CANCER IN BIOPHYSICS

DR. TAWANDA MUSHIRI

LECTURE 6
Cancer
• Derived from Greek word for crab, karkinoma
• Malignant tumor
• Tumor
• Also referred to as a neoplasm—
new growth
More than 200 types
Benign vs. Malignant Tumors
Benign Malignant
Grow slowly Grow rapidly
Well-defined capsule Not encapsulated
Not invasive Invasive
Well differentiated Poorly differentiated
Low mitotic index High mitotic index
Do not metastasize Can spread distantly
(metastasis)

Mitotic index = rate of growth

What is cancer?

• Cancer is defined as the continuous uncontrolled

growth of cells.
• A tumor is any abnormal proliferation of cells.
• Benign tumors stay confined to its original location
• Malignant tumors are capable of invading
surrounding tissue or invading the entire body
• Tumors are classified as to their cell type
• Tumors can arise from any cell type in the body
Cancer is an umbrella term covering a plethora of
conditions characterized by unscheduled and
uncontrolled cellular proliferation.

• Almost any mammalian organ and cell type can succumb to oncogenic
transformation, giving rise to a bewildering array of clinical outcomes.
• The causes of cancer are many and varied, and include genetic
predisposition, environmental influences, infectious agents and ageing.
These transform normal cells into cancerous ones by derailing a wide
spectrum of regulatory and downstream effector pathways. It is just
this complexity that has hampered the development of effective and
specific cancer therapies.
• Any attempt to provide a comprehensive overview of cancer-related
knowledge would be futile — therefore the next two lectures will focus
on topics undergoing particularly rapid progress.
Properties of cancer cells

Normal cells show Cancer cells lack

contact inhibition contact inhibition
Properties of cancer cells
They keep growing

And growing

And growing

And growing
Cancer Incidence and Death Rate
Early detection is the key!
Cancer: Benign

• Benign: localized and of

small size
• Cells that closely resemble,
and may function, like
normal cells
• May be delineated by a
fibrous (Basal lamina)
capsule
• Become problems due to
sheer bulk or due to
secretions (e.g. hormones)
 Cancer : Malignant

Malignant tumors: high rate of division, properties may vary compared to cells of origin. Most
malignant cells become metastatic
Invade surrounding tissue and establishment of secondary areas of growth: Metastasis
Apoptosis
• Apoptosis is a tightly regulated form of cell death,
also called the programmed cell
death. Morphologically, it is characterized by
chromatin condensation and cell shrinkage in the
early stage. Then the nucleus and cytoplasm
fragment, forming membrane-bound apoptotic
bodies which can be engulfed by phagocytes. In
contrast, cells undergo another form of cell death,
necrosis, swell and rupture. The released
intracellular contents can damage surrounding
cells and often cause inflammation.
Classification and Nomenclature
• Malignant tumors
• Named according to the tissues from which they arise
• Malignant epithelial tumors are referred to as
carcinomas
• Adenocarcinoma (from glandular epithelium)

• Malignant CT tumors are referred to as sarcomas

• Rhabdomyosarcomas (from skeletal muscle)
Stages of Cancer Spread
• Stage 1: Confined to organ of origin

• Stage 2: Locally invasive

• Stage 3: Spread to lymph nodes

• Stage 4: Spread to distant sites

Tumor Staging by TNM System
TUMOR

NODES

METASTASIS
Tumor Markers
• Tumor cell markers (biologic markers) are
substances produced by cancer cells or that are
found on plasma cell membranes, in the blood,
CSF, or urine
• Hormones (Epi – in blood, adrenal medullary
tumor)
• Enzymes
• Genes
• Antigens (PSA – in blood, prostate cancer)
• Antibodies
Hallmarks of Cancer
Viruses and Cancer
• Implicated
• Hepatitis B and C viruses

• Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)

• Kaposi’s sarcoma herpesvirus (KSHV)

• Human papillomavirus (HPV)

• Human T cell leukemia–lymphoma virus (HTLV)

