Energy Consumption of Asphalt and Reinforced Concrete

Pavement Materials and Construction

Pablo Zapata1 and John A. Gambatese, P.E., M.ASCE2

Abstract: In addition to traditional economic and technical objectives, environmental impact, and sustainability are increasingly being
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considered in the design of roadways and other infrastructure projects. This paper presents an abbreviated life cycle inventory assessment
of a continuously reinforced concrete pavement 共CRCP兲 and an asphalt pavement with respect to the energy consumed by each pavement
type for the construction of a roadway. For CRCP, energy is primarily consumed during the manufacture of cement and reinforcing steel,
which together account for approximately 94% of the total amount of energy consumed from extraction of raw materials through
placement of the CRCP. For asphalt pavement, the major consumption of energy from extraction through placement occurs during asphalt
mixing and drying of aggregates 共48%兲 and the production of bitumen 共40%兲. The assessment results highlight where sustainable design
efforts to reduce energy consumption can best be directed in the initial phases of a pavement’s life cycle.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲1076-0342共2005兲11:1共9兲
CE Database subject headings: Asphalt pavements; Concrete pavements; Life cycles; Energy consumption; Sustainable
development.

Introduction 1995; cited in Horvath and Hendrickson 1998兲. For interstate

The highway network is one of the most significant achievements
in the history of the civil engineering field. Perceived as an im-
perative measure for the development of a robust economy, the
highway network has become a primary mode of transportation
and driver of the economy in the United States. Consideration of
the environmental consequences of building such a system, how-
ever, was minimal. It was not until recent years that our past
actions, not only in the construction of roads but in our techno-
logical development in general, exposed the fragility of our planet
and the potential power of destruction of our infrastructure. Green
design and sustainable development have emerged as the bridge
between our advancing civilization and a weakened environment.
It is in this new framework of environmental responsiveness
where road design and construction will play an important role
given the size of the highway system and our current dependence
on it for transportation.
Portland cement concrete 共PCC兲 pavement and asphalt pave-
ment are the most common types of pavement used in the con-
struction of roads in the highway network. Nearly 83% of all
roads and streets in the United States are of flexible type 共asphalt
wearing surface兲, 7% are of rigid type 共PCC roadway with or
without a bituminous wearing surface兲, and approximately 10%
are of composite type 共bituminous surface on PCC base兲 共FHWA
1
Project Engineer, KFMJV, Inc., Oakland, CA.
2
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil, Construction and Environmental
Engineering, Oregon State Univ., 202 Apperson Hall, Corvallis, OR
97331-2302.
Note. Discussion open until August 1, 2005. Separate discussions
must be submitted for individual papers. To extend the closing date by
one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing
Editor. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and pos-
sible publication on December 16, 2003; approved on August 4, 2004.
This paper is part of the Journal of Infrastructure Systems, Vol. 11, No.
1, March 1, 2005. ©ASCE, ISSN 1076-0342/2005/1-9–20/$25.00.
highways and other freeways and expressways, the statistics on
the surface type show as much as 57% of the mileage has PCC
either as a wearing surface or as a base, while other roads and
streets largely have asphalt wearing surfaces 共Horvath and Hen-
drickson 1998兲.
The selection of one type of pavement over the other is com-
monly based on technical and economic issues as opposed to
energy use considerations. This paper describes a study that was
recently conducted to assess asphalt and PCC pavements in terms
of energy consumption. The study involved an assessment of both
types of pavements from initial extraction and manufacture of
materials through placement on the construction site. This paper
describes the results of the study and provides recommendations
of where further efforts can be undertaken to minimize the energy
consumption of each type of pavement. The incorporation of en-
ergy consumption information in the selection of pavement types
can help engineers and legislators in the design and construction
of a more advanced highway network that minimizes the expen-
diture of energy in its construction.
Asphalt Pavement Technology
The production of asphalt is part of the petroleum refining sector
which, according to the Energy Information Administration 共EIA
2002兲, is the second most energy-intensive manufacturing indus-
try in the United States following bulk chemicals based on energy
use per dollar of output. Asphalt production includes the follow-
ing phases: extraction, transportation/storage, heating, distillation,
cooling, and final processing. During the distillation of petroleum,
crude oil is subjected to high pressure and temperatures of more
than 300°C 共Derucher et al. 1998兲. The majority of energy con-
sumed for the distillation process is used for fluid heating and
steam generation 共Unruh 2002兲. Of the energy consumed in the

