Chapter _5

Angles and Directions

5.1 Introduction
Measurements of angles are basic to any surveying operation. When angle is measured in
horizontal plane it is horizontal angle when measured in a vertical plane it is vertical angle.
Angle measure needs the following.
1. Reference of starting line
2. Direction of turning
3. Angular value (Value of the angle)
These are clearly illustrated in the fig 5.1.1

Fig 5.1.1

5.2 Angle measuring instruments

A theodolite is an instrument used to measure horizontal and vertical angle depending on
the facilities provided for reading of observations theodolite may be classified as
1. Optical theodolite 2. Digital theodolite

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Varies parts of both types are shown below fig 5.2.2a and fig 5.2.2b
1. Optical Theodolite

1. Telescope level adjustment 18. Micrometer eyepiece

2. Telescope level 19. Telescope eyepiece
3. Micrometer knob 20. Telescope eyepiece
4. Telescope motion clamp screw 21. Telescope eyepiece mounting ring
5. Field of view illumination level 22. Reticule adjustment cover
6. Collimator sight 23. Focusing ring
7. Vertical slow motion screw 24. Objective lens
8. Horizontal motion clam screw 25. Standards
9. Horizontal slow motion screw 26. Instrument height mark
10. Shifting clamp 27. clamping slot
11. Base plate 28. light reflector
12. Leveling screw 29. Circular level

13. Lower motion clamp screw 30. Circular level adjustment screw

14. Lower slow motion screw 31. Optical plummet .

15. Circle positioning ring 32. Optical plummet adjustment screw
16. Plate level 33. Optical plummet focusing ring.
17. Plate level adjustment screw Circle .
Positioning ring

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2. Digital Theodolite

1. Handle 14. Optical plummet reticule cover

2. Handle screwing screw 15. Optical plummet focusing ring
3. Instrument height mark 16. Objective lens
4. Battery cover 17. Tubular compass slot
5. Data output connector 18. Horizontal clamp
6. Operation panel 19. Horizontal slow motion screw
7. Tribrach clamp 20. plate level
8. Base plate 21. plate level adjusting screw
9. Leveling foot screw 22. Vertical clamp
10. Circular level adjusting screw 23. Vertical slow motion screw
11. Circular level 24. Telescope eyepiece
12. Display 25. Telescope focusing ring
13. Optical plummet eyepiece 26. peep sight
27. Instrument center mark.
5.3 Terms Used in theodolite surveys
1. Centering: it is the process of setting up the instrument exactly over the station
mark.
2. Vertical axis: it is an axis about which the instrument rotates in the horizontal
plane.

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 3. Horizontal axis: it is the line passing through the center of the journals, which fit
into the bearings at the top of the standards.
4. Face left face right observations
Face left - with the vertical circle on the left side of the eyepiece.
Face right - with the vertical circle on the right side of eyepiece.
5. Swinging the telescope: rotating the telescope by 1800 in the horizontal plane
around the vertical axis.
6. Transiting or plunging: rotating the telescope by 1800 in the vertical plane
around the horizontal axis.
7. Telescope normal and telescope reverse: Reading with normal telescope and
reading with swinging and transiting of telescope.
8. Double centering: observing angles twice with telescope normal & reverse
9. Line of collimation: the line defined by cross hairs and optical center of the
objective
5.4 Axis's of the theodolite
The collimation axis ZZ should be normal to the horizontal axis KK
The horizontal axis KK should be normal to the vertical axis VV
The plate bubble axis LL should be horizontal
The vertical axis VV should be vertical (in the plumb line)

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5.5 Preparing theodolite for measurement (Temporary adjustment)
There are different ways to prepare a theodolite for measurements. Among these we
noted the below procedure.