Tumor Spread
• Direct invasion of contiguous organs
– Known as local spread

• Metastases to distant organs

– Lymphatics and blood

• Metastases by way of implantation

Local Spread
• Invasion
• Cellular multiplication
• Mitotic rate vs. cellular death rate
• Mechanical pressure
• Release of lytic enzymes
• Decreased cell-to-cell adhesion
• Increased motility
• Intravasation
• Extravasation
Three-Step Theory of Invasion
• Tumor cell attachment
• Fibronectin and laminin
• Degradation or dissolution of the matrix
• Enzymes
• Locomotion into the matrix
• Invadopodia (pseudopodia)
Environmental Risk Factors
• Ionizing radiation
• Emission from x-rays, radioisotopes, and other
radioactive sources
• Exposure causes cell death, gene mutations, and
chromosome aberrations
• Bystander effects
• Poor gene repair
• Changes in gap junction intercellular communication
Environmental Risk Factors
• Ultraviolet radiation
• Causes basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma,
and melanoma
• Principal source is sunlight
• Ultraviolet A (UVA) and ultraviolet B (UVB)
• Ultraviolet A (UVA) has a longer wavelength, and is
associated with skin aging. Ultraviolet B (UVB) has a
shorter wavelength and is associated with skin burning.
• Promotes skin inflammation and release of
free radicals
Environmental Risk Factors
• Occupational hazards
• Substantial number of occupational carcinogenic agents
• Asbestos
• Dyes, rubber, paint, explosives, rubber cement,
heavy metals, air pollution, etc.
• Radon
Environmental Risk Factors
• Electromagnetic fields
• Carcinogenic?
• Are they, or aren’t they?
Cachexia
Clinical Manifestations of Cancer
• Leukopenia and thrombocytopenia
• Direct tumor invasion to the bone marrow causes
leukopenia and thrombocytopenia
• Chemotherapy drugs are toxic to the bone marrow

• Infection
• Risk increases when the absolute neutrophil and
lymphocyte counts fall
Cancer Treatment
• Ionizing radiation
• Eradicate cancer without excessive toxicity
• Avoid damage to normal structures
• Ionizing radiation damages the cancer cell’s DNA
• Surgery
• Biopsy and lymph node sampling
• Sentinel nodes
• Debulking surgery –remove most of tumor
• Palliative surgery – relief of symptoms
• Hormone therapy
• Receptor activation or blockage
• Interferes with cellular growth and signaling
DISCUSSION ABOUT PICTURE
Side Effects of Cancer Treatment
• Gastrointestinal tract
• Bone marrow
• Hair and skin
• Reproductive tract
 Fast Facts About Cancer

• Cancer is a global epidemic and a leading

cause of death worldwide, accounting for
7.6 million deaths or around 13% of all
deaths in 2008.

• Worldwide, cancer now causes more deaths

than HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria
combined.

• More than 70% of all cancer deaths occur in

low- and middle-income countries.
 Cancer Rates, TYPE and
Mortality varies worldwide
 The Worldwide Burden of Cancer in Men
(Top 10 Cancer Sites)

Total: 6,629,100 Total: 4,225,700

Data Source: Jemal, A. et al., CA CANCER J CLIN 2011;61:69–90

 Most Common Cancer Site in Males

Source: GLOBOCAN 2008 via the American Cancer Society

 The Worldwide Burden of Cancer in Women
(Top 10 Cancer Sites)

Total: 4,225,700 Total: 3,345,800

Data Source: Jemal, A. et al., CA CANCER J CLIN 2011;61:69–90

 Most Common Cancer Site in Females

Source: GLOBOCAN 2008 via the American Cancer Society

Causes of Cancer
Vary Worldwide
Genetic Pre-disposition vs Environment Exposure
Male Stomach Cancer ASRs from Population-based Registries:
Rate per 100,000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Japan, Hiroshima 80.3
Korea 65.9
China, Shanghai 34.1
USA, Los Angeles: Korean 33
Russia, St Petersburg 32.7
Peru, Trujillo 25.2
Singapore: Chinese 21.5
Slovenia 20.9
Brazil, Cuiaba 19.2
Poland, Cracow 17.7
USA, Hawaii: Japanese 17.2
USA, Los Angeles: Japanese 17.1
China, Hong Kong 14.7
Switzerland, Ticino 13.9
France, Manche 13.3
Spain, Zaragoza 12.3 Data Source: Curado. M. P., Edwards, B., Shin. H.R., Storm. H.,
USA, SEER (9): Black 11 Ferlay. J., Heanue. M. and Boyle. P., eds (2007) Cancer
Algeria, Setif 7.1 Incidence in Five Continents, Vol. IX
India, Mumbai 4.6 IARC Scientific Publications No. 160, Lyon, IARC.
Egypt, Gharbiah 3.3 http://www-dep.iarc.fr/
 leading causes of cervical, liver and stomach region, percentage
cancers, and primario
bacco use Pacific region
respectively. Worldwide, 63% of stomach cancer deaths were
H. pylori
European
caused by infection with H. pylori, 73% of liver cancer
countries
countries (46
Eight Risk Factors Account for 50% of Deaths from Cancer H. pylori infe
cohol use
Tobacco use
region, and
s B and C European co
ble intake
H. pylori Discussion
Alcohol use