JOURNAL OF INFRASTRUCTURE SYSTEMS © ASCE / MARCH 2005 / 9

J. Infrastruct. Syst., 2005, 11(1): 9-20

 refining process, approximately 40% is for bitumen and 60% for
lighter products 共Stripple 2001兲.
Once asphalt has been produced and shipped to an asphalt
concrete production plant, it is stored in large containers where it
is constantly heated to ensure fluidity. The steady heating of as-
phalt requires additional energy consumption only for storage
purposes. When an order for asphalt concrete is received, aggre-
gates are conveyed from stockpiles to dryers where they are dried
and heated to a temperature between 150° and 170°C. When thor-
oughly dried and heated, the aggregate mix is delivered to a mixer
where bitumen is injected as a fine spray. This final asphalt mix-
ture is stored in hot storage bins prior to transportation to a con-
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struction site. Amounts of energy consumed with each step in the
process are presented in the “Results” section of this paper.
Portland Cement Concrete Pavement Technology
A rigid pavement is associated with a concrete structure made
with Portland cement concrete, with or without steel reinforce-
ment. Portland cement is primarily made from calcareous materi-
als, such as limestone or chalk, and from alumina and silica found
as clay or shale. The Energy Information Administration reports
that cement production ranks seventh among the most energy-
intensive manufacturing industries 共EIA 2002兲 in terms of energy
use per dollar of output. Mixing and grinding of the raw materials
can be done either in water or in a dry condition. This process
defines whether the cement manufacturing is a “wet” or “dry”
process 共Neville 1996兲. Selection between the wet and dry pro-
cess is based on the properties of the raw materials, cost of fuel,
location of the project, and other conditions. For the wet process,
plant construction cost is rather low and high-quality products are
manufactured easily. In the case of the dry process, the consump-
tion of energy is less and the operation costs are lower. According
to the United Nations Industrial Development Organization
共2003兲, energy cost is 20–30% of Portland cement production
cost. Ninety percent or more of the fuel consumed is for clinker
burning. About 40% of the electricity consumed is used for fin-
ishing grinding, and a little less than 30% is consumed by the raw
material process and the clinker burning process. The finish grind-
ing process mainly consumes electricity power for the mill, and
the clinker burning process mainly for the fan.
The Energy Information Administration 共2002兲 states that de-
livered energy consumption in the United States cement industry
was 3.76⫻ 109 MJ in 1998. Almost all 共97%兲 of the energy was
used for process and assembly. Coal is the largest energy source
utilized, providing two-thirds of the energy delivered to the ce-
ment industry. In 1998, delivered energy intensity for the cement
industry was 71.7 MJ per 1992 dollars of output. The EIA reports
that the average in 1998 for the energy-intensive manufacturing
sectors 共production of bulk chemicals, petroleum refining, paper,
steel, food, cement, aluminum, and glass兲 was 16.5 MJ per 1992
dollars of output, while the average in 1998 for the entire indus-
trial sector 共energy-intensive manufacturing, nonintensive manu-
facturing, and nonmanufacturing兲 was less at 5.8 MJ per 1992
dollars of output.
Energy use for PCC production, i.e., the transportation and
mixing of cement, aggregate, water, and admixtures, is consider-
ably less than for the production of the cement itself. As opposed
to asphalt, in PCC mixes it is not necessary to dry the aggregate
prior to mixing. Hence, energy for PCC production 共excluding
production of the raw materials themselves, which is considered
10 / JOURNAL OF INFRASTRUCTURE SYSTEMS © ASCE / MARCH 2005
J. Infrastruct. Syst., 2005, 11(1): 9-20
and included separately兲 relates largely to the transportation of the
raw materials, with a small portion for operating the aggregate
crushing plant. It is estimated that sand represents about 2% of
embodied energy in PCC, while crushed aggregate represents
about 6% 共Twinshare 2003兲. This value reflects the 92% of em-
bodied energy for cement used in PCC.
Production of the raw materials and PCC itself requires inten-
sive use of energy solely for the cement manufacturing process.
No additional significant expenditures of energy occur in the stor-
age of materials or in subsequent processes such as the drying of
aggregates prior to mixing. There is indeed consumption of en-
ergy in the transportation of raw and finalized materials in the
concrete and cement industries. However, these expenditures are
quite small when compared with the fuel consumed by the oil
tankers to transport the crude oil, and the energy consumed to
manufacture the cement.
Environmental Life Cycle Assessment
The Environmental Council of Concrete Organizations 共ECCO兲
defines an environmental life cycle assessment 共LCA兲 as a de-
tailed, extensive tool used to systematically evaluate the environ-
mental impacts of a product or system 共ECCO 1997兲. According
to ECCO, a LCA considers environmental impacts from all pos-
sible sources such as extraction of raw materials, manufacture,
service life, and disposal. A LCA involves quantification of the
environmental burdens 关life cycle inventory assessment 共LCI兲兴,
estimation of the impacts of these burdens on humans and nature
共impact analysis兲, and identification of areas where improvements
are possible 共Horvath and Hendrickson 1998兲.
Two approaches have been used to perform an LCA. One ap-
proach was developed by the Society of Environmental Toxicol-
ogy and Chemistry 共SETAC兲 and the U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency 共EPA兲. The SETAC–EPA technique divides each
product or system into individual process flows and attempts to
quantify their environmental effects 共Horvath and Hendrickson
1998兲. This process-based method traces back 共upstream兲 the nec-
essary process or activities to create a product or system. Once
the stages have been identified, the environmental inputs and out-
puts in each stage are evaluated.
The other approach is a model called “economic input–output-
based LCA” 共EIO–LCA兲, developed by researchers as part of
Carnegie Mellon Univ., Green Design Initiative. The EIO–LCA
model uses the 498⫻ 498 economic input–output matrix
共commodity-by-commodity兲 of the United States economy to
identify the entire chain of suppliers 共both direct and indirect兲 to
a commodity 共Horvath and Hendrickson 1998兲. In their study
aimed at comparing the environmental implications of asphalt and
steel-reinforced concrete pavements, Horvath and Hendrickson
共1998兲 applied the EIO–LCA model. The model indicates that for
the initial construction of equivalent pavement designs, asphalt
appears to have a higher energy input, lower ore and fertilizer
input requirements, and lower toxic emissions. Asphalt, though,
has higher hazardous waste generation and management than
steel-reinforced concrete. According to the study, the construction
of a 1 km section of a typical two-lane highway requires 7.0
⫻ 106 MJ of energy in the case of asphalt pavement, and 5.0
⫻ 106 MJ in the case of continuously reinforced concrete pave-
ment 共CRCP兲. Horvath and Hendrickson favor the use of the
EIO–LCA model over the SETAC–EPA method because the latter
method is typically limited by data availability, time, and cost.
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Fig. 1. Total energy consumed for three different road surface materials and two different engine alternatives for construction vehicles divided
into road construction, road maintenance, and road operation 关reprinted with permission from Stripple 共2001兲兴
The SETAC–EPA model also includes the first direct suppliers,
but seldom incorporates the complete hierarchy of suppliers—that
is, all the suppliers of suppliers 共indirect兲.
The Swedish Environmental Research Institute 共IVL兲 per-
formed a life cycle assessment for road construction, road main-
tenance, and road operation 共Stripple 2001兲. The methodology
used in the study follows the guidelines of the SETAC–EPA ap-
proach. The study analyzed three different road surface materials:
PCC, hot-mix asphalt, and cold-mix asphalt. In addition, two dif-
ferent engine alternatives for vehicles and machines used in the
process, conventional diesel engines and modern low emission
diesel engines, were studied. Fig. 1 depicts the results of the study
and indicates that PCC pavements require more energy for their
construction, and during their entire life cycle, than asphalt pave-
ments.
