FIGURE 29-11 X.25 deta transfer packet format
tor Each successive data transfer packet is assigned the next P(s) number in sequence.
The P(s) can bea 14- or seven-bit binary number and, thus, number packets from either
0-7 of 0-127. The numbering sequence is identified in the format identifier. The send
packet field always contains eight bits, and the unused bits are reset.
Receive packet sequence field. P(r) is used to confirm received packets and call for
retransmission of packets received in error (ARQ). The I field in a data transfer
packet can have considerably more source information than an T‘eld in @ call ==
quest packet.
23-9-5 The X Series of Recommended Standards
X.25 is part of the X series of ITU-T-recommended standards for public data networks. The
X series is classified into two categories: X.1 through X.39, which deal with services and
jes, terminals, and interfaces, and X.40 through X.199, which deal with network ar
‘switching, maintenance, and administrative arrange-
chitecture, transmission, signaling, an
ments. Table 23-6 lists the most important X standards with their titles and descriptions.
23-10 INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORK
“The data and telephone communications industry is continually changing to meet the de-
_mands of contemporary telephone, video, and computer communications systems. Today.
‘more and more people have a need to communicate with each other than ever before. In or-
der to meet these needs, old standards are being updated and new standards developed and
implemented almost on a daily basis.
The Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a proposed network designed
by the major telephone companies in conjunction with the ITU-T with the intent of pro-
viding worldwide telecommunications support of voice, data, video, and facsimile in-
formation within the same network (in essence, ISDN is the integrating of a wide range
of services into a single multipurpose network). ISDN is a network that proposes to in-
terconnect an unlimited number of independent users through a common communica-
tions network.
To date, only a small number of ISDN facilities have been developed: however, the
telephone industry is presently’ implementing an ISDN system so that in the near furure,
palace ilar i ISDN Syne using exiting public telephone and d works.
a of ISDN have been outlined by the International
‘Telecommunication Union-Telephony (ITU-T) in its reco i
1 I 's recommendation 11201984).
ny ITU-T 1.120 lists the following principles and evolution of ISDN.
Protocols and Data Communications Networks 969
4Table 23-6 ITU-T X Series Standards
: International weer classes of service in public data networks. Assigns numerical class desig.
x1
nations to different terminal speeds and types. '
x2 Detechashihal wr vices dnd footie Ta gc dota networks. Species eantatal sad agg,
tional services and facilities. ; :
x3 Packet assembly/disassembly facility (PAD) in a public data network. Describes th= packet
assembler/disassembler, which normally is used at a network gateway to allow cvnnection
f a start/stop terminal to a packet network.
X2Ris Use on public data networks Of DTE designed fr interacng to asynchronous full-duplex
‘V-series modems. Allows use of V.24/V.28 (essentially the same as EIA RS-232).
X2ibis_—_Use on public data networks of DTE designed for interfacing to synchronous full-duplex
\V-series modems. Allows use of V.24/V.28 (essentially the same as EIA RS-232) or V.35,
x25 " Interface between DTE and DCE for terminals operating in the packet mode on public data
networks. Defines the architecture of three levels of protocols existing in the serial inter-
face cable between a packet mode terminal and a gateway to a packet network.
X28 DTEJDCE interface for a starv/stop mode DTE accessing the PAD in a public data network
situated in the same country. Defines the architecture of protocols existing in a serial inter.
face cable between a start/stop terminal and an X.3 PAD.
X29 Procedures for the exchange of control information and user data between aPADanda
packet mode DTE or another PAD. Defines the architecture of protocols behind the X3
PAD, either between two PADs or between a PAD and a packet mode terminal on the
other side of the network.
x75 ‘Terminal and transit call control procedures and data transfer system on international circuits
between packet-switched data networks. Defines the architecture of protocols between
two public packet networks, :
X21 {mtemationa numbering plan for public data networks. Defines a numbering plan ineluding
ode assignments for each nation.