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This procedure contains four steps.
1. Setting up
Initially the tripod is set up at a convenient height and the instrument is approximately
leveled.
2. Centering
It is place up the vertical axis exactly over the station
3. Leveling up
- The circular bubble is then accurately leveled with the help of tripod and
- The cylindrical bubble of the instrument fairly leveled by using foot screws
to level the cylindrical bubble.
4. Focusing
This is done in two steps. The first step is focusing the eye piece. This is done by
turning either in or out until the crosshairs are sharp and distinct. This will vary
from person to person as it depends on the vision of the observer. The next step is
focusing the object. This is done by means of the focusing screw where by the
image of the staff is brought to the plane of the crosshairs.
5.6 Measuring horizontal angles
To measure angle AOB, the instrument is set up over station O and carefully leveled by
means of the foot screws.
The telescope is directed and targeted to station A and when the telescope is
closely pointing on A the clamp is locked and the vertical cross hair is accurately
sighted on to the station using the tangent screw. With HR (horizontal angle to the
right) the horizontal angle reading is now taken.
Release the clamp. This frees the telescope to swing over a vertical axis. Swing
the telescope on a clockwise direction on to the signal at B and again bisect the
signal using the clamp and slow motion screw and record the angle read.
The clamp is released, and the theodolite is swing through 1800 and transiting by
1800 in the vertical plane. The telescope is sighted on B by fixing clamp and using
tangent screw and horizontal angle is recorded with HL (horizontal angle to the
left).
Releasing the clamp, the telescope is directed towards station A. The clamp is
tightened and using tangent screw the telescope is targeted on A and the angle is
taken. For two cases as telescope normal and telescope reverse the angles AOB
are recorded and their mean is taken for the value of given angle.

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 Example: To measure angle ABC the theodolite is set up at B and the telescope
is fixed at A at horizontal circle 0º00'00'' and an angle of 27000’35” was
recorded with HR on targeting through C. Reversing the telescope by swinging
and plunging at C an angle of 180º00'00''was recorded and then turning to A
horizontal angle of 207000’37” with HL was recorded. What is the mean value
of the angle ABC?

5.7 Measuring vertical angles

The vertical angle is measured in a vertical plane using horizontal plane as a
reference plane. When the point sighted is above horizontal plane the vertical angle
is called an angle of elevation and is considered as a positive angle.

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When the point being sighted is below the horizontal plane the angle is called an
angle of depression and is considered as a negative angle. The value of the vertical
angle can range from –90º to +90º. A zenith angle is also measured in a vertical
plane but uses the overhead extension of plumb line as a reference line. Its value
ranges from 0º to 180º. e.g. Zenith angle measured on station A to targets at stations
B and C are 70 º and 120 º. The corresponding vertical angles are 20 º and –30 º.

Observations should be made on both faces of the instrument for increasing accuracy and
the mean value gives the required vertical angle.
5.8 Reference meridian, Azimuth and bearing
The relative directions of lines connecting survey points may be obtained in a variety of
ways. The figure below on the left shows lines intersecting at a point. The direction of
any line with respect to an adjacent line is given by the horizontal angle between the 2
lines and the direction of rotation. The figure on the right shows the same system of lines
but with all the angles measured from a line of reference (OM). The direction of any line
with respect to the line of reference is given by the angle between the lines and its
direction of rotation.

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The direction of line is described by the horizontal angle that it makes with a reference
line or direction. This is usually done by referring to a fixed line of reference called a
meridian. There are several types of meridians: Astronomical or True, Magnetic, Grid,
and Assumed.
Astronomical or True Meridians
A plane passing through a point on the surface of the earth and containing the earth’s axis
of rotation defines the astronomical or true meridian at that point. Astronomical
meridians are determined by observing the position of the sun or a star. For a given point
on the earth, its direction is always the same and therefore directions referred to the
astronomical or true meridian remain unchanged. This makes it a good line of reference.

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Convergence
Astronomical or true meridians on the surface of the earth are lines of geographic
longitude and they converge toward each other at the poles. The amount of convergence
between meridians depends on the distance from the equator and the longitude between
the meridians.
Magnetic Meridian
A magnetic meridian lies parallel with the magnetic lines of force of the earth. The earth
acts very much like a bar magnet with a north magnetic pole located considerably south
of the north pole defined by the earth’s rotational axis. The magnetic pole is not fixed in
position, but rather changes its position continually. The direction of a magnetized needle
defines the magnetic meridian at that point at that time. Because the magnetic meridian
changes as magnetic north changes, magnetic meridians do not make good lines of
reference.

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Grid Meridians
In plane surveys it is convenient to perform the work in a rectangular XY coordinate
system in which one central meridian coincides with a true meridian. All remaining
meridians are parallel to this central true meridian. This eliminates the need to calculate
the convergence of meridians when determining positions of points in the system. The
methods of plane surveying, assume that all measurements are projected to a horizontal
plane and that all meridians are parallel straight lines. These are known as grid meridians.

