eT cley al Steel Construc erence @ DESIGNING RooF AND FLOOR DIAPHRAGMS A primer on floor and roof decks Larry D. Luttrall, PLE, Ph.D., is a professor of iid enginecring dat West Virginia University in ‘Morgantown, WV. He also szroce ‘aso technical advisor to the Steet Deck Institute, The article 18 Based om a paper delivered at the National Stee! Construction Conference. {56 Madar Sn Conatruction March 1006 DECKING Such decking is manu- factured to a wide range of con. figurations and often allows mul- tiple spine from a single panel Tength. Typical roof loads may dictate spans of perhaps 6-f., using a relatively thin panel, Whereas floors may require either shorter spans or thicker docking. Comnon panels have depths between 1.5 snd 3 in, with steel ‘thicknesses between 0.0295 and 0.06 in. Floor panels may have ‘embossments on some surfaces to enhance interlocking and com posite dab behavior when con. {rete is ased to finish floors. Root areas nay be finished using Insulating concrete or some other overlayment method to form a smooth surface, ‘The individual deck panels must be properly attached to the structure sine, during construc tian, they must sustain transient Toads including wind uplift forces, Panel-to-panel side lap or “stiteh” connections maybe ruitee to prevent edge tepars tion between adjacent units (the Tater ave particularly important ‘when concrete fll is used) ‘The exaplete assembly of pan- cls, puiline and framing mem: bers possess beam-like charac teristics and may be thought of in terms of a flexible deep girder. ‘The ascombly will act asa shear diaphragm and ean be used to ‘transfor in-plane forces between Units ofthe structure, Sean Buesuers A horizontal diaphragm assembly involves the deck pan- ls, any overlayment or concrete fll, and structural members to which the decking is attached, ‘Though its shear stiffness may ‘be an order of magnitude lower than than with conventional kirdors, the diaphragm can be thought of ag a thin-web girder Bach “girder” or diaphragm area is bounded by stiffeners, anges ‘on two ides and shear walls on the other two sides, The "web" thear elements require that forces be transferred to them through the boundary members to which the shear elements rust be adequately attached ‘The design issue usually is not one of developing all the thea? potential for diaphragm assembly but rather to design connection details so that the fembly ean develop the brac- ig level required. The developed bracing level depends on perime- ter conditions, on the connec: tans within the diaphragm fe, and on decking geometry. ‘Tae Basic DraPueacat It is clear that most diaphragms, when viewed in plan, will fall into the short, Aeepbeam category as illustrat: ed in Figure 1. Further, the diaphragm shear stifiness often js an order of magnitude lower then for a continuously connect ed flat plate of similar dimen- sions. Any analytical process then, must include shear deflec- tions and they may well domi fate the total deflections for the system, Consider a roof area of B x I. as shown in Figure 1. The diaphragm decking is not shown, but is to be supported on span.rel beams between columns on the long sides and on three shear walls inthe shorter B direction ‘The system isto be evaluated for ‘uniformly distributed Toad, q, that may have been from either fa'Wind aeting on the long walls or from an earthquake loading eondition. Considering the entire roof area as a horizontal deep beam will require finding the shear wall reactions Vy and Following Figure’, these waives may be found by noting that total deflection at the ine gid shear wall must be zero, "The chango in shear deflection between two points may be established from changes in the shear diagram areas between those same two points. The shad fed areas on the shear diagrams, Givided by the shear width B and the stifiness G', establishes the shear deflection at the center ‘wall. Further, resuming a beam Figure L:Roof diaphragm. (@)roof plan. (b) beam and shear diagram eee TS eae te 3 a ol oe coe ‘moment of inertia, I, the bending deflections can be foand from a ‘simple analyses. ‘Let the subseripts ¢ and b judivae slrewr aud. bewling deflections respectively, while q and R represent the uniform Toad and interior ehear wall reaction. The following indi Ual components of deflection result fore = 123 sao shoh ane ia © yeh = 2, ) nace sae te ® “wheres. = buléing length B= buiing shear with E> Young's modulus |g uniform load G= daptragm shear stifoess interior wall reaction eam moment of neta Considering the shear walls to be essentially rigid and defining @ = EUBG, the net deflection st the interior wall must be zero, resulting in ©) a, ar Ne peai(tMbeH Esa) — yy 9B mm (0.0205 fn.) and with shear stiffness 216+ 16a) "7000 Nimum (40 kipsfin.). The equivalent ‘The interior reaction R is shear modulus would be G = Gt dependent on the relative stiff. = 9300 Nimm%1360 kips/in® hoses, a. IEG? ia lange relative compared to a lat plate Value of fe EI, tho shear deflection com: 78.3 kN/mm# (1 0 kipsin®) ponent becomes small and