THEORETICAL AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES OF ECOWAS

By
OBINNA I. OHAJA
obinnaohaja@gmail.com,
+2348034916628
And
Odnnayo D. Adeleke
Odund01@yahoo.com
+2348034344143
Department of History and International Studies
Babcock University, Ilishan-Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria.

Abstract

ECOWAS was formed in 1975, with the major aim of enhancing free trade among members
of the West African community. It has been portrayed to be the largest organization ever
formed in Africa with membership of over sixteen independent states. Historically the
ECOWAS from its formation has continually evolved various strategies which are aimed at
addressing the economic issues facing the West African sub region. These strategies are
aimed at political and economic integration, economic development and poverty alleviation,
self-reliance, political stability, and total emancipation of the sub region from bondage,
hunger, disease and ignorance. The thought of integration in West African sub region has no
doubt been informed by the success of the integrations of Europe, America and Asia. This
paper critically examined the several theories put forward to explain integration and the
relevance of these theories to the ECOWAS, brings to fore the visions of the ECOWAS from a
historical perspective, and in conclusion made recommendations on the possible ways of
enhancing functional cooperation among ECOWAS member states.

Keywords: ECOWAS, Integration, Theory, History.

1
Introduction

The ECOWAS is an acronym for Economic Community of West African States came

into existence as a result of the quest for the creation of a West African economic

community. It was assumed that the integration of the West African sub region will bring a

pool of internal resources for industrialization and this will also attract the inflow of foreign

investment.1 Thus eliminating the persistent poverty ravaging the region.

The governments of Nigeria and Togo were the first to buy into this initiative, and

they were informed by the success of the integration in Europe and Asia. It is unequivocally

clear that integration is a complex process especially in the West African sub region because

the countries that makeup this region are Anglophone and francophone colonised people

However commitment on the part of the integrating communities remain the key to

unlock the success of the integration process and that remains a basic factor which takes

responsibility for the success of the European integration. The ECOWAS as a regional body,

is faced with its challenges, but cannot be referred to as a failed process of integration, as it

is still in its progressive state and possibly, will attain its aim of full economic and political

integration as continual commitment to the integration process by the integrating

communities persist.

Theoretical perspective to the ECOWAS

This paper shall examine various theoretical postulations that explain integration as it

relates to the ECOWAS and also analyse the success of ECOWAS even as it attains its

fortieth year. Various theoretical postulation has been made by various scholars in regards to

integration and this study shall be considering a number of them in this section in order to

ascertain how these theories apply to the ECOWAS situation.

2
 a. The Traditional Theory of Economic Integration.

The traditional theory of economic integration as expounded by Professor J. Viner

holds that Trade creation and trade diversion are essential condiments of economic

integration.

Trade Creation refers to the increase in economic welfare from joining a free trade

area such as a customs union. Trade creation will occur where there is a reduction in tariff

barriers which will subsequently lead to an increase in consumer surplus and economic

welfare.2 According to J.V. Viner, trade creation occurs when prior to the formation of a

customs union, potential member’s countries produce behind tariff walls but after creation of

the customs union, custom union partners become suppliers of all members of the custom

union. Trade diversion on the other hand occur when countries produce in low standard

because of its protection of the tariff wall, but it captures the entire custom union after joining

the custom union.3 Thus, J.V Viner is of the opinion that customs union will raise welfare or

real income where trade creation supersedes trade diversion.

Subsequent analysis from J. V. Viner as extended by J.E Mead and others posit that

real income is likely to be raised if (i) potential partners in a union conduct significant

proportion of their trade with one another and (ii) the economies are potentially

complementary. However, in the case of West African sub region, its economies are more

competitive than complementary because of the similarities in the goods produced in the

region. Hence Prof Mikedell suggests that the economic development theory will be more

appropriate for explaining the rationale for economic integration in the less developed

countries.