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Assumed Meridians
On certain types of localized surveying, it may not be necessary to establish a true,
magnetic, or grid direction. However it is usually desirable to have some basis for
establishing relative directions within the current survey. This may be done by
establishing an assumed meridian. An assumed meridian is an arbitrary direction assigned
to some line in the survey from which all other lines are referenced. This could be a line
between two property monuments, the centerline of a tangent piece of roadway, or even
the line between two points set for that purpose.
The important point to remember about assumed meridians is that they have no
relationship to any other meridian and thus the survey cannot be readily (if at all) related
to other surveys. Also, if the original monuments are disturbed, the direction may not be
reproducible. It is good practice when assuming a direction to avoid directions that might
appear to be true. If assuming a direction on a line that runs generally north and south, do
not assume a north direction, as some future surveyor may mistakenly use your direction
as true.

5.8.1 Bearing and Azimuth

5.8.1.1 Bearing
- Bearing of a line is an angle with reference to north or south direction.
- Bearing can be measured clockwise or anticlockwise.
- It is measured with reference to North or south.
- The range of bearing is (00 - 900)

Illustrative example
θ = bearing of line AB
It will be written as N <Angular value >E
If θ = 400 15’ we can say that; Bearing
AB = N 40015’ E
Bearing of line AC
- It is measured from south direction
- It will be measured as S < ß > E
If ß = 320 20’ 16’’, Bearing of AC is
S 320 20’16’’E

Format of bearing

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 Bearing in the I - quadrant is N <angular Value> E
Bearing in the II – quadrant is S < angular Value > E
Bearing in the III- quadrant is S <angular Value>W
Bearing in the IV- quadrant is N <angular Value> W

Bearing of OA = N 200 E
OB = S 450 E
OC = S 800 W
OD = N 600 W
Back bearing
Back bearing is a reverse bearing.
For example
Forward bearing of line AB is N 600E
Backward bearing of AB is = bearing BA
= S 600 W
To determine the back bearing from
forward bearing,
1. Draw a line parallel to N-S direction
at the end of a line.
2. Determine the quadrant in which
backward line lies.
3. Mention the back bearing by using
direction and angular value.

The angular value is equal to the forward

bearing. Since alternative
Interior angles of parallel lines are equal.

Illustrative example
Find the back bearing of line KT if a forward bearing of KT is N 52012’15” E.

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 Solution
1. Mark point K
2. Draw N-S and W-E line crossing at these points.

3. Draw line KT approximately at a given angle starting from point K

4. Draw N-S and W-E line through point T so that they are parallel to the lines
through

5. Back bearing of KT= bearing of TK

= S 52012’15” W

5.8.1.2 Azimuths
-It is an angle measured clockwise from a reference north.

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-It is always measured clock wise and north direction
-Its range is [0,360]
- Unlike bearing the direction will not mentioned
- Azimuth sometime called Whole Circle Bearing

Example.1

Azimuth of line OA =θ
Azimuth of line OB =β
Range of Azimuth in different quadrants

In I -Quadrant
Azimuth between 00 - 900
In II - Quadrant
Azimuth is between 900 - 1800
In III- Quadrant
Azimuth is between 1800 -2700
In IV- Quadrant
Azimuth is between 2700 - 3600

Back azimuth
Similarly to bearing the back azimuth is the reverse of forward azimuth
Back azimuth of AB = Azimuth of BA
The angular difference b/n forward and backward azimuth is equal to 1800
Computing a back azimuth from forward azimuth
If a forward azimuth is less than 1800, Backward azimuth = forward Az + 1800
If a forward azimuth is greater than 1800 ,Backward azimuth = foreword azimuth -1800
Example
Find the backward azimuth of the following lines having foreword azimuth
Line Forward azimuth

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 AB 43011’20’’
BC 1120 20’15’’
CD 1970 18’36’’
DE 3200 17’40’’

Solution
A.

Since Az AB < 900

Az BA = Azimuth of AB +1800
= 43011’20’’ + 1800
= 2230 11’20’’

B.