23-10-1 Principles of ISDN
‘The main feature of the ISDN concept is to support a wide range of voice (telephone) and
Ronvoice (digital data) applications in the same network using a limited number ot stan-
dardized facilities. ISDNs support a wide variety of applications, including both switched
itis recognized that ISDNs may be implemented in a variety of configurations ac-
cording, to specific national situations. This accommodates both single-source or competi-
tive national policy.
23-10-2 Evolution of ISDN
ISDNs will be based on the concepts developed for telephone ISDNs and may evolve by
progressively incorporating additional functions and network features including those of
any other dedicated networks such as circuit and packet Switching for data so as to provide
for existing and new services.
‘The transition from an existing network to a comprehensive ISDN may require a period
Of time extending.ove: one or more decades. During this period, arrangements 1.1ust be devel-
oped for the internetworking of services on ISDNs and services on other networks,
Chapter 23‘ols and. Data Communications Networks
=]
1 eel ortare
ontuoe
; —
Digital pipes to
-A™
Local area network (LAN)
‘customer's premiso f other customers
Other
services
FIGURE 23-12 Subscriber's conceptual view of ISDN
In the evolution toward an ISDN, digital end-to-end connectivity will be obtained via
plant arid equipment used in existing networks, such as digital transmission, time-division
multiplex, and/or space-division multiplex switching. Existing relevant recommendations
for these constituent elements of an ISDN are contained “u the appropriate series of rec-
ommendations of ITU-T and CCIR.
‘In the early stages of the evolution of ISDNs, so.ne interim user-network arrange-
ments may need to be adopted in certain countries to facilitate early penetration of digital
service capabilities. An evolving ISDN may also include at later stages switched connec-
tions at bit rates higher and lower than 64 kbps.
23-10-3 Conceptual View of ISDN
Figuré 23-12 shows a view of how ISDN can be conceptually viewed by asubscriber (customer)
of the system. Customers gain access to the ISDN system through a local interface connected to
a digital transmission medium called a digital pipe. There are several sizes of pipe available with
varying capacities (.., bit rates), depending on customer need. For example, a residential cus-
tomer may require only enough capacity to accommodate a telephone and a personal computer.
capacity to handle a large num-
However, an office complex may require a pipe with suffici
ber of digital telephones interconnected through an on-premise private branch exchange (PBX)
ora large number of computers on «local area network (LAN).
Figure 23-13 shows the ISDN user network, which illustrates the variety of network
users and the need for more than one capacity pipe. A single residential telephone is at the
jow end of the ISDN demand curve, followed by a multiple-drop arrangement serving a
and a home alarm system. Industrial complexes would be
telephone, a personal computer,
a the high end of the demand curve, as they require sufficient capacity to handle hundreds
of telephones and several LANs. ‘Although a pipe has a fixed capacity, the traffic on the pipe
can be comprised of data froma dynamic variety of sources with varying signal types and
bit rates that have been multiplexed ino a single high-capacity pipe. Therefore, a cus-
tomer can gain access to both circuit- and packet-switched services through the same
971Cisow user-to:network interface
FIGURE 23-13 ISON user network
Pipe. Because of the obvious complexity of ISDN, it requires a rather complex control sys.
tem to facilitate multiplexing and demultiplexing data to provide the required services,
23-104 "ISDN Objectives 7
The key objectives of developing a worldwide ISDN system are the following:
1. System ctandardization. Ensure universal access to the network.
2. Achieving transparency. Allow customers to use a variety of protocols and appli-
cations. : :
3. Separating functions. ISDN should not provide services that preclude competi-
tiveness.
4. Variety of configurations. Provide private-line (leased) and switched services,
5. Addressing cost-related tariffs. ISDN service should be directly related to cost and
independent of the nature of the data.
6. Migration. Provide a smooth transition while evolving.
7. Multiplexed support, Provide service to low-capacity personal subscribers as well
as to large companies.
