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Behavior of EPS Geofoam in True Triaxial Compression Tests
Behavior of EPS Geofoam in True Triaxial Compression Tests
Technical Note
Abstract
This paper investigates the behavior of EPS geofoam in a true triaxial apparatus using 70 mm 70 mm 140 mm prismatic brick-
shaped specimens. The specimens are subjected to different stress paths in the deviator (p) plane by means of stress-controlled loading, in
which the axial stress is imposed at a rate of 75 kPa/min in the major principal direction. Stress–strain characteristics and volume change
behavior have been recorded, and the yield surface has been deduced from the experimental data. The following observations have also
been made for the geofoam: (a) it is an elastoplastic hardening material with plastic contractive volume change under compressive
loading, (b) it softens stiffness-wise under confining stress, (c) the onset of contractive volume change corresponds quite well to the
proportional limit, and (d) yielding is a slightly decreasing function of the intermediate principal stress. The study found that yielding can
be represented reasonably well by a Drucker–Prager yield surface.
r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: EPS geofoam; True triaxial test; Volumetric contraction; Constitutive model; Yield locus; Radial stress path
0266-1144/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.geotexmem.2007.10.005
ARTICLE IN PRESS
176 C.J. Leo et al. / Geotextiles and Geomembranes 26 (2008) 175–180
conditions. For instance, when Wong and Leo (2006) opposing LVDT the ‘‘slave’’. The master LVDT can be
proposed an elastoplastic hardening model based on controlled to deform at a particular rate, including zero,
conventional triaxial test data, they also pointed out that and the slave is automatically programed to deform an
under triaxial conditions, the Drucker–Prager and Mohr– equal amount. Each one of the horizontal loading rams has
Coulomb yield criteria will give similar results. Only an internal load cell and there is only one load cell with the
experimental results through more comprehensive true top vertical ram. Four sliding rigid plates (top and bottom,
triaxial tests can best decide which yield criterion is more left and right) are used to apply two principal stresses.
appropriate. The machine is currently designed for a brick-shaped
In view of the foregoing, a series of true triaxial tests specimen. The whole specimen is encased in a rubber
with three distinct principal stresses have been performed membrane and the four sliding plates are all enclosed in a
to investigate the response of EPS geofoam under various chamber as shown in Fig. 1a. Thus, the front and the back
stress paths and to deduce its yield locus. In recent years, faces of the brick-shaped specimen are loaded by water
various investigators have designed and undertaken true pressure inside the chamber. The vertical and lateral
triaxial tests for the purpose of studying the mechanical stresses are applied using rigid plates and oil jacks and
behavior of geomaterials such as rocks (Hamison and are the major and intermediate principal stresses. The
Chang, 2000), sand (Wang and Lade, 2001) and unsatu- minor principal stress is applied by water pressure in the
rated soil (Matsuoka et al., 2002). These tests have been chamber. To reduce the effects of friction developing
useful in enabling the investigators to develop constitutive between the membrane and the sliding plates, 0.01-mm-
models for these materials. In the true triaxial tests thick plastic sheet with a thin layer of grease is used.
performed in this paper, the prismatic brick-shaped speci- GCTS pressure–volume controllers that have been used to
men is loaded independently in three orthogonal directions measure pressure/volume are integrated with the true
corresponding to directions of the principal stresses. This triaxial system. The system uses hydraulic digital servo
makes it possible to investigate the material response under control for maintaining the necessary test conditions.
a number of stress paths without rotation of the principal Data from the experiments are logged electronically. All
stress/strain axes. Of particular interest in this study is the the transducers in the setup are connected to a controller
determination of an appropriate yield function for EPS through the computer interface unit for data acquisition
geofoam. and control. The controller itself is also connected to the
computer. Computer-aided testing system (CATS) soft-
2. Experimental testing ware (developed by GCTS) automated various phases of
testing such as consolidation, and application of stresses
2.1. EPS geofoam for applying a predetermined stress path or strain path.
The proportional integral derivative (PID) algorithm used
EPS geofoam is manufactured in different grades with for control was based on adjusting the output channel to
the density typically ranging from 10 to 30 kg/m3. The match a target command in real time. The setup of true
lower the density, the more compressible is the material triaxial system is shown schematically in Fig. 1b.
