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System 39 (2011) 90e102

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Relationship between motivation for learning EFL and intrinsic

motivation for learning in general among Japanese elementary
school students
Junko Matsuzaki Carreira*
Child Psychology Department, Tokyo Future Universty, 34-12 Senju Akebono-cho, Adachi-ku, Tokyo 120-0023, Japan

Received 26 May 2010; revised 21 October 2010; accepted 2 December 2010

Abstract

This study investigated children’s motivation for learning English as a foreign language (EFL) and intrinsic motivation for
learning in general. The participants were 268 third-sixth graders in a public school in Japan. Data were collected using two
questionnaires, one measuring motivation for learning EFL and the other investigating intrinsic motivation for studying in general.
Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA）indicated that intrinsic motivation for studying in general as well as motivation for
learning EFL of the participating students generally decline from third through sixth grades. The results of a multiple-regression
analysis indicate that curiosity is a predictor of intrinsic motivation for learning EFL, interest in foreign countries, and instrumental
motivation; enjoyment is a positive predictor of intrinsic motivation for learning EFL and interest in foreign countries; endogenous
attribution is a negative predictor of instrumental motivation,; and internal causality is a positive predictor of instrumental moti-
vation. It can be suggested that a developmental decline in intrinsic motivation for studying in general might influence English
lessons.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Motivation for learning EFL; Intrinsic motivation for learning in general; Elementary school students

1. Introduction

English programs for children in Asian countries are being rapidly introduced and it is becoming all the more
critical to examine closely, from multiple perspectives, the contents and contexts of English programs, linguistic
accomplishments, and affective factors in learning English as a foreign language (EFL). In particular, we should pay
attention to motivation, referring to “the process whereby goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained” (Pintrich
and Schunk, 2002, p. 5) because “motivation can predict important academic outcomes like performance and
persistence” (Ratelle et al., 2004: 743). The present study will especially focus on intrinsic motivation, referring to
“motivation to engage in an activity for its own sake” (Pintrich and Schunk, 2002, p. 245). Intrinsic motivation is one
of the most important factors in educational settings. Children with higher intrinsic motivation tend to have higher

* Tel.: þ81 3 5813 2540 1308; fax: þ81 3 5813 2529.

E-mail address: junko.carreira@tokyomirai.ac.jp.

0346-251X/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.system.2011.01.009
 J.M. Carreira / System 39 (2011) 90e102 91

achievements, a more favorable perception of their academic competence, and lower academic anxiety (Gottfried,
1990).
However, several researchers (e.g., Carreira, 2006a, 2006b; MacIntyre et al., 2002; Sung and Padilla, 1998) found
a developmental decrease in motivation for language learning. Carreira (2006a, 2006b) found that elementary school
students’ motivation for learning EFL decreased with age, pointing out that their motivational decrease may not be
happening only in English, but also in their general learning. According to MacIntyre et al. (2002), decrease in
motivation for language learning may reflect a more global decrease in motivation and not one specific to language
learning. They suggest future studies examining language learning motivation to include more general academic-
achievement measures, to discover possible links between changes in language learning motivation and global
motivation. Do students with higher motivation for learning in general have higher motivation for language learning?
How does motivation for learning in general have an influence on motivation for learning EFL? In order to answer
these questions, this study simultaneously investigates motivation for language learning and for learning in general,
and explores possible links between them.

2. Developmental trends in motivation

When it comes to children’s motivation, it is important to consider developmental trends. In general learning,
several researchers (e.g., Harter, 1981; Sakurai and Takano, 1985) have found that students’ intrinsic motivation
decreases with age. For example, Harter (1981) examined intrinsic and extrinsic motivation of over 3000 students
(third through ninth graders) in the United States. Harter investigated five subscales: challenge, curiosity, mastery,
judgment, and criteria, which she defined respectively as “preference for challenge versus preference for easy work,
curiosity/interest vs. teacher approval, independent mastery attempts vs. dependence on the teacher, independent
judgment vs. reliance on the teacher’s judgment, and internal vs. external criteria for success/failure” (p. 300). Harter
found that preference for challenge, curiosity, and independent mastery attempts decreased with age. In contrast,
preference for independent judgment and internal criteria increased with age.
Following Harter (1981), Sakurai and Takano (1985) administered a questionnaire to 486 Japanese students in
1982: second grade (7 or 8 years old) through seventh grade (12 or 13 years old) in 1982. Sakurai and Takano changed
several items, including those dealing with perceived locus of causality, endogenous-exogenous attributions, and
enjoyment, as well as items addressing curiosity, challenge, and mastery orientation. Perceived locus of causality,
proposed by Heider (1958), refers to whether actions or outcomes are perceived as personally caused by the perceiver
or as a result of impersonal causes. Endogenous-exogenous attribution, proposed by Kruglanski (1975), is analogous
to the distinction between means and ends: endogenous attribution refers to the case where an action is considered to
be an end in itself, while exogenous attribution refers to the case where an action is considered to be a means toward
a further goal. Endogenous attribution is linked with intrinsic motivation, whereas exogenous attribution is linked with
extrinsic motivation.
Sakurai and Takano (1985) found three types of developmental trends. Firstly, curiosity, internal causality, and
enjoyment declined gradually from second through fifth grades, but increased in sixth grade and decreased again in
seventh grade. Secondly, independent mastery attempts and preference for challenge decreased with age. Thirdly,
endogenous attribution increased with age. Although there are slight differences among their results and ideas, Harter
(1981) and Sakurai and Takano (1985) found that intrinsic motivation decreases with age.
In second language acquisition (SLA), several studies (Carreira, 2006a, 2006b; Nikolov, 1999; Sung and Padilla,
1998) have focused on developmental trends in motivation for language learning. For example, Sung and Padilla
examined motivation for learning Asian languages such as Chinese, Japanese, and Korean among public elementary
and secondary school students in the United States. The findings revealed that younger students were more motivated
than older students. Nikolov revealed that the older Hungarian children stated more utilitarian reasons than the
younger ones and that classroom-related and teacher-related reasons declined with age. In Japan, Carreira (2006a)
investigated how Japanese elementary school students’ (third and sixth graders) motivation for learning EFL
changed with age. Carreira (2006a) found that intrinsic motivation, interest in foreign countries, and instrumental
motivation scores of the third graders were significantly higher than those of the sixth graders. Furthermore, Carreira
(2006b) explored more detailed developmental trends and gender differences in motivational variables among
Japanese elementary school students, revealing that students’ motivation for learning EFL decreases with age.
92 J.M. Carreira / System 39 (2011) 90e102