The two methods presented above seem to reach opposite con-
clusions. In Horvath and Hendrickson’s study, asphalt pavement
requires 30% more energy than concrete pavement, while IVL
reports that concrete pavement requires 37% more energy than
asphalt pavement. Horvath and Hendrickson acknowledge the dif-
ference of their study with the findings of other researchers. Fig.
2 shows a comparison of the embodied energy for concrete 共with-
out the steel reinforcement兲 found by Horvath and Hendrickson
with the values from other studies. Much of the difference is due
to significant system boundary differences between the methods.
Exergy Analysis
Substantial differences in the findings of life cycle analyses are
not unusual. A LCA evaluates many variables and complex sys-
tems, and in many cases the assumptions and boundaries estab-
lished by a researcher can be considerably different from those
ascertained by another examiner. Berthiaume and Bouchard
共1999兲 recognize this limitation of the LCA method and propose a
different approach, an exergy analysis, to compare the energy
JOURNAL OF INFRASTRUCTURE SYSTEMS © ASCE / MARCH 2005 / 11
J. Infrastruct. Syst., 2005, 11(1): 9-20
consumption of different pavement surfaces. Exergy is a term
used to describe differences in energy quality. The exergy content
of a system indicates its distance from thermodynamic equilib-
rium. The higher the exergy content, the farther from thermody-
namic equilibrium a system is.
The net exergy consumption for each type of pavement is cal-
culated based on mass balances and exergy analysis of the manu-
facturing process of cement, concrete, and asphalt. The exergy
consumption broadly reflects the minimum work required to re-
form the raw materials and restore the environment to its initial
state. This minimum work can be used as a thermodynamic mea-
sure of the environmental impact of the entire manufacturing pro-
cess, from the extraction of raw materials to the finished product.
Berthiaume and Bouchard used the exergy method because, in
their opinion, a life cycle assessment 共energy consumption ac-
counting and polluting emission inventory兲 provides extensive
data that cannot be compared on the same basis and, conse-
quently, it is often hard to draw definitive conclusions from the
data.
Berthiaume and Bouchard compared the net exergy consump-
tion of asphalt and concrete paving in four different scenarios: 共1兲
cement concrete 共cc兲 pavement 共dry process兲; 共2兲 cc pavement
共wet process兲; 共3兲 asphalt manufactured during the summer; and
共4兲 asphalt manufactured during the fall. Wet and dry processes
refer to the conditions in which raw materials are mixed and
ground during the production of Portland cement. The authors
found that when asphalt is manufactured during the summer, it
has the lowest environmental impact, i.e., the lowest net exergy
consumption, of the four scenarios considered. The manufacture
of PCC paving material using the wet process has the highest net
exergy consumption. Fig. 3 shows the net exergy consumption for
the four pavement scenarios. Berthiaume and Bouchard conclude
that after 40 years of operation, asphalt manufactured during the
fall has approximately the same energy consumption as a PCC
pavement using the dry process 共see Fig. 3兲. Horvath and Hen-
drickson also reported that when accounting for the uncertainty in
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Fig. 2. Comparison of embodied energy figure for concrete, without steel reinforcement: 共1兲 Boustead and Hancock 共1979兲; 共2兲 AIA 共1997兲;
共3兲 Fog and Nadkarni 共1983兲; and 共4兲 Ashby 共1992兲. 关Reprinted with permission from Horvath and Hendrickson 共1998兲兴
the data collected in their study, and when annualizing environ-
mental effects based on assumed average service lives of the two
pavements types, the resource input requirements and the envi-
ronmental outputs are roughly comparable for the two materials
共see also van Oss and Padovani 2003兲.
Once constructed, the length of service life for each type of
pavement depends on many factors. A short service life implies
that the pavement structure needs to be rehabilitated or replaced
more frequently. Several studies indicate that PCC pavements
have a longer service life and lower maintenance cost than asphalt
pavements, while other studies find the opposite. Horvath and
Hendrickson 共1998兲 cited a 1971 study that reported that the av-
erage service life for PCC pavements was 25 years, and 15 years
for asphalt pavements. A 1994 study based on data from the Cali-
Fig. 3. Net exergy consumption, after 40 years 关reprinted with
permission from Berthiaume and Bouchard 共1999兲兴
12 / JOURNAL OF INFRASTRUCTURE SYSTEMS © ASCE / MARCH 2005
J. Infrastruct. Syst., 2005, 11(1): 9-20
fornia State Controller’s Office demonstrated lower maintenance
cost of PCC pavements compared to asphalt pavements 共Packard
1994兲. In the same study, Packard mentioned a 1989 survey that
states that a PCC overlay 共152.5 mm兲 has an average life of 23.2
years, while for an asphalt overlay 共101.5 mm兲, the service life is
11.7 years. A separate study by the State of Louisiana showed
similar results 共PCA/NAPA 1986兲. In contrast, a study of rural
interstate pavements in Kansas 共Cross and Parsons 2002兲 revealed
that asphalt and PCC pavements had similar average service lives
until rehabilitation or reconstruction: 33 years for asphalt and 34
years for PCC. The asphalt pavements in Kansas lasted from 8 to
12 years past original construction without any maintenance,
while the average time until the first minor maintenance treatment
for PCC pavements was 9 years.
Research Methodology
The purpose of this study was to conduct an environmental LCI to
determine the energy consumption of PCC and asphalt pave-
ments. Among the two techniques used to perform an assessment,
the SETAC–EPA model was chosen for this study. The selection
of this technique was based on several considerations. First, the
SETAC–EPA approach is broadly used not only in the United
States, but in many European countries. The acceptance of the
SETAC–EPA model is so extensive that the methodology has
been included as a standard procedure by the International Orga-
nization for Standardization. Second, the SETAC–EPA approach
divides the system into individual processes or activities that can
be independently analyzed. Finally, the results of a LCI using the
SETAC–EPA approach can be easily summarized in a flowchart.
To meet this goal, the study objectives were to develop flowcharts
of the pavement life cycles 共extraction of raw materials, manufac-
 Table 1. Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement Life Cycle
Raw material
extraction and initial
transformation Manufacturing
Cement: Cement: Kiln processing,
Limestone, shale, and grinding
gypsum extraction and crushing
Aggregates: Aggregates:
Extraction Crushing and sieving
共quarry or river兲 共coarse and fine
aggregates兲
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Steel: Steel:
Iron, limestone, Crushing, heating
coal extraction 共blast and oxygen furnace兲,
casting, cooling, and fabrication
Miscellaneous: Concrete:
Additives, water, Mixing of cement,
and other aggregates, water,
and additives
turing, placement, maintenance, and rehabilitation/removal兲, and
to identify and quantify the energy consumed in various stages of
the pavement life cycles. The scope of this study does not include
the identification and quantification of emissions generated in the
production and placement of the two materials.
The first step in the assessment was the selection of the type
and characteristics of the roadways to be compared, and the de-
termination of boundaries, limitations, and assumptions consid-
ered in the study. The road selected for the assessment is a 1 km
section of a typical two-lane highway with a high volume of
traffic in the United States. This particular type of road was se-
lected based on two considerations: 共1兲 the use of PCC and as-
phalt as pavement materials is more balanced in interstate high-
ways and freeways than in low-volume traffic roads 共Horvath and
Hendrickson 1998兲 and 共2兲 it is assumed that highways with high
volumes of traffic usually have more environmental impacts than
local and smaller roads.
To compare the results of this study with those of the Horvath
and Hendrickson 共1998兲 paper, the pavement designs are based on
AASHTO guidelines 共AASHTO 1974兲 and represent equivalent
designs that have roughly the same functionality. The two pave-
ment structures are designed for 10 million 80 kN 共18 kip兲
equivalent single-axle loads, which is an estimate of 10 or more
years of interstate highway traffic. Both pavement sections are
7.20 m wide and are assumed to sit on 150 mm of high-quality