23-105 ISDN Architecture
Figure 23-14 shows a block diagram of the architecture for ISDN functions. The ISDN net-
work is designed to support an entirely new physical connector for the customer, a digital
subscriber loop, and a variety of transmission services.
A common physical is defined to provide a standard interface connection. A single in-
terface will be used for telephones, computer terminals, ard video equipment. Therefore,
various protocols are provided that allow the exchange of control information between the
customer's device and the ISDN network. There are three basic types of ISDN channels:
1. B channel: 64 kbps
2. D channel: 16 kbps or 64 kbps
3. H channel: 384 Kbps (Fp), 1536 kbps (Hy), or 1920 kbps (H,.)
ISDN standards specify that residential users of the network (ie, the subscribers) be
provided a basic access consisting of three full-duplex, time-division multiplexed digital
channels. two operating at 64 kbps (designated the B channels, for bearer) and one at 16 Kbps
(designated the D channel, for dara). The B and D bit rates were selected to be compatible
with existing DS1-DS4 digital carrier systems. The D channel is used for carrying signaling,
Chapter 23<— Customer promis
Digital subscriber oop
to contrat fice,
Customer ISDN
Intortace,
(NT)
‘Customer
ISDN site or
Switch Switch servico
provider
FIGURE 23-14 ISON architecture
information and for exchanging network control information. One B channel is used for dig-
itally encoded voice and the other for applications such as data transmission, PCM-encoded
digitized voice, and videotex. The 2B + D service is sometimes called the basic rate inter-
face (BRI). BRI systems require bandwidths that can accommodate tivo 64-kbps B channels
and one 16-kbps D channel plus framing, synchronization, and other overhead bits for a to-
tal bit rate of 192 khns. The H channels are used to provide higher bit rates for special serv-
ices such as fast facsimile, video, high-speed data, and high-quality audio.
‘There is another service called the primary service, primary access, or primary rate
interface (PRI) that will provide multiple 64-kbps channels intended to be used by the
higher-volume subscribers to the network. In the United States, Canada, Japan, and Ko-
Tea, the primary rate interface consists of 23 64-kbps B channels and one 64-kbps D chan-
nel (23B + D) fora combined bit rate of 1.544 Mbps. In Europe, the primary rate inter-
face uses 30 64-kbps B channels and one 64-kbps D channel for a combined bit rate of
2.048 Mbps.
tis intended that ISDN provide a circuit-switched B channel with the existing tele-
phone system; however, packet-switched B channels sur data transmission at nonstandard
rates would have to be created.
‘The subscriber's loop, as with the twisted-pair cable used with a common telephone,
provides the physical signal path from the subscriber's equipment to the ISDN central of-
fice. The subscriber loop must be capable of supporting full-duplex digital transmission for
both basic and primary data rates. Ideally, as the network grows, optical fiber cables will
replace the metallic cables.
Table 23-7 lists the services provided to ISDN subscribers. BC designates a circuit-
switched B channel, BP designates a packet-switched B channel, and D designates a D
channel. '
23-10-6 ISDN System Connections and Interface Units
ISDN subscriber units and interfaces are defined by their function and reference within the
network, Figure 23-15 shows how users may be connected to an ISDN. As the figure shows,
subscribers must access the network through one of two different types of entry devices:
terminal equipment ype 1 (TE1) or terminal equipment type 2 (TE2). TEL equipment sup-
ports standard ISDN interfaces and, therefore, requires no protocol translation, Data enter
@Link Protocols and Data Communications Networks 973Table 23-7 ISON Services
Serie Trager Rak
‘Telephone GA kbps
System alarms: 100 bps:
Utility company metering 100 bps
Energy management 100 bps.
Video 24-64 kbps
Electronic mail 48-64 kbps.
Factimile 48-64 kbps.