A developmental decline for motivation for language learning and learning in general may be a common
phenomenon among school students, despite the contextual differences. Why does a decline in intrinsic motivation
happen? Although autonomy is essential to enhance intrinsic motivation (Deci and Ryan, 1985, 2002), a mismatch
between children’s developing needs for autonomy and the demands of the classroom environment might cause
a decline in intrinsic motivation (Eccles and Midgley, 1989). That is, as students begin to strive for increased
autonomy and personal growth, schools seem to increase their focus on discipline, provide fewer opportunities for
decision making, and give less cognitively challenging coursework (Lepper and Henderlong, 2000), which may
contribute to developmental decrease in students’ intrinsic motivation.
Furthermore, around early puberty, friends appear influential in the academic domain (Altermatt and Pomerantz,
2003). We can assume that higher graders do not want to be seen by peers as excited about a learning task set by the
teacher, which might lead to developmental decline in students’ intrinsic motivation.

3. Gender differences in motivation

In educational psychology, gender differences in motivation have long been researched. Several studies (e.g.,
Crain, 1996; Fredricks and Eccles, 2002) have found that boys report more competence in math, science, and athletics
than girls. Others (e.g., Crain, 1996; Marsh and Young, 1998) found that girls had higher competence belief in
language arts. According to Sakurai and Takano (1985), girls had higher scores than boys in curiosity, internal
causality, and enjoyment, whereas boys had higher scores than girls in preference for challenge.
In SLA, several motivational studies focused on gender differences have been done, most of which have shown that
girls were more motivated to learn languages than boys (e.g., Carreira, 2006b; Dörnyei, Csizér, and Németh, 2006;
Sung and Padilla, 1998). Dörnyei et al. conducted the largest ever language attitude/motivation survey, involving
over 13,000 Hungarian students (13e14 years old), finding that girls were generally motivated to learn a foreign
language. Sung and Padilla also revealed that girls among public elementary and secondary school students in the
United States, regardless of grade level or language program type, had significantly higher motivation to learn an
Asian language. In Japan, Carreira (2006b) found that fourth grade girls were more motivated to learn EFL than fourth
grade boys.
Accordingly, gender differences in motivation can be seen in a number of studies in both educational psychology
and SLA, where gender may be a strong predictor of motivation. Girls generally tend to be motivated to learn an L2.

4. The purpose of the present study

In educational psychology, several researchers (e.g., Harter, 1981; Sakurai and Takano, 1985) have found that
students’ intrinsic motivation for learning in general decreases with age. In language learning, Carreira (2006a, 2006b)
found a developmental decline in motivation for learning EFL, arguing that developmental decrease in motivation
might not only be happening only in EFL, but might be applicable to general learning. MacIntyre et al. (2002) also
argued that decrease in motivation for language learning may reflect a more global decrease in motivation, suggesting
future research examining possible links between changes in language learning motivation and global motivation.
However, the relationship between motivation for learning EFL and for learning in general has not been clarified. Do
students with higher motivation for learning in general have higher motivation for language learning? How does
intrinsic motivation for learning in general have an influence on motivation for learning EFL? The investigation of the
relationship between motivation for learning EFL and for learning in general is at the heart of this study. Thus, the
main purposes of this study are to reveal (a) the effects of grade and gender on motivation for learning EFL and
intrinsic motivation for learning in general and (b) to explore possible links between motivation for learning EFL and
intrinsic motivation for learning in general.
Research Questions
Based upon these considerations, the following research questions have been formulated:

1. What are the effects of grade and gender on the variables of motivation for learning EFL?
2. What are the effects of grade and gender on the variables of intrinsic motivation for learning in general?
3. Which variables of intrinsic motivation for learning in general predict students’ motivation for learning EFL?
How different are the results according to grade and gender?
 J.M. Carreira / System 39 (2011) 90e102 93

5. Method

5.1. Participants

Students from third (8e9 years old), fourth (9e10 years old), fifth (10e11 years old), and sixth (11e12 years old)
graders in one public elementary school were selected to participate in the present study. The total number of
participants in this research was 268: 63 third, 72 fourth, 71 fifth, and 62 sixth graders; 136 boys and 132 girls,
respectively.
The public elementary school is located in the suburbs of Tokyo, Japan. All students, first through sixth grades, had
an English lesson once a week. They learned English conversation and phonics through games and songs from an
assistant language teacher (ALT) or a Japanese teacher of English (JTE), together with homeroom teachers (HT).

5.2. Materials

This research employed the following questionnaires: the Motivation and Attitudes toward Learning English Scale
for Children (MALESC), measuring attitudes and motivation for learning EFL, and the Scale of Intrinsic Versus
Extrinsic Motivation (SIEM), investigating intrinsic motivation for learning in general. The data was collected in
October 2006. The two questionnaires were administered on different days. The total administration of each ques-
tionnaire lasted between 10 and 15 min.

5.2.1. Motivation for learning EFL

As a measure of motivation for learning EFL, 13 items (see Appendix A) were taken from the MALESC created by
Carreira (2006a), which was based on Schmidt et al. (1996), Sakurai and Takano (1985), and Gardner (1985). The
MALESC had 19 items meant to assess five affective variables contributing to EFL learning including intrinsic
motivation for learning EFL, interest in foreign countries, instrumental motivation, anxiety, and perceived parental
encouragement. The first three variables from the MALESC were used in this study. According to Carreira (2006b),
reliability was established via an alpha coefficient of intrinsic motivation for learning EFL (.84), interest in foreign
countries (.86), and instrumental motivation (.72). The MALESC used closed-questions and Likert scales, including
four scales omitting the middle category: strongly agree, agree, disagree, and strongly disagree. Each response option
was assigned a number for scoring purposes: strongly agree ¼ 4, agree ¼ 3, disagree ¼ 2, and strongly dis-
agree ¼ 1.The MALESC was originally written in Japanese (see English Translation in Appendix A).

5.2.2. Intrinsic motivation for learning in general

As has been explained above, the SIEM, based on Harter (1981), was developed by Sakurai and Takano (1985). The
SIEM had 30 items meant to assess intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: curiosity, causality, mastery, attribution,
challenge, and enjoyment. Each subscale contains five items. There were two sentences in each item: one was based on
intrinsic motivation and the other on extrinsic motivation. Children were asked to decide which kind of child was like
them. Each item was scaled as 0 and 1. Scale 0 indicated extrinsic motivation and 1 indicated intrinsic motivation.
According to Sakurai and Takano, reliability of each subscale was established by internal consistency, ranging from
.66 to .85. Furthermore, test-retest reliability over one month yielded over .40. The SIEM was originally written in
Japanese (see English Translation in Appendix B).

6. Results

6.1. Effects of grade and gender on the variables of motivation for learning EFL

The Cronbach alpha index of internal consistency was acceptable for all three subscales, varying between .71 and .87.
MANOVA was performed in order to examine the effects of grade (3, 4, 5, 6) and gender (boy, girl) on the three variables
extracted from the MALESC. Results of the multivariate tests revealed a significant effect of grade and gender, but no
significant effect of grade by gender interaction. At the multivariate level, significant main effects of grade, Pillai’s
Trace ¼ .20, F (9, 780) ¼ 6.34, p < .01, partial eta squared ¼ .068 and gender, Pillai’s Trace ¼ .08, F (3,258) ¼ 7.44,
p < .01, partial eta squared ¼ .080 were observed.
94 J.M. Carreira / System 39 (2011) 90e102

The details of univariate ANOVA results are as follows. Grade had significant effect on intrinsic motivation for
learning EFL, F (3, 260) ¼ 12.39, p < .01, partial eta squared ¼ .125, interest in foreign counties, F (3, 260) ¼ 3.79,
p < .05, partial eta squared ¼ .042 and instrumental motivation, F (3, 260) ¼ 9.90, p < .01, partial eta squared ¼ .103.
In the case of significant main effects of grade, Tukey’s post hoc test was performed to identify statistical
differences. Fig. 1 presents means for grade and three measures of MALESC. Intrinsic motivation for learning EFL
scores decreased from third through sixth grades, although they increased slightly (ns) in fifth grade. There were
significant differences between third and fourth grades, between third and fifth grades, and between third and sixth
grades. Interest in foreign countries scores decreased from third through sixth grades, showing significant differences
between third and fifth grades and between third and sixth grades. Instrumental motivation scores decreased from third
through sixth grades, and then showed significant differences between third and fifth grades, between third and sixth
grades, between fourth and fifth grades, and between fourth and sixth grades.
Gender had a significant effect on intrinsic motivation for learning EFL, F (1, 260) ¼ 13.60, p < .05, partial eta
squared ¼ .050, interest in foreign counties, F (1, 260) ¼ 15.86, p < .05, partial eta squared ¼ .057 and instrumental
motivation, F (1, 260) ¼ 12.72, p < .05, partial eta squared ¼ .047. Girls had significantly higher scores than boys in
the three subscales (see Fig. 2).