cement-treated soil subbase 共E⫽6.9 GPa兲. Because the base was
designed to be the same for both pavements, only the energy
consumed in the manufacture and placement of course materials
is compared. The type of PCC pavement selected for the study is
a 220 mm thick, CRCP, with Number 4 longitudinal bars spaced
100 mm on center and Number 4 transverse bars spaced at 1.30 m
on center. The PCC mix design includes the following percent-
ages by weight: 12% cement, 43% coarse aggregate, 28% fine
aggregate, and 17% water. The asphalt pavement design selected
is a 300 mm thick pavement, with 5% bitumen and 95% aggre-
gate by weight. This type of structure is commonly used in roads
with high-volume traffic where maintenance has to be kept at a
minimum.
Life cycle inventory assessments of the energy consumed by
J. Infrastruct. Syst., 2005, 11(1): 9-20
Removal,
Use and recycling, and
Placement maintenance disposal
Roadway preparation: Traffic: Pavement reclamation:
excavation, stabilization, Number of vehicles
and base per year
Placement: Maintenance Magnetic separation
Reinforcing steel
and concrete
Finishing Steel scrap,
steel reprocessing
Mineral scrap, crushing,
and reuse
the pavements were performed once the amount and type of ma-
terials needed for their construction were established. A LCI de-
scribes the energy flows to and from the system, and consists of
five basic substeps 共see also Tables 1 and 2兲.
1. Extraction of raw materials: This substep includes the extrac-
tion of all raw materials necessary for the production of PCC
and asphalt pavement.
2. Manufacturing: This substep is composed of all mechanical
and chemical processes required in the transformation of raw
materials into asphalt and PCC.
3. Placement of course pavement materials: Once the raw ma-
terials have been transformed into asphalt and PCC, the
pavement materials are transported and placed on site.
4. Maintenance: Once the pavement structure has been con-
structed, it requires periodic repair and upgrade.
5. Removal, recycling, and disposal: When the pavement struc-
ture reaches the end of its service life, it is necessary to
remove and replace the old structure with a new one that
complies with the intended use of the road.
Information about energy consumption was collected in two
ways. First, an extensive literature review of similar studies and
of the industries and processes involved in the manufacture and
construction of both pavement materials was conducted. The sec-
ond source of information was construction companies. Material
use and energy consumption data were collected through inter-
views with two national heavy-civil construction contractors with
offices located in the Pacific Northwest.
Study Limitations and Assumptions
The most significant obstacle in the study was a lack of informa-
tion regarding certain processes or activities. Environmental re-
search related to asphalt and PCC pavements, particularly in the
field of energy consumption, is a relatively new discipline and the
data available in many cases are fragmented and contradictory.
This barrier introduced limitations with regards to some of the
JOURNAL OF INFRASTRUCTURE SYSTEMS © ASCE / MARCH 2005 / 13
 Table 2. Asphalt Pavement Life Cycle
Raw material
extraction and initial
transformation Manufacturing Placement
Petroleum: Petroleum: Roadway preparation:
Extraction, drilling, Heating, distillation, excavation, stabilization,
and pumping storage of bitumen and base
Aggregates: Aggregates: Placement:
Extraction Crushing and sieving asphalt concrete
共quarry or river兲 共coarse and fine
aggregates兲
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Miscellaneous: Asphalt: Finishing
Additives, water, Drying of aggregates,
and other mixing of bitumen,
aggregates, water,
and additives
collected data in the study and necessitated making several as-
sumptions.
The study neglects the energy consumed in the construction of
production plants, such as refineries and cement plants, as well as
the manufacture and maintenance of the equipment necessary for
the construction of roads such as pavers, concrete mixers, rollers,
etc. The operation of this equipment is considered in the study by
determining the consumption of fuel, which is a significant com-
ponent of the operational cost of such machines.
Another limitation in the assessment is the uniqueness of the
conditions and the design chosen for the studied road sections.
There are many local factors that affect the design of pavement
structures, and it is impossible to develop a “standard” design that
accounts for all and dissimilar variables considered in roadway
construction.
Limitations associated with an assumed pavement service life
are also of importance. Contradictory information exists regard-
ing the service life of asphalt and PCC pavement structures
共Packard 1994; Horvath and Hendrickson 1998; Cross and Par-
sons 2002兲. The PCC pavements seem to last as long as or longer
than their asphalt counterparts. However, there is no unanimous
estimation of the number of years that a PCC structure can outlast
asphalt pavement subjected to the same traffic and environmental
conditions. There are even more complicated issues when it
comes to determining the end of the service life of a road. A road
is different from a normal product in that it does not have a
definitive end in time. A road project can be seen as a constantly
ongoing process where, through active decisions, one can deter-
mine the objective for certain accessibility between two points.
As long as the decision regarding the determined accessibility
remains, the roadway also remains, although it is exposed to a
constant process of change.
Results
In order to calculate the consumption of energy during the various
stages of the service lives of PCC and asphalt pavements, it was
necessary to develop a model that represents the life cycle of a
typical roadway. For the considerations of this assessment, the life
cycle of a pavement structure was divided into five basic sub-
systems matching the five substeps of an LCI: 共1兲 extraction of
14 / JOURNAL OF INFRASTRUCTURE SYSTEMS © ASCE / MARCH 2005
J. Infrastruct. Syst., 2005, 11(1): 9-20
Removal,
Use and recycling,
maintenance and disposal
Traffic: Pavement reclamation:
Number of vehicles asphalt reprocessing,
per year crushing, and reuse.
Maintenance
raw materials, 共2兲 manufacturing, 共3兲 placement of course pave-
ment materials, 共4兲 maintenance, and 共5兲 removal, recycling, and
disposal. Within each subsystem there are significant activities
and processes necessary for the construction and subsequent op-
eration of asphalt and concrete pavements. These subsystems and
activities are listed in Tables 1 and 2.
Tables 1 and 2 reveal that the life cycle of a road is a complex
system with many variables and relationships. The total consump-
tion of energy during the service life of the pavement structures
was calculated as the sum of the expenditures of energy of the
individual processes and subsystems. The energy consumption of
the different subsystems and processes was estimated based on
studies of energy consumption in the cement, asphalt, and aggre-
gate industries as well as on literature on life cycle analyses. The
energy necessary for the construction phase of both types of struc-
tures was calculated from data provided by the construction firms
interviewed. Several limitations were recognized and assumptions
made during the acquisition of data regarding the energy con-
sumption of the different processes and activities. The most sig-
nificant limitations and assumptions are listed below:
1. In the literature reviewed for this study, there was no consen-
sus about the length of the service life of a road or the con-
sumption of energy during its service life. Additionally, these
two variables are highly correlated to the environmental con-
ditions and the characteristics of traffic of a particular loca-
tion. For these reasons it was difficult to determine the con-
sumption of energy in the last two substeps of the system
共maintenance, removal, recycling, and disposal兲. The deter-
mination of the expenditure of energy during operation and
maintenance of a road requires the establishment of a main-
tenance strategy, which includes an identification of the fac-
tors that most likely will compromise the structural integrity
of the road and selection of the most effective methods to
control and prevent deterioration of the system. The design
of a maintenance strategy is outside the scope of this study,
and consequently the estimation of energy consumption in
the last two substeps was not conducted.
2. This study does not consider the consumption of energy as-
sociated with earthmoving operations and the construction of