lomavirus Hepatitis B and C Main findings of

Low fruit and vegetable intake
Discussio
inactivity The studyMain provides
Human papillomavirus findin
nd obesity fiable risk The
factors fo
Physical inactivity study pr
0 Overweight
500 and obesity
1000 1500 2000 risk assessment
fiable riskme
fa
Attributable cancer mortality 0 in thousands
500 1000 1500
with a
2000 risk relative
lower assessm
Attributable cancer mortality in thousands
with a lower
High income Middle income Low income
High income Middle income and mortality
Low income in hi
and mortalit
Journal of Public Health | Vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 223–233 | doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdq076 | Advance Access Publication 8 October 2010
 Risk Factors Vary In Their Contribution
To Cancers In Different Settings

Percentage of
Cancers
Attributable to
Risk Factor

Source: The Cancer Atlas

 Diseases Associated with Tobacco Exposure
Cancers Other Medical Conditions
Lung Cardiovascular Diseases
Oral Respiratory Diseases
Bladder Asthma control
Larynx
Sudden infant death
Esophagus
Fetal death, stillbirth
Pancreas
Reduced fertility
Colorectal
Low birth weight
Stomach
Pregnancy complications
Leukemia
Lung function in infants
Cervix
Low bone density
Erectile Dysfunction
Peptic ulcer disease
Dental diseases

The Health Consequences of Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General , 2004

 Infections cause about:

• 18% of cancers
globally
(>2 million cases/year)

• 26% of cancers in
LMICs

• 40% of cancers in
Africa
10

Liver Cancer Kills 1% of the World’s Population

S. Korea

China

Territories are sized

in proportion to the India
absolute number of
people who died
from liver cancer
annually Taiwan
Japan
(from Worldmapper, www.worldmapper.org

Cancer of the liver cause ~1% of all deaths worldwide (~100 deaths per
million people per year) and 9% of all deaths from cancer.
Impact of Socioeconomic
Status on Cancer Burden
 Overall (non-adjusted) Cancer Incidence Rates
(Per 100K, Both Genders; All Cancers Except Non-Melanoma Skin)

Data Source: Globocan 2008

 Trends in Cancer Incidence
Developed vs. Less Developed Countries
Cancer incidence with age in USA
2500
25 Less Developed

Annual Cancer Cases (Millions)

More Developed
2000 20

1500 15
12.9 64%

1000
10 7.5 57%

5
500
5.7 7.4
0
0 2010 2030
Ages < Ages Ages Ages Ages
20 20-49 50-64 65-74 75+ Data derived from GLOBOCAN
2008
Data from SEER 2010
 Breast Cancer Kills Men,Too.

Risk factors for male • Less than 1% of all new breast cancer
cases occur in men.
breast cancer
Testicular abnormalities: cryptorchidia, congential
inguinal hernia, orchiectomy, orchitis, testicular • Men with a BRCA1 mutation have a 1%
trauma
risk of developing breast cancer by age
Hormonal alterations: 70; BRCA2 mutations confer a 6% risk.
Infertility, Klinefelter’s syndrome, obesity, cirrhosis
(and heavy alcohol intake)

Family history of breast cancer, mutations in • Breast cancer prognosis, even in stage I
BRCA1/2, CHEK2, PTEN cases, is worse in men than in women.
Benign breast lesions:
Nipple discharge, breast cysts, breast trauma
Exposure to radiation or high temperatures • Treatment for male breast cancer has
usually been a mastectomy, which may be
Old age followed by radiation, hormone therapy
(such as with tamoxifen), or
Jewish descent chemotherapy.
 Types of Breast Cancer Ductal carcinoma in situ
(DCIS) is the most common
type of non-invasive breast
DCIS: Ductal Carcinoma In Situ cancer.
LCIS: Lobular Carcinoma In Situ
IDC: Invasive Ductal Carcinoma
ILC: Invasive Lobular Carcinoma
Inflammatory Breast Cancer
Male Breast Cancer
Recurrent and Metastatic Cancer

Invasive ductal carcinoma (IDC) is the most

common type of breast cancer, comprising
about 80% of all breast cancers.
Signs to watch out for:

• a lump felt in the breast

• an inverted nipple
• nipple discharge (clear or bloody)
• nipple pain
• sores on the nipple and areola
• enlarged lymph nodes under the arm
 Signs and Symptoms
Rapid change in the appearance of one
breast (days or weeks), with visible
enlargement of one breast,
discoloration with red, purple, pink or
bruised appearance and warmth of the
affected breast suggests Inflammatory
Breast Cancer.

