ME 419 Renewable Energy

Solar Photovoltaics

Eng H Chingosho
MSc Manufacturing Systems and Operations
Management (Eng), MSc Renewable Energy
Engineering (Eng), B.Eng., MZweIE, E.C.Z (ZIM),
CEM ®, AEE (USA).
 Solar Photovoltaics
• Solar PV is the technology that generates direct current (DC) electrical power
measured in watts (W) or kilowatts (kW) from semi conductors when they are
illuminated by photons .
• As long as light is shinning on the solar cell (the name for the individual PV
element), it generates electrical power .When the light stops, the electricity
stops .
• Solar cells never need recharging like battery. Groups of PV cells can be
electrically configured into modules and eventually into arrays which can be
used to charge batteries, operate motors and power a number of electrical
loads depending on the size of the modules relative to the load in question.
• Some have been in continuous operation on the Earth or in space for over
30 years with the appropriate power conversion equipment .
• PV systems can produce A.C compatible with any conversional appliances
and can operate in parallel with and interconnected with the utility grid.
 Advantages of Photovoltaics.
• Fuel source is vast ,widely accessible and essentially infinite
• No emissions , combustion or radioactive waste (does not contribute
perceptibly to global climate change or air/water pollution )
• Low operating cost (no fuel)
• No moving parts (no wear );theoretically everlasting
• Ambient temperature operation (no high temperature corrosion or safety
issues).
• High reliability of solar modules (manufactures’ guarantees over 30 years )
• Rather predictable annual output
• Modular (small or large increments )
• Can be integrated into new or existing building structures
• Can be very rapidly installed at nearly any point of use
 Disadvantages of Photovoltaics
• Fuel source is diffuse (sunlight is a relatively low density energy )
• High initial (installed ) costs
• Unpredictable hourly or daily output
• Lack of economical efficient energy storage.
 Types of Photovoltaics' solar cells
• Ist Generation – Terrestial crystalline Si wafer