In a classical development theory as expounded by Adam Smith in his book Wealth of

Nation he argued for free trade which involves nations specializing in a particular aspect

production instead of producing various commodities at a time, he believes that countries

3
need to specialize at the commodity they can produce at the cheapest cost and import that

which its production cost is high. In essence “increase imports to increase exports” to boost

economic growth. Thus people within a national economy will all be better-of if they

specialize at what they do best and not aspiring to be self-sufficient. Therefore the creation of

an economic union which will enhance movement of quality goods produced by members of

the community across boarder, was encouraged by Adams Smith as a key factor for

development. Hence there is the need for economic integration among less developed

economies as it encourages a change in the structure of production and trade as regional trade

mechanism help orient the economies of these less developed countries towards regional

specialization.4

Functionalism

Functionalism was a proposed solution to the problem of integrating of states. It was

believed to be a theory that will address issues that transcends theoretical boundaries. 5

Functionalism is a thought that international cooperation could begin with addressing

transnational problems. It is also of the view that if government begins to transfer functional

responsibilities across national borders in the view of fostering cooperation, territorial and

legal sovereignty principles which tends to be a barrier to cooperation will weaken over time.

A leading exponent of functionalism, David Mitrany posits that politics and economics

cannot be separated from the functions of the state. 6 Mitrany also assumes that the

internalization of politics and economics would ultimately shift loyalty and sovereignty from

states to international organizations, and that would occur as a result of specifying the

technical and non-technical controversial aspects of governmental conduct and waving an

ever spreading web of institutional relationship with initial concentration on commonly

experienced or non-controversial needs and the expansion of these at the expense of the

political needs.7

4
 David Mitrany in essence, is of the view that technical issues or responsibilities could

be transferred to international organizations while political issues can remain within the

control of the state. The ideas of Mitrany however, were not without value as the influence of

his thought gave rise to organizations like the World Health Organization (W. H. O) and the

universal postal organization. But the criticism of this theory is that separating technical

issues from political issues in governance and gradually subjecting the former to the later

cannot be easily attained. Secondly, functionalist believe that the benefits of technical

cooperation will give birth to occurrences that will benefit other areas like politics, for

instance, the experiment of the defunct East African community and its airways which served

its three member states, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda very well— despite that, the Kenyan

industrialists persistently agitated for separate national airways because that of the region did

not meet their needs,8 disputed this fact.

Another major criticism of the functionalist theory is that its merits are limited to

those parts of the world that share the welfare values which the ideology claim to promote.

Hence cultures and governments who do not appreciate the values the functionalist seems to

promote, may not be attracted to her web of integration just for its benefits. However the

criticisms gave rise to a modified functionalist school of thought known as Neo-

functionalism. And their ideas responded to the criticism of the functionalist by moderating

their ideas for global functionalism and paying attention to spill over.9

Neo-functionalism

Neo-functionalism was propounded by Ernst Haas in the early 1950 in his book The

Uniting of Europe 10 The basic assumption of neo-functionalism is that in the process of state

cooperation or integration, the role of nation states will decrease. Thus neo-functionalist do

not see the state as a single unified actor in the international stage 11 knowing that the state as

5
a concept is more complex than the activities of interest groups or bureaucratic actors,

interest groups at different geographical locations could come together at a supranational or

transnational level. The neo-functionalist believe that non state actors have an important role

to play in the integration process. Haas posits that there is continuum between economic

integration and political union and both were linked by the spill over through which the tasks

and powers of the central institution are increased and integration encroaches on the

politically sensitive area.12

Haas also observed that determinism is a crucial factor to economic integration and

that in the process of achieving political unity, integration and disintegration might coexist

simultaneously, but the choices of integrating member states of a community of a community

could determine the pace and direction of integration. In essence, a charismatic political

leader can speed up integration process and vice versa. Thus he acknowledged that the

process of functionalism was easier to achieve in a regional context, and that it would be

difficult to separate the technical from political issues or avoid conflict between states if the

gains of the integration was shared unequally among them as such, he advocated for an

institution that can impose and uphold agreement made by states and these bodies have to be

autonomous so they can be effective. The neo functionalist thought also was criticised by the

inter-governmentalist thought as expounded by Stanley Hoffmann.