R The diaphragm ie about an order Approaches (L1/16\ql. which is of magnitude more flexible in the reaction for a long slender shear than isa fat plate. bboam on the indicated spans. The spandvel beams in Figure However, if G' is small, R_ Lmay not be so rigidly connected approaches qi2 and the interior at their ends that they ean act as wall receives shear forees only continuous diaphragm flanges, from from its tributary area, i, However, thelr area, A,, might hhalf of each roof zone framing be used to indicate an into. ‘pprex rate lower-bound value for the Ta” illustrate that the the "girder" moment of inertia diaphragm deflection problem is such as largoly ono of shoar only, consi - ers typical of of thiekness t= 2446 6 Madeen Steel Construction / March 1996/60Aas tM WO 928 5) INC: oa C= Please circle # 55. A Quick Quiz For Structural Engineers ‘The more @ campus progam costs, the Pema mI TRUE FALSE ‘roam ha sabes compos ditiout fodiens ust be corpiond aiteut «RUE FALSE uct enginesingsofwore con never teins lea aes you answered TRUE fo any of the above or you would he to know mae ‘about aly move software progr, cal ust RISA-2D Your complete solution for frames, russes, beams, shear walls and much more! RISA tote rors ex 60680 in 200 37012 Prease crcle #40 (0/Molen Stet Cons As an example, consider the following data for the roof in Figure 1:B = 30 m (985 f.), L= 0m (295 fe 8 KPa (29.500 kipvin) Tx 10) Nim (40 kips/ in.)\Conatdering the spandre! member as a diaphragm flange, moment of inertia’ may "be Spproximated by: sa2aigr = 42 o eB > 26 1510500 «350m? 108+ 1102/4350 a 16+ 1600" /4350 5234. ‘The interior shear wall reac tion is R= 0.528 qL. If there ‘were any connection slip in the Spandrel beams at the columns, the effective moment of inertia could be even smaller and the interior shear wall reaction even loser to .5qL. These values are {typical for many diaphragms and indieate that such diaphragms can be treated as simple shear ‘Systems, ignoring bending dflee tions. Diarmacae Frsun The field of a diaphragm is that part away from shear walls tr braced frames where behavior {3 dictated by individual panels, their dimensions, and the type of connections used. In fny panel of width, w, connec ‘lone may be made through some for all of the lower flat elements fs in Figure 5. A external shear forees act in the plane of the sap igm, they produee racking istortions as indicated in ion is developed through a series of internal couples at the cross-panel support members coupled with shear transfer forces on sidelaps. "The Figure 4 panels are shown with four structural con neetcns pet panel at the end of panel purlins, three per panelacross interior purlins, and tio Stitch connections per span in the sidelaps for a total of six stitch connections per panel edge. The resisting couples {depend on fastener position and fastener” shear "strength, Extensive research and develop- ment programs (1, 2) have shown that che equlibrium of an Interior panel near ultimate load cam be expressed as rite aaenaw 1) where: M,= end of panel couple Mtr putin couple = panel eng Fmber of terior pars ( shown) = Funber of itch So cease heat {eShown) Q.=Stich connector shear sengih we dec element ‘wh ‘With a presumed linear vatia- Ui it saute seat rae isereee the panel and relative 1 the limiting fastener shear strength Q: Se wo i} OG 0) we Mesh ZQEe (1 M=OEK «ay ‘The end-of-panel eouple, My may be somewhat limited ‘depending on the ability of the fedge-most corrugation to resist ‘eccentric compression. Tt has been found that the connection at the compression corner ited throug: 13) 1,= decking depth, rm (in) puri spacing. mit) Panel thickness, rn Gin) C= 370240 US. unis) Figure 8: Deck connections (@) 8665 fastener layout, w=914mm (86 in.) (@) floor deck layout FAUST Feary oa eat a af ‘Modern Stel Construction /Masch 1998 61UAL ‘AVAILABLE NOW! Publication No. 29 eileen peso anc AcouseaiDack | acre rose | caret | I ! 1 1 ! 1 1 1 poate | Sore, sreeoetcisrrure | Please circle # 77 Please circle # 63 (62 Mader Stel Costration / Marsh 3866 Equation 12 then ean be reduood to the average ultimate ‘Shear strength per unit length hene-1+a% sifixre-+a% a4 2x3 (15) a6) Structural concrete Bil causes several changes in behavior. The fonerete bonds to the decking, Fetards panel warping and side lap slip, and provides secondary shear transfer paths. Corner buckling is essentially eliminat- fd by the foreod alignment and the 6 term of Eq. 13 approaches unity. The additional shear path in the field can greatly increase shear strength and lead to a sys tem similar in shear strength to that of a conventional lt slab With a minimum concrete cover depth, d= 63 mm (2.5 in), the shear equation is modified to ele an ‘hea strength in pe weg kg ita compre sera ta re 25,000 (90 a US una Light weight insulting con- crete and ater finishing over iSyment loo provide adonal shear pate bit st consdersly tower lvls than i indicated for normal conree by Equation £7 The Steel Deck Institue Disparaam Design Manual con. tain fulton for such sy Diapueaci