• 2nd Generation – Thin film of amorphous Si, CdTe or CuInGaSe2

• 3rd Generation – Organic dye sensitized junctions mimicking

photosynthesis or advanced very high efficiency theoretical concepts
such as multi photon and intermediate band solar cell which have yet to
be demonstrated in practice
 Theory and Concepts of Semi Conductors
• A useful way to visualize the difference between conductors, insulators and
semiconductors is to plot the available energies for electrons in the materials.
• Instead of having discrete energies as in the case of free atoms, the available
energy states form bands. Crucial to the conduction process is whether or not
there are electrons in the conduction band.
• The conduction band is the range of electron energies, higher than that of the
valence band, sufficient to free an electron from binding with its individual
atom and allow it to move freely within the atomic lattice of the material.
• Electrons within the conduction band are mobile charge carriers in solids,
responsible for conduction of electric currents in metals and other good
electrical conductors.
• The valence electrons are bound to individual atoms, as opposed to
conduction electrons (found in conductors and semiconductors), which can
move freely within the atomic lattice of the material.
 The Band Theory
• The band theory of solids pictures and explains the electrical properties
electrical properties of matter, in terms of how much energy is required
to free valence electrons .
• On a graph of the electronic band structure of a material, the valence
band is located below the conduction band,
 The Band Structure
• An important parameter in the band theory is the level.
• The position of the Fermi level with the relation to the conduction band is a crucial
factor in determining electrical properties. The Fermi energy is a concept in quantum
mechanics usually referring to the energy of the highest occupied quantum state in a
system of fermions at absolute zero temperature.
• Most solid substances are insulators, and in terms of the band theory of solids this
implies that there is a large forbidden gap between the energies of the valence
electrons and the energy at which the electrons can move freely through the material
(the conduction band).
• Glass is an insulating material which may be transparent to visible light for reasons
closely correlated with its nature as an electrical insulator. The visible light photons
do not have enough quantum energy to bridge the band gap and get the electrons
up to an available energy level in the conduction band.
• For semiconductors like silicon and germanium, the Fermi level is essentially halfway
between the valence and conduction bands. Although no conduction occurs at 0 K,
at higher temperatures a finite number of electrons can reach the conduction band
and provide some current. The increase in conductivity with temperature can be
modelled in terms of the Fermi function, which allows one to calculate the population
of the conduction band.
 Energy Levels
• In terms of the band theory of solids, metals are unique as good
conductors of electricity. This can be seen to be a result of their valence
electrons being essentially free. In the band theory, this is depicted as an
overlap of the valence band and the conduction band so that at least a
fraction of the valence electrons can move through the material.
 Types of Semiconductors
• There are two types of semiconductors
• Intrinsic semi conductors (i-type)
• Extrinsic semi conductors (n-type and p- type semi conductors)
• An intrinsic semiconductor also called an undoped semiconductor or i-type
semiconductor is a pure semiconductor e.g. Si and Ge. They belong to the
Group (VI) of the periodic table. Being tetravalent, each Ge (or Si) atom forms
4 covalent bonds with adjacent atoms and at low temperatures no free
electrons will be available because all are used in covalent bonds between
atoms.
• The electrical conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors can be due to
crystallographic defects or electron excitation. The number of electrons in the
conduction band is equal to the number of holes in the valence band
• In an intrinsic semiconductor like silicon at temperatures above absolute zero,
there will be some electrons which are excited across the band gap into the
conduction band and which can produce current. When the electron in pure
silicon crosses the gap, it leaves behind an electron vacancy or "hole" in the
regular silicon lattice. Under the influence of an external voltage, both the
electron and the hole can move across the material.
• The current which will flow in an intrinsic semiconductor consists of both
electron and whole current. That is, the electrons which have been freed
from their lattice positions into the conduction band can move through
the material. In addition, other electrons can hop between lattice
positions to fill the vacancies left by the freed electrons.
• This additional mechanism is called whole conduction because it is as if
the holes are migrating across the material in the direction opposite to
the free electron movement.
• The current flow in an intrinsic semiconductor is influenced by the
density of energy states which in turn influences the electron density in
the conduction band. This current is highly temperature dependent.
 Extrinsic semi conductors
• An extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor that has been doped, to
improve its electrical properties. Doping involves adding dopant atoms to
an intrinsic semiconductor, in order to changes the electron and hole
carrier concentrations of the semiconductor at thermal equilibrium.
• Semiconductor doping
• Semi conductor doping is the process that changes an intrinsic
semiconductor to an extrinsic semiconductor. During doping, impurity
atoms are introduced to an intrinsic semiconductor. Impurity atoms are
atoms of a different element than the atoms of the intrinsic
semiconductor. Impurity atoms act as either donors or acceptors to the
intrinsic semiconductor, changing the electron and hole concentrations
of the semiconductor. Impurity atoms are classified as donor or acceptor
atoms based on the effect they have on the intrinsic semiconductor.
• Donor impurity atoms have more valence electrons than the atoms they replace in
the intrinsic semiconductor lattice. Donor impurities "donate" their extra valence
electrons to a semiconductor's conduction band, providing excess electrons to the
intrinsic semiconductor. Excess electrons increase the electron carrier concentration
(n0) of the semiconductor, making it n-type.
• Acceptor impurity atoms have fewer valence electrons than the atoms they replace in
the intrinsic semiconductor. They "accept" electrons from the semiconductor's
valence band. This provides excess holes to the intrinsic semiconductor. Excess
holes increase the hole carrier concentration (p0) of the semiconductor, creating a p-
type semiconductor.
• Semiconductors and dopant atoms are defined by the column of the periodic table in
which they fall. The column definition of the semiconductor determines how many
valence electrons its atoms have and whether dopant atoms act as the
semiconductor's donors or acceptors.
• Group IV semiconductors use group V atoms as donors and group III atoms as
acceptors. Group III-V semiconductors use group VI atoms as donors and group II
atoms as acceptors. Group III-V semiconductors can also use group IV atoms as
either donors or acceptors.
• When a group IV atom replaces the group III element in the semiconductor lattice,
the group IV atom acts as a donor. Conversely, when a group IV atom replaces the
group V element, the group IV atom acts as an acceptor. Group IV atoms can act as
both donors and acceptors; therefore, they are known as amphoteric impurities.
 Intrinsic Semi conductors Donor Atom Acceptor Atom

Group IV semi Silicon ,Germanium Phosphorous ,Arsenic Boron Aluminium

conductors

Group (III –V) Aluminium phosphide, Selenium, Tellurium, Beryllium, Zinc Cadmium

Semi conductors Aluminium arsenide, Gallium Silicon ,Germanium Silicon, Germanium.

arsenide Gallium nitride

 N-type semiconductors
• Extrinsic semiconductors with a larger electron concentration than hole
concentration are known as n-type semiconductors. In n-type
semiconductors, electrons are the majority carriers and holes are the
minority carriers. N-type semiconductors are created by doping an
intrinsic semiconductor with donor impurities. In an n-type
semiconductor, the Fermi energy level is greater than that of the intrinsic
semiconductor and lies closer to the conduction band than the valence
band.
 P-type semiconductors