Inter-governmentalism

Inter-governmentalism is a theory of regional integration and expounded by Stanley

Hoffman. In his view, the state is the main actor in the integration process. He believes that

national government control the speed of integration irrespective of the abilities of interest

groups to influence domestic policies, invariably, interest groups do not possess such powers

6
to compel or pressure governments to integrate, because government has its sovereignty, and

political legitimacy thus enjoy its status of independent decision making.13

Literally, the term intergovernmental means something existing between two

governments or level of governments, but Neil Nugnet defined Inter-governmentalism as “an

arrangement whereby nation-states, in situation and condition they can control, cooperate

with one another on matters of common interest. The existence of control, which allows all

participating states to decide the extent and nature of this cooperation means that national

sovereignty is not directly undermined.”14 No doubt this cooperation is fuelled by self-interest

of the governments but this cooperation is also aimed at solving common problems among

integrating states. Hoffman’s theory also tries to distinguish between concepts he referred to

as low politics and high politics and his argument is that integration will be very successful in

the realm of low politics which he referred to as economic integration as states consider

issues of territorial security and sovereignty which he referred to as high politics to be

theirs.15

The Relevance of the Theories to the ECOWAS

Neo-functionalism as explained earlier is a theory which states that member states

can cooperate to reap economic benefits, by setting up in motion a process in which greater

tasks are delegated to the supranational level 16 Neofunctionalism from observation was

basically concerned about the process of integration more than the result of the process of

integration. The assumptions of this theory as explained by Haas is that cooperation in one

policy area would create pressure in an accompanying policy area, placing it on integration

and this is what he referred to as spill over.17 Jensen refers a ‘spill over’ to a situation in

which cooperation in one field necessitates cooperation in another. Also Haas placed more

emphasis on the role of non-state actors in the process of regional integration, and less on

7
nation-states. Thus, he believes that non-state actors like interest groups, Multinational

Cooperation’s and bureaucrats are important actors in policy-making. Invariably we could

assume that placing more emphasis on non-state-actors in international politics is as a key

feature of Neofunctionalism. Therefore the ideas of Haas no doubt must have informed the

process of integration in the West African region which gave birth to the ECOWAS.

Stanley Hoffmans inter-governmentalism on the contrary places more emphasis on

the role of the state in the process of integration as they believe that the national governments

control the level and speed of integration regardless of interest groups’ abilities to influence

domestic policies. Because pressure groups cannot pressurise governments to integrate, rather

government decide on policies of integration. This idea can also be applied to the ECOWAS

situation in view of the fact that the governments of Nigeria and Togo came together in 1972

with a decision to evolve an economic community which will grow to integrate other

countries of west Africa into an regional body, and a meeting held in Lagos on the 27 th of

May 1975 which featured the signing of the ECOWAS treaty by representatives of the fifteen

West African countries brought this ambition to fulfilment.

David Mitrany’s functionalism which holds the view that integration could be

effective through the creation of transnational complex of economic and social organization,

hence placing international activities around functional need of integrating communities like

transportation, welfare trade and production and this process involves surrendering of

national power to promote global peace and security in essence for the ECOWAS to achieve

its ultimate aim of political and economic integration, meeting the functional needs of

member states as highlighted by Mitrany should be a point of interest to the ECOWAS.

Historical Perspective of the ECOWAS

8
ECOWAS as a regional organization marked its fortieth anniversary on the 27 th may 2015,

hence, the this section of the study is benched on making a scholarly appraisal of the extent to

which the programmes of ECOWAS had been able to promote functional cooperation,

economic integration and political stability over the years.

Prior to the treaty signed by the Nigerian and Togolese government in April 1972,

Nigeria and its government under the leadership of Tafawa Balewa felt the need for the

creation of a sub-regional body which could foster functional cooperation and further lead to

a common market. But this dream was deterred by an unfavourable regional political

environment, as there existed serious distrust among leaders in the region. Chibuzo Nwoke

affirms that the francophone states saw themselves as different world from the Anglophone

states and vice versa.18 Thus, as a result of Nigeria’s effort at initiating an integration scheme,

Africa was divided into 4 sub-regions, and meetings held in the West African Sub-region

gave rise to the signing of an article of association of a West African Economic Community

(WAEC) in 1967 at Accra Ghana, and the protocol in Monrovia, Liberia, subsequently led to

the establishment of a west African group committed to the establishment of a common

market. The various efforts by Nigerian government to champion the course of an economic

community in the region was at this point frustrated by the civil war, but the administration of

General Yakubu Gowon which made Africa the centre piece of her foreign policy took up the

baton from his predecessor and continued in the struggle to ensure an all-west African

integration scheme is achieved not minding the internal and external challenges which

evolved from the Nigerian anti-integrationists, made up of officials of the ministry of trade,

industries, and external affairs, and that of the francophone components of the west African

region who were more committed to the formation of an Economic Community of

Francophone West Africa known as Communaute Economy de l’afrique de l’Quest (CEAO).