the road base for both types of pavements. The reason for
this omission is that the basic objective of the study is the
comparison between asphalt and PCC as course materials,
 and the inclusion of the base structure can be a source of
distortion. Another reason for this exclusion is that the char-
acteristics of the road base and the intensity of the earthmov-
ing operations depend significantly on the conditions of the
natural soil and terrain. For the particular purpose of this
study, the base for both types of pavements is assumed to be
equal.
3. The consumption of energy in the transportation of raw and
finished materials is not considered in the study. Energy re-
quired for transportation can vary tremendously depending
on many variables including the travel distances, equipment
used, and condition of travel surfaces. Therefore, the energy
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required for transportation for both types of pavements is
assumed to be equal with the exception of the transportation
of crude oil used in the production of bitumen. This assump-
tion will slightly affect the total consumption of energy for
both pavement materials, but it will still allow their compari-
son.
4. Many activities and processes in the life cycle of a pavement
structure require water. While the amount of water consumed
can be calculated for each pavement, the consumption of
energy necessary for its production and transportation were
neglected in the assessment. The reasons for neglecting these
values are a lack of data available in the literature on the
energy consumed, and discussions with material producers
and roadway constructors during the course of the study in-
dicated that the energy necessary for the production and
transportation of water is minimal compared to that for the
other materials studied in this particular assessment.
5. The study neglects the manufacturing of production plants,
such as refineries and cement plants, as well as the manufac-
ture and maintenance of equipment necessary for the con-
struction of roads, such as pavers, concrete mixers, rollers,
etc. These elements have been excluded from the assessment.
6. The data collected and included in the assessment come from
different parts of the world. Differences in manufacturing,
construction, and other processes employed in roadway con-
struction, and in roadway use and energy awareness, may
impact the comparability of the data. An inventory assess-
ment for a particular country or region should incorporate
energy consumption values representative of that country or
region.
Once the limitations and assumptions are established, it is pos-
sible to determine the energy consumption of the different pro-
cesses and activities presented in Tables 1 and 2. Table 3 summa-
rizes the data collected about energy consumption for PCC and
asphalt pavements. The table includes information from different
studies as well as the data provided by the contractors inter-
viewed. No data were found regarding the energy consumption
associated with CRCP and asphalt reclamation and reprocessing,
and with CRCP and asphalt maintenance and use. The values in
the table are relatively consistent except for the production of
bitumen where there are important differences between some
studies. These differences can be explained based on the assump-
tions made in each assessment. One of these assumptions is with
regards to the energy requirements during the refining process of
bitumen. In this process, it is not easy to differentiate how much
energy is used in the distillation of each oil subproduct. The con-
sumption of energy is also affected by the type of petroleum and
the conditions of the oil field. For this assessment, the energy
consumption reported by Häkkinen and Mäkelä 共1996兲 for the
production of bitumen 共6.0⫻ 109 J / t of material兲 was assumed.
Transportation of crude oil is another important issue. In some
JOURNAL OF INFRASTRUCTURE SYSTEMS © ASCE / MARCH 2005 / 15
J. Infrastruct. Syst., 2005, 11(1): 9-20
of the literature on prior studies, it was not clear if the consump-
tion of energy for crude oil transportation was considered in the
analyses. The inclusion of energy expenditure in the transporta-
tion of crude oil considerably affects the total energy consump-
tion for an asphalt pavement. In 1997, the energy intensity for
domestic waterborne commerce averaged approximately 0.27 MJ/
t/km, which is a considerable amount of energy especially for
transatlantic trips 共Maxin 2001兲.
The results of the assessment are summarized in Tables 4 and
5 for CRCP and asphalt pavement, respectively. Energy consump-
tion values are recorded for: raw material extraction and initial
material transformation; manufacture of asphalt, PCC, rebar, and
aggregates; and placement of these materials on-site. Where mul-
tiple consumption values are available as shown in Table 3, the
average of these values was used in Tables 4 and 5. Using the five
LCI substeps described previously, the CRCP structure consumes
4.58⫻ 106 MJ in the first three subsystems of the life cycle model
共extraction of raw materials, manufacturing, and placement of
course pavement兲, approximately 21% more energy than con-
sumed by asphalt pavement.
For both types of pavement the consumption of energy in the
extraction of aggregates and in the placement of course materials
is almost negligible compared with the energy required for the
manufacture of concrete and asphalt. Table 4 reveals that the ex-
traction of raw materials and the placement of concrete account
for only 6% of the total energy consumption of the CRCP pave-
ment. The remaining 94% of the energy is spent in the manufac-
turing process where the production of cement accounts for 65%
of the energy consumed, while the production of steel and the
concrete mixing process account for 34 and 1%, respectively.
If part of the cement in PCC is replaced by fly ash, a byproduct
of coal combustion, the consumption of energy is dramatically
reduced. If the content of cement is reduced from its original
value of 12% by weight to 8%, the consumption of energy will
drop from 4.58⫻ 106 to 3.64⫻ 106 MJ 共20.5% reduction兲, the lat-
ter value being less than the energy required for asphalt pave-
ment. It is important to underline two considerations. The first one
is that it is assumed that the replacement of cement by fly ash
does not add additional energy to the system since fly ash is a
byproduct of the combustion of coal and considered a “waste
material.” The second consideration is that the substitution of
cement by other cementitious materials is only possible up to
certain percentages, and these values will change depending on a
complex set of criteria impacting the desired concrete product that
includes the types of fly ash and cement used.
The amount and characteristics of the steel reinforcement also
play an important role in the consumption of energy. For example,
if the longitudinal and transverse distance between bars is kept
constant, 5.41⫻ 106 MJ are required for Number 5 bars. If the bar
size is increased to Number 9 bars 共more than three times the
cross-sectional area of a Number 5 bar兲, the energy consumption
almost doubles to 1.07⫻ 107 MJ. The amount of steel will also
change based on the bar spacing. If the bar size is kept constant at
Number 4 bars and the transverse spacing of bars is held at 1.30
m, the energy usage increases with decreasing longitudinal dis-
tance between bars: 4.12⫻ 106 MJ for 150 mm spacing, 4.58
⫻ 106 MJ for 100 mm spacing, and 5.95⫻ 106 MJ for 50 mm
spacing.
In the case of CRCP, the production of steel accounts for 34%
of the energy consumed in the manufacturing process. If the steel
is removed from the CRCP structure, the energy requirement will
reduce to 3.09⫻ 106 MJ. In this case, the energy consumed by the
asphalt pavement 共3.78⫻ 106 MJ兲 is 18% more energy than the
 Table 3. Consumption of Energy during Life Cycle of Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavements 共CFRPs兲 and Asphalt Pavements
Energy consumption
共J / t of material兲 Source Comments
Process: Extraction of aggregates 共coarse and fine aggregate兲
53⫻ 106 NCSA 共1977兲 Consumption of energy between 21.1⫻106 J/t—63.3⫻106 J/t
with a common value of 53⫻ 106 J / t
22.2⫻ 106 Berthiaume and Bouchard 共1999兲 —
74⫻ 106 Stammer and Stodolsky 共1995兲 —
24⫻ 106 共gravel兲 Häkkinen and Mäkelä 共1996兲 In the case of gravel the process includes extraction and
52⫻ 106 共crushed aggregates for asphalt兲 transportation. In the case of crushed aggregates for asphalt
the process includes:
共1兲 quarrying and breaking,
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共2兲 transportation of broken rock,