• P-type semiconductors have a larger hole concentration than electron

concentration. In p-type semiconductors, holes are the majority carriers
and electrons are the minority carriers. P-type semiconductors are
created by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with acceptor impurities. P-
type semiconductors have Fermi energy levels below the intrinsic Fermi
energy level. The Fermi energy level lies closer to the valence band than
the conduction band in a p-type semiconductor.
 P-n Junction
• P–n junctions are elementary "building blocks" of most semiconductor
electronic devices such as diodes, transistors, solar cells, LEDs, and
integrated circuits; they are the active sites where the electronic action of
the device takes place.
• A p–n junction is formed at the boundary between a p-type and n-type
semiconductor created in a single crystal of semiconductor by doping,
for example by ion implantation, diffusion of dopants, or by epitaxy
(growing a layer of crystal doped with one type of dopant on top of a
layer of crystal doped with another type of dopant).
• In a "p–n" junction, without an external applied voltage, an equilibrium
condition is reached in which a potential difference is formed across the
junction
• This potential difference is called built-in potential 𝑉𝑏𝑖 .At the junction a
peculiar phenomenon occurs as electrons near the p-n interface tend to diffuse
into the p region .
• As electrons diffuse, they leave positively charged ions in the n region.
Likewise, holes near the p–n interface begin to diffuse into the n-type region,
leaving fixed ions with negative charge.
• The regions nearby the p–n interfaces lose their neutrality and become
charged, the N-Type region becomes positively charged and the P-Type region
negatively charged leading to an internal electric field directed from N-Type to
P-Type.
• The junction region is free of mobile charges or is depleted of mobile charges
and it is called depletion region or space charge region.
• The space charge region is a zone with a net charge provided by the fixed ions
(donors or acceptors) that have been left uncovered by majority carrier
diffusion. The dimensions of depletion region depends upon the concentration
of donor and acceptor impurities in N and P-Type respectively.
 Forward Biased
• When the positive terminal of a battery is connected to P-Type region
and the negative terminal to the N-Type region, it is called Forward Bias.
• When the applied forward voltage is increased slowly, it decreases the
barrier potential and at a certain value called knee (or threshold) voltage
the barrier vanishes. The majority charge carriers, holes from P-Region
and electrons from N-Region, cross the junction. This current is called
FORWARD CURRENT. It increases rapidly with increase in Forward
Voltage. With forward bias, the depletion region is narrow enough that
electrons can cross the junction and inject into the P-type material.
 Reverse Bias
• If the negative terminal of a Battery is connected to P-Type region and
the positive terminal to n-type region, it is called Reverse Bias.
• The applied reverse voltage across the p- n junction expands the
depletion region and no majority charge carriers can cross the junction.
• Only minority charge carriers cross the junction and a small amount of
current generally of the order of Micro-Amps flows through the junction.
• It is called reverse saturation because it reaches its maximum value
quickly and does not change appreciably with increase in the reverse
bias.
 Current Voltage Characteristic of a p-n junction
• The PN junction is sometimes called semiconductor diode or junction
diode.
• The voltage – current characteristic curve for the P-N junction diode is
described by the Shockle diode equation.
 Photoelectric Effect
• The working principle of all solar cells is essentially based on the
photovoltaic effect
• The photovoltaic effect is the creation of voltage or electric current in a
material upon exposure to light. Though the photovoltaic effect is directly
related to the photoelectric effect, they are different processes.
 Photoelectric effect
• When the sunlight or any other light is incident upon a material surface, the
electrons present in the valance band of the metallic atom absorbs energy
and, being excited, jump to conduction band and become free.
• Now these free electrons are attracted by a negatively charged electrode and
thus the circuit completes and the light energy is converted into electric
energy.
• Regardless of the size (surface area )a typical silicon PV cell produces 0.5 -
0.6 Volt D.C under open circuit , no load conditions .
• The current and power output of a PV cell depends on its efficiency and size
of the surface area and is proportional to the intensity of the surface area and
is proportional to the intensity of the sunlight striking the surface of the cell.
• For example under peak sunlight conditions a typical commercial PV cell with
a surface area of 160 cm2 will produce about 2 watts peak power if the
intensity of the sunlight were 40% of the peak this cell will produce about 0.8
watts .
 PV ELECTRIC CHARACTERISTICS
• In order to understand the electronic behaviour of a solar cell, a model
which is electrically equivalent is used .
• The model is based on discrete electrical components whose behaviour
is well known.
• The solar cell can be represented by an equivalent circuit.
 Shunt resistance
• The ohmic losses in the cell occur due to the series and shunt resistance
denoted by 𝑅𝑆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑆𝐻 respectively.
• The series resistance is the resistance offered by the solar cell in the path of
the current, therefore 𝑅𝑆 is shown in current path .
• The shunt resistance 𝑅𝑆𝐻 is referred to as the leakage path of the current in
a solar cell and therefore it is represented in parallel with the current source
RSH, are typically due to manufacturing defects, rather than poor solar cell
design.
• Low shunt resistance causes power losses in solar cells by providing an
alternate current path for the light-generated current.
• Such a diversion reduces the amount of current flowing through the solar
cell junction and reduces the voltage from the solar cell.
• The effect of a shunt resistance is particularly severe at low light levels, since
there will be
 Shunt resistance