Penne Figure 4indiotes to prime tence, oe na he deck ths aod the oer over a shear wall. The decking end fastener ‘rangement already bas been given consideration as part ofthe field evaluation for M, in Equation 12 "The decking connections along the shear wall ean be erticl to ‘shear transfer especially if the Giaphragm is conerete filled and the conerete is terminated at the wall. The first deck unit must transfer its shears into the field ‘through couples at the purlins ‘and through the sidelap connec- tons along the first interior side lap. On the othor sie ofthe first sheet, tis essential thst panel- tovwall connections develop the needed capacity. The figure indi- ates edge fasteners with the ‘same spacing as those along the first side lap. Connostions from a ppanel to the supporting frame- rork usually are stronger than idelap connections and the igure d layout would be eanser- vative for nonfilled diaphragms, With concrete filled diaphragins, shear studs may be required ‘At the ends of the decking, fasteners may be much more closely spaced than along diaphragm edges over shear ‘walle, Those spacing effecte are Considered within the formulas tons abave exeept when edge fonnectors differ from those at ‘eek ends, The design seve $8 simply to determine the ultimate average shear force along the top of the wall and to uniformly Space an adequate number of connectors of known strength, Within the first docking panel, all other fastener arrangements Should mateh those inthe second panel “Two special edge conditions arise. When the diaphragm is Supported on joists, which rest fon top ofthe shear wal, there is bo ready method for installing edge connections between parlins, Te is common practice to extend a thin steel angle along the shear wall and weld it to each joist top. The angle ean then support deck edges and pro: vide locations for frequent elge connections. The shear transfer throught the jaist end may require some increases in weld ng, forthe joist seat. “A Second edge condition arises ‘when concrete filled diaphragms fare tsed. The first interior aide lap, and other components in the field, are strengthened by the conerete shea" path. The con crete will terminate at the shear wall leaving this shear line ‘weaker than ochers. Some edge fenhancement may be developed by spacing the edge connections closer but, if very high shears are present, shear studs may be required to transfer concrete Shear forces direetiy into the shear wall, Connecron Sites SmRENCTH ‘The most common method for connecting dedk panels to stool Framing is by are welding or “puddle® weldirg. An electrode is used to strike an are on the deck: ing with the effect of blowing @ hole at the weld location. The operation ie continued by “pud- Gling” the welé material in the hole. Sueh operations require intimate contact between con- rected parts for facilitating heat transfer and the operation requires considerable ski Such 4 Welding process typically is limited to panels of 22 wage (0.15, ‘mm (0.0295n.)] or heavier ‘Structural welds through thinner decking can be made using welding washers which hhave prepunched holes. As weld- ing through the hole begins, the washer absorbs heat and limits burn-out in the deck. Once the washer hole is “puddied” full of ‘wold material, the operation ‘stops, and the sed cools clamp {ng the washer onto the decking. Al welding operations demand that the welding operation con- Uinues neil the supporting structural member has reached {sion temperature. Several sex fonds may be neoded. Since weld ‘washers absorb heat, welding trith washers eommonly requires ‘more welding time than does are Mra St Construction March 198 62pode welding ‘Value for diaphragm shear ioned eli are Shorea soe ii eres anak theo fede wal eee ioe (0) walla i) Qe 22 10°F, (133.4, + O3F.0) where Q, =" wold strength, (19) EN) a= Visible weld ameter, mm in) d= washer hole ameter, me in) F,= Steel stengih, Pats Foo electrode strength, Pa si t= decking base metal thickness, rm in} Several types of powder act tated fasteners and pnoumatical- ly driven pins have been devel- ‘oped for connecting deck to Structural supports. These have the advantage of more consistent quality than wolds, adaptablity to use in cold or wet environ frente, and mere rapid installa Gon, Shear values for such con nections can be supplied by the manufacturer. ‘in addition to in-plane shear forces, deck structural connec- tions may be subject to uplift or to shear loads. Current projects re underway at WVU. to address shear strength reduc- tons that might be essociated with external tension forces. Preliminary results support an interactive form Sr bre (20) reepret where: n= 1.75 pectiminary) (Q; = avaable fastener Shea strenth Q,= fastener sheat Strenath T= external tension 1, fastener tensile strength Consider a 900 mm (3Rwide {4 / Modern Stat Contraction March 1988 deck spanning 1.5 m (49 f.) and swith aa uphite af 2000 Pa (12 afl, Structural connections are ft the third points across the ancl vidth.The three connec tions anchor a loaded area of 135 m (16 fi). The uplift load is 2700 N and each fastener has ‘2 tension load of 900 N (200 Ihe.)