6.2. Effect of grade and gender on the variables of intrinsic motivation for learning in general

The Cronbach alpha index of internal consistency was acceptable for all six subscales, varying between .62 and .86.
MANOVA was performed to examine the effects of grade and gender on the six variables extracted from the SIEM.
Results of the multivariate tests revealed a significant effect of grade and gender, but no significant effect of grade by
gender interaction. At the multivariate level, significant main effects of grade, Pillai’s Trace ¼ .20, F (18, 771) ¼ 3.11,
p < .01, partial eta squared ¼ .068 and gender, Pillai’s Trace ¼ .21, F (6, 255) ¼ 11.12, p < .01, partial eta
squared ¼ .207 were observed.
The details of univariate ANOVA results are as follows. Grade had a significant effect on curiosity, F (3,
260) ¼ 4.59, p < .01, partial eta squared ¼ .050, causality, F (3, 260) ¼ 2.76, p < .05, partial eta squared ¼ .031,
attribution, F (3, 260) ¼ 3.26, p < .05, partial eta squared ¼ .036, challenge, F (3, 477) ¼ 5.86, p < .01, partial eta
squared ¼ .063 and enjoyment, F (3, 260) ¼ 2.78, p < .05, partial eta squared ¼ .031.
In the case of significant main effects of grade, Tukey’s post hoc test was performed to identify statistical
differences. Fig. 3 shows mean scores for grade and six measures of SIEM. Curiosity scores decreased from third
through sixth grades, and then showed statistically significant differences between third and sixth grades and between
fourth and sixth grades. Causality scores decreased from third through sixth grades, although they increased slightly
(ns) in fourth grade. There were significant differences between fourth and sixth grades. Attribution scores increased
significantly in fifth grade. Challenge scores decreased from third through sixth grades, showing statistically

4.00

3.50

3.00

2.50
Mean Score

2.00
Intrinsic Motivation
Interest in Foreign Coutries
1.50 Instrumental Motivation

1.00

0.50

0.00
3 4 5 6
Grade

Fig. 1. Mean scores for third grade (n ¼ 63), fourth grade (n ¼ 72), fifth grade (n ¼ 71) and sixth grade (n ¼ 62) in the three subscales of
MALESC.
 J.M. Carreira / System 39 (2011) 90e102 95

3.50

Boys
3.00
Girls
2.50

Mean Score
2.00

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00
Intrinsic Motivation Interest in Foreign Coutries Instrumental Motivation
Motivation for Learning EFL

Fig. 2. Mean scores for boys (n ¼ 136) and girls (n ¼ 132) in the three subscales of MALESC.

significant differences between third and sixth grades and between fourth and sixth grades. Enjoyment scores
decreased significantly in fourth grade, although they increased slightly (ns) in fifth grade.
Gender had a significant effect on curiosity, F (1, 260) ¼ 20.28, p < .01, partial eta squared ¼ .072, causality, F (1,
260) ¼ 30.35, p < .01, partial eta squared ¼ .104, attribution, F (1, 260) ¼ 10.11, p < .01, partial eta squared ¼ .037
and enjoyment, F (1, 260) ¼ 8.39, p < .01, partial eta squared ¼ .031. As shown in Fig. 4, girls had significantly higher
scores in the four subscales.

6.3. Relationship between motivation for learning EFL and intrinsic motivation for learning in general

Multiple-regression analysis was performed to assess the relationship between motivation for learning EFL and
intrinsic motivation for learning in general (see Table 1). The R square values of the three criterion variables were
extracted from the MALESC: Intrinsic motivation for learning EFL, interest in foreign language, and instrumental
motivation were .19, .15, and .24, respectively. A simultaneous regression analysis showed that curiosity was the
independent predictor of intrinsic motivation for learning EFL, interest in foreign language, and instrumental moti-
vation. Enjoyment was a positive predictor of intrinsic motivation for learning EFL and interest in foreign language.
Causality was a positive predictor of instrumental motivation. Attribution was a negative predictor of instrumental
motivation.
Next, the regression analysis was performed separately at each grade. Table 2 shows regression analysis summary
for motivational variables predicting motivation for learning EFL according to grade. In third grade, intrinsic moti-
vation for learning EFL was positively predicted by mastery and enjoyment. In fourth grade, intrinsic motivation for

5.00
4.50
4.00
3.50
Mean Score

3.00
2.50 Curiosity
2.00 Cusality
1.50 Mastery
1.00 Attribution
Challenge
0.50
Enjoyment
0.00
3 4 5 6
Grade