Slow-scan television (64 kbps
Customer--1 — Localloop- - 1
=Common + ~ ~ Central office
a carrier facilities
FIGURE 23-15 ISON connections and reference points
the network and are immediately configured into ISDN protocol format, TE2 equipment
is classified as non-ISDN; thus, computer terminals are connected to the system through
physical interfaces such as the RS-232 and host computers with X.25. Translation be-
tween non-ISDN data protocol and ISDN protocol is performed in a device called a
terminal adapter (TA), which converts the user’s data into the 64-kbps ISDN channel B
or the 16-kbps channel D format and X.25 packets into ISDN packet formats. If any ad-
ditional signaling is required, it is added by the terminal adapter. The terminal adapters
can also support traditional analog telephones and facsimile signals by using a 3.1-kHz
audio service channel. The analog signals are digitized and put into ISDN format before
entering the network.
User data at points designated as reference point S (system) are presently in ISDN for-
mat and provide the 2B + D data at 192 kbps. These reference points separate user terminal
equipment from network-related system functions, Reference point T (terminal) locations
correspond to a minimal ISDN network termination at the user’s location. These reference
Chapter 23points separate the network provi
. etwork provider's equi 7
Rate provides an interface between non ISDN eta.
adapters . n-ISDN-compatible user equipment and the terrhi-
. fetwork termination 1 (NT!
interface between the user and te eotlocs the functions associated with the physical
(these fanctléns correspond te Ost lena and are designated by the letter T
may be controlled by the ISDN ann The NTI is boundary to the network and
and supports multiple channel provider. The NTI performs line maintenance functions
nels are time-division sari sat the physical level (e.g., 2B + D). Data from the ~ chan-
ret aie one tiplexed together. Network terminal 2 devices are inte...gent
beac eat ane and switching functions (functionally up through OSI
ae Renna can also be used to terminate several S-point connections and
ee a eee 8 functions and two-wire-to-four-wire and four-wire-to-two-wire
eriber loop and the ant apie sefer ‘0 interfaces between the common carrier sub-
ice i
pe ee am cae orien switch. A U loop is the media interface point between
Ne ree
the « Netwar termtfation 1,2 (NT12) constitutes one piece of equipment that combines
ocion (ih ait we a _ NT2. U loops are terminated at the central office by a line termi-
perranattie og ie Provides Physical layér interface functions between the central of-
ea op Hines The LT unit'is connected to an exchange termination (ET) at
ce Bole n ET routes data to an outgoing channel or central office user.
aT several types of transmission channels in addition to the B and D types de-
scribed in the previous section. They include the following:
s HO channels. These struc-
HO channel. This interface supports multiple 384-kbp:
terface and SHO + D for the
tures are 3HO + D and 4HO + D for the 1.544-Mbps int
2.048-Mbps interface.
HII channel. This interface consists of one 1.536-Mbps HII GHiannel (24 64-kbps
channels}.
HI2 channel. European version of H11 that uses 30 channels fora combined data rate
of 1.92 Mbps. fs
E channel. Packet switched using 64 kbps (similar to the standard D channel).
23-10-7 Broadband ISDN .
Broadband ISDN (BISDN) is defined by the ITU-T as a service that provides transmission
channels capable of supporting transmission rates greater than the primary data rate. With
BISDN, services requiring data rates of a magnitude beyond those provided by ISDN, such
as video transmission, will become available. With the advent of BISDN, the original con-
cept of ISDN is being referred to as narrowband ISDN.
In 1988, the ITU-T first recommended as part of its I-series recommendations relating
to BISDN: 1.113, Vocabulary ofterms for broadband aspects of ISDN, and 1.121, Broadband ~
aspects of ISDN. These two documen
ts are a consensus conceming the aspects of the future
SfBISDN. They outline preliminary descriptions of future stand
lards and development work.
The new BISDN standards are based on the concept of an asynchronous transfer
mode (ATM), which will incorporate optical fiber cable as the transmission medium for
data transmission. The BISDN specifications set @ vaximum length of 1 km per cable
terface extensions. The expected data rates
+ length but are making provisions for repeates inl
on the optical fiber cables will be either 11 Mbps, 155 Mbps, or 600 Mbps, depending on
the srecific application and the location of the fiber cable within the network.