共3兲 crushing, and
共4兲 transportation of crushed materials.

38.18⫻ 106 共crushed aggregates兲 Stripple 共2001兲 In the case of crushed aggregates from rock mass the process
includes:
共1兲 blast rock,
共2兲 transportation of blasted rock, and
共3兲 crushing blasted rock.

Process: Cement manufacturing

6.33⫻ 109 School of Resources, The 6.33⫻ 109 J / t includes the direct fuel use for mining and
Environment and Society transporting raw materials. It takes about 1.75 kg of raw
共based on Portland Cement materials to produce 1 kg of finished cement, according to the
Association, 1990 data兲 Environmental Research.
5.35⫻ 109–10.2⫻ 109 Berthiaume and Bouchard 共1999兲 5.35⫻ 109 J / t 共dry process兲 10.2⫻ 109 J / t 共wet process兲
6.7⫻ 109 Stammer and Stodolsky 共1995兲 —
6.36⫻ 109 Twinshare 共2003兲 It takes about 1,600 kg of raw material to produce a ton of
cement.
5.35⫻ 109 Häkkinen and Mäkelä 共1996兲 The data are received from Finncement 共Stefan Lindfors兲.
The system includes:
共1兲 extraction and transportation of energy raw materials,
共2兲 extraction of cement raw materials,
共3兲 transportation of cement raw materials to the cement
factory,
共4兲 production of raw meal,
共5兲 burning of clinker, and
共6兲 grinding of cement.
4.77⫻ 109 Stripple 共2001兲