• The effect of a shunt resistance is particularly severe at low light levels, since
there will be less light-generated current.
• The loss of this current to the shunt therefore has a larger impact. In
addition, at lower voltages where the effective resistance of the solar cell is
high, the impact of a resistance in parallel is large.
• As a solar cell contains a PN-junction (LINK), just as a diode, it may be
treated as a diode.
 DERIVATION OF THE CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION
• The characteristic equation of the solar cell relates solar cell parameters to
the output current and voltage .
• From the equivalent circuit it is evident that the current produced by the
solar cell is equal to that produced by the current source, minus that which
flows through the diode, minus that which flows through the shunt resistor:

𝐼 = 𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼𝐷 − 𝐼𝑆𝐻

Where
• 𝐼 = 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡,𝐼𝐿 = 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
• 𝐼𝐷 = 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 ,𝐼𝑆𝐻 = 𝑠ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
• The current through the diode and resistor is governed by the voltage across them
𝑉𝑗 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑅𝑆
Where
• 𝑉𝑗 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑆𝐻
• 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
• 𝐼 = 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
• 𝑅𝑆 = 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

• By the Shockley diode equation, the current diverted through the diode is
qVj
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼0 exp −1
nkT
Where
• 𝐼0 = 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
• 𝑛 = 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒
• 𝑞 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
• 𝑘 = 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
• 𝑇 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
• 𝐴𝑡 250 𝐶 , 𝑘𝑇Τ𝑞 ≈ 0.0259 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
• By Ohm’s law, the current diverted through the shunt resistor is:
𝑉𝑗
𝐼𝑆𝐻 =
𝑅𝑆𝐻
Where
• 𝑅𝑆𝐻 = 𝑠ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
• Substituting these into the first equation produces the characteristic equation of a solar cell
q( V+IRS 𝑉+𝐼𝑅𝑆
𝐼 = 𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼0 exp −1 −
nkT 𝑅𝑆𝐻
• In principle, given a particular operating voltage V the equation may be solved to determine
the operating current I at that voltage.
• However, because the equation involves I on both sides in a transcendental function the
equation has no general analytical solution.
• However, even without a solution it is physically instructive.
• Furthermore, it is easily solved using numerical methods (Since the parameters I0, n, RS, and
RSH cannot be measured directly, the most common application of the characteristic equation
is nonlinear regression to extract the values of these parameters on the basis of their
combined effect on solar cell behaviour.
• There are 2 conditions of interest for the IV characteristic equation that are used to
characterise the performance of Solar Cells.
 The Short Circuit Current

• When the cell is operated at short circuit , 𝑉 = 0 ,the current 𝐼 through the
terminal is defined as the short - circuit current.
• Is denoted (𝐼𝑆𝐶 ), under these conditions the diode current 𝐼0 is very small
compared to the photo generated current 𝐼𝐿 and if it is assumed that the shunt
resistance is very large the short circuit current 𝐼𝑆𝐶 ≈ 𝐼𝐿
• 𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝛼 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 , for PV cell, since 𝐼𝐿 ∝ 𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
• Thus a high-quality solar cell should have (low RS and I0, and high RSH)
 The open circuit voltage

• When the cell is operated at open circuit, I = 0 and the voltage across the
output terminals is defined as the open-circuit voltage.
• Under the open circuit conditions the photo generated current 𝐼𝐿 is
completely cancelled by the diode current 𝐼𝐷 . i.e.[𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝐷 ].
• If we assume the shunt resistance is high enough to neglect the final term of
the characteristic equation ,then the open circuit voltage can be given by ,
𝑛𝑘𝑇 𝐼𝐿
• 𝑉𝑂𝐶 = 𝑙𝑛 + 1
𝑞 𝐼0
• N.B It should be noted that it is not possible to extract any power from the
device when operating at either open circuit or short circuit conditions.
 Current – Voltage Curve: I.V Characteristics
• As can be seen from the figure bellow the region of the curve between
𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑂𝐶 corresponds to the region where the solar cell acts as a
generator.
• If no load is connected with the solar panel which is sitting in the sun, an open
circuit voltage 𝑉𝑂𝐶 will be produced but no current follows .
• If the terminals of the solar panel are short circuited together, the short circuit
current 𝐼𝑆𝐶 will flow but the output voltage will be zero .
 Current – Voltage Curve: I.V Characteristics
• In both cases no power is delivered by the solar panel i.e. It is not possible to
extract any power from the device when operating at either open circuit or
short circuit conditions.
• When a load is connected ,we need to consider the I-V curve of the load to
figure out how much power can be delivered to the load .
• The maximum power point (MPP) is the point near the knee of the I-V curve
,and the voltage and current at the MPP are designated as 𝑉𝑚 and 𝐼𝑚 .
• For a particular load ,the maximum point is changing as the I-V curve is
varying with the temperature ,insolation and shading .
• Because solar power is expensive ,it is important to operate panels at the
maximum power conditions .
• In fact DC-DC converters are often used to match the load resistance to the
Thevenin equivalent resistance to maximize the power drawn from the panel .
• These smart converters are often referred to as tracking converters .
 FILL FACTOR
• The largest power from the module is represented by the area 𝐼𝑚 𝑥𝑉𝑚 .
• If we compare this with the largest rectangle 𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑥 𝑉𝑂𝐶
𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝐹𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑉𝑂𝐶
• The product 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 which corresponds to the maximum power that can be delivered
to the load is represented by the area of the rectangle bounded by the vertical
coordinates 𝐼𝑚 and the vertical horizontal coordinates 𝑉𝑚 in the 𝐼𝑉 axis .
• This is obviously smaller than the area corresponding to the product 𝐼𝑆𝐶 . 𝑉𝑂𝐶 the
greatest current obtained from the cell and the greatest voltage .
• The more pronounced the elbow of the 𝐼𝑉characteristics curve the closer the two
products come to being equal i.e. ,the fill factor approaches a unit.
• The fill factor is usually less than one .The fill factor for most commercial PV cell is
between 0.7 and 0.8.
• Making use of the definition of the fill factor we can determine the maximum power
delivered by the cell as
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐹𝐹 𝑥 𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑥 𝑉𝑂𝐶
 Energy Conversion Efficiency
• The energy conversion efficiency of the solar cell is the ratio between the
maximum electrical power that can be delivered to the load and the power
𝑃𝑝ℎ of the radiation incident.

𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐹𝐹 𝑥 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝜂𝑃𝑉 = =
𝑃𝑝ℎ 𝑃𝑝ℎ

𝑃𝑝ℎ = 𝐺𝑇 𝐴𝐶
• 𝑃𝑝ℎ is the product of the radiation intensity reaching the cell at normal
incidence (𝐺𝑇 ) watts / m2 and the area of the cell 𝐴𝐶 𝑚2 .
• This efficiency and the maximum power output are obtained only if the
resistance of the load has the correct value of 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 or alternatively if the
maximum power tracking device is in place / employed .
 Solar Cell Efficiency Limitation
• Incident solar radiation can be considered as discrete energy units called
photons .The energy of the photon is a function of the frequency of
radiation and the wavelength and is given in terms of the plank‘s constant
(h)
𝐸 = һ𝜐
һ𝑐
𝑐 = 𝜆𝜐 →
𝜆
Where
• 𝜐 − 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
• 𝜆 − 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡
• Thus the most energetic photons are those of high frequency and short
wavelength ,the most common photovoltaic cell are made up of a single
crystal silicon and an atom of silicon in the crystal lattice absorbs a photon
of incident radiation and if the energy of the photon is high enough an
electron from the outer shell is freed .This process results in the formation
of a hole – electron pair
 Solar Cell Structure
• A hole where there is a lack of electron (+ entity) , an electron in the outer crystal structure ,these
hole electron pairs disappear almost instantaneously as electrons recombine in the holes .
• The recombination process can be reduced by building into the cells a potential barrier that is a
thin layer or junction across which a static charge exists ,this barrier is created by doping the
silicon on one side of the barrier with a very small amount of boron to form p Silicon which has a
deficiency of electrons in the outer shell and doping the other side with phosphorus to form N
Silicon which has a excess of electrons in the outer shell.
• The barrier inhibits the free movement of electrons leading to the buildup electrons in the N
Silicon layer and a deficiency of electrons in the P layer ,If these layers are connected with an
external circuit , electron i.e a current will flow through that circuit ,thus free electrons created
by the absorption of photons are in excess in the N Silicon and flow through the external circuit
to the P layer .
• Electrical contacts are made by metal bases on the bottom of the cell and by metal grids or
meshes on the top layer (the meshes allow the cell to see incident radiation ).
• There are many variation on cell materials ,design and methods of manufacture amorphous or
polycrystalline Silicon , Cadmium sulphide(CdS) ,Gallium arsenide GaAs and other semi
conductors are used for solar cells .
• The Current solar cell production efficiencies vary by the band gap of the semiconductor material.
The best modern production silicon cell efficiency is 24% at the cell level and 20% at the module
level as reported by Sun Power in March of, 2012.
Maximum Efficiency
• The modern SQ Limit calculation is a maximum efficiency of 33% for
any type of single junction solar cell.

• Use more than one semiconductor material in a cell.

• Use more than one junction in a cell - "tandem cells“
• Sunlight can be concentrated about 500 times using inexpensive lenses.

