DMS Theory - Class

R.K.
Sir’s Vaishnavi Academy

SUB: Design of Mechanical Systems Sem - VIII
Design of Mechanical
Systems
Mechanical Engineering
Semester VIII
1
R.K. Sir’s Vaishnavi Academy
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Module Topic Page

No. No.
1 Methodology and Morphology of design 3
2 Design of Hoisting Mechanisms 12
3 Design of Belt Conveyors 25
4 Engine Design (Petrol and Diesel) 31
5 Design of Pumps (Gear and Centrifugal) 40
6 Design of gearboxes for Machine Tool 56
Applications
7 Numerical sheet 61
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Module 1
Design and Significance of Design:

To design is to formulate a plan for the satisfaction of human need. We classify design as
clothing design, interior design, jewelry design, highway design, landscape, CAD, heating
system design, machine & equipment design, process design, bridge design. A design is always
subjected to problem solving constants such as cost, manufacturing method, material,
environmental conditions & combination of these factors. e.g. Extreme conditions of working,
casting change in rope drum manufacturing. The designer has to find an optimum solution. The
design problem is not hypothetical problem. The design has a special purpose, the creation of
end results by taking definite action or creation of something of physical reality. Mechanical
engineering design is design of mechanical nature of machines, products, structure, devices
and instruments. The system design will include the compilation of different elements, devices
and instruments. The designer utilizes his knowledge of mathematics, material science and
engineering mechanics.
Designer’s role in the activity is to be an intermediary between scientific knowledge and the
production process. High grade work on the shop floor is possible, if the design itself good.
The salesman are powerless if the designers has not approached his tasks with due regard for
economic factors and kept down manufacturing costs so that it is competitive. The work done
by the designers is of fundamental importance to the industrial and then to the whole economy.
The art of designing can be explained on the following lines.
“The designer uses his intellectual ability to apply scientific knowledge, in the task of creating
drawing which enables as engineering product to be made in a way that not only meets the
stipulated conditions but also permits manufacturing by most economic methods.”
The design work can be classified into following:
1) Adaptive Design :
In the great majority of instances the designers work will be concerned with, adaption of
existing design. There are branches of manufacturing where development has practically
stopped so that there is hardly anything left for the designer to do except make minor changes
or modification, that to usually in the dimensions of the product. (e.g:- Tube lights, fan,
keyboards, Steel, Cupboard) Design activity of this kind demands, no special knowledge or
skill of the problems presented are easily outlined by a designer with ordinary technical
training. The designer is therefore called pantograph designers.
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2) Development Design:
This requires considerably more scientific training of design ability. E.g. Washing machine:-
From twin tub to single tub, aero foil profiles for cars. Though in this type the designer starts
with existing design the final outcome may differ substantially from the existing design. In this
type it becomes necessary to modify the existing design to bring them in line with a new idea
by switching to a new material on the different method of manufacture or enhancing of
capacity.
3) New Design:
Only a small number of engineers, who decide on design as a carrier will bring to their work,
personal qualities of a sufficiently high order to enable them to venture successfully into new
design fields. e.g.:- Integrated circuits, steam engines, locomotives. The new design requires
lot of research & dedication.
Design Methodology:
Design methodology consists of following phases:
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Phase I: Recognition of Need
The process of designing stars with recognition of needs and ends with presentation of plans
for satisfying the requirement. Design begins when the engineer recognizes the need and
decides to do something about it. The need is not often evident at all. Recognition is usually
triggered by a particular adverse circumstance or a set of random circumstance, (e.g. Wave
propagation sensing devices) which arise almost simultaneously. Sensitive person or a person
who is easily disturbed by the circumstances is more likely to recognize the need and for this
reason sensitive people are always more creative.
Phase II: Definition of need/problem
This will include all the specifications, for the element to be designed, input and output
quantities, characteristics and dimensions and all the limitations on these quantities. In this
case we must specify all the things along with the cost, the numbers to be manufactured, the
expected life, range, operating temp and the reliability. Obvious items in this specification are
speeds, feeds, temperature limitations, maximum range and expected variations in dimensions
and weight. There are many implied specifications which result either from designer’s
particular environment or from the nature of problem itself. The manufacturing processes
which are available together with the facility to certain plant, consists of reactions on a
designers freedom is part of implied specifications. [e.g. Heat treatment furnace, skilled labor
is not available, material is not available.] A small plant for instance may not own cold
working machinery, knowing this the designer select other processing methods which are
possible within the plant. Anything which limits the designer’s freedom of choice is the
specification. Many materials and fixtures listed in the suppliers catalog are not easily
available or shortage frequently occurred. Inventory economics limits stocks, no of different
materials and size. Hence these also contribute the specifications.
Phase III: Synthesis, analysis and optimization
After the problem has been defined and the specifications have been obtained the next step is
the synthesis. Synthesis of the optimum solution cannot take place without both analysis and
optimization because the system under design must be analyzed to determine whether the
performance complies with the specifications. The analysis may reveal that the system is not
the optimum one. The design is an iterative process in which we proceed through several steps,
evaluate the result and then return in earlier phase. Thus we may synthesize several
components of system, analyze and optimize them and then return to synthesis to see what
effect this has on the remaining parts of the system. Both analysis and optimization require the
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construction of the models of the system which will admit some form of mathematical
analysis. These models will stimulate the real physical system. [e.g Space research]
Phase IV: Evaluation
It is a significant phase of the total design process. Evaluation is the final proof of a successful
design and usually involves the testing of the prototype in the lab. Here we wish to discover if
the design really satisfies the needs. Is it reliable? Will it compete successfully with similar
product? Whether it is economical for manufacture and use? It’s maintainability can a profit be
mode from its sell.
Phase V: Presentation
Communicating the design to others is the final vital step in design process. Many great
designs, inventions and creations have lost their importance, simply because the originators
were unable to explain the concept. Presentation is a selling job. The engineers when
presenting a new solution to management or supervisory persons, is attempting to sell or prove
to them that this solution is better one. Unless this can be done successfully the time and the
efforts spend on obtaining the solutions have been largely wasted. When the designers sells
new ideas, he also sells himself. Designer can adopt written, oral and graphical form for
effective communication. A successful engineer will be not only technically competent but is
also versatile in all these forms of communication.
Morphology of Design:
Morphology of design is the chronological vertical structure of the various phases or steps
together from the engineering analysis to the retirement of the product. Thus morphology of
design includes the following steps:
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(i) Recognition of need:
The process of designing stars with recognition of needs and ends with presentation of plans
for satisfying the requirement. Design begins when the engineer recognizes the need and
decides to do something about it. The need is not often evident at all. Recognition is usually
triggered by a particular adverse circumstance or a set of random circumstance, (e.g. Wave
propagation sensing devices) which arise almost simultaneously. Sensitive person or a person
who is easily disturbed by the circumstances is more likely to recognize the need and for this
reason sensitive people are always more creative.
(ii) Specification of problem:
This will include all the specifications, for the element to be designed, input and output
quantities, characteristics and dimensions and all the limitations on these quantities. In this
case we must specify all the things along with the cost, the numbers to be manufactured, the
expected life, range, operating temp and the reliability.
(iii) Conceptual Design and Engineering analysis
The design as a concept needs to be presented. Further analysis regarding how safe the design
is needs to be done. The design should also include the materials selected.
(iv) Detailed Design :
The purpose of the detailed design is to produce a complete engineering description of a tested
and producible design for manufacture. A detailed design includes manufacturing drawings
with tolerances.
(v) Planning for manufacturing:
A procedure sheet is to be made which contains a sequence of manufacturing operations that
must be performed on the component. It specifies clearly the tooling, fixtures and production
machines. This phase may include planning, and inventory control, quality control system, the
fixing of standard time and labor cost for each operation.
(vi)Planning for Distribution, Use and Retirement of the Product :
The success of a design depends on the skill exercised in marketing the product. Also the user
oriented concern such as reliability, ease of maintenance, product safety, convenience in use,
aesthetic appeal, economy and durability must met. The product life considering actual wear or
deterioration and technological obsolescence must be planned.
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System Design Approach
Definition of system:
A system can be defined as an aggregation of parts or elements, connected in same form of
interaction or interdependence to form a complex or unitary whole. In other words, a system is
a set of mutually related elements or parts assembled together in some specified order to
perform an intended function. Most of the engineering systems today belong to the category of
complex systems. Although such a distinction between simple and complex systems is totally
arbitrary, the degree of complexity of a system relates to the number of elements, their physical
dimensions, multiplicity of links or connections of the constituent elements within the system,
multiple functions etc. The complexity of a system can be best defined based on the
complexity of its structure and the functions performed by the system.
The System Design Process
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To design a system is to synthesize it. This requires selection known elements and putting
them into a new configuration. A design alternative is an arrangement to realize the system
objective. Evaluation is prediction of how good the design alternative would be if it were
accepted for implementation. System design evaluation generally precedes the system analysis,
which in turn, is preceded by synthesis. In fact analysis, evaluation and synthesis are followed
in a cycle order till the objective of system design is met. In order to make system design cost-
effective and competitive, system design evaluation should be carried out as an essential
technical activity with the design process evaluation should be carried out as an essential
technical activity within the design process. However, it should not be pursued in isolation.
System design evaluation should necessarily be carried out regularly as an assurance of
continuous design improvement. As one proceeds from the top-down approach in the early
phases of system design and development, there is also a follow-on “bottom-up” procedure at
the same time. During the latter phases of the preliminary and detail design and design and
development phase, subsystems or components are combined, assembled, and integrated into
the specified system configuration. This, in turn, leads to the iterative process of system
evaluation. Inherent within the system engineering process is always a provision for constant
feedback and necessary corrective action.
Main Steps of design process / Optimum design process
The designer’s approach to design is basically the same whether it is design of a component or
a part, a subsystem, or a system, and the difference lies only in the degree with which the task
is carried out. The following is the sequence of steps that are commonly executed during the
design:
1. Develop one or more design concepts that satisfy the design objective.
2. Carry out the feasibility analysis of the various possible design concepts using personal
experience or by theoretical analysis and simulation, or by experimentation and testing, or by
combinations of these.
3. Choose the design concept that meets all of the design objectives. Apportion reliability or any
other performance goal requirements at all levels down in the part level of a system hierarchy.
4. Prepare preliminary specification and drawings.
5. Based on preliminary drawing and specifications, pass on the design for fabrication and
production and procurement of development hardware to be used for feasibility and evaluation
testing of the hardware.
6. Plan qualification test requirements and participate in planning production test and inspection
requirements.
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7. Participate in the preparation of prototype and qualification testing taking whatever corrective
design action is found to be necessary.
8. Prepare the final design, It is at this point that the review of set of designed objectives is
necessary.
9. Review and approve those portions of the design that are not created by the design section.
10. Release the completed design, after ensuring that the objectives of design and other required
approvals, for manufacturing or fabrication or for the user’s disposition as applicable, have
been achieved.
Theory Questions:
1. Explain the various stages of design methodology with feedback loops. (Dec’16)
2. Explain morphology of design. (May’17) (Dec’16) (May’16)
3. Write a note on system design approach. (May’16)
4. What is optimum design? Write optimum design procedure for normal specification.
(May’17)
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Module 2:
Factors affecting selection of material handling equipment:

The following principal technical factors have to be considered to mechanize any handling
process.
(i) Kind and properties of loads to be handled
For unit loads their form, weight, convenient bearing surface or parts by which they can be
suspended, brittleness, temperature, etc.; for bulk loads lump size, tendency to cake, volume
weight, friability and the amount of crumbling liable to occur during shipment, temperature,
chemical properties, etc. These characteristics of loads can essentially narrow down the range
of devices which can be applied to each definite case since the different devices are not
adapted equally to the various properties of loads.
(ii) Required hourly capacity of the unit:
A practically unlimited hourly load moving capacity can be easily obtained with certain types
of devices as, for instance, with some continuous-action conveyors. On the other hand, there
are devices, such as power-driven trucks or overhead travelling cranes following a definite
cycle of movements with a return idle run, which can operate efficiently only if they possess an
inadequately high lifting capacity and speed at strenuous duty.
(iii) Direction and length of travel:
Various types of devices can carry loads in a horizontal or vertical direction or at an angle to
the horizontal. Thus, a vertical movement or a movement close to the vertical requires a hoist,
crane, bucket or tray elevator; horizontal movement is provided by self-negotiates tracks,
propelled or hand tracks, fixed path facilities, various types of conveyors, etc. Some devices
can easily negotiate tracks curves while others move only rectilinearly, in one direction. The
length of path, the location of the load supplying points and the ramification of the load
delivery stations are also very important for the correct choice of a transporting facility.
(iv) Methods of stacking loads at the initial, final and intermediate points:
Loading onto vehicles and unloading at their destination differ considerably because some
handling machines can be loaded mechanically while others require special auxiliary fixtures
or manual power. Thus, for example, bulk loads can be stored either in lot, in a pile, from
which they flow by gravity onto the transporting facility. Unit loads can be stowed directly
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on the ground or on pallets, stands, racks, trays, etc. from which they are delivered to and
removed from the materials handling devices by different methods.
(v)Characteristics of production processes involved in moving loads:
This factor essentially influences the choice of the type of transporting facility. As a rule, the
movements of materials handling equipment are closely linked with and depend on the
manufacturing process; sometimes these movements may even be directly involved in the
performance of certain processing operations. Such are, for example, special cranes employed
in foundry, forging and welding departments, assembly and foundry conveyors, processing
conveyors in machining, painting and other departments.
(vi) Specific local conditions:
This includes the size and shape of the area, type and design of the building, ground relief,
possible arrangement of the processing units, dust or humidity conditions in the premises,
presence of vapours or gases, temperature, etc.
The choice of devices is also influenced by the considerations of a further expansion of the
enterprise, the period it will be in existence (temporary or permanent), the kind of energy
available, and problems of sanitation, safety and operational convenience.
Hoisting equipments:
These groups of hoisting equipments have the following main distinctive features.
Hosting machines: These are a group of periodic – action devices designed as self-lifting, or
for hoisting and moving loads, or else as independent mechanisms of cranes or elevators.
Cranes: These are a combination of separate hoisting mechanism with a frame for lifting or
both for lifting and moving loads which can be freely suspended on or secured to them.
Elevators: These are a group of periodic – action machines intended for raising loads in guide
ways.
Types of Cranes
(i) Electricity Operated Overhead Travelling (EOT) crane:
It consists essentially of a girder, or girders, supported at each end on trucks capable of
travelling on elevated fixed tracks and a trolley equipped with hoisting and other mechanism,
capable of traversing from end to end of such girder or girders. The latter and associated end
carriages are known as bridge. Such cranes vary in lifting capacity from about 2 tons to 400
tons, and in span from 20 ft to 150 ft, or more.
(ii) Jib crane:
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Consists of an inclined member, or jib, capable of suspending a load at its outer end, or
elsewhere, the jib being supported by a rope or other member attached to a vertical mast or
frame. The outreach of the jib can be constant of variable, and the crane as a whole may either
be fixed or movable. Included in this definition are: mono-rail, in addition to fixed or movable
cranes mounted on low trucks, high pedestals, etc.
(iii) Bridge or gantry crane:
Consists of a bridge girder, or girders, connected at or near both ends or at intermediate points
to upright members, which may be fixed to or arranged to travel on a fixed track, and the load
is suspended from a trolley or crane capable of traversing frame end to end of the bridge.
Included in this definition are transporters, cranes having bridges with cantilever extensions.
Cranes of this kind, with or without cantilever extensions, have lifting capacities varying from
a few tons to 200 tons or more.
(iv) Cantilever crane:
It consists of horizontal and vertical members the former, known as the cantilever, being fixed
to or rotating in a horizontal plane about the axis of the vertical member. On the cantilever is
formed a track which supports a movable trolley from which the load is suspended. The
mechanism for hoisting and traversing is usually mounted on a rear extension of the cantilever.
Although such cranes may be fixed or movable, those of large capacity are usually fixed.
Crane duty classification
Cranes are classified in four groups, namely, light, medium, severe and exceptionally severe. It is
important to recognize that cranes from each group may be required in certain of the heavy
industries. For instance, in steelworks some of the cranes are characterized by severe and
exceptionally – severe service conditions, but there are also many lifting duties which can be
satisfactorily performed by light and medium service cranes.
Group 0 1 2 3 4
Extra- Extra-
Duty Light Medium Heavy
light Heavy
Hours per year 1000 2000 3000 4000 ➢ 4000
1. The extra-light duty cranes in Group ‘0” are chiefly hand – operated.
2. Light duty in Group ‘1’ includes cranes intended for occasional use in warehouses, stores and
light machine shops.
3. The cranes in Group ‘2’ comply with B.S. 466 are designed for general use in factories and
workshops and capable of working under the intermittent and variable load conditions.
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4. In general, Group ‘3’ cranes have higher speeds than those in Group 2; they are suitable for
heavy duty, including light magnet work and grabbing. Such cranes are usually supplied for
maintenance purposes in steel works, and also for process work in the light section of the
industry.
5. The extra-heavy duty cranes in Group ‘4’ are designed for handling the input or output of a
furnace, where the cranes are in continuous use and form a link in the process. They are
suitable for box lifting, heavy magnet work and intensive grabbing duty.
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Layout of Hoisting mechanism:
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Components of hoisting mechanism:

Load attachment assembly – Hook, Cross piece with trunion, thrust bearing, nut, shackle plate.
Movable sheave assembly – Sheave, Axle, Bearing, wire ropes.
Rope drum assembly – Rope drum, drum shaft, bearings and hoisting motor, transmission system.
Steel wire ropes:

Steel wire ropes are extensively used in hoisting machinery as flexible lifting appliances. As compared
to chains they have the following advantages.
1. Lighter weight;
2. Less susceptibility to damage
3. Silent operations even at high working speeds;
4. Greater reliability in operation.
5. Failure in chains occurs suddenly while in wire ropes the outer wires are subjected to more
intensive wear and break before the inner wires. As a result, the wire rope becomes fuzzy long
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before rapture and should be immediately replaced.
6. Wire ropes cost less than chains but they require larger drums which makes the entire hoisting
mechanisms heavier and more cumbersome.
Manufacturing and construction of wore ropes:

Wire ropes are manufactured from steel wire with an ultimate strength of 𝜎𝑏 = 130 to 200 kg/mm2. In
the process of manufacture the wire is subjected to special heat treatment which, combined with cold
drawing, imparts high mechanical properties to the wire.
Cranes operating in dry premises utilize ropes made of bright (uncoated) wire. Ropes intended for
operation in damp premises are galvanized (zinc-coated) to protect them against corrosion. However,
the load-lifting capacity of a rope with galvanized wires is about 10 per cent lower due to the
tempering effects of hot zinc coating.
Steel wire ropes are manufactured by special machines: first separate wires are twisted into stands and
then the strands are formed into a round rope. Both processes proceeds simultaneously, the stands are
laid on a core made of hemp, asbestos or a wire of softer steel. An asbestos or wire core is used for
ropes subject to the action of radiant heat (for example, in cranes operating near furnaces in hot
shops). However a wire core reduces the flexibility of the rope in view of which metal cores are
ordinarily used only when the ropes are subjected to high compression as, for example, when being
wound on a drum in several layers. Wire ropes formed from strands are known as double lay ropes.
They are the most popular type used in hoisting machinery.
The lay of ropes
(1) Cross or regular lay ropes:
Regular lay ropes find the greatest application. Such ropes are so constructed that the direction of twist
of the wires in the strands is opposite to that of the strands in the rope.
(2) Parallel or Lang lay ropes:

In a parallel (Lang) lay rope the direction of twist of the wires in the strands in the same as that of the
strands in the rope. These ropes are more flexible and resist wear more effectively; however they tend
to spin. Parallel laid ropes are employed in lifts and in other hoists with guide ways .
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(3) Composite or reverse laid ropes:

In ropes with a reverse lay the wires in two adjacent strands are twisted in the opposite direction.
Besides, direction of lay of a rope can be either right-hand or left-hand. Right-hand lay ropes are more
frequently used.
General – Purpose steel Wire Ropes
Ordinary (one-size-wire) construction:

In this case the strands are twisted of wires of the same diameter [refer Figure (A)]. In this case the
wires in the covering laying will repeatedly cross over the inner wires thereby creating zones of
increased unit pressure which shortens rope life.
Warrington compound rope:
In this case strands are twisted of with wires of various diameters [refer figure (B)]. The wires of the
adjacent layers do not intersect and each outer wire bends in the valley formed by two inner wires.
This sharply reduces unit pressure between the wires and essentially increases the flexibility and life
of such ropes as compared to ordinary construction type ropes.
Pulley System:
Pulleys are manufactured in fixed and movable designs. Pulleys with fixed axles are also called
guiding since they change the direction of the flexible hoisting appliance. Movable pulleys have
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movable axles to which either a load or effort is applied. Movable pulleys are designated for gain in
force or gain in speed.
Why to use multiple pulley system?
The following shortcomings due to direct suspension of loads from the rope end or from employing
simple pulleys for a gain in force in hoisting appliances can be pointed out:
1) The rope parts are in one plane and this may cause the load to sway.
2) Large diameters of ropes and pulleys:
3) The load being lifted moves in a horizontal direction because a rope coiling on a drum moves
along its length.
These shortcomings can be avoided, especially in the hoisting mechanisms of winches and cranes
with an electric drive, by using multiple pulley systems which raise the load in a strictly vertical
direction and keep it more stable. These systems carry the load with twice as many parts as similar
simple pulley system. Moreover, one of the main reasons for the use of multiple pulleys is dictated by
the necessity to reduce the load acting on the ropes enabling thinner, less expensive ropes and pulleys
and drum with smaller diameter to be employed. This reduces the size and weight of the entire
mechanism.
Concepts of number of bends and its significance

• Rope life is approximately inversely proportional to the number of bends.
• One bend is assumed to mean the transition of the rope from its straight position into a bent one, or
from a bent position into a straight one.
• Reverse bending (i.e. towards the side opposite to the preceding bend) reduces the rope life
approximately by one half, or it is tantamount to two single bends towards the same side.
• The number of bends is determined by the number of points (pulley, drums) where the rope runs and
off, the bends in one direction at these places being tantamount to a single bend and the opposite
bends to a double bend.
• The number of bends can be found with sufficient accuracy if we plot the diagram of the type as
illustrated in following figures.
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Failure of rope:
(A) Internal failure :
• Due to rubbing between wires, strands
• Accounted by taking higher FOS
(B) External failure:
(i) Mechanical failure:
• Direct Tensile
• Bending
(ii) Abrasive failure
• Taken care of by protecting rope in a cover
(iii) Corrosive failure
• Taken care of by proper lubrication
The size of ropes is usually found out based on static failure in direct tension and bending and then
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checked for required life under fatigue failure.
Rope Sheaves
Rope Sheave may be fixed or movable. They are usually made in the form of casting or
weldment with 𝜂 = 0.96 𝑡𝑜 0.97 taking into account friction in bearings. Periphery of rim
should be such that rope does not jam in the groove and can deviate efficiently from central
plane of sheave. In order to provide for rope run off at a agent to side of a deep groove without
a sharp bend central point of rope cross section should be inside groove. Small sheaves are
usually cast in one piece without ribbing. Large sheaves are provided with ribs and holes.
Diameter of compensating sheaves carrying load, may be taken 40 percent smaller than
diameter of sheaves.
Rope Drums
Drums for hemp ropes are usually of the type plain with high flanges to enable the rope to be
wound in several layers. This enables the length of the drum to be reduced considerably. The
drum diameter is selected from the same ratios as the diameter of sheaves: D> 10.𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒 Drums
for steel wire ropes are made of cast iron more rarely of steel castings or weldment. With
regard to friction in the bearings the efficiency is 𝜂= 0.95. The drum diameter depends on the
diameter of the rope. With a power drive the drum should always be provided with helical
grooves so that the rope winds up uniformly and is less subject to wear. The radius of the
helical grooves should be selected so as to prevent jamming of the rope.
Hooks
In hosting devices is handed by means of rope slings attached to HOOKS. Different types of
hooks used are.
1) Standard (Single0 Forged Hook
2) Ramshorn (Double, Forged hook)
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3) Triangle hooks
Standard & Ramshorn hooks are most popular design. These may be flat die or forged or else
made of series of shaped plates. One piece forged hooks are used for lifting loads of 100 tons
(Single hooks up to 25 tons, Ramshorn books beginning from 25 tons & above). Triangular
and laminated hooks can be used to carry over 100 tons. All types of hooks are made of steel.
After forging and machining operation hooks are carefully annealed and cleaned from scale.
The inner diameter of hook should be sufficient to accommodate two stands of rope which
carry the load. Load is suspended on a four leg sling with two loops over the saddle of hook.
More often than not hooks have trapezoidal section, made wider on inside. A trapezoidal
section makes a better utilization of material and less complicated design. On top, hook ends in
a round shank operating only in tension. The upper part of hook is threaded for suspension
from cross piece of load carrying devices.
Hook Bearings:
Ball thrust bearing allow a loaded hook to turn easily in handling loads over 3-tons. Mounted
on crosspieces they support the hook nuts. The best design is that of a self aligning hearing
with a spherical seating ring, since it does not require a spherical surface in the crosspiece. The
recess for the seating ring is made to a depth of from 3 to 10 mm depending on the size of the
bearing. The bearing should be enclosed in a housing to protect them against dust and
moisture. Hook nuts should be provided with locking devices to prevent their unscrewing.
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Hook cross-piece
A hook crosspiece is pivoted in the side plates of casings usually reinforced with straps or
shackles made of plate steel. This enables the hook to be turned in two mutually perpendicular
directions. The crosspiece is forged from steel and provided with turned tru
nion at the ends. The diameter of the hole for the hook shank should be somewhat larger than
the shank itself. The trunion of the crosspiece should have no axial shift but they should be
able to turn. Fastening can be done either by adjusting rings secured by taper pins or by means
of a split ring inserted into a slot of the trunion and attached with screws to the straps or
shackles. This mode of fastening is most widely used.
Theory Questions:
1. Why is multiple pulley system used in the design of EOT crane?
2. Why trapezoidal cross section is used for the hook of EOT crane?
3. Explain concept of bends in case of wire ropes.
4. What are the factors considered in the selection of material handling equipment?
5. Explain the construction of wire ropes used in EOT cranes. (Dec’16)
6. “Modern hoisting and conveying machinery is the heart of modern inline production systems
and transfer line”. Elaborate with example. (May’17)
7. Derive an expression for breaking strength of 6 × 37 type wire rope. (May’17)
8. Classify wire ropes based on twisting of wires in a strand and state their specific use.
(May’16)
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Module 3
Layout of belt conveyor
A belt conveyer has a supporting structure (frame) 6 with two pulleys arranged at its ends; the
driving pulley 7 at the head and the take-up pulley 1 at the rear end. A vertically closed belt 4
bends around these pulleys and is supported along its entire length by roller supports or idlers
(upper idlers 4 and lower idlers 10) which are fastened to the frame. In some cases, idle rollers
may be replaced by continuous flooring on which the belt can slide. The driven pulley 7 is
rotated by a drive 11 and a moves the belt along the path of the conveyer. The material to be
conveyed can be loaded through one or more filling funnels, or hoppers arranged on the
conveyer. The material is carried on the upper (carrying) run of the belt, while the lower
(return) run is empty. It is also possible to covey materials simultaneously on both runs of the
belt in two opposite directions. The material is unloaded from the belt at the head pulley 7
through an unloading funnel 8 (hopper), or by means of other types of unloader, such as a
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plough 3, or pulley-type unloader. The working surface of the belt is cleaned from stuck-on
particles of the material by a cleaner 9 arranged at the head pulley 7.
Applications of belt conveyor:
Belt conveyors are employed for conveying various bulk and unit loads along horizontally or
slightly inclined paths and for transporting articles between various operations in production
flow lines. They have found wide application in all branches of industry and are the main
means of mechanical transport in foundry shops (supply and distribution of moulding sands
and removal of wastes), in fuel supply systems of electric power station, for underground and
surface transport of coal and gangue in coal industry, for delivery of ores, coke and fluxes in
metal making industries, they transfer building materials, fossil minerals grain, sand, stone, etc.
Belt conveyers are used as the principal components of some complex machines, such as wheel
excavators, transfer trestles, conveyer bridges, and many other types of hoisting and conveying
machines. According to their design and applications, conveyers can be divided into general
purpose conveyers and special ones, such as underground conveyers, conveyers for carrying
foods in the food, Flour and cereals and mixed – feed industries and conveyers employed in
flow lines in instrument-making, radio engineering and light industries.
Features (advantages):
Belt conveyers have became popular due to a high load-carrying capacity (up to 30000 tph),
large length of the conveying path (up to 3-4 km in a single conveyer and up to 100 km in
systems comprising a number of conveyers), simple design, and easy maintenance and high
reliability of operation.
Components of a Belt Conveyor:
1. Belt (Traction Element):
In belt conveyers, the function of the load carrying and tractive element are performed by a
rubberized belt. These are manufactured in standard widths of 300, 400, 500, 650, 800, 1000,
1200, 1400, 1600, 2000, 2500, and 3000 mm. The belt of a conveyer should have a high
strength, low mass and low relative elongation, high elasticity (flexibility) longitudinally and
crosswise and should resist properly alternate stresses appearing on multiple bendings in the
belt on pulleys and roller supports.
2. Belt Support
Belts running between terminal pulleys should be supported by a conveyer bed, which is made
in the form of roller supports (idlers), a continuous floor of wood, steel or plastics, or a
combination of flooring and idlers. Floorings are used rather seldom and only in conveyers of a
short length for conveying light unit loads. Roller supports are very popular and are numerous
26
in their types and designs. As regards their position on a conveyer, roller supports are divided
into upper supports (to be the carrying run of a belt) and lower ones (to support the return run).
Upper idlers may be strength supports to carry a straight belt, and troughed supports on two,
three or even five rollers for belts 2-3 m wide. In the loading section of a conveyer, the belt is
supported by shock-absorbing rollers supports with elastic rubber discs fastened on the rollers.
The diameter of rollers should be such as to satisfy the following conditions:
(1) The moment of friction of the empty belt on a roller should be greater than the moment of
friction in the bearings and seals; otherwise, the belt would slide on the rollers;
(2) Pressed by its centrifugal force the rotating roller should not throw off the load from the belt.
The diameter of the roller increases with a higher speed of the belt with a greater density and
lump size of the load, with a higher coefficient of friction in the bear4ings, and with a lower
coefficient of adhesion between the belt and roller.
Take-up Devices:
All belt conveyors require the use of some form of take-up device for the following reasons:
▪ To ensure adequate tension of the belt leaving the drive pulley so as to avoid any slippage of
the belt
▪ To ensure proper belt tension at the loading and other points along the conveyor
▪ To compensate for changes in belt length due to elongation
▪ To provide extra length of belt when necessary for splicing purpose.
Take-up devices employed in belt conveyers can be divided into:
(i) Screw type
(ii) Hydraulic (used only rarely)
(iii) Gravity type
(iv) Gravity winch, and
(v) Spring-biased gravity type
Screw Type: In a screw take up system the take up pulley rotates in two bearing blocks
which may slide on stationery guide ways with the help of two screws. The tension is created
by the two screws which are tightened and periodically adjusted with a spanner. It is
preferable to use screws with trapezoidal thread t decrease the effort required to tighten the
belt.
27
The main problem with the use of manual take-up is that it requires a vigilant and careful
operator to observe when take up adjustment is required. Perfect tension adjustment with this
system is also not possible. For this reason these devices are used only in case of short
conveyors of up 60 m length and light duty.
Control and safety devices:

In order to ensure reliable operation of conveyers and to minimize the number of operators,
modern conveyers are provided with automatic control and safety devices with sensors for
measuring or detecting the belt speed, transverse shift of the belt longitudinal belt breakage,
breakage of cables in rubber-cable belts, the functioning of the lubrication system of the drive ,
etc. At any deviation from the normal operation of a conveyer, the sensors automatically stop the
conveyer and send warning signals.
Cleaners
A serious problem encountered in the operation of belt conveyor is that of ‘carryback’. Carryback
is the material that sticks to the belt past the discharge point and then drops off along the
conveyors return run. Without belt cleaners, prevalent carryback causes:
• Reduced operating efficiency and profitability through increased expenses for maintenance and
cleanup and the loss of material.
• Material buildup on rolling components leading to seized idlers, wandering belts and increased
power consumption.
28
• Lower plant morale as employees sense the “I don’t care if it’s dirty” attitude.
• Unsafe working conditions caused by material accumulation on floors and walkways, creating
fire hazards, slip/trip hazards.
• Health hazards and environmental concerns created by airborne material.
• Unfavorable attention from neighbors and regulatory agencies.
Advantages of belt cleaner:
• Improved maintenance planning and conveyor availability as emergency outages, unscheduled
downtime and “hurry-up” repairs are reduced.
• Reduced maintenance expenses by lower labor costs for fewer and faster service procedures.
• Improved manpower utilization by fewer belt tracking and material cleanup chores
• Maximized equipment life by fewer replacements of prematurely worn components damaged
by fugitive material and buildup.
• Improved working conditions and plant safety and morale by better housekeeping.
• Improved community relations and regulatory compliance by reducing environmental
pollution.
Types of cleaners:
According to the belts operating position, the cleaners are divided into three main groups:
1. Cleaners on the dirty side of the belt
These are ordinary belt cleaners. They include carving, rubbing and rotating belt cleaners.
Correct cleaner selection is an important factor when thinking of safety reliability and general
economics of the conveyor.
2. Cleaners on the return belt

These plough or wiping return belt cleaners take off the material occasionally dropped onto
the clean side of the belt. Thus the undesirable material is prevented from being conveyed
between the belt and pulley.
3. Pulley Cleaners
The continuous keeping of belt clean is important for the centering and steady travel of the belt.
Pulley cleaners protect the belt against damage.
29
Theory question bank
1. Write a note on material used and construction of belt used in conveyors?
2. Why cleaning of belt is necessary for belt conveyor? List down the commonly used cleaners.
(May’16)
3. Write a note on advantages and applications of belt conveyor.
4. List different take up devices. Explain the gravity take up device of belt conveyor. (Dec’16)
5. Draw a neat sketch of belt conveyor assembly and explain the function of snub pulley and
take up arrangement. (May’17)
30
Module 4
Introduction
1. An Internal Combustion engine (IC engine) is an engine in which the combustion of
fuel, such as petrol or diesel, takes place inside the engine cylinder.
2. In petrol engine, air and petrol is mixed in correct proportion in the carburetor and
then passed into the cylinder. This mixture is ignited by means of a spark produced by the
spark plug. Since the ignition is done by spark, the petrol engine is called Spark Ignition
engine (SI Engine).
3. In the diesel engine, the air entrapped in the cylinder during the suction stroke is
highly compressed during compression stroke. This compression increases the air
temperature beyond the self-ignition temperature of diesel.
4. The desired quantity of diesel in the form of fine spray is then admitted into the
cylinder near the end of the compression stroke. The turbulent hot air ignites the diesel. Since
the ignition is done by compression of air, the diesel engine is called Compression ignition
engine (CI engine).
5. Compared with petrol engines, the diesel engines are more economical due to high
thermal efficiency. They have more uniform torque over a wide range of speeds due to better
volumetric efficiency. The diesel engines run at low speeds, resulting in low maintenance
costs. They are more reliable and safe due to robust construction. On the other hand, petrol
engines have low initial cost and higher power to l eight ratio compared with diesel engine.
6. Internal combustion engines are also classified as 'two-stroke cycle' and 'four-stroke
cycle' engines.
7. The two stroke cycle engine is an engine which requires two strokes of the piston
or one revolution of the crankshaft to complete one cycle. A four-stroke cycle engine is an
engine which requires four strokes of the piston or two revolutions of the crankshaft to
complete one cycle. Four-stroke cycle engines have lower fuel consumption and higher
efficiency. Two-stroke cycle engines are light in weight and have compact construction.
8. Two-stroke cycle petrol engines are mainly used in scooters, motor cycles and three-
wheelers. Four-stroke cycle petrol engines are used in cars. Four-stroke cycle diesel engines
are used in heavy-duty applications such as buses, trucks, locomotives and power generating
sets.
9. Although internal combustion engine consists of a large number of parts, in this
31
chapter we will discuss the design principles of the following main components:
I. Cylinder and cylinder liner
II. Piston, piston rings and gudgeon pin
III. Connecting rod with big and small ends
IV. Crankshaft, crank and crank pin
Cylinder & Cylinder Liner
1. There are two basic functions of an IC engine cylinder. The primary function is to
retain the working fluid such as the mixture of air and petrol or air and diesel, while the
secondary function is to guide the piston.
2. The combustion of fuel takes place inside the cylinder and very high temperatures
are encountered. Therefore, it is necessary to provide some arrangement for cooling the
cylinder.
3. There are two types of cooling systems: Air-cooling and Water-cooling.
4. Small, single-cylinder engines are usually air-cooled. Such cylinders are provided
with fins over the outer surface of the cylinder. Excess heat of combustion is transmitted by
the cylinder wall to the surroundings through the fins. The fins increase the surface area of
the cylinder wall and improve the overall heat transfer coefficient. Air-cooled engines are
mainly used on scooters and motorcycles.
5. In small engines, the cylinder and frame is made of one-piece casting. In large
engines, a separate cylinder liner is used. The cylinder liner, water jacket and frame are
manufactured separately and then assembled. The construction of cylinder liner is illustrated
below
6. The use of separate cylinder liner has the following advantages:

32
I. Cylinder liners are more economical because they can be easily replaced after
being worn out. It is not necessary to replace the complete assembly of cylinder, jacket and
frame.
II. Instead of using better-grade material for all parts of the cylinder assembly, only
the cylinder liner is made of better-grade wear resistant cast iron. The frame and jacket can be
made of ordinary cast iron.
III. Use of cylinder liner allows for longitudinal expansion.
7. There are two types of cylinder liners – dry and wet
8. A dry liner is a cylinder liner which does not have any direct contact with cooling
water in the jacket. A wet liner is a cylinder liner which has outer surface in direct contact
with cooling water in the jacket.
9. The desirable properties of materials for cylinder and cylinder liners are as follows:
I. It should be strong enough to withstand high gas pressure during the combustion
of fuel.
II. It should be strong enough to withstand thermal stresses due to heat transfer
through the cylinder wall.
III. It should be hard enough to resist wear due to piston movement. It should have
good surface finish to reduce friction and wear during the piston movement.
IV. It should be corrosion resistant.
10. Cylinders and cylinder liners are usually made of grey cast iron with homogeneous
and close grained structure. They are centrifugally cast.
11. For duty cylinders, nickel cast iron and nickel chromium cast iron are used. In some
cases, cast steel and aluminum alloys are used for cylinders.
Piston
1. The piston is a reciprocating part of IC engine that performs a number of functions.
2. The main functions of the piston are as follows:
I. It transmits the force due to gas pressure inside the cylinder to the crankshaft
through the connecting rod.
II. It compresses the gas during the compression stroke.
III. It seals the inside portion of the cylinder from the crankcase by means of piston
rings.
IV. It takes the side thrust resulting from obliquity of the connecting rod.
V. It dissipates large amount of heat from the combustion chamber to the cylinder
33
wall.
3. Trunk type piston, as shown, is used in IC engines. It consists of the following parts:
Piston Head or Crown:

4. It is the top portion of the piston which withstands the gas pressure inside the
cylinder.
5. It has flat, concave or convex shape depending upon the construction of combustion
chamber.
Piston Rings:
6. They act as seal and prevent the leakage of gas past the piston. Piston rings are also
called Compression rings.
Oil Scraper Rings:
7. It prevents the leakage of lubricating oil past the piston into the combustion
chamber.
Piston Skirt:
8. It is the lower part of the piston below the piston rings which acts as bearing surface
for the side thrust exerted by the connecting rod.
Piston Pin:
9. It connects the piston to the connecting rod.
10. It is also called, 'gudgeon' pin or 'Wrist' pin.
Requirements of Piston Design
34
I. It should have sufficient strength to withstand the force due to combustion of fuel
and also the inertia forces due to reciprocating parts.
II. It should have sufficient rigidity to withstand thermal and mechanical distortions.
III. It should have adequate capacity to dissipate the heat from the crown to the
cylinder wall through the piston rings and the skirt.
IV. It should have minimum weight to reduce the inertia force due to reciprocating
motion.
V. It should form an efficient seal to prevent leakage of flue gases from combustion
chamber to the crankcase pest the piston. It should also prevent leakage of lubricating oil into
the combustion chamber past the piston.
VI. It should have sufficient bearing area to take the side thrust and prevent undue
wear.
VII. It should result in noiseless operation.
VIII. It should provide adequate support for the piston pin, which connects the small end
of the connecting rod.
Piston Materials
1. Commonly used materials for IC engine pistons are cast iron, cast steel, forged
steel, cast aluminum alloys and forged aluminum alloys.
2. Compared with cast iron, aluminum alloy pistons have the following advantages:
I. The thermal conductivity of aluminium alloys is approximately three times that of
cast iron. Therefore, an aluminium alloy piston has less variation in temperature from the
crown to the piston rings.
II. The density of aluminium alloy is about one third that of cast iron. This results in
light weight construction and reduces inertia forces .
3. Cast iron pistons offer the following advantages:
I. Cast iron pistons have higher strength compared with aluminium alloy pistons. As
the temperature increases, the strength of aluminium alloy piston decreases rapidly compared
with cast iron piston. Due to higher strength, it is possible to provide thin sections for the
parts of cast iron piston.
II. The wear strength of a cast iron piston is more than corresponding alumi nium alloy
piston.
III. The coefficient of thermal expansion of aluminium alloy is approximately twice that
of cast iron. Therefore, aluminium alloy pistons need more clearance between the cylinder
wall and piston rings.
35
Cast iron pistons are used for moderately rated engines with piston speed below 6 m/s.
Aluminium alloy pistons are used for highly rated engines with piston speeds above 6 m/s.
Piston Cups & Ribs