In inflammatory breast cancer, cancer cells invade local lymphatic ducts, impairing drainage
and causing edematous swelling of the breast.

Peau d’orange: The skin of the breast is tethered by the suspensory ligament of Cooper,
which, with the accumulation of fluid, can cause the breast to take on a dimpled appearance
similar to an orange.
 Inflammatory Breast Cancer
— Inflammatory breast cancer (IBC) accounts for between 1 percent and 6
percent of all breast cancer cases in the United States.

— The 5-year survival rate for patients with IBC is between 25-50 percent,
significantly lower than the survival rate for patients with non-IBC breast
cancer.

— IBC has a high risk of recurrence and is the most aggressive kind of breast
cancer. IBC is more likely to have metastasized at the time of diagnosis than
other breast cancer types.

— IBC affects women at an average age of 59 — about three to seven years

younger than the average age at which other types of breast cancer are
diagnosed.

— Men can develop the disease, but at an older age. Black women are slightly
more likely than are white women to have IBC.
Risk Factors
• The most significant risk factors for
breast cancer include gender (being
female) and age (growing older).

• Factors with minimal or no risk

include fertility treatment
abortion, deodorant and folic acid.

• Short-term use of hormones for

treatment of menopausal symptoms
appears to confer little or no breast
cancer risk.
Factors that Increase the Relative Risk (RR)
for Breast Cancer in Women
• Female
• Age (65+)
• Inherited genetic mutations associated with breast cancer such as BRCA1/BRCA2
RR>4.0 • Two or more first-degree relatives with breast cancer diagnosed at an early age
• Personal history of breast cancer
• High density breast tissue
• Biopsy-confirmed atypical hyperplasia
• One first-degree relative with breast cancer
• High-dose radiation to chest
2.1<RR<4.0 • High bone density (post-menopausal)

Factors affecting circulating hormones:

• Late age at first full-term pregnancy (>30 yrs)
• Early menarche(<12 yrs)
• Late menopause
• No full-term pregnancies
• No breastfeeding
• Recent oral contraceptive use
• Recent and long-term hormone replacement therapy
1.1<RR<2.0 • Obesity

Other factors:
• Personal history of endometrium, ovary or colon cancer
• Alcohol consumption
• Height (tall)
• High socioeconomic status
• Jewish heritage
Breast Cancer Screening and Prevention
— Surveillance
Mammography
Sonogram
MRI
Clinical and self breast exam
— Risk Avoidance
Diet and Exercise
— Chemoprevention
Tamoxifen
Raloxifene
— Prophylactic Surgery
Bilateral Prophylactic Mastectomy
Oophorectomy
Mammograms:
for low-income women and the uninsured.
— Mammograms are usually covered by health insurance for women in the
recommended age bracket. While some insurance plans have no out-of-
pocket expenses required, others charge a $10-$35 co-pay.

— Uninsured patients pay the full-price cost of a mammogram, which ranges

from $80 to $120.

— Some state and local health programs and employers provide

mammograms free or at low cost. Health departments, hospitals,
women’s centers, or other community groups may also have information
on how to access low-cost or free mammograms.

— The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) coordinates the
National Breast and Cervical Cancer Early Detection Program to provide
screening services, including clinical breast exams and mammograms, to
low-income, uninsured women throughout the United States. Visit the
CDC website to find contact information for local programs