9
 However, professor Adedeji the then commissioner for Economic Development and

Reconstruction, who was interested in the idea of a sub-regional integration appreciated the

confidence of the Nigerian head of state towards achieving project and through his friend

Chief Henry Fajemirokun, they were able to get support of the leadership of Nigerian

Chambers of Commerce, Industries Mines and Agriculture, who solicited the support of their

counterparts throughout francophone and Anglophone west Africa and this move led to the

formation of a Federation of West African Chambers of Commerce, industry and agriculture

in august 1973,19 just after the Nigeria and Togo agreement on an embryo of the West African

Economic Community. Nigerian government having received Togo’s cooperation began to

work on other francophone countries like Benin, Chad, and Cameroon.

Most of the West African countries still never wanted to cooperate with the Nigerian-

Togolese Economic Community despite all the strategies adopted by Gowon which include

playing the big brother/ Father Christmas role in the formation of ECOWAS by giving fifty

thousand naira (#50,000) to defence and security in Guinea, and the supply of electricity from

Nigerian Kainji dam to Niger. This project which was estimated to cost Nigeria N9.6 Million

to implement was signed on January 8, 1972. 20 West African states only changed their

perception and began a rethink towards the Nigeria-Togolese economic community in 1973

when the Arab-Israeli war led to a rise in the price of oil and Nigeria began to make great

profits from their oil export to the west. This led to an emergent trust and confidence in

Nigeria’s leadership and cumulatively resulted to a positive response that brought about the

success of the Lome Ministerial meeting in December 1973 and the adoption of the

ECOWAS treaty by the summit of heads of states and government in May 1975 in Lagos.

The ECOWAS began with fifteen member country and these countries were Benin,

Upper Volta now Burkina Faso, Cote d’Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau,

Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo.  The Treaty of

10
1975 which led to the creation of Economic Community of West African States, was

intended to promote cooperation and integration within West Africa and to eventually

establish an economic and monetary union.21  Cape Verde joined in 1977, increasing the

number of ECOWAS member states to 16 and these sixteen member states meet on July 24,

1993, to sign a revised treaty. The 1993 revised version of the ECOWAS treaty made the

goals of accelerating the integration of economic policy and improving political cooperation

its basic goals. The revised treaty however made provisions for a common market system and

a shared currency and establishment of a common currency zone.22 

The revised treaty also made the responsibility of preventing and settling regional

conflicts a duty of the member states. In regards to that, the ECOWAS Summit of December

1999, agreed on a Protocol for the Establishment of a Mechanism for Conflict Prevention,

Management and Resolution, Peace and Security.23 

Specific Programmes of the ECOWAS and Extent of Success

It is imperative in this section of this paper to outline some basic programmes of the

ECOWAS and the extent to which success have been attained. Firstly it has been observed in

1980, the Authority of Head of States and Government of the ECOWAS adopted the

community transport programme and in 1981 the integrated telecommunications was also

adopted. Similarly, the ECOWAS in a bid to combat economic crisis in the sub-region,

launched Africa’s Priority Programme for Economic Recovery (APPER) in July 1985. 24 The

programme was adopted by the general assembly session of the United Nations in May 1986

and this process invariably presents Africans situation to the international community.

Although, this adoption did not positively affect the economy of the ECOWAS states

hence the leaders of the various States saw the need to become primary drivers of the desired

11
economic development of the sub-region. And to that effect, the proper implementation of the

free trade zone programme which constitutes one of the major strategies of the ECOWAS at

achieving economic integration was given adequate commitment and in a report dated Nov 5,

2001, from the Nigerian Minister for Cooperation and Integration, Chief Abimbola

Ogunkelu, it was observed that all illegal checkpoints on the highway linking members of

the ECOWAS have been dismantled and a free trade area has been established by Nigeria and

six other West African countries, thus goods arising from the affected countries will no

longer attract tariff payment.25

The creation of Monetary Union of the ECOWAS which is centred on creating a

common currency for the West African sub-region was kicked off by Nigeria,
Ghana, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Cape Verde and Gambia through the
establishment of the West African Monetary Institute (WAMI) located in Ghana,
which began operation in 2001. This institution which was believed to serve as a
transitional institution that will give birth to a West African Central Bank
(WACB).26 Chibuzo Nwoke further asserts that, The immediate task of the WAMI
is to harmonize the seven Anglophone currencies into a convertible regional
currency. The task includes forming the seven countries into a new monetary zone-
the West Africam Monetary Zone (WAMZ) by January 2003 and the introduction of
the new currency by 2004.