1. The piston head is provided with a number of ribs for the following reasons:
2. Ribs strengthen the piston head against the gas pressure. They increase the rigidity
and prevent distortion of piston head.
3. Ribs transmit a large portion of combustion heat from the piston head to the piston
rings. This reduces the temperature difference between the centre and edge of piston head.
4. The side thrust created by obliquity of connecting rod is transmitted to the piston at
the piston pin. It is then transmitted to the cylinder wall through the skirt. The stiffening rib
provided at the centre of boss and extending around the skirt, distributes the side thrust more
uniformly and prevents distortion of the skirt.
5. A cup provides additional space for combustion of fuel. Provision of cup at the top of
the piston head depends upon the volume of combustion chamber. It also depends upon the
arrangement of valves.
6. If inlet and exhaust valves open and close at angles near the top dead centre, then
there is possibility that either inlet or exhaust valve may strike the piston top due to
overtaking. A spherical cavity in the form of cup is provided for this purpose.
Piston Rings
1. In IC engines, two types of piston rings are used, viz., compression rings and oil
scraper rings. The main function of compression rings is to maintain a seal between the
cylinder wall and piston and prevent leakage of gas past the piston. They also transfer heat
from the piston head to the cylinder wall.
2. Piston rings also absorb fluctuations in side thrust. Oil scraper rings or oil control
rings are provided below the compression rings. They provide proper lubrication of the
cylinder liner and reduce frictional losses.
3. Oil scraper rings allow sufficient quantity of lubricating oil to move up during the
upward stroke and at the same time, scrap the excess oil from the inner surface of the liner
and send it back to the crankcase. This prevents the leakage of oil into the combustion
chamber.
Guidelines for design of piston rings
1. Materials of Piston Rings:
Piston rings are usually made of grey cast iron and in some cases alloy cast iron. Grey cast
36
iron has excellent wear resistance. It also retains the spring characteristic at high
temperatures. In some cases, piston rings are chromium plated to reduce wear.
2. Number of Piston Rings:
There are no strict rules for deciding the number of compression rings. The number of
compression rings in automobile and aircraft engines is usually between 3 to 4. In stationary
diesel engines, 5 to 7 compression rings are used. The number of oil scraper rings is usually
between 1 to 3.
3. It is preferred to provide more number of thin piston rings than a small number of
thick rings. It has the following advantages;
I. Thin rings reduce frictional loss and wear of the surface.
II. More number of thin rings has better sealing action than a few thick rings.
III. Thin rings occupy less piston length. More number of thin rings provides better
heat transfer from the piston top to the cylinder.
Connecting Rod
1. The connecting rod consists of an eye at the small end to accommodate the piston
pin, a long shank and a big end opening split into two parts to accommodate the crank pin.
The construction of connecting rod is shown below
2. The basic function of the connecting rod is to transmit the push and pull forces from
the piston pin to the crank pin. The connecting rod transmits the reciprocating motion of the
piston to the rotary motion of the crankshaft.
3. It also transfers lubricating oil from the crank pin to the piston pin and provides a
splash or jet of oil to the piston assembly.
4. The connecting rod of an IC engine is made by the drop forging process and the outer
surfaces are left unfinished.
37
5. Most internal combustion engines have a conventional two-piece connecting rod.
The whole rod is forged in one piece; the bearing cap is cut off, faced and bolted in place for
final machining of the big end. The small end of the rod is generally made as a solid eye and
then machined.
6. The connecting rod is subjected to the force of gas pressure and the inertia force of
the reciprocating part. It is one of the most heavily stressed parts of the IC engine. The
materials used for the connecting rod are either medium carbon steels or alloy steels. The
medium carbon steels contain 0.35 to 0.45 percent carbon.
7. The alloy steels include nickel chromium or chromium molybdenum steels. Medium
carbon steels are used for the connecting rods of industrial engines. Alloy steels are used for
connecting rods of automobile and aero engines.
8. There are two methods of lubrication of bearings at the two ends-
(i) Splash lubrication and
(ii) Pressure feed lubrication.
9. In splash lubrication, a spout is attached to the big end of the connecting rod and set
at an angle to the axis of the rod. The spout dips into the sump of lubrication oil during the
downward motion of the connecting rod and splashes the oil as the connecting rod moves up.
The splashed up oil finds its way into the small end bearing.
10. In the pressure feed system, oil is fed under pressure to the crank pin bearing
through the holes drilled in the crankshaft. From the crank pin bearing, the oil is fed to the
small end bearing through the hole drilled in the shank of the connecting rod.
Buckling of Connecting Rod
1. The length of the connecting rod is an important consideration. When the connecting
rod is short as compared to the crank radius, it has greater angular swing, resulting in greater
side thrust on the piston.
2. In high-speed engines the ratio of the length of the connecting rod to the crank radius
(L/r) is generally 4 or less.
3. In low-speed engines, the (L/r) ratio varies from 4 to 5.
4. Most of the connecting rods in high-speed engines have an I-section. It reduces the
weight and inertia forces. It is also easy for forging.
5. Most rods have a rifle-drilled hole throughout the length from the small end to the
big end to carry the lubricating oil to the piston pin bearing. In low-speed engines circular
cross-section is used.
6. The connecting rod is a slender engine component that has considerable length in
38
proportion to its width and breadth. It is subjected to axial compressive force equal to
maximum gas load on the piston.
7. The compressive stress is of significant magnitude. Therefore the connecting rod is
designed as a column or a strut
Theory Questions:
1. Explain why an I-section with Ixx ≤ 4 Iyy is selected for connecting rod of I C engine.
(May16,17)
2. What are the different types of piston rings? Explain the functions of them. (Dec’16)
3. What re the materials used for following IC engine components. Justify. – Cylinder block,
crankshaft, connecting rod, gudgeon pin. (Dec’16)
4. Explain how design approach of petrol and diesel engines differs from each other. (Dec’16)
39
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANCAL ENGINEERING
Crankshaft
1. The crankshaft is an important part of IC engine that converts the reciprocating motion of
the piston into rotary motion through the connecting rod. The crankshaft consists of three portions-
-crank pin, crank web and shaft. The big end of the connecting rod is attached to the crank pin.
The crank web connects the crank pin to the shaft portion. The shaft portion rotates in the main
bearings and transmits power to the outside source through the belt drive, gear drive or chain
drive.
2. There are two types of crankshafts.
I. Side crankshaft and
II. Centre crankshaft
3. The side crankshaft is also called the “overhung” crankshaft. It has only one crank web
and requires only two bearings for support. It is used in medium-size engines and large-size
horizontal engines.
4. The centre crankshaft has two webs and three bearings for support. It is used in radial
aircraft engines, stationary engines and marine engines. It is more popular in automotive
engines.
5. Crankshafts are also classified as single throw and multi -throw crankshafts depending
upon the number of crank pins used in the assembly. Crankshafts having one crank pin are called
single-throw crankshafts. Crankshafts used in multi-cylinder engines have more than one crank
pin. They are called multi- throw crankshafts.
6. A crankshaft should have sufficient strength to withstand the bending and twisting
moments to which it is subjected. In addition, it should have sufficient rigidity to keep the
lateral and angular deflections within permissible limits. The crankshaft is subjected to
fluctuating stresses and, as such, it should have sufficient endurance limit stress. Crankshafts are
made by the drop forging process.
7. The popular materials used for crankshafts are plain carbon steels and alloy steels. The
plain carbon steels include 40C8, 45C8 and 50C4. The alloy steels use for making crankshafts
are nickel chromium steels .
40
Module 5:
Classification of pumps:
Pumps are mainly classified into two categories:
A. Positive displacement pumps
B. Non-positive displacement pumps.
A. Positive displacement pump
1. These pumps deliver a constant volume of fluid in a cycle. The discharge quantity per
revolution is fixed in these pumps and they produce fluid flow proportional to their
displacement and rotor speed.
2. These pumps are used in most of the industrial fluid power applications. The output fluid flow
is constant and is independent of the system pressure (load).
3. The important advantage associated with these pumps is that the high-pressure and low-
pressure areas (means input and output region) are separated and hence the fluid cannot leak
back due to higher pressure at the outlets. These features make the positive displacement
pump most suited and universally accepted for hydraulic systems.
4. The important advantages of positive displacement pumps over non-positive displacement
pumps include capability to generate high pressures, high volumetric efficiency, high power
to weight ratio, change in efficiency throughout the pressure range is small and wider
operating range pressure and speed.
5. It is important to note that the positive displacement pumps do not produce pressure but they
only produce fluid flow. The resistance to output fluid flow generates the pressure. It means
41
that if the discharge port (output) of a positive displacement pump is opened to the
atmosphere, then fluid flow will not generate any output pressure above atmospheric pressure.
But, if the discharge port is partially blocked, then the pressure will rise due to the increase in
fluid flow resistance. If the discharge port of the pump is completely blocked, then an infinite
resistance will be generated. This will result in the breakage of the weakest component in the
circuit. Therefore, the safety valves are provided in the hydraulic circuits along with positive
displacement pumps.
6. Important positive displacement pumps are gears pumps, vane pumps and piston pumps.
B. Non-Positive Displacement Pumps
1. These pumps are also known as hydro-dynamic pumps. In these pumps the fluid is pressurized by
the rotation of the propeller and the fluid pressure is proportional to the rotor speed.
2. These pumps can not withstand high pressures and generally used for low-pressure and high-
volume flow applications. The fluid pressure and flow is generated due to inertia effect of the
fluid.
3. The fluid motion is generated due to rotating propeller.
4. These pumps provide a smooth and continuous flow but the flow output decreases with increase
in system resistance (load).
5. The flow output increases because some of the fluid slip back at higher resistance. The fluid flow
is completely stopped at very large system resistance and thus the volumetric efficiency will
become zero. Therefore, the flow rate not only depends on the rotational speed but also on the
resistance provided by the system.
6. The important advantages of non-positive displacement pumps are lower initial cost, less
operating maintenance because of less moving parts, simplicity of operation higher reliability and
suitability with wide range of fluid etc.
7. These pumps are primarily used for transporting fluids and find little use in the hydraulic or fluid
power industries. Centrifugal pump is the common example of non-positive displacement pumps.
Design of Gear Pump
Gear pump is a robust and simple positive displacement pump. A gear pump develops flow by
carrying fund between the teeth of two meshed gears. Powered by the drive shaft, the gear known
as the drive gear turns the second gear, which is called the driven or idler gear. The pumping
chambers formed between the great teeth are enclosed by the pump housing or center section and
42
slide plates (often called wear or pressure plates).
Working Principle
1. Gear pump essentially consist of two gears in a casing fitted with suitable inlet and outlet ports.
The gears are general of equal size and involute form with a pressure angle between 20° and 30°.
2. To obtain the maximum capacity are revolution of the drive shaft the minimum number of teeth
that will maintain continuous drive between the gears is employed (normally minimum value is 8
or 9 so as to avoid excessive undercutting).
3. In the case of a pump one gear is driven from an external source and the drive is transmitted via
the teeth to the other gear. The teeth carry the fluid, trapped between these teeth and provision is
made for returning this to the inlet side of the pump.
4. A partial vacuum is created at the inlet as the gear teeth unmesh, drawing fluid into the chambers
formed between the teeth. The chambers carry the fluid around the outside of the gears, where it
is forced out as they mesh again at the outlet.
5. The pump has a positive internal seal against leakage, therefore the fluid is forced into the outlet
port.
6. The gear pumps are often equipped with the side wear plate to avoid the leakage. The clearance
between gear teeth and housing and between side plate and gear face is very important and plays
an important role in preventing leakage. In general, the gap distance is less than 10 micrometers.
7. The amount of fluid discharge is determined by the number of gear teeth, the volume of fluid
between each pair of teeth and the speed of rotation.
43
Advantages:
1. Since gears are the only moving parts in the pump, they are compact, relatively inexpensive
and have few moving parts.
2. The rigid design of the gears and housing allow for very high pressures and the ability to
pump highly viscous fluids.
3. They are suitable for a wide range of fluids and offer self-priming performance.
44
4. Sometimes gear pumps are designed to funcation as either a motor or a pump. These pump
includes helical and herringbone gear sets (instead of spur gears), lobe shaped rotors similar to
Roots blowers (commonly used as supercharges), and mechanical designs that allow the stacking
of pumps.
Dis-Advantage:
The drawback of external gear pump is the unbalanced side load on its bearings. It is caused due to
high pressure at the outlet and low pressure at the inlet which results in slower speeds and lower
pressure rating in addition to the bearing life.
Applications:
(i) Gear pumps are most commonly used for the hydraulic fluid power applications and are
widely used in chemical installations to pump fluid with a certain viscosity.
(ii) Petrochemicals: Pure or filled bitumen, pitch, diesel oil, crude oil, lube oil etc.
(iii) Chemicals : sodium silicate, acids, plastics, mixed chemical, isocyanatesetc
(iv) Paint and ink
(v) Resins and adhesives
(vi) Pulp and paper : acid, soap, lye, black liquor, kaolin, lime, latex, sludge etc.
(vii) Food : Chocolate, cacao butter, fillers, sugar, vegetable fts and oils, molasses, animal food
etc.
Design of Centrifugal Pump

Working Principle
1. Centrifugal pump is one of the simplest pieces of equipment in any process plant. Its purpose is
to convert energy of prime mover (an electric motor or turbine) first into capacity or kinetic
energy and then into pressure energy of a fluid that is being stamped.
2. The energy changes occur by virtue of two main parts of the pump, the impeller and the volute of
diffuser.
3. The impeller is the rotating part that converts over energy into the kinetic energy. The volute or
diffuser is the stationary part that converts the kinetic energy into pressure energy.
4. The process liquid enters the suction nozzle and then into eye (center) of a revolving device
known as an impeller.
5. When the impeller rotates, it spins the liquid sitting in cavities between the vanes outward and
45
provides centrifugal acceleration.
6. As it leaves the eye of the impeller, a low-pressure area is created causing more said to flow
toward the inlet. Because the impeller blades are curved, the fluid is pushed in a tangential and
radial direction by the centrifugal force. This force acting inside the pump is the same one that
keeps water inside a bucket that is rotating at the end of a string.
7. Figure given depicts a side cross-section of a centrifugal pump indicating the movement of the
liquid. The key idea is that the energy created by the centrifugal force is kinetic energy. The
amount of energy given to the liquid is proportional to the velocity at the edge or vane tip of the
impeller. The faster the impeller revolves or the bigger the impeller is, then the higher will be the
velocity of the liquid at the vane tip ad the greater the energy imparted to the liquid.
8. This kinetic energy of a liquid coming out of an impeller is harnessed by creating a resistance to
the flow. The first resistance is created by the pump volute (casting) that catches the liquid and
slows it down. In the discharge nozzle, the liquid further decelerates and its velocity is converted
to pressure according to Bernoulli’s principle.
46
Components of centrifugal pump:
A centrifugal pump has two main components:

I. A rotating component comprised of an impeller and a shaft.
II. A stationary component comprised of a casing, casing cover, and bearings.
Rotating Components:
I. Impeller
The impeller is the main rotating part that provides the centrifugal acceleration to the fluid.
Based on major direction of flow in reference to the axis of rotation.
• Radial flow
• Axial flow
• Mixed flow
Based on suction type
• Single-suction: Liquid inlet on one side.
• Double-suction: Liquid inlet to the impeller symmetrically from both sides.
Based on mechanical construction
• Closed : Shrouds or sidewall enclosing the vanes.
• Open : No shrouds or wall to enclose the vanes.
• Semi-open or vortex type
47
Closed impellers require wear rings and these wear rings present another maintenance problem.
Open and semi-open impellers are less likely to clog. But need manual adjustment to the volute or
back-plate to get the proper impeller setting and prevent internal re-circulation. Vortex pump
impellers are great for solids and ‘stringy’ materials but they are upto 50% less efficient than
conventional designs. The number of impellers determines the number of stages of the pump. A
single stage pump has one impeller only and is best for low head service. A two-stage pump has
two impellers in series for medium head service. A multi-stage pump has three or more impellers
in series for high head service.
2. Shaft.
The basic purpose of a centrifugal pump shaft is to transmit the torques encountered when starting
and during operation while supporting the impeller and other rotating parts. It must do this job
with a deflection less than the minimum clearance between the rotating and stationary parts.
Shaft Sleeve:
Pump shafts are usually protected from erosion, corrosion, and wear at the seal chambers, leakage
joints, internal bearings, and in the waterways by renwable sleeves. Unless otherwise specified, a
shaft sleeve of wear, corrosion, and erosion resistant material shall be provided to protect the shaft.
The sleeve shall be sealed at one end. The shaft sleeve assembly shall extend beyond the outer face
of the seal gland plate. (Leakage between the shaft and the sleeve should not be confused with
leakage through the mechanical seal)
3. Casing :
Casings are generally of two types: volute and circular. The impellers are fitted inside the casings.
a. Volute casings
Its function is to build a higher head. A volute is a curved funnel increasing in area to the discharge
port. As the area of the cross-section increase, the volute reduces the speed of the liquid and
increases the pressure of the liquid. One of the main purposes of a volute casing is to help balance
the hydraulic pressure on the shaft of the pump. However, this occurs best at the manufacturer’s
recommended capacity. Running volute-style pumps at a lower capacity than the manufacturer
recommends can put lateral stress on the shaft of the pump, increasing wear-and-tear on the seals
and bearings, and on the shaft itself. Double –volute casings are used when the radial thrusts
become significant at reduced capacities.
b. Circular casing
48
Circular casings having stationary diffusion vanes surrounding the impeller periphery that convert
velocity energy to pressure energy. Conventionally, the diffusers are applied to multi-stage pumps.
The casing can be designed either as solid casings or split casing. Solid casing implies a design in
which the entire casing including the discharge nozzle is all contained in one casting or fabricated
piece.
c. A split casing
Implies two or more parts are fastened together. When the casing parts are divided by horizontal
plane, the casing is described as horizontally split or axially split casing. When the split is in a
vertical plane perpendicular to the rotation axis, the casing is described as vertically split or
radially split casing. Casing wear rings act as the seal between the casing and the impeller.
Stuffing Box
1. Stuffing box both refer to a chamber, either integral with or separate from the pump case housing
that forms the region between the shaft and casing where sealing media are installed. When the
sealing is achieved by means of packing, the chamber is referred to as a Stuffing Box.
2. The primary function of stuffing box is to protect the pump against leakage at the point where the
shaft passed out through the pump pressure casing.
3.
When centrifugal pumps were developed there was a need to prevent the pumpage from pouring
out through the open clearance between the pump casing back and the rotating shaft, which turns
49
the impeller.
4. This was accomplished by stuffing rope like material, called packing, into a cylind4rical opening
in the rear of the casing where the shaft passes through it.
5. Packing is usually ¼”, 3/8” or ½” square cross sectional, the size to match the annular section
between the shaft OD and the stuffing box ID.
6. It comes in coils, and is cut to fit around the shaft OD. It is a soft material and usually has a
lubricant in it.
7. The opening, the stuffing box, has a shoulder at the bottom or “throat” (inboard end closest to
impeller) and is fitted with a follower, called the gland, on the outboard end, which compresses
the packing into the inner sides of the stuffing box against the should in the bottom of the box,
and against the rotating pump shaft.
8. This effectively limits the leakage out of the pump. It will not completely prevent leakage. A
small amount of pumpage must leak out of the pump in order to cool and lubricate the packing.
9. As leakage increase, the gland bolts are tightened up, crushing the packing further down into the
box. If a stuffing box contains all packing, it’s called “packed solid”. Packing solid is usually
reserved for clean, cool liquids with relatively good lubricity.
10. More often, a lantern ring (or sometimes called a seal cage) is used to separate two sets of
packing. An external liquid or grease can be used to lubricate and cool the packing or to “seal” the
box from air entering (if operating on a vacuum or a suction lift.) This is injected into the stuffing
box thru a tapped opening on the side of the box. Some will leak to the outboard while some will
mix with the pumpage, so the “sealing” liquid or grease must be compatible with the pumpage.
NPSH
When discussing centrifugal pumps, the two most important head terms are NPSHr (required) and
NPSHa (available).
Net Positive Suction Head Required (NPSHr).
1. Understanding the significance of NPSH is very much essential during installation as well as
operation of the pumps.
2. Pumps can pump only liquids, not vapours. The satisfactory operation of a pump requires that
vaporization of the liquid being pumped does not occur at any condition of operation.
3. This is so desired because when a liquid vaporizes its volume increases very much. For
50
example, 1 ft3 of water at room temperature becomes 1700 ft3 of vapor at the same temperature.
This makes it clear that we are to pump a fluid effectively, it must be kept always in the liquid
form.
4. Rise in temperature and fall in pressure induces vaporization. The vaporization begins when the
vapour pressure of the liquid at the operating temperature equals the external system pressure,
which, in an open system is always equal to atmospheric pressure. Any decrease in external
pressure or rise in operating temperature can induce vaporization and the pump stops pumping.
5. Thus, the pump always needs to have a sufficient amount of suction head present to prevent this
vaporization at the lowest pressure point in the pump. Thus, NPSH is used as a measure to
prevent liquid vaporization.
6. The manufacturer usually tests the pump with water at different capacities, created by throttling
the suction side. When the first signs of vaporization induced cavitation occur, the suction
pressure is noted. This pressure is converted into the head. This head number is published on
the pump curve and is referred as the “net positive suction head required (NPSHr) or sometimes
in short as the NPSH.
7. Thus the Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) is the total head at the suction flange of the pump
less the vapor pressure converted to fluid column height of the liquid.
8. The NPSH is always positive since it is expressed in terms of absolute fluid column height. The
term “Net” refers to the actual pressure head at the pump suction flange and not the static
suction head.
9. NPSHr increases as capacity increases. The NPSH required varies with speed and capacity
within any particular pump. The NPSH required increase as the capacity is increasing because
the velocity of the liquid is increasing, and as anytime the velocity of a liquid goes up, the
pressure or head comes down. Pump manufacture’s curves normally provide this information.
The NPSH is independent of the fluid density as are all head terms.
[Note: It is to be noted that the net positive suction head required (NPSHr) number shown on the
pump curves is for fresh water at 20°C and not for the fluid or combinations of fluids being
pumped.]
Net positive Suction Head available (NPSHa)
51
Net Positive Suction Head available is a function of the system in which the pump operates. It is
the excess pressure of the liquid in feet absolute over its vapor pressure as it arrives at the pump
suction, to be sure that the pump selected does not cavitate. It is calculated based on system or
process conditions.
NPSHa Calculation
The formula for calculating the NPSHa is stated below:
NPSHas = ℎ𝑝𝑠 + ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑣𝑝𝑠 − ℎ𝑓𝑠
• ℎ𝑝𝑠 − 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐵𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑.
• ℎ𝑠 − 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑦𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡
𝑖mpeller centerline and the suction liquid level.
• ℎ𝑣𝑝𝑠 – Vapor pressure Head i.e. vapor pressure of liquid at its max. Pumping temperature of
liquid at its max. Pumping temperature converted to Head.
• ℎ𝑓𝑠 – Friction Head. i.e. friction and entrance pressure losses on the suction side converted to
Head.
Cavitation:
1. Cavitation can be described as the condition existing in flowing liquids when the pressure at
any point falls below the vapour pressure of the liquid at the prevailing temperature.
2. Some of the liquid flashes into vapour and bubbles of the vapour are carried along with the
liquid. When those vapour bubbles move towards a zone of high pressure, they condense and
finally collapse.
3. The collapsing pressure of bubbles may be as high as 100 atmospheres and this may cause a
local mechanical failure of the solid surface. The growth and decay of vapor bubbles adversely
affect the performance of a hydrodynamic machine and the ultimate effect may be the break-
down of the machine itself due to server pitting and erosion of blade surfaces in the region of
cavitation.
4. In a centrifugal impeller, the pressure is lowest on the underside of vanes at entry and it is here
that vapour bubbles tend to form, i.e. cavitation commences. These vapour bubbles are carried
to a region on high pressure near the exit. Here the bubbles collapse, causing pitting and severe
damage of the metal surface of vane. Apparently vane tips at exist are the most vulnerable
points for cavitation attack.
52
5. Factors contribute towards onset of cavitation
(a) High runner speed; liquid particles cannot keep up pace with the fast moving impeller.
(b) Restricted suction.
(c) Too high specific speed for optimum design parameters
(d) Too high temperature of the following liquid.
(e) Required NPSH may be equal to or greater than the Available NPSH
6. The harmful effects of cavitation are:
(i) Pitting and erosion of surface due to continuous hammering action of the collapsing
bubbles.
(ii) Sudden drop in head, efficiency and the power delivered to the fluid.
(iii) Noise and vibration produced by the collapse of vapour bubbles.
Priming:
The process of completely filling the suction pipe, casing and a portion of delivery pipe. A
delivery valve with the liquid to be pumped before starting the centrifugal pump is called priming.
Why is priming required?
When a centrifugal pump is not running for some time, the water present in the pump and suction
pipe flows back to the sump and these spaces get filled with air. Now, when the pump motors is
Vw2 .𝑢2
switched on and pump starts running, the head developed equals H = meter of air.
g
Once 𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟 ≪< 𝑃𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 the head thus generated cannot produce spontaneously the vacuum required
to start the pumping action. Accordingly the water cannot be sucked along the suction pipe to
reach the impeller.
Making the pump deliver water, there is need to make the casing, impeller and motion line free
from air and fill these spaces with water. The entire operation of completely filling the suction
pipe, casing and a portion of delivery up to delivery valve the liquid to be pumped is called
priming. After proper priming and keeping the delivery value closed, the pump is started. The
shut-off head (the head generated when the discharge is zero to start with ) builds up and the
delivery value is gradually opened. A continuous discharge then flows from the pump.
Difference between Gear Pump and Centrifugal Pump