-Many typical weld and mecharieal fasteners have hold- down sengths in sheets on the ‘order of 7600 N. Shear strengths fare of asimilar magnitude 1/1, ‘900/75C0 = 0.12 for the present ‘ease.‘The interaction equation suggests that the reduced shear capacity, Q = 0.975 Q. and that shear-enly'diaphragins tables ‘might simply be reduced linearly to account for uplift. Under most condition, typieal uplift loadings ‘will have minimal influence on ‘tiaphregm shear strength ‘Decking side lap or titeh on- nections most often are made ‘sing self-drilling screws. They fare preferred over welding Because shect-tosheet welding Is diffiult and always of question- fablo quality. Some deoke are ‘manufeetured with an upstand: ing overlap that is suitable to ‘button punching along such side aps. Tn the button punching joperatin, a erimping tool i used to form a series of nested eone= Tike indentations, On removing the tool, elastic rebound will ‘allow some loosening of the ‘cones Such connections are ade- {quate t prevent vertical sepa ton at he decking edges but will, bbe much weaker in shear that ‘Shect-to-sheet screws under shear load usually ave limited in strength by tearing or splitting the shest around the serew. ‘The screw strength shows litte sensit vity to the material strength and may be represented by G.-C dy ey where Qs= screw strength, EN kins). 08 (115 with inch unis) screw dameter, rm in). scking thickness, ‘men(in) For a typical No. 12 serew, Q, 29 £, KN (24.3, Kips). Serew manufacturers can supply the designer with specific screw data, Loan Facrons Detailed studies have been ‘made on full seale diaphragm teste conducted over the past 20 years at West Virginia University. Those studies have involved systems with welds, serew connections, and power Griven pins. Concrete filled Giaphragms and others with mixed connection means have heen included in the studies. ‘These led the SDI to relate work ing shears § from transient loads ‘othe foregoing formulations for Ultimate strength as follows: Eo 2) so 2 where SF safety factor SF= 275 Tor welded tiaphvagms SF= 235 ormechant ‘il connectone SF= 275 Tor weldscew ‘ombinaions| SF= 525 for concrete fied systems Diarumacns wrt SLOPING SeaMENTS ‘Tho building of Figure 5 has a trussed roof system supported on simple columns and the roof Giaphragm surfaces are identi- eal. Two horizontal line loads, fw and gb, are acting and the trusses are sufficient rigid that Toth eave lines move laterally by the same amount, Consider the diaphragm sheers in each root ‘segment, ‘Since both surfaces exper ‘ence the same herizontal eave movement and are of equal stif- nes, they share the acting loads ‘equally. Along the rake line A {shear Sis developed and it pro: ‘duces total reaction farce are on RSs where @ is the rof slope. Theincinod R-foree has a horizontal component of RiCos @) = SB) ‘Thon for horizontal equilibrium using the four shear lines: Peta qplond Sha aby It is obvious then that the end ‘wall shear in the diaphragms is exactly the same as if the roof Inad been dead flat and continu fous cress the B width. A note of feaution is added. There must be ‘aridgeeap device that ean trans- for shear from one root surface to the other and there must be pro- vision for transferring shears, S, from the roof surface and into theend wal ‘Somewhat similar questions arise with roofs having Toeally changing slopes for drainage purposes. Consider the steel framed building in Figure 6 loaded with eave line loads as indicated. The wall at tine a-b is 4 shear wall and all columns are Simple. The total shear force ‘lang line ac i, + qJL/2 and the horizontal shéar aeting on |quarter-point section e-od is half that at the end line a-b. The framing along d-e-e will force points d and e move about the Same amount while the center column maintain the angle @ ‘The shears, 8, along cach inclined segment produce resul: tant forees R= SIB/2)Cos @ which have horizontal compo Dents of S(B/2). Then it is obvi us that the avorage shear along the longer inclined components is exactly equal to what would hhave developed on shorter com: ponents in a similar lat rot. as) Commnyrany ‘The design of a steel deck digphragm is not particularly difficult when the problem is kropt in proper perspecitve. The diaphragm simply is a large firderlike system subject to all, the limitations of any other shear system, Care must be taken in the design with partieu- sr attention given to connec tions and lond transfer lines Is Figure: Building with sloped root a structural system and mu designed and rected ith ll the tare given to any other part of ‘he structural system, ‘Sources of information in this article include * Diaphragm Design Manual, 1st Editon, Steol Deck Institute G81) + Diaphragm Design Manual, 2nd Rdition Stee! Deck Institute 1987) Cold Formed Sto! in Tall Building, McGraw-Hill (2998). + "Deck Fasteners Under Combined Loadings,” West ‘Virginia University Research (193) Moder Stl Contoction / March 1955/05