— Information about low-cost or free mammography screening programs is

also available through NCI’s Cancer Information Service (CIS) at 1–800–4–
CANCER (1–800–422–6237).
Conventional Treatments
• Surgery
• Chemotherapy
• Hormonal therapy
• Radiation
• Just over the horizon: breast
cancer vaccine trials are under way
with vaccines like NeuVax, which
stimulates anti-Her2 immune
response, and Stimuvax, moving
into phase III trials.
Triple Negative Breast Cancer:
• Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is clinically characterized by the lack of
expression of estrogen, progesterone and HER2 hormone receptors.
• Comprises about 10-20% of breast cancers: more than one out of every 10.
• Does not respond to current hormonal therapy (such as tamoxifen or aromatase
inhibitors) or therapies that target HER2 receptors, such as Herceptin (trastuzumab).
Women diagonosed with TNBC generally face a poorer prognosis.
• Treatments that target other processes may be helpful in treating triple negative
breast cancer when combined with chemotherapy:
• Avastin: interferes with VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor), inhibiting
the growth of new blood vessels at the tumor site.
• Erbitux: interferes with EGFR (epidermal growth factor receptor), which is often
overexpressed in triple negative cancer.
• PARP inhibitors: inhibit poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase, an enzyme used by
cancer cells to repair DNA damage. One PARP inhibitor, dubbed BSI-201, has
been shown to improve survival in triple negative breast cancer patients by 60%
when added to standard chemotherapy drugs.
 Changes in sexuality and
desire, premature
Physical changes to the breasts and menopause, infertility
side effects such as hair loss, fatigue
and lymphedema

Financial hardships,
The Breast Cancer occupational changes
Experience
Mental and emotional changes
such as “chemobrain,” depression
and fear of recurrence Changes in relationships with
family and friends
Positive lifestyle changes such
as increased exercise, healthier
eating, stress reduction
Complementary medicine can improve quality of life for
breast cancer patients:
• Acupuncture • Spirituality & Prayer
• Meditation • Reiki
• Aromatherapy • Support Groups
• Guided Imagery • Tai Chi
• Hypnosis • Shiatsu
• Journaling • Yoga
• Chiropractic Therapy • Music Therapy
• Massage • Progressive Muscle
Relaxation
Screening
• Mammogram. A mammogram is an X-ray of the breast. Mammograms are the
best method to detect breast cancer early when it is easier to treat and before it
is big enough to feel or cause symptoms. Having regular mammograms can lower
the risk of dying from breast cancer. If you are age 50 to 74 years, be sure to have
a screening mammogram every two years. If you are age 40–49 years, talk to your
doctor about when and how often you should have a screening mammogram.

• http://www.cdc.gov/cancer/breast/basic_info/screening.htm
What are the pressures behind?
Prostate Cancer

American Cancer Society

http://www.cancer.org/Cancer/ProstateCancer/DetailedGuide/prostate-cancer-what-is-prostate-cancer
About the Prostate
• The prostate is a gland found only in males. It is located in front of the
rectum and below the urinary bladder. In younger men, it is about the
size of a walnut, but it can be much larger in older men.
• The prostate's job is to make some of the fluid that protects and
nourishes sperm cells in semen, making the semen more liquid. Just
behind the prostate are glands called seminal vesicles that make most
of the fluid for semen. The urethra, which is the tube that carries
urine and semen out of the body through the penis, goes through the
center of the prostate
American Cancer Society
http://www.cancer.org/Cancer/ProstateCancer/DetailedGuide/prostate-cancer-what-is-prostate-cancer
Who is at risk?
• Age
The chances of having prostate cancer rises rapidly after 50
2 out 0f 3 men over the age of 65 are found to have prostate
cancer.
• Race/ethnicity
Prostate cancer occurs more often among African American men
More likely to be diagnosed at an advanced stage
African American men are 2-3 times more likely to die from prostate cancer than white men

American Cancer Society

http://www.cancer.org/Cancer/ProstateCancer/DetailedGuide/prostate-cancer-what-is-prostate-cancer
Lung Cancer
Lung Cancer Data
• Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer death in the U.S. It is the most common cancer in men
and women combined, after skin cancer. Lung cancer (both small cell and non-small cell) is by far
the leading cause of cancer death for both men and women. More people die of lung cancer than
of colon, breast, and prostate cancers combined. Lung cancer is fairly rare in people under the age
of 45.

• The average lifetime chance that a man will develop lung cancer is about 1 in 13. For a woman it
is 1 in 16. These numbers include both smokers and non-smokers. For smokers the risk is much
higher, while for non-smokers the risk is lower.

• http://www.cancer.org/Cancer/LungCancer-SmallCell/OverviewGuide/lung-cancer-small-cell-overview-what-causes
LASERS IN CANCER
• X-rays
• How lasers work
• Medical applications of lasers
• Applications of high power lasers
• Medical imaging techniques
• CAT (computed axial tomography) scans
• MRI’s
Modern physics ideas are strange!
• Electromagnetic waves sometimes behave like
particles- photons –discreet (quantized) packets of
energy E = hf = hc/l
• Electrons sometimes behave as waves – matter waves
that can only exist in allowed orbits
• Electrons have a wavelength and can experience diffraction!