Gear Pump Centrifugal Pump
53
It is a positive displacement pump and
It is a rotodynamic pump and does not deliver a
1 discharges a fixed quantity of liquid
fixed quantity of liquid for every revolution.
for every revolution.
2 Used for high viscosity liquids Used for low viscosity liquids
It is a low discharge and high head
3 It is a high discharge and high head pump
pump
Applications: Domestic water supply and
Applications: hydraulic circuits fuel
4 industries, chemical plants for low viscosity
injection system of diesel engine.
chemicals.
5 High efficiency Low efficiency
If delivery value is closed then the liquid will
If the outlet value is closed then pump
6 swirl around the impeller not developing the
will burst due to excessive pressure
excessive pressure. Thus pump will be safe.
If direction of rotation of gear pump is
reversed then suction will become
7 This is not possible in centrifugal pump.
discharge and discharge port become
suction port.
Gear pump requires high degree of The clearance between impeller and casing
8 close clearance between gears and does not require a high degree of close
housing. clearance.
Theory Questions:
1. Distinguish between positive and non positive displacement pumps.
2. Distinguish between gear pump and centrifugal pump based on working principle and
applications.
3. Applications of gear and centrifugal pump.
4. What is the significance of NPSH and specific speed in the design of centrifugal pump?
(May’16,17)
5. What is the function of stuffing box in centrifugal pump?
6. Why is priming necessary in case of centrifugal pumps.
7. Why precision cut gears are used in gear pumps?
8. Explain working of gear pump.
9. List types of gear pumps. Explain any one. (Dec’16)
54
10. What is cavitation? What are preventive measures against cavitation?
11. What is the function of volute casing?
12. Explain types of impeller.
13. Illustrate morphology of mechanical system design for centrifugal pump with the help of flow
chart.
14. Derive an expression for hydraulic force developed on gear shaft of gear pump if the pressure
increases from 0 to Pmax in 1800 and remains constant on delivery side at Pmax. Consider the
external radius of the gear as ‘R’ and width of gear as ‘b’.
55
Module 6:
Introduction
1. A gear box is a mechanical device used for transmitting a power from the prime mover to the
machine with change in torque and speed.
2. A machine tool is expected to perform various operations such as turning, facing, milling, boring
etc. The tools used for these operations work the best for a given cutting speed, feed and depth of
cut.
3. Depending on the diameter of the job being machined, different spindle speeds would be
necessary to determine optimum cutting speeds and feed rates.
4. The different possible spindle speeds for different diameter of the job would have to be generated
by a multi-speed gear box. A multi-speed gear box can be used for stepped regulation of the rpm.
Determination of Variable Speed Range
1. The ideal speed range in a machine tool would be the one where there would be infinite number of
speed ratios. This would allow an optimum operation of a machine for any job diameter. Such a
speed regulation would be called as a stepless regulation.
2. Higher the speed ratios available, higher would be the cost of the gear box. Hence, from the cost
and utility perspective, optimum gear ratios should be available to get the different speed ranges
between the maximum and minimum speed. These intermediate discrete values can be obtained by
different laws.
3. Let N1 and N2 be the minimum and maximum spindle speeds to be achieved in z number of
intermediate steps. These steps can be arranged by the following laws:
I. Arithmetic Progression (AP)
II. Geometric Progression (GP)
III. Harmonic Progression (HP)
IV. Logarithmic Progression (LP)
Mathematically, these laws are represented as:
56
1. Arithmetic progression
𝑛𝑧 = 𝑛1 + (𝑧 − 1) 𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑥+1 = 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑎
N−N−1
where a =
z−1
2. Geometric progression
𝑛𝑧 = 𝑛(𝑧 − 1) = 𝑛1 ϕz−1 𝑜𝑟 𝑁𝑥+1 = 𝑛𝑥 ϕ
1
Nz 𝑧−1
where, ϕ = ( )
𝑁1
3. Harmonic progression
𝑛 1 1
𝑛𝑧 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐶 = −
1 − (𝑧 − 1)𝐶𝑛1 𝑁𝑥 𝑁𝑥−1
For this series, C = 2.967 × 103
4. Logarithmic progression
𝑛𝑧 = 𝑁𝑧−1 × ϕz−1 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑥+1 = 𝑁𝑥 × (ϕx−1 )
𝜋𝑥−1 1−𝑝
where, ϕz−1 = 1 − 2 𝑀 ( )
1000𝑉
Limitation of progression
(1) Constant loss of productivity in the whole rpm range – Productivity of the machining
operation is defined as the surface area of the metal removed in time. Therefore for highest
productivity, optimum cutting speed after every cut will be needed, which is only possible with
infinitely variable speed. In a stepped drive, only one cut will give optimum machining of the work
piece and during all other cuts until changeover, there will be loss of productivity. Since the loss of
cutting speed is constant, the loss of productivity is also constant over the entire speed range.
(2) Better design features – To obtain the rpm values of the spindle in large number of steps,
similar number of gear pairs may be required. However, to optimize the dimension of the gearbox,
proper material selection for each of the gears, as well as provision of multi speed or multistage
arrangements are most essential. It is a difficult task to establish the great ratio in multi staging
arrangement. It is therefore suggested to select the ratio and the number of stages to meet the
requirement by trial and error. This difficulty is overcome by using geometric progression ratio due to
its following properties:
1. In a geometric progression with progression ratio Φ, every xth value is also in geometric
57
progression with ratio Φx .
2. Progression ratio multiplied with a constant value also gives values in G. P. with each value
constant times greater.
3. If a geometric progression having ratio Φ is multiplied by a factor Φx , the resulting series is
also a geometric progression which is shifted by x numbers.
These features can be realized in an actual speed box design only if the values lie in geometric
progression.
Structure Formula
The structural formula can be defined as an expression which gives the distribution of the number
of transmission stages and the difference between the adjacent speed steps in each of these stages.
Let the total number of speed steps be made in a number of stages or transmissions. Let, p1, p2 ...
pn = Number of speed steps in the first, second and nth stage of transmission. This would mean that
after first stage there would be p1 number of speed steps, whereas at the end of stage two, there
would be p1 x p2 steps. Thus for the complete z speed steps,
z = p1 x p2 x p3 x........pn where, n = number of stages of the gear box.
Structure Diagram
The structural formula can be represented in the form of special graphs called as structure diagrams
which describes the kinematic structure of the gear box. The structure diagram having lines crossing
each other is called as a Crossed Diagram, whereas in the diagram in which lines do not cross each
other is called an Open Structure Diagram. The general rules for drawing structure diagrams are
listed below.
1. If the number of stages in a gear box are 'n', draw (n + l) vertical lines spaced at a convenient
distance.
2. The first vertical line represents the input shaft, where as the last one would represent the output
shaft. The other vertical lines represent the intermediate shafts which form the transmission
groups or stages of the gear box.
3. Z horizontal lines are next drawn to represent total number of speeds steps for the gear box. The
spacing between the horizontal lines is taken as log ɸ.
The structure diagram allows the designer to conceptualise the flow of transmission in the gear box
and gives the following information:
58
1. The number of shafts in the gear box
2. The number of gears on each shaft. The approximate number of gears would be found by the
following equation:
3. The order of changing transmissions at each stage to get the required spindle speed
4. The transmission range and the characteristic of each group.
The typical characteristics of a structure diagram are:
1. Each line must connect another follow-up line till the final output shaft is reached.
2. At any stage the arrow must terminate at one and only point. However at any input there can be more
than one arrow. Generally this number is limited to a maximum of three.
3. On the final shaft, all the points must be connected by the arrows.
4. No arrow should go beyond the bounds of the speeds required speeds at the final output shaft.
From among all the possible structural diagrams, the selection of the best version is guided by
following two main factors:
(1) Transmission ratio relation in a group should have transmission range of less than 8. This point
has been already discussed, that the step down speed ratio should be less than 4 and the step up
ratio should be less than 2 in one transmission group.
(2) Minimum total shaft diameter. It is known that the shaft diameter is to be 1/3 root of the torque to
be transmitted, which indicates that the higher reduction ratios should be adopted in latter
transmission groups so that shafts having larger diameters will be minimum, thus saving material.
Apart from above two factors, following points also should be considered.
(a) Number of gears on last shaft should be minimum possible.
(b) Number of gear pairs in one transmission group should not be more than 3. In exceptional cases, 4
gear pairs may be adopted.
Ray and Speed Diagram
• The structure diagram establishes the transmission flow in a gear box. It does not give information
related to the individual speeds of each gear, nor does it help in establishing the number of teeth on each
gear. Once the structure diagram is finalised, the gear box arrangement is fixed.
• To determine the speeds of the various gears, the ray diagram and the speed diagram are drawn. These
diagrams allow the designer to read the speeds of all the shafts, gears and finally the spindle speeds.
• The steps for drawing the ray and speed diagram for a gear box are listed below:
1. If the number of steps in a gear box is z, and the number of stages of the gear box is n, draw (n + 2)
59
vertical lines at a convenient spacing. The one extra line as compared to the structure diagram would
represent the motor shaft.
2. If the input speed from the motor is less than the maximum speed, draw z horizontal lines, whereas if the
input speed from the motor is more than the maximum speed, draw as many horizontal lines as necessary
to locate the motor speed on the diagram. The spacing between the horizontal lines is taken as log ɸ,
just as was the case in structure diagram. Thus,
If Nm < Nmax, z number of Horizontal Lines and,
If Nm > Nmax, z number of Horizontal Lines + additional horizontal lines to locate Nm on the chart.
3. Using the value of GP ratio ɸ, mark the spindle speeds on the vertical shaft.
Mark the various spindle speeds starting with minimum speed at the lowermost line.
4. Draw the rays depicting transmission between the last shaft and the shaft preceding it. The rays are
drawn for the lowest rpm of the last shaft.
Sr. Comparison Structure Diagram Speed Diagram
No. Parameter
1 Vertical Lines The structure diagram contains The speed diagram contains one
(N + 1) vertical lines for input vertical line for electric motor shaft
shaft, intermediate shafts and and (N + 1) vertical lines for input
output shaft. shaft, intermediate shafts
and output shafts.
2 Horizontal Line The structure diagram contains The speed diagram contains the
the number of horizontal lines number of horizontal lines required
equal to the number of spindle for locating all spindle speeds as
speed steps. well as electric motor
speed.
3 Spindle Speeds (n) The structure diagram does not The speed diagram gives all
give the spindle speeds. spindle speeds.
4 Range Ratio of The structure diagram does not The speed diagram gives the range
Spindle Speeds ( Rn ) give the range ratio of spindle ratio of spindle speeds.
speeds.
5 Electric Motor Speed The structure diagram does not The speed diagram gives the
give the electric motor speed. electric motor speed.
Rules and Guidelines for Gear Box Layout

• Once, the structure and the speed diagrams are finalised, a rough layout of the gears should be made.
• This layout would then be used in determining the number of teeth on each gear, on the basis of the
60
speeds calculated from the speed diagram.
• The gears, shafts and other components can then be designed from strength considerations.
• While developing the gear layout, the following rules should be observed :
1. Minimum number of teeth on gears should be selected to avoid interference.
2. Sum of Number of Teeth on Gear Pairs for Parallel Shafts should be the same
3. Percentage deviation between actual and theoretical speeds should be under check.
4. The spacing between two adjacent gears on a shaft should be such that one gear pair gets completely
disengaged, before the next begins to mesh.
Theory Questions
1. State limitations of geometric progression. Why geometric progression values are used in
machine tool drive despite its limitations? (May’17)
2. Explain with neat sketch open type and crossed type structure diagram. (May’17)
3. Explain with neat sketch, how the structure and ray diagrams are different from each other in
multi - speed gear box. (Dec’16)
Module 2: Design of hoisting mechanism - EOT CRANE

1. Following specifications refer to an EOT CRANE. Load to be lifted – 100 kN, Maximum lift –
7.5 m, hoisting speed – 6 m/min, application – Class II.
i) Select suitable type and size of rope for a expected life of 12 months.
ii) Design pulley (sheave), pulley axle and select suitable bearing for axle.
iii) Select a standard hook. Check stresses at most critical section. Design its nut and bearing.
iv) Design cross piece and shack
le plate.
v) Design rope drum, drum shaft with bearing.
vi) Select suitable motor and suggest suitable transmission system for hoisting mechanism.
2. Following specifications refer to an EOT CRANE. Load to be lifted – 150 kN, Maximum lift – 8
m, hoisting speed – 10 m/min, application – Class II. (May’17)
i) Design 6 × 37 type of rope and find its life..
ii) Design rope drum, drum shaft with bearing.
iii) Select suitable motor.
3. Following specifications refer to an EOT CRANE. Load to be lifted – 120 kN, Maximum lift –
15 m, hoisting speed – 5 m/min, application – Class II. (Dec’16)
ii) Select a standard hook. Check stresses at most critical section. Design its nut and bearing.
iii) Design cross piece and shackle plate.
iv) Design rope drum, drum shaft with bearing.
61
4. Following specifications refer to an EOT CRANE. Load to be lifted – 150 kN, Span – 10 m,
hoisting speed – 8 m/min, application – Class II. (May’16)
ii) Select a standard hook. Check stresses at most critical section.
iii) Design cross piece and side plate.
iv) Select suitable motor.
5. Following specifications refer to an EOT CRANE. Load to be lifted – 120 kN, hoisting speed – 6
m/min, application – Class II. (Dec’14)
i) Select suitable type and size of rope and find its life.
ii) Design pulley axle and select suitable bearings.
iv) Design cross piece and shackle plate.
m/min, application – Class II. (May’14)
m/min, application – Class II. (Dec’13)
ii) Design crane hook for critical section.
iii) Design shackle plates, cross-piece and axle with bearings for pulleys.
8. Following specifications refer to an EOT CRANE. Load to be lifted – 90 kN, maximum lift –
10m, hoisting speed – 7 m/min, application – Class II. (May’13)
iii) Select a standard hook. Check stresses at most critical section.
iv) Design cross piece with bearing and nut.
10 m, hoisting speed – 6 m/min, application – Class II. (Dec’12, Dec’11)
i) Select suitable type and size of rope for an expected life of 12 months.
iii) Design pulley axle and select suitable bearings.
10 m, hoisting speed – 8 m/min, application – Class II. (Dec’11)
62
12 m, hoisting speed – 8 m/min, application – Class II. (May’11)
ii) Select a standard hook. Check stresses at most critical section.
iv) Design cross piece
v) Select suitable type, power and speed of the motor used for hoisting mechanism.
12. Following specifications refer to an EOT CRANE. Load to be lifted – 50 kN, maximum lift – 7
m, hoisting speed – 6 m/min, application – Class II. (Nov’03)
i) Select suitable type and size of rope.
ii) Design the snatch block with hook, sheave, axle and cross piece.
13. Following specifications refer to an EOT crane:-

Maximum lifting capacity : 100 KN
Maximum lift : 7.5 m
Lifting speed : 6 m/ min approximately
Span : 10m
Number of falls : 4
Application : Class II 20
(a) Select suitable type of wire rope and estimate diameter of rope considering direct M’03
tensile stress and bending stress.
(b) Select a standard crane hook and check the stresses induced at important sections.
Determine thrust bearing and nut size.
(c) Design cross piece, pulleys, and axle and shackle plates.
(d) Draw at least two views of pulley block with hook showing leading dimensions.
14. Following specification refer to an EOT crane.

Application : Class II
Maximum load : 50 kN
Hoisting speed : 6 m/min approximately 17
Maximum lift : 7 m N’03
(a) Select suitable type and size of the wire rope
(b) Design the snatch block with hook, sheave, axle and cross-piece.
15. Following data refers to an EOT Crane:

Load to be lifted : 80 kN
Hoisting speed : 5.5 m/min approximately
Maximum lift : 8 m
20
Span : 10 m
M’04
(a) Design crane hook along with thrust bearing and nut.
(b) Select suitable type of wire rope and estimate its diameter for an expected life of
10-11 months
63
(c) Design cross piece, pulley axle and shackle plates.
(d) Draw neat sketches for the assembly of the pulley block.
16. Following data refers to an EOT crane :

Lift load : 100 kN
Hoisting speed : 5 m/min approximately
Maximum lift : 10m
20
N’04
(a) Design crane hook along with thrust bearing and nut.
(b) Design pulleys, pulley axle, shackle plates and cross-piece. Assume or estimate
suitable wire rope diameter.
(c) Draw neat sketches for the assembly of the pulley block.
17. The following specifications refer to an EOT crane:
Application : Class I
Hoisting speed : 6 m/min
Maximum lift : 8 m 20
(i) Select a standard hook assuming material and design stresses, check the stresses N’05
induced at the most critical section.
(ii) Select thrust bearing and design the nut.
(iii) Select suitable type and size of the wire rope for an expected life of 12 months.
18. The following specifications refer to an E.O.T. Crane:

Lifting capacity : 120 kN
Maximum Lift : 12 m
(i) Select the hook. Assume material and design stresses. Check the stresses
20
induced at the most critical cross section.
N’05
(ii) Design the nut and select the thrust bearing.
(iii) Select suitable type and size of wire rope for an expected life of 12 months.
(iv) Design the cross piece
(v) Design the pulley axle
(vi) Draw two views of the Snatch Block assembly.
19. An E.O.T. crane is to be designed for the following specifications:-

Lifting capacity : 120 kN
Hoisting Speed : 8-10 m/min
Span : 12m
Class : I
16
(i) Draw neat sketch (2 views) of hook and pulley block assembly.
M’06
(ii) Select the hook and check it’s critical cross section.
(iii) Design the rope and decide pulley diameter
(iv) Design the pulley axle.
(v) Design the cross piece.
64
20. (i) What do you mean by wire rope of 6 x 37 constructions?
Design such a rope for an E.O.T. crane with following specification and find its life.
Class : II
Lifting Capacity : 120kN
Hoisting Speed : 8 m/min
Maximum lift : 15 m 14
(ii) If this life to be increased by 50% what changes will you suggest in your design. N’06
Redesign is not necessary.
(iii) Design the crane hook for the crane with specifications as above and find induced
stresses at three different sections. Draw a neat sketch of the hook indicating important
dimensions. Also design the nut and the bearing for the hook.
21. An E.O.T. crane is to be designed for the following requirements.

