness and justice.

Principle of well-formed conscience

conscience is often described as leading to feelings of remorse when a person

commits an act that conflicts with their moral values.

What does it mean to have a well-formed conscience?

The formation of a good conscience is another fundamental element of Christian moral

teaching. “Conscience is a judgment of reason by which the human person recognizes
the moral quality of a concrete act.

Conscience represents both the more general ability we have as human beings to know
what is good and right and the concrete judgments we make in particular situations
concerning what we should do or about what we have already done. Moral choices
confront us with the decision to follow or depart from reason and the divine law. A good
conscience makes judgments that conform to reason and the good that is willed by the
Wisdom of God. A good conscience requires lifelong formation.
Because our conscience is that inner sanctuary in which we listen to the voice of God,
we must remember to distinguish between our subjective self and what is objectively
true outside ourselves. We can be subjectively in error about something that is
objectively true. On the objective level, if our conscience is “correct,” then there is no
error between what is internally perceived to be true and truth itself. If there is an
incorrect conscience, that means that the conscience is erroneous in its view of truth.

On the subjective level we can have a “certain” conscience, which means we believe
that our conscience is in conformity with what is objectively true. A person can have a
“certain” conscience on the subjective level but an “incorrect” one on the objective
level.

There are some rules to follow in obeying one’s conscience. First, always follow a
certain conscience. Second, an incorrect conscience must be changed if possible. Third,
do not act with a doubtful conscience. We must always obey the certain judgments of
our conscience, realizing that our conscience can be incorrect, that it can make a
mistake about what is truly the good or the right thing to do. This can be due to
ignorance in which, through no fault of our own, we did not have all we needed to
make a correct judgment.

However, we must also recognize that ignorance and errors are not always free from
guilt, for example, when we did not earnestly seek what we needed in order to form
our conscience correctly. Since we have the obligation to obey our conscience, we also
have the great responsibility to see that it is formed in a way that reflects the true
moral good.

TWELVE PRINCIPLES
 
The Principle of Well-Formed Conscience indicates that people are
obligated to inform themselves about ethical norms, incorporate that knowledge into
their daily lives, act according to that knowledge, and take responsibility for those
actions.
            The Principle of Free and Informed Consent states that people must have
knowledge about and give consent before physical or psychological therapy may be
administered.  
            The Principle of Moral Discrimination suggests that being morally
discriminating is a way of life that we must adopt and utilize in all aspects of our lives
as a commitment to God and to the dignity of other human beings.
            The Principle of the Double Effect presents an interesting exercise in quasi-
syllogistic logic which serves as a system of checks and balances to insure against harm
inflicted by rationalized actions.
            The Principle of Legitimate Cooperation portrays the Principle of the
Double Effect in a scenario in which more than one person participates in the actions
being evaluated.
            Principle of Professional Communication puts forth the need for trust,
informed contact, clear articulation, and continuous update and feedback when it
comes to moral issues.
            The Principle of Dignity in Community is a foundational statement of the
necessity of health care serving human persons; how health care must be at once a
gentle balance of ethical, communal, and political considerations; how all ethical
decisions must satisfy both the innate and cultural needs of every human person; and
also expresses the specific Christian contribution as a vision of authentic human dignity
as revealed in Jesus Christ.
            The Principle of Common Good, Subsidarity, and Functionalism
can best be summarized by the expression, "from each according to ability, to each
according to need, as indicated by Jesus and his concern for the 'little ones.'"
            The Principle of Totality and Integrity makes reference to 1Col:3:16where
the body is seen as a temple for the Holy Spirit, how nothing should be done to that
body which hurts or denigrates its overall, and draws a line between the human
condition and its animal commonality.
            Principle of Growth Through Suffering makes implied references to the
Christian theological concept of "already but not yet," points us in the direction of a life
beyond this, yet makes clear the need to endure and make as perfect as possible the
road to that next life, a road that will indeed be laden with potholes and detours.
            The Principle of Personalized Sexuality takes note of a humanized
sexuality, one that represents the fulfillment of physical and sensual need but also
evidenced with love and sacramental mystery.
            The Principle of Stewardship and Creativity sculpts an image of our gifts
as humans and the horizons that such gifts offer us as multidimensional creatures of
God.  At the same time, a limit and a responsibility are placed upon just how far beyond
God's intentions we should take those gifts.
            