A
A

A
The Photon Concept
• a beam of light waves also behaves like a beam of
light particles called PHOTONS
• Photons are little packets of electro-magnetic energy
• The energy is proportional to the frequency or
inversely proportional to the wavelength
• Ephoton = h f, but c = f l so Ephoton = h c/l,
• where h is a constant called Planck’s constant, and c is
the speed of light
• blue photons have more energy than red photons
• Energy is absorbed or emitted in discreet amounts
sodium absorption line
The uncertainty principle

• In classical physics we can measure the position and

velocity of a particle simultaneously
• At the atomic level, measurements can disturb what we
are trying to measure
• To locate an electron and measure its velocity, we have
to scatter a photon from it, but this will change its
velocity.
• We cannot measure (x, v) precisely uncertainty
X-ray and gamma ray photons

• x-rays are very short wavelength photons

• gamma rays are have even shorter wavelengths

E = hf
hc
=
l
X-ray machines

X-ray tube
How are x-rays produced?
x-ray
tube copper
target

electron gun x-rays

• when electrons that have been accelerated

through about 50,000 volts slam into a piece
of copper, some of the electron energy is
converted to x-rays
• x-rays are energetic enough to penetrate
through soft tissue and thin metal foils
Gamma rays
• extremely energetic photons
• constantly bombard the earth
• cosmic rays
• emitted by radioactive materials
• x ray photons are a 1000 times more energetic than
visible light photons
• gamma ray photons are 1,000,000 more energetic
than visible light photons
 LASERS à a device that controls the way that
energized atoms release photons.
• Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation
• First we must understand the
difference between incoherent
and coherent radiation
• Ordinary light sources (light
bulbs, fluorescent lights, etc)
produce incoherent light
• lasers produce coherent light all
atoms radiate in the same
manner
 Spontaneous vs Stimulated Emission
• Coherent radiation is produced Ei (larger energy)
when an atom undergoes
stimulated emission.
photon
• Spontaneous emission occurs
when an electron makes an Ef (smaller energy)

unprovoked transition to a lower Spontaneous emission

energy level
• Stimulated emission occurs when
an incoming photon induces the
electron to change energy levels Incoming
photon
amplification
Stimulated emission
A Helium-Neon (HeNe) Laser
Applications of lasers
Laser surgery to correct for
(a) nearsightedness, and
(b) farsightedness

laser
cutting
tools
 Laser Fusion Energy

fuel pellet
1 mm diameter

Multiple beams of a powerful laser are focused

on a tiny pellet containing fusion fuel. The laser
energy compresses the pellet producing a mini-
hydrogen bomb that produces energy
pellet
Solid State Laser Diodes
• Diode lasers use
semiconductor materials
(tiny chips of silicon) as the
lasing media
• When current flows through
the silicon chip it emits an
intense beam of coherent
light.
• Diode lasers are used to
read the information
embedded in the pits in CD’s
and DVD’s, and also to read
in a variety of different colors UPC’s in bar code scanners
and in laser pointers!
Applications of modern technology
• Laser speed gun: sends out a laser beam that bounces
off your car and back; from the time delay it
calculated your car’s speed
• CD burner: CD coated with a photosensitive dye that
darkens when hit with laser light
• Medical imaging methods
• x-rays
• CT and CAT scans
• MRI’s (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
 X-rays
• very short wavelength
(0.01 – 0.1 nm)
electromagnetic waves
• produced when energetic
electrons slam into a
metal target
• able to penetrate soft
tissue, but not bone
• produces a two
dimensional shadow
image
x-ray of Homer’s head
A pineapple and a banana
• A shadow image can be
misleading
• two shadows taken from
different angles provides a
better picture
• shadows taken at multiple
angles gives a more
complete picture
• this is what a CT or CAT scan
does
CAT Scans

X ray images are taken at many different angles

passing through the patient. Some of the cuts
overlap. A full three dimensional image can be
reconstructed using computers.
this procedure is called tomography.
Computerized Tomography (CAT scan)
• A computerized tomography or
CT scan image is formed by
analyzing x-ray shadow images
taken at many different angles
and positions
• an x-ray source and an array of
electronic detectors rotates
around the patient as the
patient slowly moves through
the ring.
magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) vs. a CAT scan
• A CAT scan does a good job of imaging bones, but it
does not provide as good an image of soft tissue
• Also, it requires that the patient receives a big dose of
x-rays, which can be harmful in themselves à it is an
invasive diagnostic
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a better method
of imaging soft tissue
Types of Laser