Fig. 3. Mean scores for third grade (n ¼ 63), fourth grade (n ¼ 72), fifth grade (n ¼ 71) and sixth grade (n ¼ 62) in the six subscales of SIEM.
96 J.M. Carreira / System 39 (2011) 90e102

4.50

4.00
Boys
3.50 Girls

3.00

Mean Score
2.50

2.00

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00
Curiosity Cusality Mastery Attribution Challenge Enjoyment
Intrinsic Motivation for Studying in General

Fig. 4. Mean scores for boys (n ¼ 136) and girls (n ¼ 132) in the six subscales of SIEM.

learning EFL was positively predicted by attribution. In sixth grade, intrinsic motivation for learning EFL was
negatively predicted by mastery and positively predicted by enjoyment. In third grade, interest in foreign countries
was positively predicted by causality. In sixth grade, interest in foreign countries was negatively predicted by attri-
bution and positively predicted by enjoyment. In third grades, instrumental motivation was positively predicted by
curiosity and enjoyment. In fourth grade, instrumental motivation was positively predicted by curiosity and by
challenge and negatively predicted by mastery. In fifth grade, instrumental motivation was positively predicted by
causality. In sixth grade, instrumental motivation was negatively predicted by attribution and positively predicted by
enjoyment.
Next, the regression analysis was performed separately for each gender. Table 3 shows motivational variables
predicting motivation for learning EFL according to gender. In boys and girls, intrinsic motivation for learning EFL
was positively predicted by enjoyment. In boys, interest in foreign countries was negatively predicted by attribution.
In girls, interest in foreign countries was positively predicted by enjoyment. In boys, instrumental motivation was
positively predicted by causality and negatively predicted by attribution. However, in girls, instrumental motivation
was not significantly predicted by any of the variables assessed.

Table 1
Regression Analysis Summary for Motivational Variables Predicting Motivation for Learning EFL.
Motivation for Learning EFL Variable B
Intrinsic Motivation for Learning EFL Curiosity .19a
Causality .10
Mastery e.07
Attribution e.02
Challenge e.02
Enjoyment .28b
Interest in Foreign Countries Curiosity .19a
Causality .10
Mastery e.03
Attribution e.06
Challenge .05
Enjoyment .20b
Instrumental Motivation Curiosity .24b
Causality .23b
Mastery e.04
Attribution e.17b
Challenge .12
Enjoyment .09
Note. Intrinsic Motivation for Learning EFL (R2 ¼ .19), Interest in Foreign Countries (R2 ¼ .15), Instrumental Motivation (R2 ¼ .24).
a
p < .05.
b
p < .01.
 J.M. Carreira / System 39 (2011) 90e102 97

Table 2
Regression Analysis Summary for Motivational Variables Predicting Motivation for Learning EFL According to Grade.
Grade Variable Intrinsic Motivation Interest in Foreign Countries Instrumental Motivation
for Learning EFL
B B B
Third Curiosity .04 .05 .33b
Causality .09 .32a .22
Mastery .29a .10 e.15
Attribution e.11 e.09 e.16
Challenge e.08 .09 .03
Enjoyment .50b .14 .39b
Fourth Curiosity .27 .27 .37a
Causality .05 e.10 .11
Mastery e.23 e.22 e.36b
Attribution .27a .10 .00
Challenge .15 .22 .41a
Enjoyment .01 .12 e.12
Fifth Curiosity .35a .25 .11
Causality .18 .10 .42b
Mastery e.07 e.14 .08
Attribution .00 .09 e.14
Challenge e.27 e.25 e.03
Enjoyment .08 e.01 e.05
Sixth Curiosity .13 .25 .18
Causality .23 .18 .28
Mastery e.26a .05 e.07
Attribution e.15 e.26a e.35a
Challenge e.05 e.01 .00
Enjoyment .48b .48b .35a
Note. Intrinsic Motivation for Learning EFL: Third grade, F (6, 56) ¼ 9.16, p < .01 (R2 ¼ .44), Fourth grade, F (6, 65) ¼ 3.43, p < .01 (R2 ¼ .17),
Fifth grade, F (6, 64) ¼ 2.06, p ¼ .07 (R2 ¼ .08), Sixth grade, F (6, 55) ¼ 4.69, p < .01 (R2 ¼ .27), Interest in Foreign Countries: Third grade,
F (6, 56) ¼ 2.94, p < .01 (R2 ¼ .16), Fourth grade, F (6, 65) ¼ 2.86, p < .05 (R2 ¼ .14), Fifth grade, F (6, 64) ¼ 1.08, p ¼ .39 (R2 ¼ .01), Sixth
grade, F (6, 55) ¼ 7.59, p < .01 (R2 ¼ .40), Instrumental Motivation: Third grade, F (6, 56) ¼ 6.33, p < .01 (R2 ¼ .34), Fourth grade, F (6, 65) ¼
4.90, p < .01 (R2 ¼ .25), Fifth grade, F (6, 64) ¼ 2.88, p < .05 (R2 ¼ .14), Sixth grade, F (6, 55) ¼ 3.93, p < .01 (R2 ¼ .24).
a
p < .05.
b
p < .01.