• Combine a PV semiconductor with a heat based technology to

harvest both forms of energy and/or Use "quantum dots" to harvest
some of the excess photon energy for electricity.
 The output of solar cell is limited by several factors.
• There is a minimum energy level ,that can cause the creation of an electron
hole –hole pair ,this depends on the energy Band gap of the material in
question, for silicon the maximum wavelength is 1.15𝜇𝑚 radiation.
• Radiation of higher wavelength than this does not produce hole – electron
pairs but heat the cell , causing loss of efficiency as we shall see that
increasing the temperature reduces the efficiency .
• From these considerations alone the maximum theoretical efficiency of
silicon cells is 23%.
• In addition there are reflections at the top of the cell this can be reduced by
using the antireflective coatings.
• Part of the top layer of the solar cell must be covered by the electrical
contact grids which reduces active cell area.
• There are also electrical effects such as sheet resistance i.e the resistance to
the flow of electrons across the top layer to the grid.
 Variations From Basic Behaviour
• The behavior of the solar cell provided by the manufacturer pertains to a
single set of radiation intensity and the cell operating conditions .
• Variations in temperature and intensity of radiation are important in the
operation of solar cell for real field applications .
• These variations can be caused by weather changes throughout the year
or cell may be used in optical concentrators that increase the intensity of
radiation and consequently the temperature of operation.
• The correct design and use of solar cells requires an understanding of how
the two parameters ,temperature and intensity of radiation influence
their behavior .
 Effect of temperature
• The Short circuit current𝐼𝑆𝐶 , increases with increases in cell operating
temperature, the open circuit voltage 𝑉𝑂𝐶 decreases with increasing cell
temperature .
• The Fill Factor (FF) decreases with increases in cell temperature .
• The decrease in 𝑉𝑂𝐶 and FF with temperature more than out weight the
slight increases in 𝐼𝑆𝐶 such that there is a marked decrease in the product of
𝐹𝐹. 𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑉𝑂𝐶 (maximum power ) with increasing cell temperature .
• Therefore there is a corresponding decrease in cell efficiency of the solar
cell with increasing cell temperature .
 Effects of illumination
• The performance parameter of the solar cell are affected by illumination
intensity or concentration in the following ways
• The light intensity on a solar cell is called the number of suns, where 1 sun
corresponds to standard illumination at AM1.5, or 1 kW/m2.
• For example a system with 10 kW/m2 incident on the solar cell would be
operating at 10 suns, or at 10X.
• A PV module designed to operate under 1 sun conditions is called a "flat
plate" module while those using concentrated sunlight are called
"concentrators".
• The photo current therefore the short circuit current is directly proportional
to the intensity of the incident radiation, such that a device operating under
10 suns would have 10 times the short-circuit current as the same device
under one sun operation
 Photovoltaic Generator
• Common modules consists of 30 -36 identical cells connected in series
and encapsulated between sheets of glass depending on the size of the
cells .the area of this type of module varies between 0.1 and 0.5 m2.
• The photovoltaic generator is built by connecting a given required
number of modules in series or in parallel depending on the voltage or
current required by the application .
• The current and voltage of the generator are given by
𝐼𝑔 = 𝐼. 𝑁𝑃
𝑉𝑔 = 𝑉. 𝑁𝑠
Where
• 𝐼𝑔 , 𝑉𝑔 are the current and voltage of the generator and 𝑁𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁𝑠 are the
number of cells of current 𝐼 and voltage 𝑉 connected in parallel and series
respectively .
 Connecting Cells in Series
• Let us consider two cells in series which are connected to a variable resistor.
• In this arrangement the current 𝐼 the same and the resulting voltage will be the
sum of 𝑉1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 of the solar cells 1 and 2 at each instance when R is varied.
• The resulting voltage will be the sum of 𝑉1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 of the solar cells 1and 2 at
each instance when R is varied .The resulting 𝐼𝑉 Characteristics can be logically
deduced from the characteristics of each individual cell by adding the voltage of
the same current. However there are two cases to consider:
• Identical cells in series
• Non identical cells in series
 Identical Solar Cells in Series
• In an ideal situation when two identical cells that is cells with identical
performance characteristics are connected in series, the open circuit voltage is
twice that of an individual cell i.e.

𝐼 > 0: 𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 = 2𝑉1

𝐼 = 0: 𝑉𝑂𝐶 = 𝑉𝑂𝐶1 + 𝑉𝑂𝐶2

𝑉𝑂𝐶1 ≈ 2 𝑉𝑂𝐶2

• Under short circuit conditions i.e. when 𝑅 = 0 the total current 𝐼𝑆𝐶 = 𝐼𝑆𝐶1 =
𝐼𝑆𝐶2 and the respective voltage through the terminals of the solar cell are zero
, the cells are working as a generators and we can say the generating power is
positive .
 Non identical Cells in Series
• When we have identical cells connected in series we can easily write the following
relationships,𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼, and 𝑉𝑂𝐶1 + 𝑉𝑂𝐶2 = 2𝑉𝑂𝐶 ,unfortunately ,it is very difficult
to get identical cells in reality .
• Hence we need to analyze the situation little more closely .
• Thus if we let 𝐼𝑆𝐶 be the short circuit current and 𝑉𝑂𝐶1 be the open circuit voltage
of the first cell and 𝐼𝑆𝐶2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑂𝐶2 be the short circuit current and the open circuit
current of the second cell .
• When we connect two dissimilar cells in series, their open circuit voltages add up
but the net short circuit current takes a value in between 𝐼𝑆𝐶1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑆𝐶2 shown by
the middle curve .
• To the left of operating point, the weaker cell will behave like a sink .Hence, if a
diode is connected in parallel, the weaker cell is by passed, once the current
exceeds the short current of the weaker cell .
• The whole system would look as if a single cell is connected across the load . The
diode is called a series protection diode.
 Solar Cells in Parallel
• When two cells are connected in parallel .the open circuit voltage of the
system would remain the same as the open circuit voltage of a single cell but
the short current would be twice as much as of a single cell.
• We can see from the figure bellow that if the cells are identical, we can write
the following relationships:

𝐼𝑆𝐶1 + 𝐼𝑆𝐶2 = 2𝐼𝑆𝐶

𝑉𝑂𝐶1 = 𝑉𝑂𝐶2 = 𝑉𝑂𝐶

• However we rarely find two identical cells.

 Dissimilar cells in Parallel

• From the figure bellow we can infer that when two dissimilar cells are
connected in parallel, the short circuit current add up but the open circuit
voltage lies between 𝑉𝑂𝐶1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑂𝐶2 represented by 𝑉𝑂𝐶 .
• This voltage actually refers to a negative current of the weaker cell. This results
in the reduction of the net current out of the system.
• This situation can be avoided by adding a diode in series of each cell .Once the
cell is operating to the right of the operating point of the weaker cell ‘s diode
get reverse biased , cutting it off from the system and hence follows the
characteristic curve of the stronger cell .
 Dissimilar cells in Parallel Issues

• The argument is the same for large network of cells connected in parallel with
one cell or module being less efficient than the rest .
• In this case the less efficient cell will absorb the current of all other modules
causing it to heat, this results in irreversible deterioration and happen if the
critical impendence corresponding to the number of cells or modules in parallel
is exceeded (hot spot effect).

𝐼2 = − 𝑁𝑝 − 1 𝐼1 − 𝐼2

• The current 𝐼2 is delivered to the less efficient cell causing it to heat up .

 PHOTOVOLTAICS SYSTEMS
• PV systems are like any other electrical power generating system ,just the
equipment used is different than that used for conventional
electromechanical generating systems .
• Although a PV array produces power when exposed to sunlight a number of
other components are required to properly conduct , control , convert,
distribute and store the energy produced by the array .
• Depending on the functional and operational requirement of the system ,the
specific components are required may include major components such as
DC-AC power inverters, battery bank, system and battery controller ,auxiliary
energy sources and sometimes the specified electrical load (appliances ) .
• In addition ,an assortment of balance of system (BOS) hardware, including
wiring , over current , surge protection and disconnect devices , and other
power processing equipment .
 Types of PV Systems

• Photovoltaics power systems are generally classified according to their

functional and operational requirements , their component
configurations , and how the equipment is connected to other power
sources and electrical loads .
• The two principal classifications are grid connected or utility – interactive
systems and standalone systems .
• Photovoltaic systems can be designed to provide DC and/ or AC power
service , can operate interconnected with or independent of the utility
grid , and can be connected with other sources and energy storage
systems .
 Grid –Interfaced P.V system
• Grid – connected or utility –interactive PV systems are designed to operate in parallel and
interconnected with the electric utility grid .
• The primary component in grid connected PV system is the inverter , or power conditioning
unit (PCU).
• The PCU converts the DC power produced by the PV array into AC power consistent with
the voltage and power quality requirements of the utility grid , and automatically stops
supplying power to the grid when the utility is not energized .
• A bi- directional interface is made between the PV system AC output circuits and the
electric utility network , typically at an onsite distribution panel or service entrance .
• This allows the AC power produced by the PV system to either supply on site electrical loads
, or back –feed the grid when the PV system output is greater than the onsite load demand .
• At night and during other periods when the electrical loads are greater than the PV system
output the balance of power required by the loads is received from the electric utility .
• This safety feature is required in all grid – connected PV systems , and ensure that the PV
system will not continue to operate and feed back into the grid when the grid is down for
service or repair
 Stand Alone Systems
• Are designed to operate independent of the electric utility grid and are generally
designed and sized to supply certain DC and or AC electrical loads.
• Stand alone PV systems:
(a) without battery storage
(b) With battery storage
• The simplest type of a standalone PV system is a direct coupled system, where the DC
output of the a PV module or array is directly connected to a DC load.
• Since there is no electrical energy storage (batteries) in direct coupled systems , the
load only operates during sunlight hours , making these design suitable for
applications such as ventilation fans , water pumps , and small circulation pumps for
solar thermal water heating systems .
• Matching the impedance of the electrical load to the maximum power output of the
PV array is a critical part of designing well –performing direct coupled systems.
• For certain loads such a positive displacement water pumps , a type of electronic DC-
DC converter , called a maximum power point tracker (MPPT) , is used between the
array and the load to help better utilize the available array maximum power output .
• In many standalone PV systems, batteries are used for energy storage.
 Hybrid System
• Although PV systems will generally have some means of storing energy to
accommodate a predefined period of insufficient sunshine, there may still be
exceptional periods of poor weather when an alternative source is required to
generate power production .
• PV hybrid system combines a photovoltaic generator with another sources –
typically a diesel generator, but occasionally another renewable supply such as
wind turbine.
• The PV generator would usually be sized to meet the base load demand, with the
alternate supply being called into action only when essential .
• This arrangement offers all the benefits of PV in respect of low operation and
maintenance costs but additionally ensures a secure supply .
• Hybrid systems can also be sensible approach in situations where demand peaks
are significantly higher than the base load .
• It makes little sense to size a system to be able to meet demand entirely with PV if
for example , the normal load is only 10% of the peak demand .
• By the same token , a diesel generator sized to meet the peak demand would be
operating at inefficient part load for most of the time .In such a situation a PV –
diesel hybrid would be a good compromise
 Dispatch Strategies
• The diesel generator set produces A.C that is supplied to the load if there is
excess power it is used to charge the battery .The load can be categorized into
three phases.