Based on the mode of operation

(i) Pulsed Laser systems
(ii) Q-switched systems
(iii) Continuous wave Laser systems

Based on the mechanism in which Population Inversion is achieved

(i) Three level lasers

(ii) Four level lasers

Based on state of active medium used

(i) Gas Laser

(ii) Solid state Laser
(iii) Semiconductor Laser
(iv) Tunable dye Laser
Types of Laser
• Gas Laser: He-Ne, Argon ion and CO2
• Solid state Laser : Ruby, Nd:YAG, Nd:glass
• Semiconductor Laser
• Tunable dye Laser
RUBY LASER

ØFirst laser to be operated successfully

ØLasing medium: Matrix of Aluminum oxide doped with
chromium ions
ØEnergy levels of the chromium ions take part in lasing action
ØA three level laser system
Working:
Ruby is pumped optically by an intense flash lamp
This causes Chromium ions to be excited by absorption of
Radiation around 0.55 µm and 0.40µm
Ruby lasers…..
ØChromium ions are excited to levels E1 and E2
ØExcited ions decay non-radiatively to the level M – upper
lasing level
ØM- metastable level with a lifetime of ~ 3ms
ØLaser emission occurs between level M and ground state G
at an output wavelength of 0.6943 µm
ØOne of the important practical lasers
üHas long lifetime and narrow linewidth
ü(Linewidth – width of the optical spectrum or width of the
power Spectral density )
Ruby lasers……

üOutput lies in the visible region – where photographic

emulsions and Photodetectors are much more sensitive
than they are in infrared region
üFind applications in holography and laser ranging
•Flash lamp operation – leads to a pulsed output of the laser
•Between flashes, lasing action stops

Laser spiking:

•Output is highly irregular function of time

•Intensity has random amplitude fluctuations of varying duration

A typical set up:

Neodymium based lasers

ØNd:YAG laser ( yttrium aluminium garnet ) and Nd:glass laser are

important Solid state lasers
ØEnergy levels of the Neodymium ion takes place in lasing action
ØBoth are 4 level laser systems
ØYAG and glass are hosts in which Neodymium ions are used
Nd:YAG laser:
ØFor continuous or very high pulse rate operation – Nd:YAG preferred
ØNd:YAG laser – emission at 1.06 µm
ØPump band for excitation are 0.81 µm and 0.75 µm
ØSpontaneous lifetime of the laser transition is ~ 550 µs
Nd:YAG…….

•Has a much lower threshold of oscillation than a ruby laser

•Output energy in the order of 100mJ per pulse
•Used in resistor trimming, scribing, micromachining operations,
welding Hole drilling etc…..
Nd:glass laser

ØFour level system

ØVarious silicate and phosphate ions are used as the host
material
ØSpontaneous lifetime of the laser transition is ~ 300 µs
ØMore suitable for high energy pulsed operation
ØOutput energy is in the order of several kilojoules
ØUsed widely in welding and drilling operations
Advantages of Nd ions in a YAG or glass host:

ØIn glass, the linewidth is larger than in YAG, and hence in glass the
Laser threshold is higher

ØIn Nd:glass lasers Mode locking phenomena can be used to achieve

Ultrashort Pulses of narrow pulsewidth

ØLarger linewidth in Nd:glass allows to store a larger amount of power or

Energy before saturation when used along with Q switches

ØExcellent optical quality and excellent uniformity of doping in glass host

ØCompared to YAG, glass has lower thermal conductivity

ØOptical distortion is higher in glass host

He-Ne laser

•Laser medium is mixture of Helium and Neon gases in the ratio 10:1
•Medium excited by large electric discharge, flash pump or continuous
high power pump
•In gas, atoms characterized by sharp energy levels compared to solids
•Actual lasing atoms are the Neon atoms

Pumping action:
Electric discharge is passed through the gas
Electrons are accelerated, collide with He and He atoms and excite them
to higher energy levels
•Helium atom accumulates at levels F2 and F3
•Levels E4 and E6 of neon atoms have almost same energy as
F2 and F3
•Excited Helium ions collide with Neon atoms and excite them to
E4 and E6
Transitions:
üTransition between E6 and E3 produce 6328 A line output
üFrom E3 to E2 spontaneous emission takes place – 6000 A
üE2 – metastable state – tends to collect atoms
üFrom E2 atoms relax back to ground level
(Energy levels of helium and neon - diagram)