It is conspicuously indisputable that the ECOWAS has not been able to achieve the

aim of its monetary union programme till date.

Another programme which the ECOWAS developed to make the integration process

effective is the development of regional infrastructure which has reached various stages of

implementation. Some of these projects include:

a) The rail link from Lagos to Accra with possible extension to Dakar through

Abidjan;

b) A regional airline project (ECOAIR) to make transport easy thus, making it

possible for regional airlines to access all West African domestic traffic;

c) An ECOMARINE for marine transportation;

12
 d) A West African Gas pipeline to boost electricity supply;

e) An INTELCOM which will link all national capitals.27

It is not an overstatement that the various strategies outlined to achieve the

infrastructural development programme at the ECOWAS sub-regional level have not attained

the desired success which is expected of it by this time.

The establishment of an ECOWAS court of justice as found in article 15 of ECOWAS

revised treaty of 1999, became accomplished in year 2000, and the responsibilities of the

court includes interpretation and enforcement of the protocols and convention of the

community, its judges were drawn from selected countries of the sub-region and the court is

charged with the responsibility of accelerating integration process in the sub-region through

promoting access to peace equity and justice.28

Furthermore, the maintenance of regional peace and security as a programme of the

ECOWAS has also attained some level of success through the ECOWAS Monitoring Group

(ECOMOG) which has been able to carry out peacekeeping operation in crisis situation within

the members of the ECOWAS community. The ECOMOG has the responsibility of ensuring

maintenance of democratic principles and good governance among member states.

Similarly the ECOWAS immigration programme has also attained an appreciable

level of success with the introduction of the ECOWAS passport launched in 2001 and the

protocol on right of entry, residence, and establishment provided under the ECOWAS treaty

which has accrued citizens of the ECOWAS community visa- free entry into any country of

their choice within the community.

On a general note it could be observed that the integration process and functional

cooperation among members of the ECOWAS community that is expected to reach its zenith

13
before now still lies below the ground, programmes and protocols of the community are not

fully implemented, and from studies it is imperative at this point to believe that some issues

like: lack of political will, lack of a developmental and integration culture, corruption, lack of

commitment to make financial contributions, fear of Nigerian dominance by small countries,

persistent conflict, insecurity and instability are responsible for the slow pace of the west

African integration. Thus to enhance functional cooperation, economic integration and

political stability in West Africa the following suggestion will be found useful.

1. There Anglophone and Francophone issue which has resulted to the competition

between the UEOMA and the ECOWAS integrating schemes should be addressed.

2. Members of the ECOWAS should be encouraged to implement the various protocols

that they have signed.

3. A proper integration culture should be developed among member countries so that the

integration process could be effective.

4. The ECOWAS should jointly tackle the problem of insecurity in the various

integrating countries.

5. ECOWAS should be concerned with improving the level of education among its

members as illiteracy can be a critical factor hindering integration

Conclusion

The ideological postulations of both classical and modern scholars have in one way or

the other encouraged the need for integration to boost the economy of the integrating states. In

West Africa, the greatest impediment to the integration process remain the colonial

experience of the region which eventually demarcated the region along linguistic lines thus

making the region to be a heterogeneous one comprising of the Anglophone and francophone

compartments. This problem is clearly seen in the UEOMA (L’Union Economique et

14
Monetaire de L’Quest Africaine) and the WAMZ (West Africa Monetary Zone) issue

militating agent the creation of an West African Central Bank (WACB) and the attainment of

an ECOWAS monetary union. However, countries which make-up West Africa should seek

to produce leaders who have development agendas in their minds so that there can be a radical

approach to the integration process so that the region will enjoy the benefits of integration.

References

15
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