Lifting Capacity : 16 tones
Maximum Lift : 15 m
Hoisting Speed : 6-8 m/min.
Draw neat sketch of hook and pulley block, showing main nomenclature you are using in
design.
(i) Select hook and bearing.
(ii) Show and check critical cross-section of hook.
20
(iii) Select the rope type and justify.
M’07
(iv) Decide rope diameter and pulley diameter.
(v) Decide rope life.
(vi) Draw sketch showing the forces acting on cross piece (load diagram) and
specify material used for cross piece.
(vii) Estimate length of cross piece and pulley spindle and decide the dimension of
central cross section of cross piece.
(viii) Decide trunion diameter and thickness of side and shackle plates.
22. The following specifications refer to an EOT Crane;

Application : Class Ii
Hoisting speed : 6 m/ min
Maximum Lift : 10 m
20
i) Select a standard hook, material and design stresses. Check the stresses induced
N’07
at the most critical section.
ii) Select suitable type and size of the wire rope for an expected life of 12 months.
iii) Design the pulley axle and select suitable bearings.
iv) Design the cross piece
23. Following are the specification of an EOT crane.

Class : Ii
Capacity : 150 kN 15
Hoisting speed : 8 m/min M’08
Maximum Lift : 10m.
(a) Select appropriate wire rope and find its life.
65
(b) Design the hook and check induced stresses at 3 salient points.
(c) Design the cross piece with bearing and the nut.
24. An EOT crane is to be designed with the following specifications:

Class : II
Capacity : 80 kN
Lift : 10 meters
Hoisting Speed : 6 m/min
Design the following parts for the crane.
20 N’
(a) Crosspiece
(b) Hook with bearing and nut.
All the parts should be checked for induced stresses at critical sections.
Make neat and proportional sketches for all the parts designed indicating at least three
important dimensions.
25. An EOT crane is to be designed with the following specifications:

Class : II
Capacity : 100 kN
Lift : 10 meters
Hoisting speed : 8 m / min
Design the following parts for the crane.
(a) Crosspiece
(b) Hook with bearing and nut.
All the parts should be checked for induced stresses at critical sections.
Make neat and proportional for all the parts designed indicating at least three important
dimensions.
26. Following are the specifications of an EOT crane –

Class : II
Capacity : 120 kN
Maximum lift : 15 m
Trolley travelling speed = 30 m/min 20
Span = 10 m. N’09
(i) Select appropriate wire rope and find its life.
(ii) Design the hook and check induced stresses at different sections.
(iii) Design the crosspiece with bearing and the nut.
(iv) Design the drum and find the induced stresses.
27. An EOT crane is to be designed with following specification:

Mechanism : Class II
Capacity : 120 kN
20
Lift : 10 m
M’10
(i) Select a standard hook, material and design stress. Check the stresses induced at
the most critical section.
66
(ii) Select suitable type and size of the wire rope and find its life.
(iii) Design the crosspiece with bearing and nut
(iv) Design the drum and find the induced stresses.
28. An EOT crane is to be designed with following specification:
Mechanism : Class II
Capacity : 100KN
Lift : 10 m
(i) Select a standard hook, material and design stress. Check the stresses induced at 20
the most critical section. N’10
(ii) Select suitable type and size of the wire rope and its life.
(iii) Design the crosspiece with bearing and nut
(iv) Design the axle for working pulley and select the bearing for the same.
(v) What are the different stresses induced in the shackle plate. Find the dimensions
of the shackle plate.
67
Module 3: Design of belt conveyors
1. A 200 troughing belt conveyor has following specifications: Material to be conveyed – limestone,
maximum lump size – 200 mm, capacity – 400 TPH, inclination – 100, centre distance – 60 m.
i) Determine the width, number of plies and thickness of belt.
ii) Design pulleys alongwith shaft and bearing.
iii) Design the throughing idler assembly for the belt.
iv) Select a proper motor.
2. A belt conveyor has to be designed for following specifications: Material to be conveyed –

crushed coal, grain size – 100 mm, capacity – 300 TPH, inclination – 150, centre distance – 120
m.
i) Design conveyor belt.
3. The specification of belt conveyor system are: Material to be conveyed – limestone, lump size –
90 mm, capacity – 200 TPH, inclination – 120, centre distance – 100 m. (May’17)
i) Design conveyor belt
4. A 200 troughing belt conveyor has the following data: Material to be conveyed – coal from mine,
lump size – 80 mm, capacity – 400 TPH, inclination – 100, length of conveyor – 120 m. (Dec’16)
i) Determine motor power capacity.
ii) Design belt width and belt drive pulley
iii) Number of troughing idlers and return idlers
5. A 200 troughing belt conveyor has following specifications: Material to be conveyed – limestone,
maximum lump size – 100 mm, capacity – 300 TPH, inclination – 100, centre distance – 60 m.
(May’16)
i) Determine the width, number of plies and thickness of belt.
6. Design a belt conveyor for following data:
Material to be handled : Iron ore
Maximum lump size : 100 mm.
Working capacity : 250 TPH
Length : 65 m
20
Inclination : 12°
The design should include only selection of motor, conveyor belt, top and return
idlers pulleys etc. Suggest suitable drive system for the conveyor with sketches.
Draw sketches showing layout of the conveyor with important components.
7. A25° toughing belt conveyor has following data :-
68
Material conveyed : Sand
Maximum capacity : 400 TPH
Inclination : 10°
Length : 45 m.
(i) Determine belt width, length, number of piles etc. 8
(ii) Select suitable motor for the conveyor 2
(iii) Design troughing idles and draw neat sketches for the assembly of
troughing idlers set with important dimensions. 6
8. A 25° toughing belt conveyor has following details:

Material conveyed = Stones, max lump size 80 mm
Capacity : 400 TPH N’02
Inclination : 12°
Length : 40 m
(i) Determine belt width, length, number of piles etc. 8
(iii) Design driving pulley assembly.
5
9. A 20° troughing belt conveyor has following data:
Material to be conveyed : Line stone
Capacity : 400 TPH
M’03
Inclination : 15°
Length : 60 m
Maximum lump size : 150 mm
(i) Design conveyor belt 7
(iii) Determine drive
6
10. A 20° troughing belt conveyor has following data:-
Material conveyed : Crushed Stones
Capacity : 500 TPH
N’03
Inclination : 14°
Length : 100 m
(i) Design conveyor belt 7
(iii) Idlers
6
11. A 25° troughing belt conveyor has the following specifications :
Material conveyed : Crushed Stones
Capacity : 300 TPH
M’04
Inclination : 12°
Length : 40 m
(i) Determine the number of plies for the belt
(ii) Design the driving pulley and pulley shaft.
69
12. A 25° troughing belt conveyed has the following specifications :

Material to be conveyed : Coal
Capacity : 200 TPH N’04
Inclination with horizontal : 90 m
Center to center distance : 125 mm
(i) Determine width, length and no. of piles 6
(iii) Determine drive pulley diameter and suggest no. of stages and reduction
ratio of each stage of the gear box.
3
(iv) Draw front view of the conveyor belt system indicating the different parts.
13. Line stone is to be conveyed at an elevation of 8 m at the rate of 400 tonnes per hour.
Angle of inclination should not exceed 10°. Design the complete conveyor for the
M’05
application including the drive.
14. Find the width and length of the belt and number of piles, size and number of
troughing and idler rollers. Select suitable motor for the belt.
Find the diameter and speed of the drive pulley and hence required reduction ratio in
8
the transmission drive.
Suggest two different systems for this transmission and recommend one justifying
your choice. Draw a neat sketch of the recommended drive.
15. M’06
(a) Draw neat sketch (front view) of belt conveyor assembly. 4
(b) Sketch the sectional side view of the above assembly showing upper and
3
lower rollers with bearing, support and belt.
(c) Belt conveyor is to be designed for the following specifications.
Material conveyed up : iron ore
Capacity (tph) : 300
Lump size : 50 mm
Horizontal distance (m) : 30
Vertical distance (m) : 5
Design the belt and decide the drum diameter 8
Design the upper roller with it’s spindle.
(d) In material handling when belt conveyors are preferred and when EOT 2
cranes, jib cranes are preferred?
(e) Write a note on material used and construction of belt conveyor.
2
16. A 20° troughing belt conveyor has the following specifications :
Material to be conveyed : lime stone
Capacity : 400 TPH 20
Inclination : 10° N’06
Centre distance : 60 m.
1. Determine the width, number of piles and the thickness of the belt.
2. Select a proper motor for the conveyor.
70
3. Design the drive pulley along with its shaft.
4. Design the troughing idler for the belt.
17. (a) Draw neat sketches. M’07

i) Showing front view of assembly of belt conveyor 4
ii) Sectional side view of the above assembly showing belt, upper and lower
3
rollers with supports.
b) Belt conveyor is to be designed for the following specifications:
Material conveyed up : Sand
Grain size (mm) : 50
(i) Decide the maximum tension in the belt, angle and belt width 5
(ii) Specify the belt selected 1
(iii) Decide the drum diameter 1
(iv) Decide the load coming on upper middle roller and show loading diagram
3
for roller and its spindle
(v) Decide the diameter and length of upper roller 2
(vi) Decide the check the diameter of spindle supporting upper roller 2
(c) (i) What is impact roller? Where it is located and why? 2
(iii) Why cleaner is used in belt conveyor and where it is located?
2
18. Design the complete 20° troughing belt conveyor including drive for the following
application.
Material : Coal
Capacity : 250 TPH 20
Centre to centre distance : 100 m N’07
Inclination : 12°
Lump size : 100 mm
19. A 20° troughing belt conveyor has the following specifications:

Material conveyed : Stones
Capacity : 400 tph
Inclination : 12°
Centre to centre distance : 80 m. 13
(i) Determine the width of the belt M’08
(ii) Determine the total resistance and select power and speed for the driving
motor.
(iii) Determine the No. of Piles and thickness of the belt.
(iv) Design the head pulley and pulley shaft.
20. Design the complete 20° troughing belt conveyor including drive for the following
20
application.
N’08
Material : Coal
71
Capacity : 250 TPH
Centre to centre distance : 100 m
Inclination : 12°
Lung size : 100 mm
21. Belt conveyor is to be designed for the following specifications:

Material conveyed up : Sand
Grain Size (mm) : 50 20
(i) Determine width, number of plies and thickness of the belt.
(ii) Select the proper motor for the conveyor
(iii) Design the drive pulley along with shaft.
(iv) Design the troughing idler for the belt.
22. Belt conveyor is to be designed for the following specifications:

Material conveyed up : Crushed Caol
20
CTC (m) : 120
n’09
Inclination (degree) : 15
Grain Size (mm) : 100
Troughing angle (degree) : 20
(i) Determine belt width, number of plies and length 8
(ii) Select the suitable motor for the conveyor 3
(iii) Design the return idler roller along with axle and bearing 5
Module 4: Design of petrol and diesel engine:
1. A four stroke, single cylinder water cooled diesel engine develops 12 kW brake power when
rotating at 800 rpm. The possible over speed is 15% and compression ratio is 14.
i) Determine the bore and stroke of engine.
ii) Design wet liner, cylinder, cylinder head and bolts.
iii) Design piston assembly
iv) Select suitable material and design stresses for Connecting rod and find its cross section.
v) Design the big end, bearings, cap and cap bolts.
2. Design following components of four stroke, single cylinder water cooled diesel engine to
develop 10 kW brake power when rotating at 1000 rpm. (May’17)
i) Design liner, cylinder, cylinder head and stud.
ii) Piston with piston pin and piston rings.
iii) Connecting rod with small and big end.
3. A four stroke, single cylinder water cooled petrol engine has following data: brake power = 50
kW brake power, mass of reciprocating parts = 1.5 kg, over speed = 2400 rpm, speed = 2000 rpm
and compression ratio is 7. Design following components of I.C. engine and sketch them with
dimensions: Crank shaft, crank pin and main bearings. (Dec’16)
72
4. A four stroke, single cylinder water diesel engine develops 12 kW brake power when rotating at
1000 rpm. (May’16)
i) Determine the bore and stroke of engine.
ii) Design cylinder head and wet liner.
iii) Design piston, piston rings and piston pin.
iv) Selecting suitable material and design stresses, determine cross-section of connecting rod.
5. Following particular refer to a four stroke vertical petrol engine.
Cylinder bore : 110 mm
Piston stroke : 120 mm
M’01
Compression Ratio : 6.5
Maximum combination pressure : 4.2 N/mm2
Engine speed : 1200 rpm
i) Design connecting rod along with small and big end bearings, cap and cap
bolts. Draw sketches with dimensions:
20
ii) Design crank shaft and sketch it with dimensions.
6. Single cylinder 4-stroke, petrol engine develop 12 kW brake power when operating
at 100 rpm, with possible over speed at 2200 rpm. The compression ratio is 6.
i) Estimate size of the engine (bore and length of stroke)3.
20
ii) Design piston with rings and draw sketches with dimensions.
N’01
iii) Design connecting rod with cap and cap bolts. Draw sketches with
dimensions.
7. The following details refer to a 4 stroke petrol engine. 4

Stroke = cylinder diameter = 102 mm. Length of connecting rod = 210 mm, Engine
Speed = 3000 rpm, Mass of reciprocating parts = 1.2 kg. Compression ratio = 6,
Maximum gas pr at the beginning of power stroke = 40 bar, Pr. At the beginning of
exhaust stroke 4.5 bar.. Pressure at the end of exhaust stroke and throughout section
stroke-atmosphere pressure.
Determine the force in the connecting rod cap bolts at the beginning and end of each
stroke.
8. A four stroke single cylinder oil engine is required to develop 12 kW break power at
N’03
500 rpm. Compression ratio is 15 Making suitable assumptions.
i) Determine bore and stroke of engine 4
ii) Design piston selecting suitable material and draw it’s sketch with
important dimensions. 10
9. Following particulars refers to a four stroke vertical petrol engine-