FAITH, HOPE, AND CHARITY
 
            It is crucial to the overall comprehension of the authors' perspective to see that
they are saying that faith is required for persons to act as an informed conscience; that
hope requires humans to accept growth through suffering, to continue the human
community through family, to creatively serve as stewards in God's world; and love (ie,
charity) requires profound respect for human dignity, regardless of a person's condition,
requires love of oneself through proper health care, and love as responsibility for the
well-being of all.
            Faith, hope, and love, the three essential ingredients included in the Christian
message, the Gospel preachings of Christ.  Yet, in the same spirit as The Second
Vatican Council and Lumen  Gentium, the authors do not contend that Christians have a
monopoly on wisdom and on the true God and his grace.  They suggest merely that
God has made himself most fully and explicitly known to humanity through the work,
words, and deeds of Jesus Christ.
 
PRUDENTIAL PERSONALISM
 
            Much as Beethoven in the final movement of his ninth symphony reviews
previous themes, abridges them, and then rejects them in favor of the "Ode to Joy,"
Ashley and O'Rourke take great pains to review various branches of deontological and
teleological reasoning before embracing what they refer to as
"prudential personalism."  Prudential personalism proposes  that the rightness or
wrongness of human actions can best be judged by considering the indefinite yet
teleological goal we know as "life" by asking, "How does this action in its context
contribute to the growth of persons in the community?"  We answer this question with
help from our informed consciences which the great 20th century theologian
Karl Rahner saw as our direct contact with the voice of God.
 
CHRISTIAN HEALTHCARE MODEL
 
            With their twelve principles and a derived theological perspective as a
foundation, the authors construct a model for the ideal healthcare plan which includes:
            1-healthcare as a fundamental right
            2-comprehensive coverage
            3-positive, preventative health care
            4-emphasis on quality care
            5-emphasis on humanistic education of healthcare professionals
            6-a global funding plan
            7-and participation of both consumers and health care professional in the
administration and planning of the system.
            In addition, it is stated that Christians, by the very definition of their moral and
theological heritage, must support such healthcare issues along with giving priority to
the powerless, the poorly informed, and the least able to pay as well as not leaving
important decisions to autonomous professional groups or governmental dictates.
 
ONE LONG ISLANDTOWN'S COMMUNITY MODEL
 
            It is interesting to point out that, within our community such a model has been
nurtured and developed over the past eight years and is soon to see realization when
the Huntington
            Although the convoluted journey from Millie Willan's front porch
to HuntingtonHospital's $5 million efforts is not in essence a Christian or Catholic or
even religious sojourn, the evolutionary story behind the new health center is spiritually
imbued and epitomizes the aforementioned precepts of Christian healthcare.
            Back in 1968, when the municipal government of Suffolk County decided to
build eight health clinics throughout its vast jurisdiction, the final result was seven
health clinics due to Huntington Hospital "north-of-25A, let them eat cake" mentality
and ultimate refusal to sanction such an entity. Some eighteen years later, in the
summer of 1986, living legends from the realm of local social activism gathered to
discuss a game plan for building a long-overdue health center for Huntington residents,
a facility that would provide primary medical attention for anyone who was in need,
regardless of their ability to pay. 
            
CHRISTIAN HEALTHCARE ETHICS:  ABORTION
            Abortion has become an explosive issue in our time.  Abortion is no longer just
a "Right to Life," Catholics vs. the-rest-of-the -world debate.  Many new factions have
embraced abortion as a focal issue, and the violence and zealous activism that has
become associated with an anti-abortion stance speaks for itself.