7. Discussion

7.1. What are the effects of grade and gender on the variables of motivation for learning EFL?

This study has showed that intrinsic motivation for learning EFL, interest in foreign countries, and instrumental
motivation of the participating students generally decline from third through sixth grades, which is almost identical to
the results found in Carreira (2006a, 2006b). Developmental decreases in intrinsic motivation may be inevitable to
some degree (Carreira, 2006a). However, according to Lepper and Henderlong (2000), schools provide fewer
opportunities for decision making and give less cognitively challenging coursework as students grow older. Therefore,
lower motivation of higher graders might result from developmentally inappropriate and/or cognitively undemanding
instructional practices. Also, in one class per week the students may not feel any development over time, so they might
not feel competent in their English learning. That is, they may lack mastery motivation. Therefore, they gradually lose
their motivation for learning EFL.
This study has revealed that gender had a significant effect on intrinsic motivation for learning EFL, interest in
foreign counties, and instrumental motivation, although the effect sizes were small. The girls had higher scores than
the boys in the three subscales. As in other studies (e.g., Dörnyei et al., 2006; Sung and Padilla, 1998), the girls in this
study are more motivated to learn EFL than the boys. Therefore, this research supports the common finding that girls
are generally more motivated to learn languages.
98 J.M. Carreira / System 39 (2011) 90e102

Table 3
Regression Analysis Summary for Motivational Variables Predicting Motivation for Learning EFL According to Gender.
Gender Variable Intrinsic Motivation Interest in Foreign Countries Instrumental Motivation
for Learning EFL
B B B
Boys Curiosity .14 .16 .20
Causality .10 .07 .30b
Mastery .01 e.04 .01
Attribution e.12 e.19a e.18a
Challenge .04 .10 .15
Enjoyment .28b .14 .03
Girls Curiosity .18 .16 .22
Causality .04 e.03 e.02
Mastery e.15 e.02 e.02
Attribution .09 .03 e.16
Challenge .00 .09 .19
Enjoyment .27b .29b .17
Note. Intrinsic Motivation for Learning EFL: Boys, F (6, 129) ¼ 4.81, p < .01 (R2 ¼ .15), Girls, F (6, 125) ¼ 4.11, p < .01 (R2 ¼ .13), Interest in
Foreign Countries: Boys, F (6, 129) ¼ 3.00, p < .01 (R2 ¼ .08), Girls, F (6, 125) ¼ 4.57, p < .01 (R2 ¼ .14), Instrumental Motivation: Boys,
F (6, 129) ¼ 8.38, p < .01 (R2 ¼ .28), Girls, F (6, 125) ¼ 4.09, p < .01 (R2 ¼ .16).
a
p < .05.
b
p < .01.

7.2. What are the effects of grade and gender on the variables of intrinsic motivation for learning in general?

Fig. 3 shows that curiosity, internal causality, and preference for challenge decreased from third through sixth
grades and endogenous attribution increased from fourth through fifth grades. In this study as well as Sakurai and
Takano (1985) and Harter (1981), curiosity and preference for challenge decreased with age. Despite contextual
differences, students are likely to become less curious and less interested in challenging work or see work as less
challenging through the elementary school years. Furthermore, this study as well as Sakurai and Takano found
a decrease in internal causality and an increase in endogenous attribution. Accordingly, we can assume that devel-
opmental trends in intrinsic motivation of Japanese elementary school students in 2006 are almost similar to those in
1982.
Regarding gender, this study as well as Sakurai and Takano (1985) found that girls had higher scores than boys in
curiosity, internal causality, and enjoyment Therefore, girls in 2006 as well as in 1982 tend to have higher curiosity,
study more voluntarily, and enjoy schoolwork more than boys. On the other hand, Sakurai and Takano found that boys
had higher scores than girls in preference for challenge, whereas this study revealed no significant differences between
boys and girls. Thus, compared to about 20 years before, girls tend to prefer engaging in challenging schoolwork as
much as boys.

7.3. Which variables of intrinsic motivation for learning in general predict students’ motivation for learning EFL?
How different are the results according to grade and gender?

The results of a multiple-regression analysis indicate that the variable of curiosity is a predictor of intrinsic
motivation for learning EFL, interest in foreign countries, and instrumental motivation. Thus, individuals who have
high curiosity are likely to have intrinsic motivation for learning EFL, interest in foreign countries, and instrumental
motivation. As we have seen above, motivation for learning EFL scores as well as curiosity scores decline from third
through sixth grades. Therefore, it can be tentatively assumed that the developmental decrease in curiosity influences
the decrease in motivation for learning EFL. Thus, fostering and stimulating curiosity might lead to the enhancement
of motivation for learning EFL. However, around early puberty, friends appear influential in the academic domain
(Altermatt and Pomerantz, 2003), so higher graders do not want to be seen by peers as excited about a learning task,
which might make it more difficult to enhance higher graders’ curiosity. Thus, we, in cooperation with homeroom
 J.M. Carreira / System 39 (2011) 90e102 99