Cylinder bore : 122 mm
Piston stroke : 125 mm
Maximum combustion pressure : 4 N/mm2 12
Engine speed : 2000 rpm M’04
Maximum torque can be assumed to occur at 25° crank position. Design crank shaft
and sketch it with dimensions.
73
10. A four smoke, single cylinder oil engine is required to develop 15 kW power at 1200
rpm. The compression ratio is 14. Making suitable assumptions:-
(i) Determine bore and stroke of the engine 4
(ii) Design connecting rod section. 6
(iii) Design small end and big end bearing for connecting rod. 3
(iv) Design connecting rod cap and cap bolts. 5
11. It is required to design a single diesel engine having power 45kW maximum speed
M’05
2200 rpm.
(i) Decide the diameter of cylinder and stroke length. 2
(ii) Decide the material and thickness cylinder liner and check it. 3
(iii) Decide the thickness of water jacket and draw neat sketch of cylinder with
3
jacket and cylinder head.
(iv) Decide thickness of cylinder head and check it. 3
(v) Draw neat sketch (2 views) of piston. 3
(vi) Design the piston
5
12. A four stroke, single cylinder oil engine is required to develop 12kW brake power at
1200 rpm. Making suitable assumptions, design the following components and draw N’05
neat necessary sketches:-
i) Cylinder along with jacket, head and its connection with the cylinder. 10
ii) Piston 9
iii) Cross section of the connecting rod.
13. 4
A four stroke, single cylinder petrol engine is required to develop 20kW at 65° rpm.
M’06
The compression ratio is 6.5
(i) Determine bore and stroke of engine 4
(ii) Design and sketch the cylinder, jacket and cylinder head. 9
(iii) Design cross section of connecting rod.
5
14. A 4 stroke petrol engine is to be designed for following specification. N’06
Brake Power : 12 kW
Speed : 1500 rpm
Find the size of the engine (i.e. bore and stroke) and design the following.
i) Piston with pin and piston rings
ii) Connecting rod considering both buckling and whipping stress
15. A four stroke, single cylinder, water cooled diesel engine develop 12 kW brake
20
power then operating at 800 rpm. The possible over speed is 15% and the
M’07
compression ratio is
i) Determine bore and stroke of the engine.
ii) Design wet liner, cylinder and cylinder head and bolts.
iii) Select suitable material and designs stresses for the connecting rod and
determine it’s cross section.
iv) Design the big end bearings, cap and cap blots.
74
16. A four stroke single cylinder water cooled Diesel engine develops 7.5 kW brake 20
power then operating at 1000 rpm. N’07
Determine the size of the engine (Bore and stroke)
Design the piston with pin and the piston rings.
i. Design the connecting rod.
ii. Design the cap with cap bolts.
17. An IC engine of size 120 by 150 mm (bore by stroke), and maximum gas pressure of
6
N/mm2. Design the connecting rod considering only buckling criteria.
M’08
18. Determine the size of an IC engine suitable to develop 7.5kW at a speed of 1000
rpm. Also design.
(i) Piston with piston pin and piston rings. 20
(ii) Crank pin M’08
(iii) The small and big end bearings.
19. Following specifications refer to a single cylinder four stroke water cooled vertical 18
engine. N’08
Brake power = 7.5 kW
Operating speed = 1000 rpm.
Type : Petrol engine
(i) Determine bore and stroke
(ii) Design the piston with pin and the piston rings.
(iii) Design the connecting rod
(iv) Design the cap with cap bolts.
20. It is required to design a four stroke, single cylinder diesel engine having power
45KW maximum speed 2200 rpm.
(i) Determine bore and stroke of engine
(ii) Design wet liner, cylinder and cylinder head and bolts.
M’09
(iii) Select suitable material arid design stresses for the connecting rod and
determine its cross section.
(iv) Design the big and bearings, cap and cap bolts.
21. It is required to design a four stroke, 750 rpm, single cylinder diesel engine having
15 kW, break power.
(i) Draw neat sketch of cylinder with jacket and head.
(ii) Design the cylinder with jacket and head
(iii) Select suitable material and stresses and design the cross selection of
N’09
connecting rod
(iv) Select suitable material and stresses and design the cross section of
connecting rod
(v) Design small end with pin and bush.
(vi) Design big end with cap bolts and cap.
75
Module 5: Design of pump:
a) Centrifugal pump
1. The centrifugal pump has to work with the following specifications: static suction head: 2.5 m,
static delivery head: 15 m, length of suction pipe: 6 m, length of delivery pipe: 30 m, discharge:
1200 lpm, working fluid: water at room temperature. Design should include selection of motor,
design of impeller, impeller shaft and volute casing.
2. The specifications for the centrifugal pump are, liquid to be handled: Water at room temperature,
total manometric head = 24 m, discharge = 900 lpm. (May’17)
i) Find the suction and delivery pipe diameter
ii) Select standard motor
iii)Design impeller (Basic Dimensions, Blades, Hub and Shaft)
3. The centrifugal pump has to work with the following specifications: static suction head: 3 m,
850 lpm, working fluid: water at 300 C. The pump is directly connected to an electric motor.
Design the pump completely for pumping water. (Dec’16)
3000 lpm, working fluid: water at room temperature. Design should include selection of motor,
design of impeller, impeller shaft and volute casing. (May’16)
1200 lpm. Design pipe diameters, impeller and impeller shaft and casing. Select suitable motor.
Draw layout. (Dec’14)
1000 lpm. Design pipe diameters, impeller and impeller shaft and casing. Select suitable motor.
Draw layout. (May’14)
7. Decide suitable layout and completely design the centrifugal pump for following specifications:
total head – 15m, discharge – 800 lpm, operating speed – 1440 rpm. (Dec’13)
8. A centrifugal pump directly coupled to a motor is required to deliver 1200 LPM of water at 300
C against a total head of 25 m. select suitable motor, determine suction and delivery pipe
diameter., Determine impeller diameter, inlet and outlet vane angles and no. of vanes. Design
impeller shaft. Decide dimensions of the volute casing and draw the layout for this pump.
(May’13)
9. Decide suitable layout and completely design the centrifugal pump for following specifications:
total head – 15m, discharge – 800 lpm, operating speed – 1440 rpm. (Dec’12)
76
10. Design a centrifugal pump for the following data: static suction head: 3.5 m, static delivery head:
10 m, length of suction pipe: 8 m, length of delivery pipe: 60 m, discharge: 900 lpm. Working
fluid: water at 300 C. (Dec’11)
11. A centrifugal pump is to be designed for the following specifications- total head – 50 m,
discharge – 100 m3/hr, medium – water at 250C. the pump is directly coupled to an electrical
motor. Select suitable motor for the pump and design following parts – impeller, impeller shaft,
bearing and the casing with volute profile. (May’11)
b) Gear pump
1. A gear pump has to work under following specifications: Discharge pressure – 70 bar, discharge
– 100 lpm. Determine diameters of suction and delivery pipe, select suitable motor. Design gear
pair, shaft and its bearing design. Design casing and its bolts.
2. A gear pump has to work under following specifications: Discharge pressure – 130 bar,
discharge – 160 lpm. Determine diameters of suction and delivery pipe, select suitable motor.
Design gear pair, shaft and its bearing design. Design casing and its bolts.
3. It is required to design gear pump for flow of 50 LPM and pressure 30 bar. The pump is to be
driven from an electric motor by direct coupling. The design should include the design of gears,
driver shaft and bearings. (May’16)
4. It is required to design the gear for maximum pressure 70 bar and flow 40 / pm M’08
i) Draw neat sketches (2 views) of gear pump 4
ii) Select the type of motor and decide it’s power and speed 2
iii) Decide material for gears and design it. 3
iv) Design the shaft. 3
v) Decide diameter of suction and delivery pipe 1
vi) Decide casing thickness 2
vii) Which type of bearing are used for gear pump? 1
viii) How much clearance in kept between gears and casing of gear pump? 1
20
5. Design a gear pump in detail for the following industrial application
N’08
Fluid to be pumped – SAE 20
Discharge – 50 LPM
Delivery pressure – 70 Bar (gauge)
The pump is to be driven from an electric motor or direct coupling.
The design should include the design of gears, shaft, bearings, casing and number of
bolts.
6. It is required to design gear pump for flow 50 LPM and pressure 30 bar. The pump is
to be driven from an electric motor by direct coupling. The design should include the 20
design of gears, shaft, bearings, casing and number of bolts. M’09
7. It is required to design the gear pump for flow 70 LPM and pressure 50 bar. N’09
(i) With neat sketches show two views of gear pump.
(ii) Select the motor type and decide its power and speed.
77
(iii) Decide materials of gears and design it.
(iv) Design the shaft.
(v) Decide the diameter of suction and delivery pipe.
(vi) Decide casing thickness
(vii) Which type of bearings are used for gear pump?
(viii) How much clearance is kept between gears and casing of great pump?
8. It is required to design gear pump for flow 60 rpm and pressure 20 bar. M’06
(i) With neat sketches show two views of gear pump. 5
(ii) Select the motor type and decide its power. 1
(iii) Decide motor speed, gear material module, No. of teeth and width of gear. 3
(iv) Check the module. 3
(v) Decide the casing thickness and material. 2
(vi) Find the diameter of suction and delivery pipe. 1
9. Design a gear pump to deliver 30 LPM at pressure of 70 bar. The design should 20
include design of gears, shaft, bearings, casing and the number of bolts. N’06
10 A gear pump is required to delivery 40 LPM of SAE 30 oil at pressure of 30 bar. 20

. M’07
i) Select the type of motor, speed and determine the power required.
ii) Determine the module and face width of the gears. Selecting suitable
material and design stresses, check the gears for strength and wear.
iii) Design the shafts.
iv) Decide the diameters of suction and delivery pipes.
v) Decide the casing thickness and No. of bolts required.
11 For a gear pump, with capacity of 8o LPM at 70 bar select module and the width of M’07
. the gears. Gears are to be made of alloy steel. Strength need not be checked. Also
find the power required to drive the pump.
Module 6: Design of gear box

1. Design a 9 speed, 2 stage gearbox to meet following specifications. Maximum output speed =
1350 rpm and minimum output speed = 200 rpm. Draw optimum structural diagram, optimum
ray diagram, gearing diagram and deviation diagram.
2. Design a 3 stage, 12 speed gearbox for maximum output speed = 1500 rpm, take G.P. = 1.41.
Draw optimum structural diagram, optimum ray diagram, gearing diagram and deviation
diagram.
78
3. A 12 speed machine tool gear box of 2×3×2 type is to be designed for the following
specification: Minimum speed = 40 rpm, progession ratio = 1.41. (May’17)
i) Draw structural diagrams and select the best one.
ii) Draw ray diagram and speed chart for selected structural formula.
iii) Determine the number of teeth on each gear.
iv) Draw the gearing diagram
v) Show the combination of gear pairs for different speeds.
4. Find the rpm values and diameter range seved by each rpm in geometric, harmonic and
logarithmic progressions and compare them based on following conditions: Minimum speed =
30 rpm, maximum speed = 400 rpm, number of speed steps = 12, cutting speed = 20 m/min. Also
draw gearing(kinematic) diagram as per geometric progression. (Dec’16)
5. A 3 stage, 12 speed gearbox is to be designed for spindle speeds varying between 50 rpm and
3000 rpm. The second stage consists of three speed steps. If the gear box is driven by 7.5 kW,
1440 rpm electric motor, draw speed diagram and gearing diagram. Assume same module for all
gears. (May’16)
6. Design a 9 speed two stage gearbox to meet following specifications: motor speed = 1500 rpm.
Max output speed = 1440 rpm, minimum output speed = 300 rpm, motor rating = 10 kW. Draw
optimum structural diagram, optimum ray diagram, gearing diagram, deviation diagram.
motor speed = 1440 rpm and motor rating = 10 kW. Draw optimum structural diagram, optimum
motor speed = 1500 rpm and motor rating = 10 kW. Draw optimum structural diagram, optimum
9. A 3 stage 8 speed gearbox is to be designed having min and max output speed of 400 rpm and
1000 rpm respectively. The input motor rating is 10 HP at 1400 rpm. Minimum no. of teeth on
gear should not be less than 20. Draw speed and gearing diagram.
gear should not be less than 20. Draw speed and gearing diagram.
79
gear should not be less than 20. Draw structural and ray diagram, deviation diagram, and gearing
diagram.
80

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R.K.

Sir’s Vaishnavi Academy

Module Topic Page

Design and Significance of Design:

The System Design Process

Factors affecting selection of material handling equipment:

Layout of Hoisting mechanism:

Components of hoisting mechanism:

Steel wire ropes:

Manufacturing and construction of wore ropes:

(2) Parallel or Lang lay ropes:

(3) Composite or reverse laid ropes:

General – Purpose steel Wire Ropes

Ordinary (one-size-wire) construction:

Concepts of number of bends and its significance

Layout of belt conveyor

Control and safety devices:

2. Cleaners on the return belt

6. The use of separate cylinder liner has the following advantages:

Piston Head or Crown:

Requirements of Piston Design

Piston Cups & Ribs

Design of Centrifugal Pump

A centrifugal pump has two main components:

Net positive Suction Head available (NPSHa)

Difference between Gear Pump and Centrifugal Pump

Rules and Guidelines for Gear Box Layout

Module 2: Design of hoisting mechanism - EOT CRANE

13. Following specifications refer to an EOT crane:-

14. Following specification refer to an EOT crane.

15. Following data refers to an EOT Crane:

16. Following data refers to an EOT crane :

18. The following specifications refer to an E.O.T. Crane:

19. An E.O.T. crane is to be designed for the following specifications:-

21. An E.O.T. crane is to be designed for the following requirements.

22. The following specifications refer to an EOT Crane;

23. Following are the specification of an EOT crane.

24. An EOT crane is to be designed with the following specifications:

25. An EOT crane is to be designed with the following specifications:

26. Following are the specifications of an EOT crane –

27. An EOT crane is to be designed with following specification:

2. A belt conveyor has to be designed for following specifications: Material to be conveyed –

7. A25° toughing belt conveyor has following data :-

8. A 25° toughing belt conveyor has following details:

12. A 25° troughing belt conveyed has the following specifications :

17. (a) Draw neat sketches. M’07

19. A 20° troughing belt conveyor has the following specifications:

21. Belt conveyor is to be designed for the following specifications:

22. Belt conveyor is to be designed for the following specifications:

7. The following details refer to a 4 stroke petrol engine. 4

9. Following particulars refers to a four stroke vertical petrol engine-

10 A gear pump is required to delivery 40 LPM of SAE 30 oil at pressure of 30 bar. 20

Module 6: Design of gear box

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