and the lower is its yielding stress. In this paper, the
material investigated is the 16 kg/m3 EPS geofoam, but 2.3. Experimental program
the qualitative results obtained will be applicable to the
geofoam material of different densities. Stress-controlled true triaxial experiments (summarized
in Table 1) are carried out using prismatic brick-shaped
2.2. True triaxial test apparatus EPS specimens (70 mm 70 mm 140 mm; Fig. 2a) along
‘‘radial’’ stress paths (perpendicular to hydrostatic axis)
Fig. 1a shows the true triaxial testing device used in corresponding to Lode angle y of 01, 301, 601, 901, 1201,
this study. The device was originally developed by the that is b-values ( ¼ (s2s3)/(s1s3)) of 0, 0.5, 1, 2, and N,
Geotechnical and Consulting Testing Systems (GCTS). respectively, while the stress invariant I1 ( ¼ s1+s2+s3) is
Due to non-uniform stress distribution at the corner of the kept constant at either 120 or 180 kPa. The use of the brick-
specimen during loading, the loading frame was modified shaped specimen is necessitated by the current design of the
by Yin et al. at Hong Kong Polytechnic University. Details machine. The specimen is seated so that the vertical height
of the four sliding plates design are presented in Yin (2006). is 140 mm and the horizontal section is 70 mm 70 mm.
The device includes four hydraulic load rams equipped For future reference, the vertical stress is denoted s1, and
with linear variable displacement transducers (LVDTs) the horizontal stresses are denoted s2 and s3 (Fig. 2a).
so that each platen can be independently computer They are the principal stresses by construction. While the
controlled. The loading can be either stress controlled or first two stresses, s1 and s2, are applied through the contact
strain controlled. With this configuration, the specimen is between the sample and steel plates, the last stress, s3, is
maintained at the center to minimize the corner effect. This applied by the cell fluid pressure. This detail is important in
is accomplished by always making one of the LVDTs on that it induces some kind of anisotropy in the sample
each plane with hydraulic loaders the ‘‘master’’ and the responses. The principal stresses s1 and s2 can be in any
ARTICLE IN PRESS
C.J. Leo et al. / Geotextiles and Geomembranes 26 (2008) 175–180 177
Sliding
Chamber
plates inside
filled with
water and
closed
Specimen
Sliding plates
Signal Conditioning
Digital System
Controller
Computer Computer
Interface Unit
To/From
Sensors
Connected to
Servo Amplifier Double Acting Double
Actuators Acting
Actuator
Servo Value
Load Cell
Hydraulic Pressure
Pressure Line LVDT
System
Deformation
Solenoid Value Sensor
Fig. 1. (a) The truly triaxial cell with sliding plates. (b) Setup of true triaxial system.
σ1
70 mm
0°
m
m
70 30°
60°
140 mm
90°
σ1
120°
σ3
σ2 σ3
σ2
Fig. 2. (a) Specimen dimensions and notation for principal stresses. (b) Rosette of stress paths at various Lode angles y in the deviatoric (p) plane.
80
unique in the sense that the material does not have a well-
defined peak failure point which is commonly seen in
stress (kPa)
60
geomaterials. In fact, the slopes of the stress–strain curves
remain positive throughout as the monotonic stress loading
40
is being applied. I1 = 120 kPa
I1 = 180 kPa
20
3.1. Stress–strain characteristics b=0
0
The plot of major principal deviator stress against major 0.0% 4.0% 8.0% 12.0%
principal strain under stress loading appears as a curve in
Major principal strain
which the initial tangent line is linear until the proportional
limit, after which it decreases and asymptotes to the plastic
tangent line. The form and shape of the curves are similar 10.0%
for all b-values, and a typical stress–strain plot (with b ¼ 0) 8.0%
is presented in Fig. 3a. The proportional limit, which is the
Volume strain
0.1 2001, Salt Lake City, UT, USA. CD-ROM Conference preprints
Normalised major principal yield
/http://geofoam.syr.edu/EPS2001/S.
Bathurst, R., Keshavarz, A., Zarnani, S., Take, A., 2006. A simple
displacement model for response analysis of EPS geofoam seismic
stress increase