CASE 1
• D < Q DG. If the load is less than the diesel power generating rate, the diesel gen
set can more than satisfy the load .Excess genset power over that required by
the load goes to charging the battery via the battery charger provided the
battery is not fully charged already .If the battery is already fully charged then
the excess power diesel gen set power is dumped ,in other words the diesel
genset will operate under partial load ,when this happens a problem called wet
stacking occurs .Wet stacking is a condition when there is incomplete
combustion of fuel and increased carbon deposit in the engine cylinder because
of partial loading .The result is increased fuel inefficiency and reduced engine life
.The energy from the PV generator is used to charge the battery provided it can
accept the charge otherwise the energy is dumped as well (in this case the solar
cell heat up and inefficiency is reduced )
 Dispatch Strategies

CASE II

• [𝜂INV QPV + QDG > d > QDG ]

• The load is greater than the QDG but less than the combined inverter
output and the generator output .In this case all the diesel genset power is
consumed by the load therefore no wet stacking .
• The energy deficit of the load is provided by the PV generator with the
excess PV energy if any going to the battery, if the battery cannot accept
this energy because it is fully charged the PV energy goes to waste.
 Dispatch Strategies

CASE III

• [d > 𝜂INV Q INV + QDG]

• In this case the combined output of the PV array and the generator set is not enough to
satisfy the load there is no wet stacking and no PV energy is dumped ,the energy deficit
is supplied by the battery provided it is not already depleted beyond allowable
maximum depth of discharge .
• If the battery is depleted beyond D.OD the solar controller will disconnect the battery
from the load system and the load cannot be fully satisfied under these circumstances
we say that the system experiences loss of load .
• The number of hours in a year the system experiences loss of load can be divided by
total annual hours to determine the loss of load probability .The loss of load probability
depends on the system sizing .Designer must design a system with a very small or no
loss of load probability .This is only possible through time lapse simulation of system
performance .
 Uses of stand - alone PV systems (off grid )
• For many developing countries , where the electricity grid is confined to the main
urban areas , and where a substantial proportion of the rural population does not
have access to most basic energy services , PV is widely regarded as the best – and
least expensive – means of providing many of the services that are lacking .
• Based on minimum energy requirements to provide basic energy services to every
individual in the developing world , the corresponding potential for PV is estimated to
be 16 GW (approximately 15W per capita in Developing World)
• PV modules can be used for.
• Pumping systems : to supply water to villages , for land irrigation or livestock watering
• Refrigeration systems : particularly to preserve vaccines , blood and other consumables vital to
health care programs
• Lighting : for homes and community building such a schools and health centres to enable
education and income generation activities to continue after dark
• Battery charging stations : to recharge batteries , which are used to power appliances ranging
from torches and radios to televisions and lights
• Solar home systems : to provide power for domestic lighting and other DC appliances such as TVs
, radios ,sewing machines , etc
 PV SYSTEM SIZING
• Define load, location, inclination
• Determine irradiation
• Calculate installed power to fulfil load
• Calculate number of modules
• Define system specs (battery, charge regulator, inverter)
 Design Rules
• All strings must have the same voltage
• Minimize module mismatching
• Avoid shading
• Higher inverter efficiencies for high input voltage: maximize string length
• minimum inverter input voltage =MPP voltage @ +70ºC
• maximum inverter input voltage > Open circuit voltage @ -10ºC
 In class Exercise
• Design a stand alone system for your hometown. Use real equipment, i.e.
modules, charge regulator, inverter, batteries (include datasheets).