Process: Steel manufacturing

1.90⫻ 1010 Stubbles 共2000兲 Total use of energy for steel tapped
1.8⫻ 1010–2.3⫻ 1010 Stammer and Stodolsky 共1995兲 1 t of reinforcing steel
0.62⫻ 1010 Häkkinen and Mäkelä 共1996兲 Production of reinforcement steel for the Norwegian market
at Fundia Norsk Jernverk in Mo. Data from 1992, based on
assumption of 100% Norwegian scrap iron.
2.53⫻ 1010 Stripple 共2001兲

Process: Concrete mixing

6.875⫻ 106 Contractor survey The consumption of energy during mixing will depend on the
amount of diesel fuel necessary to mix the total amount of
concrete. In this case, it has been assumed a mixing plant
with a capacity of 230 m3 / h. It takes a 550 kW generator to
run, and the generator burns 102 L of fuel phr.
Process: Portland cement concrete pavement placement
3.40⫻ 107 共concrete兲 Contractor survey The consumption of energy during placement will depend on
0 共steel兲 the amount of diesel fuel used by the equipment necessary for
the operation. CRCP pavement will typically be placed at
approximately 21 m2 / manhour. Equipment necessary for
placement and approximate fuel consumption:

16 / JOURNAL OF INFRASTRUCTURE SYSTEMS © ASCE / MARCH 2005

J. Infrastruct. Syst., 2005, 11(1): 9-20

 Table 3. 共Continued.兲
Energy consumption
共J / t of material兲 Source Comments
共1兲 2 pavers= 41.6 L / h each
共2兲 1 tiner/cure machine= 13.2 L / h
共3兲 2 pickup trucks= 4.2 L / h each
共4兲 1 small loader共CAT 950 size兲 = 26.5 L / h

Process: Production of bitumen

0.63⫻ 109 Stammer and Stodolsky 共1995兲
0.42⫻ 109 NCSA 共1977兲
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6 ⫻ 109 Häkkinen and Mäkelä 共1996兲 The data are received from Neste 共Jouko Nikkonen兲.
The production process includes:
共1兲 production of raw oil,
共2兲 transportation of raw oil, and
共3兲 refining.
2.93⫻ 109 Stripple 共2001兲 The production process included:
共1兲 crude oil extraction in Venezuela,
共2兲 transport of crude oil to refinery,
共3兲 refining.
The allocation of energy consumption for the refining process
is 40% for bitumen and 60% for lighter products.

Process: Asphalt storage

5.43⫻ 108 Stripple 共2001兲

Process: Asphalt mixing and drying of aggregates

0.32⫻ 109–0.39⫻ 109
共per ton of asphalt mixture兲
Ang et al. 共1993兲 310⫻ 103 J / t for continuous plant; 375⫻ 103 J / t for batch
plant. A large part of the process energy use is for drying and
heating aggregates. Statistical analysis historical
energy-consumption data show a high correlation between
specific energy requirements and rainfall level.

Process: Asphalt pavement placement

1.34⫻ 107 Contractor survey The consumption of energy during placement will depend on
the amount of diesel fuel used by the equipment necessary for
the operation. It has been assumed an asphalt plant with a
capacity of approximately 360 t / h. Equipment necessary for
placement and approximate fuel consumption:
共1兲 1 asphalt paver= 15.1 L / h
共2兲 3 rollers共if in Oregon, two anywhere else兲 = 17.0 L / h each
共3兲 1 tack truck= 26.5 L / h
共4兲 3 pickup trucks= 4.2 L / h each
共5兲 1 small loader共CAT 950 size兲 = 26.5 L / h
共6兲 1 small broom= 17.0 L / h

unreinforced PCC pavement. However, eliminating the steel from
the CRCP would require modifications to the pavement design
and perhaps a shorter service life, both of which would most
likely increase the energy consumption of PCC pavement.
Using the parameters described in the “Methodology” section,
the asphalt pavement consumes 3.78⫻ 106 MJ in the first three
subsystems of the life cycle model. From Table 5 it can be seen
that the extraction of raw materials and the placement of asphalt
pavement account for 8.46% of the total energy consumption of
the system. The remaining 91.54% of the energy is consumed in
the manufacturing process where the asphalt mixing and drying of
aggregates accounts for 53% of the energy consumed, while the
production of bitumen and its storage account for 43 and 4%,
respectively. It is interesting to note that the major source of en-
ergy consumption comes from asphalt mixing and drying of ag-
gregates and not from the extraction, transportation of crude oil,
and distillation of bitumen. The results of this study suggest that
careful storage of aggregates, in particular minimizing the mois-
ture content of aggregates, can substantially reduce energy con-
sumption in the asphalt pavement industry. Unfortunately this is
not a final conclusion given the insufficient data found on energy
consumption for the process of asphalt mixing and drying of ag-
gregates 共only one study兲.
It was assumed in the assessment that the energy expenditure
for the production of bitumen was 6.0⫻ 109 J / t, which is the
highest value for this process found in the literature review. If a
lower value of 2.93⫻ 109 J / t is used as recorded by Stripple
共2001兲, energy consumption for asphalt pavement reduces to
3.01⫻ 106 MJ. If the lowest value found for production of bitu-
men, 4.2⫻ 108 J / t, is used the asphalt pavement would consume
2.38⫻ 106 MJ , which is 37% lower than the value found using
6.0⫻ 109 J / t for the production of bitumen.
The content of bitumen in the asphalt mix is a dominant factor
in the energy consumption of asphalt pavement. If the content of

JOURNAL OF INFRASTRUCTURE SYSTEMS © ASCE / MARCH 2005 / 17

J. Infrastruct. Syst., 2005, 11(1): 9-20

 Table 4. Summary of Life Cycle Inventory for Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement
Energy Total Contribution Total
consumption energy consumed to the sub-step energy consumed
Substep Material or process 共J / t of material兲 共MJ兲 共%兲 共%兲
Total energy consumption in raw materials extraction and initial transformation
Portland cement 0 0 0 3
Coarse aggregate 5.30⫻ 107 8.38⫻ 104 58
Fine aggregate 5.30⫻ 107 5.46⫻ 104 38
Reinforcing steel 5.30⫻ 107 6.61⫻ 103 5
Subtotal 1.45⫻ 105 100
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Manufacturing
Portland cement 6.33⫻ 109 2.80⫻ 106 65 94
Coarse aggregate 0 0 0
Fine aggregate 0 0 0
Reinforcing steel 1.90⫻ 1010 1.48⫻ 106 34
Concrete mixing 6.875⫻ 106 2.53⫻ 104 1
共mixing plant兲
Subtotal 4.31⫻ 106 100