•Other important wave lengths:

•E6 to E5 – 3.39 µm ; E4 to E3 – 1.15µm
•Both share the same lasing level (E6)

Difficulties:
Gain at 3.39 µm is much higher than that at 0.6328 and hence
Oscillations will tend to occur at 3.39 µm
This prevents further build up of population in E6 difficult

Atoms in level E2 tend to re-excite to E3 by absorbing the

spontaneous emitted radiation between E3 and E2
This alters inversion between E6-E3
Argon Ion Laser
•Used often for ……..
•Eye surgery,
•Holography
•Spectro-chemistry
•Optical imaging
•Semiconductor processing,
•Printing, copying, scanning
•Tattoos
Argon ion Laser

•Uses energy levels of ionized argon atoms

•Emits various discrete wavelengths between 3500 – 5200 A
•Involves large energy for excitation
•Laser discharge is very intense
•Particular wavelength out of the many possible lines is chosen
by using Dispersive prisms
•Output power is in the range of 3 to 5 W
•Some important emissions are 5145A, 4880A, 4765A and 4576A
The CO2 LASER:

•Lasers discussed above – use transitions among various excited electronic

states of an atom or ion
•CO2 laser – uses transition between different vibrational states of CO2
molecule
•One of the earliest Gas lasers
•Highest power continuous wave laser currently available
•The filling gas within the discharge tube consists primarily of:

Carbon dioxide
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Helium
(proportions vary according to a specific laser)
•Electron impact excites vibrational motion of the nitrogen.
•Collision energy transfer between the nitrogen and the CO2 molecule
causes vibrational excitation of the carbon dioxide
•Excite with sufficient efficiency to lead to the desired population inversion
necessary for laser operation.
•Laser transition occurs at 10.6µm
•CO2 laser……

•CO2 laser possesses an extremely high efficiency

•Atomic quantum efficiency – Ratio of energy difference

corresponding to the laser transition to the energy difference

of the pump transition

•Atomic quantum efficiency is very high for a CO2 laser
•Large portion of input power is converted into useful output power

•Output power of several watts to several kilowatts can be obtained

DYE LASER

One of the most widely used tunable lasers in the visible region
DYE – organic substances dissolved in solvents (water, ethyl alcohol,
Methanol ethyl glycol etc)
- Exhibit strong and broad absorption and fluorescent spectra
- Can be made tunable
- Tunability from 0.3 µm to 1.2 µm

States….
So – Ground state
S1 – first excited singlet state
T1, T2 – excited triplet states of the dye molecule
Working….
•Each state consists of a large number of closely spaced
Vibrational and rotational sublevels
•Dye molecules are excited by radiation
•Molecules are excited to various sublevels of state S1
•From there they relax quickly to the lowest level V2 of S1
•Molecules from V2 emit spontaneously and de-excite to
different sublevels of So
•Thus emitting a fluorescent spectrum
•Molecules from S1 can also make a nonradiative relaxation to T1
•This is called intersystem crossing
•Experimental dye lasers use flash lamps, pulsed lasers or continuous
lasers as pumping sources
•Pump lasers include Nitrogen Lasers, Argon Lasers, Krypton Lasers,
YAG laser
Pump Tuning Avg. Output Peak output Pulse
range (nm) Power (W) Power (W) duration (ns)
Nitrogen 350-1000 0.1 – 1 10000 1 – 10
laser
Flashlamp 400-960 0.1 – 100 100000 102 -105

Argon laser 400-800 0.1 – 10 Max CW

reported 40
YAG laser 400-800 0.1 - 1 10000 5 - 30
Semiconductor Lasers

•Use semiconductors as the lasing medium

Advantages:
•Capability of direct modulation into Gigahertz region
•Small size and low cost
•Capability of Monolithic integration with electronic circuitry
•Direct Pumping with electronic circuitry
•Compatibility with optical fibers
vBasic mechanism of light emission from a semiconductor
vHomojunction and Heterojunction lasers
vThreshold current density
vCarrier and Photon confinement

üMost SC lasers operate in 0.8 – 0.9 µm or 1 – 1.7 µm

spectral region
üWavelength of emission determined by the bandgap
üDifferent SC materials used for different spectral regions
ü0.8 – 0.9 µm : Based on Gallium Arsenide
ü1 – 1.7 µm : Based on Indium Phosphide (InP)
TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
THANK YOU