ITU-T classifies the services that could be provided by BISDN as interactive and dis-
tribution services. Interactive services include those'in which there is a two-way exchange
S and Data Communications Networks 375FIGURE 23-16 BISDN access
of information (excluding control signaling) between two subscribers or between @ sub-
scriber and a service provider, Distribution services are those in which information trans-
fer is primarily from service provider to subscriber. On the other hand, conversational ser.
vices will provide a means for bidirectional end-to-end data transmission, in real time,
+ __ between two subscribers or between a subscriber and a service provider.
The authors of BISDN composed specifications that require the new services meet
both existing ISDN interface specifications and the new BISDN needs. A standard ISDN
terminal and a broadband terminal interface (BT1) will be serviced by the subscriber's
Premise network (SPN). which will multiplex incoming data and transfer them .o the
broadband node, The broa::vand node is called a broadband network termination (BNT),
which codes the data information into smaller packets used by the BISDN network. Data
transmission within the L1SDN network can be asymmetric (i.e., access on to and off of
the network may be accomplished at different transmission rates, depending on system
Tequirements).
23-10-7-1 BISDN configuration. Figure 23-16 shows how access to the
BISDN network is accomplished. Each peripheral device is interfaced to the access
node of a BISDN network through a broadband distant terminal (BDT). The BDT is re-
Sponsible for the electrical-to-optical conversion, multiplexing of peripherals, and
maintenance of the subscriber's local system. Access nodes concentrate several BDTs
into high-speed optical fiber lines directed through a feeder point into a service node.
Most of the control functions for system access are managed by the service node, such
as call processing, administrative functions, and switching and maintenance functions.
The functional modules are interconnected in a Star configuration and include switch-
ing, administrative, gateway, and maintenance modules. The interconnection of the
function modules is shown in Figure 23-17. The central control hub acts as the end user
interface for control signaling and data traffic maintenance. In essence, it oversees the
operation of the modules,
Subscriber terminals near the central office may bypass the access nodes entirely and
be directly connected to the BISDN network through a service node, BISDN newworks that
use optical fiber cables can utilize much wider bandwidths and, Consequently, have higher
transmission rates and offer more channel-handling capacity than ISDN. systems,
Chapter 23FIGURE 23-17 BISON functional module interconnections
___23:10-7-2 Broadband channel rates. ‘The CCITT kes published protmioary
nitions of new broadband channel rates that will be added to the existing ISDN sare
channel rates:
1. H21: 32.768 Mbps
2. H22: 43 Mbps to 45 Mbps
3. H4: 132 Mbps to 138.24 Mbps
The H21 and H22 data rates are intended to be used
sion for videoconferencing. video telephone, and video messazinz.
tended for bulk data transfer of text facsimile, and enanced video information The 1
data rate is equivalent to 512 6+-Kbps channels. The H22 and H4 daza reses mst be Sake
ples of the basic 64-kbps transmission rate.
ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODE
Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) is 2 relatively new dats communications technology
that uses a high-speed form of packet switching network for the transmission media. ATM
was developed in 1988 by the ITU-T as part of the BISDN. ATM is one means by which
data can enter and exit the BISDN network in an asynchronous (time-independent) fash-
ion. ATM is intended to be 2 carrier service that provides an int 4. high-speed
‘communications network for corporate private networks. ATM can 2
communications traffic, including voice, data, image, video, hi
multimedia. In addition, ATM can be used in both LAN and WAN neta
providing seamless internetworking between the two. Some experts
eventually replace both private leased T! digits! carrier systems and om
equipmeni.
Conventional electronic switch (ESS) machines current
sor to establish switching paths and route traffic through 2 network. ATM
trast, will include self-routing procedures where individual cells (shor.
ets of data) containing subscriber datz « heir own way thro:
Protocols and Datz Communications Networks a