Placement
Concrete 3.40⫻ 107 1.25⫻ 105 100 3
Rebar 0 0 0
Subtotal 1.25⫻ 105 100
Total 4.58⫻ 106 100

bitumen is slightly changed, the total consumption of energy is
substantially affected. 5.42⫻ 106 MJ are needed for a bitumen
content of 10% by weight, while only 2.26⫻ 106 MJ are used for
1% bitumen content.
As mentioned previously, the calculation of energy consump-
tion for the last two substeps of the system 共maintenance and
removal, and recycling and disposal兲 was not carried out given
the broadness of a maintenance strategy and the uncertainty in the
length of the service life of both pavement materials. However,
the literature shows some interesting patterns that can be used to
estimate the consumption of energy in these last two substeps of
the service life of a road. Horvath and Hendrickson 共1998兲 re-
ported that only about 3 million metric tons of PCC pavement is
reclaimed annually. One reason for the low rates of recycling
might be that PCC pavements are often left in place after they
become structurally or functionally obsolete. If left as a base for
an asphalt overlay, in order to ensure adequate service life of the
overlay, PCC pavements must either be rubbleized or cracked and
seated prior to receiving the overlay. The recycling of steel rein-
forcing bars in PCC pavements is currently not feasible on a large
scale because of high labor costs associated with the activity.
Asphalt, on the other hand, is widely recycled. Horvath and Hen-

Table 5. Summary of Life Cycle Inventory for Asphalt Pavement

Energy Total Contribution Total
consumption energy consumed to the substep energy consumed
Substep Material or process 共J / t of material兲 共MJ兲 共%兲 共%兲
Total energy consumption in raw materials extraction and initial transformation
Bitumen 0 0 0 6.69
Aggregates 5.30⫻ 107 2.53⫻ 105 100
Subtotal 2.53⫻ 105 100

Manufacturing
Production of bitumen 6.00⫻ 109 1.51⫻ 106 43 91.54
Storage of bitumen 5.43⫻ 108 1.36⫻ 105 4
Asphalt mixing and drying of aggregates 3.62⫻ 108 1.82⫻ 106 53
Aggregates 0 0 0
Subtotal 3.46⫻ 106 100

Placement
Asphalt 1.34⫻ 107 6.70⫻ 104 100 1.77
Subtotal 6.70⫻ 104 100
Total 3.78⫻ 106 100

18 / JOURNAL OF INFRASTRUCTURE SYSTEMS © ASCE / MARCH 2005

J. Infrastruct. Syst., 2005, 11(1): 9-20

 drickson 共1998兲 reported that around 80% of the removed asphalt
pavement gets recycled into highway applications.
Conclusions
The life cycle inventory assessment made it possible to determine
the consumption of energy of CRCP and asphalt pavement from
extraction of raw materials through placement on the project site.
The LCI facilitated the construction of two models that represent
the life cycle of both types of pavement. A life cycle inventory of
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the consumption of energy of the two materials was conducted
using the models. This assessment differs from previous studies in
that it attempts to quantify energy consumption using the collec-
tive findings of previous studies, and incorporates actual energy
consumption values experienced by construction companies dur-
ing the construction of roadway projects. Significant conclusions
from this inventory assessment are as follows:
1. The results suggest that, assuming the same service life, PCC
pavements require more energy in the first three steps of the
life cycle of a road: extraction of raw materials, manufactur-
ing, and placing of course pavement materials. The con-
sumption of energy throughout the service life of a pavement
structure will depend entirely on the local conditions, use,
and maintenance of a particular road.
2. Some of the literature suggests that PCC pavements have on
average longer service lives than asphalt pavements while
other studies show the opposite. The renewal of pavement
with a shorter service life will require additional consump-
tion of energy to be fully operational than a pavement with a
longer service life. It is important to note that concrete and
steel do not get recycled as much as asphalt and this factor
will account for differences in consumption of energy in the
further production of these two materials. The previous state-
ments prove the complexity of the system and the need for an
analysis that considers not only the environmental condi-
tions, but also the volume and type of traffic, the mainte-
nance strategy for the roadway, and many other factors that
will affect the service life of the pavement.
3. The manufacturing of bitumen requires less energy than the
production of cement. Cement plants consume almost 61%
of the energy necessary for the production and placement of
reinforced concrete, while the extraction and production of
bitumen accounts for 40% of the energy necessary for manu-
facturing and placing asphalt pavement.
4. The major consumption of energy in the production of as-
phalt pavement occurs during asphalt mixing and drying of
aggregates as opposed to during the extraction of crude oil
and the distillation of bitumen. Changes in the storage of
aggregates and in their drying process can substantially re-
duce the consumption of energy in the production of asphalt
pavement.
5. As mentioned previously, cement is the driving element in
the consumption of energy for PCC pavements. If low per-
centages of cement are replaced with industrial waste prod-
ucts such as fly ash, the consumption of energy in the pro-
duction of concrete pavements will be substantially reduced.
6. A life cycle assessment is an excellent tool for environmental
evaluation of products and systems. The capabilities of the
method, however, can be seriously reduced by a lack of, or
contradictory, information. It is important to emphasize data
collection in all possible processes and activities that seri-
JOURNAL OF INFRASTRUCTURE SYSTEMS © ASCE / MARCH 2005 / 19
J. Infrastruct. Syst., 2005, 11(1): 9-20
ously affect the environment. All industries in general should
evaluate their current technologies based on life cycle assess-
ment. This methodology can shed light on many processes
and technologies that are not only environmentally prejudi-
cial, but also economically inefficient.
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