teachers in elementary school, may need to make further efforts to enhance their curiosity and provide materials and
environments where their curiosity is stimulated and fostered in both EFL classes and the whole curriculum
Although curiosity is often not seen as associated with instrumental motivation, this study shows that curiosity is
positively related to instrumental motivation. However, when we look at the results of regression analysis performed
separately at each grade, only in third and fourth grades is curiosity associated with instrumental motivation. Thus,
curious third and fourth graders are likely to have instrumental motivation, but as they progress through the grades,
curiosity seems not to influence instrumental motivation.
This study found that enjoyment is a positive predictor of intrinsic motivation for learning EFL and interest in
foreign countries. Thus, students who enjoy schoolwork are likely to have higher intrinsic motivation for learning EFL
and higher interest in foreign countries. In particular, sixth graders who enjoy schoolwork tend to have strong intrinsic
motivation for learning EFL, interest in foreign countries, and instrumental motivation. Thus, it can be assumed that as
Japanese elementary school students grow older, students who enjoy schoolwork are likely to have higher motivation
for learning EFL.
When it comes to attribution, this study revealed that endogenous attribution is negatively related to instrumental
motivation. Students who have lower scores of endogenous attribution are likely to have higher instrumental moti-
vation. That is, students who study for external reasons such as grades and careers tend to study English for future
educational and vocational reasons. When we look at the results of regression analysis performed separately at each
grade and gender, endogenous attribution negatively influences interest in foreign countries and instrumental moti-
vation in sixth grade and boys. Therefore, it might be said that higher graders, especially boys, who study for external
reasons, such as for careers and entrance examinations tend to have higher interest in foreign countries and instru-
mental motivation.
This study also demonstrated that internal causality is a positive predictor of instrumental motivation. As has been
seen in Table 3, children, especially boys, who study voluntarily tend to have instrumental motivation. The self-
determination theory proposed by Deci and Ryan (1985) generally points to an association between self-determination
and intrinsic motivation. Children who are not initially motivated to perform can be gradually motivated, that is, there
is a shift from extrinsic control to self-regulation (Ryan et al., 1985). However, children in this study have already
internalized instrumental motivation goals at a fairly young age. These instrumental goals have become self-deter-
mined or self-regulated, reflected in children’s readiness to study voluntarily.

8. Conclusions

This study has revealed important issues concerning motivation for learning EFL among Japanese elementary
school students, but there remain several issues to be examined in future research. Firstly, as with all studies, it is
essential to replicate the present study to determine the applicability of the results in other contexts. Such repli-
cation in other places in Japan and other countries seems important in order to detect how children’s motivation for
learning EFL may differ in different sociocultural contexts. Secondly, although this study revealed the relationship
between motivation for learning EFL and intrinsic motivation for learning in general, it should be noted that the R
square values were rather small on these regressions. There might be other factors which influence motivation for
learning EFL. It is necessary to explore other potential factors such as teachers’ support and teaching methods in the
future. Next, the data were collected only by means of questionnaires. Qualitative research, including interviews
with students and teachers, assessments of actual performance, and classroom observations, may provide further
layers of analysis. Qualitative research will be required to explore motivation for learning EFL in more detail.
Finally, this study did not investigate the relationship between English achievement and motivation, which has
important implications for EFL in elementary school. Future studies should explore a possible link between
affective factors and English achievement.
Despite these limitations, this study has revealed several important findings. Firstly, the present study simulta-
neously investigated motivation for learning EFL and intrinsic motivation for learning in general, demonstrating that
the participating students’ intrinsic motivation for learning in general as well as motivation for learning EFL generally
decline from third through sixth grades. The developmental decline of intrinsic motivation through the early and
middle years of schooling is of great concern to educators and educational researchers. This pattern of motivation
decline where EFL is concerned seems worrying for policy makers, since the introduction of English at elementary
school level may run the risk of demotivating children before more formal study of English begins in middle school.
100 J.M. Carreira / System 39 (2011) 90e102

However, the pattern of decline in EFL motivation simply reflects a general developmental decline in intrinsic
motivation for learning in general through these elementary school years. In other words, what happens through these
years to children’s EFL motivation is no different from what happens to their motivation for school learning in general.
Older students tend to be less active in EFL classes as well as in other subjects.
Furthermore, this study revealed the relationship between motivation for learning EFL and intrinsic motivation for
learning in general among elementary school students. Intrinsic motivation for learning in general tends to have
a positive influence on motivation for learning EFL. When we look at the results in each grade, there are several
differences according to grade. Firstly, sixth graders who enjoy schoolwork tend to have strong motivation for learning
EFL, compared to other grades. Secondly, from third through fifth grades, intrinsic motivation for learning in general
tends to have a positive influence on motivation for learning EFL, but motivational factors like endogenous attribution
negatively influence motivation for learning EFL in sixth grade. Therefore, in order to prevent a developmental decline
in motivation for learning EFL, we should provide classroom tasks which are enjoyable and cognitively challenging for
higher graders and make them realize the importance of both general learning and EFL learning for the future.
In conclusion, this study reveals that intrinsic motivation for learning in general is related to motivation for learning
EFL. Thus, we should strive to enhance students’ motivation for school learning including English learning, in
cooperation with homeroom teachers in elementary school. It is hoped that these findings will lead to changes in
practice that have an impact on the future of EFL in elementary school.