Since 900 < Az BC< 1800

Back azimuth of line BC= 112029’15+1800
= 290029’15’’

C.

Since 1800 < Az CD< 2700

Back azimuth of CD =
Az CD-1800

=197018’36’’-1800
=
0
17 18’36’’

D. Since 2700 < Az DE < 3600

Back azimuth DE = Az DE -1800

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 = 320017’40’’-1800
= 1400 17’40’’

The relationship between azimuth and bearing

The relationship b/n bearing and azimuth in different quadrants is different.
In I quadrant Angular Value of bearing = Azimuth
In II quadrant Azimuth = 180 0 - angular value of bearing
In III quadrant Azimuth = 180 0+ angular value of bearing
In IV Quadrant Azimuth = 3600-angular Value of bearing

5.8.3 Computing bearing and Azimuth of a line given coordinates

Suppose
Illustrative Example-1
Calculate bearing and azimuth of line DE,
D
(200 ,600)

E (450 .2,155.3)
Soln

1. Draw Parallel lines through E and D = 155.3-600

Parallel to the X-and Y- axis = -444.7
2. Since it lines in II quadrant, bearing
will be measured from south direction tan Θ = ∆X
3. Calculate ∆X and ∆Y ∆Y
∆X DE = XE –XD
= 450 .2 -200
= 250.2 Θ = tan -1 [250.2]
∆X DE = YE-YD -444.7

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Θ = -29021’48’’

Since ∆Y = - ve and ∆X = +ve the line

lies in the II quadrant
Therefore
Bearing or DE = S 29021’48’’E
Azimuth of DE = 1800 -Bearing of DE
= 1800 -290 21’48’’
= 150038’12’’

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Illustrative Example-2

Suppose line KT has the following coordinates.

K (930.2, 825.5)

T (538.4, 31.3)

Calculate bearing and azimuth of line KT.

Solution
∆X = XT - XK
= 538.4 - 930.2
= -391.8
∆Y = YT - YK
= 31.3 - 825.5
= -794.2
tan Θ = ∆X
∆Y
= -391.8
-794.2
Θ = tan -1 [-391.8]
-794.2
Θ = 26015’30’’
But both ∆X and ∆Y are -ve
This implies the line KT lies in III quadrant.

Therefore Bearing of line KT = S 26015’30’’ W

And azimuth of KT = bearing + 1800 = 206015’30’’

5.9 Magnetic Declination

The horizontal angle between true north and magnetic north is known as magnetic
declination. The earth’s magnetic force not only aligns a freely suspended magnetic
needle along magnetic north and south but also pulls or dips one end below the horizontal
position.

Declination may be towards east or west. When the magnetic north is towards the west of
true north, the declination is west or negative, when towards east; it is east declination or
positive.

A line on a map or chart connecting points that have the same declination is called
isogonic line and agonic line consists of pointing having zero declination.
The declination at a place does not remain constant but changes with time. These changes
are
i. Secular change
ii. Annual change
iii. Diurnal change
iv. Irregular change

i. Secular change: - this is occurs over a long period of time approximately for
250 years. The magnitude also is very high. However, this variation does not
follow any general law. It can be obtained only from detailed charts and tables
derived from observations.
ii. Annual change: - It is a variation over a year. It is roughly 1’-2’ in amplitude.
It varies from place to place.
iii. Diurnal change: - means variation over a day. It depends on the following
four factors :
1. Locality: It is greater near the pole and less near equator
2. Season : It is greater in summer than in winter
3. Time: It is more during day and less during night. The rate of variation
over 24hrs is quite irregular.
4. Year: The daily variation changes from year to year

iv. Irregular variation: is caused by unpredictable magnetic disturbances and

storms. The magnitude of variation is more than a degree.

Illustrative example
1. The magnetic bearing of a line is measured and found to be N23043’12” E.
if the declination at the time of measurement was 2’east, calculate the true
bearing of this line.

Solution
As you can see from the fig
True bearing = Magnetic bearing – magnetic declination
= 23043’12” – 2’
= 23041’12”

2. Find true bearing of a line AB if magnetic bearing is S 45 032’34”W. Use

declination at a time was 3’west.
Solution

True bearing = magnetic bearing + declination

= 45032’34” + 3’
= 45035’34”