Appendix A

Items for Motivation for learning EFL (The original version was written in Japanese, adapted from Carreira, 2006a)

Intrinsic motivation
Q1 English lessons are great fun.
Q3 I always look forward to the day when we have English class.
Q5 I would like to try to use the English which I have learned.
Q7 I hope that we have more English lessons.

Interest in foreign countries

Q2 I would like to go to various foreign countries.
Q4 I would like to make a lot of foreign friends.
Q9 I would like to try and talk to foreigners when my English becomes proficient.
Q11 I would like to live abroad.
Q12 I would like to know more about foreign countries.

Instrumental motivation
Q6 I study English in order to make English easier for me in junior high school.
Q8 I study English because I think English will be necessary for me when I am an adult.
Q10 I am studying English for a future job.
Q13 I am studying English in order to enter a high school or a university.

Appendix B

Items for Intrinsic Motivation for Learning in General (The original version was written in Japanese, adapted from
Sakurai and Takano, 1985)

1 “I want to study various things voluntarily” as intrinsic choice versus “I think I should study only what my
teachers teach” as extrinsic choice.
2 “I study because I want to” as intrinsic choice versus “I study because my parents tell me to” as extrinsic choice.
 J.M. Carreira / System 39 (2011) 90e102 101

3 “I try to solve difficult problems by myself” as intrinsic choice versus “I ask a teacher soon when a problem is
difficult” as extrinsic choice.
4 “I study because I can learn what I like” as intrinsic choice versus “I study in order to get a good grade” as
extrinsic choice.
5 “I like difficult problems” as intrinsic choice versus “I like easier problems” as extrinsic choice.
6 “I enjoy lessons at school” as intrinsic choice versus “I don’t enjoy lessons at school” as extrinsic choice.
7 “I want to study as much as possible” as intrinsic choice versus “I want to study only what I learn at school” as
extrinsic choice.
8 “I do excises because I want to know how to solve various problems” as intrinsic choice versus “I do excises
because I am told to” as extrinsic choice.
9 “When I make a mistake, I try to find an answer” as intrinsic choice versus “When I make a mistake, I try to ask
a teacher for the answer” as extrinsic choice.
10 “I study because studying is fun” as intrinsic choice versus “I study in order to get a good grade” as extrinsic
choice.
11 “I like difficult problems” as intrinsic choice versus “I don’t like difficult problems” as extrinsic choice.
12 “Schoolwork is fun” as intrinsic choice versus “Schoolwork is not fun” as extrinsic choice”.
13 “I want to read various types of books” as intrinsic choice versus “I don’t want to read books except comics” as
extrinsic choice.
14 “I do homework voluntarily” as intrinsic choice versus “I do homework because my parents tell me to do” as
extrinsic choice.
15 “I try to solve problems by myself even if I cannot solve them” as intrinsic choice versus “I ask teachers soon
when I cannot solve problems” as extrinsic choice.
16 “I do not study only because I want to receive praise from my parents” as intrinsic choice versus “I study
because I want to receive praise from my parents” as extrinsic choice.
17 “I like difficult problems” as intrinsic choice versus “I like easy problems” as extrinsic choice.
18 “I feel happy when I can solve difficult problems” as intrinsic choice versus “ I do not feel happy even if I can
solve difficult problems” as extrinsic choice.
19 “I study not only homework but also what I think is interesting” as intrinsic choice versus “I study only
homework” as extrinsic choice.
20 “I study even if teachers and parents do not tell me to study” as intrinsic choice versus “I don’t study until
teachers and parents tell me to study” as extrinsic choice.
21 “I solve problems by myself” as intrinsic choice versus “My teachers teach me how to solve problems” as
extrinsic choice.
22 “I study because I like to” as intrinsic choice versus “I study because I want to get better grades than my friends”
as extrinsic choice.
23 “I like to solve more difficult problems” as intrinsic choice versus “I like to solve easier problems” as extrinsic
choice.
24 “There are many days when I enjoy studying at school” as intrinsic choice versus “There are hardly any days
when I enjoy studying at school” as extrinsic choice.
25 “I always want to know as much as possible” as intrinsic choice versus “I do not want to know many things” as
extrinsic choice.
26 “I study voluntarily before my parents tell me” as intrinsic choice versus “I study reluctantly because my parents
tell me” as extrinsic choice.
27 “I try to solve difficult problems by myself” as intrinsic choice versus “I ask my friends when problems are
difficult” as extrinsic choice.
28 “I study because studying is fun” as intrinsic choice versus “I study because I do not want to be scolded by my
parents” as extrinsic choice.
29 “In selecting one of two problems, I select the more difficult one” as intrinsic choice versus “In selecting one of
two problems, I select the easier one” as extrinsic choice.
30 “To study new things is fun” as intrinsic choice versus “To study new things is not fun” as extrinsic choice.
102 J.M. Carreira / System 39 (2011) 90e102

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