Module 3 Final Term Part 2 (Society and Culture)

Reference No: KLL-FO-ACAD-000 | Effective Date: August 3, 2020 | Revisions No.
: 00
VISION MISSION
A center of human development committed to the pursuit of wisdom, truth, Establish and maintain an academic environment promoting the pursuit of
justice, pride, dignity, and local/global competitiveness via a quality but excellence and the total development of its students as human beings,
affordable education for all qualified clients. with fear of God and love of country and fellowmen.
GOALS
Kolehiyo ng Lungsod ng Lipa aims to:
1. foster the spiritual, intellectual, social, moral, and creative life of its client via affordable but quality tertiary education;
2. provide the clients with reach and substantial, relevant, wide range of academic disciplines, expose them to varied curricular and co-curricular
experiences which nurture and enhance their personal dedications and commitments to social, moral, cultural, and economic transformations.
3. work with the government and the community and the pursuit of achieving national developmental goals; and
4. develop deserving and qualified clients with different skills of life existence and prepare them for local and global competitiveness
MODULE 4 (Final Term)

FIRST Semester, AY 2020-2021
I. COURSE : SOCIETY AND CULTURE WITH HIV AND FAMILY PLANNING
(SOC SCI 7)
II. SUBJECT MATTER :
TOPICS TIME-FRAME
 FAMILY PLANNING
 Kinds of Family Planning Methods December 1, 2020 to January 15, 2021
 Overview of Philippine RH Bill
 HIV/AIDS
 Meaning and Nature of HIV/AIDS
 The origin and means of Transmission of AIDS
 Symptoms and Effects
 Prevention/Control/Treatment of HIV/AIDS
III. COURSE OUTCOME :

1. Discuss the nature, and concept of Philippine politics;
2. Describe and relate to the plight of workers in the country;
3. Identify different methods of family Planning;
4. Understand the importance of Gender Equality and Family Planning;
5. Explain the meaning and nature of HIV/AIDS; and,
6. Spread awareness about prevention, control, and treatment of HIV/AIDS
IV. ENGAGEMENT :
DIRECTIONS: Read and analyze the following text.
 FAMILY PLANNING
Birth control methods vary far and wide. There’s a method for nearly every body and lifestyle. In fact, there
are about 12 methods in total and counting. And those methods range from non-hormonal and hormonal to single
use and long-lasting use.
If a woman is sexually active and she is fertile, meaning that she is physically able to become pregnant, she
needs to ask herself, "Do I want to become pregnant now?" If her answer is "No," she must use some method
of birth control (contraception).
Marawoy, Lipa City, Batangas 4217 | https://www.facebook.com/KLLOfficial/

Terminology for "birth control" includes contraception, pregnancy prevention, fertility control, and family
planning. But no matter what the terminology, sexually active people can choose from a variety of methods to
reduce the possibility of their becoming pregnant. Nevertheless, no method of birth control available today offers
perfect protection against sexually transmitted infections (sexually transmitted diseases, or STDs), except
abstinence.
In simple terms, all methods of birth control are based on either preventing a man's sperm from reaching
and entering a woman's egg (fertilization) or preventing the fertilized egg from implanting in the woman's uterus
(her womb) and starting to grow. New methods of birth control are being developed and tested. And what is
appropriate for a couple at one point may change with time and circumstances.
Unfortunately, no birth-control method, except abstinence, is considered to be 100% effective.
 Kinds of Family Planning Methods

There are two kinds of Family Planning Methods: The Natural Family Planning and the Hormonal Methods of Birth
Control
Natural Birth Control/Natural Family Planning

Natural methods of contraception are considered "natural" because they are non-mechanical and non-
hormonal. Fertility awareness methods (FAMs) are based upon knowing when a woman ovulates each month.
Natural methods of birth control include: the calendar rhythm, basal body temperature, mucus inspection,
symptothermal, use of an ovulation indicator testing kit, withdrawal, lactational infertility, douching and urination,
and abstinence.
What Is Natural Family Planning?

Not all birth control methods are associated with a device, medication, or procedure. Natural family
planning, or fertility awareness, involves timing your sexual activity to avoid a woman's most fertile time. By
understanding when a woman is most fertile, a couple can avoid pregnancy.
How Is Natural Family Planning Used?

A woman is most likely to get pregnant if she has unprotected sex during the five days’ prior ovulation, the
day of ovulation, and a day or two after ovulation. There are a few different methods that can be used to predict
when you will ovulate. Measuring basal body temperature and monitoring cervical mucus are ways to determine
when a woman will ovulate. The calendar method is also useful in tracking your cycles on a calendar. Your health
care professional can train you in the safest way to use this method correctly.
How Effective Is Natural Family Planning?

o Typical use: 76% effective
Advantages:
NFP has many advantages which commend it to many couples who do not wish to rely on external methods:
 NFP can be quite effective in reducing the odds of pregnancy, to less than one per cent per year. However,
since many couples do not use the method perfectly, the typical-use pregnancy rate is closer to 25 percent.
 These methods are almost cost-free except for a basal body thermometer and perhaps a menstrual
calendar.
 They do not involve the use of any medication so no side-effects occur.

 They help women become more aware of their cycles and related physiological changes.
 Couples can either plan for achieving or avoiding a pregnancy using their awareness of the woman’s fertility
pattern.
 Women are able to better recognize abnormalities in their menstrual cycles and reproductive systems as a
result of greater awareness of their bodies.
 It promotes communication and responsibility-sharing within couples.
 It is acceptable within all cultures and religious groups.
 There are no medical contraindications as such.
 It does not require the input of a healthcare provider but leaves fertility within the couple’s control.
Disadvantages:
NFP is a process which has its own negatives, if the couple considers them to be such:
 It is a couple-centered process so both partners need to agree to use these methods.
 They do not protect the couple against sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Where appropriate, couples
must use condoms or other barrier methods as well.
 Couples require careful observation and training for accurate recording, for a few months, before they can
be used reliably to predict fertile days. This is more difficult but still quite possible with irregular cycles.
 Time and effort must be invested to observe and accurately record fertility indicators, which may not be
possible for busy women.
 The coitus interruptus method has a high failure rate and puts great stress upon the male partner to
remember to remove the penis just before ejaculation. Viable sperm may be present in the fluid that
escapes before ejaculation, and sperms may also swim up from just outside the vagina to cause
fertilization.
Contraindications
Women for whom pregnancy is strictly contraindicated should not use NFP. Such women include:
 Those with poorly controlled high blood pressure, or cardiac disease.
 Those with high risk of fetal abnormalities, such as alcoholic or drug-abusing women, or if they are on
teratogenic medications.
 Those with irregular periods which make it difficult to predict the fertile period may want to choose
another method of contraception.
 Those with medical conditions that alter fertility indicators
 Pelvic inflammatory disease or bacterial vaginosis, which cause:
o increased vaginal discharge, until the condition is resolved.
o Thyroid or liver disease which can cause absence of the normal signs of ovulation.
o Medications such as lithium which alter cervical mucus production.
 Women with multiple sexual partners which increases their risk of contracting a STI.
 For at least two cycles, women who have used emergency contraception should not use NFP.
Withdrawal (Pulling Out) Method
The withdrawal method or "pulling out," involves the man

withdrawing his penis prior to ejaculation. If using the withdrawal
method, be careful to make sure that no semen leaks into the

woman’s vulva. It is very important for men to understand their
own sexual response and know when they are going to ejaculate.
How Effective Is the Pulling Out Method?

 Typical use: 86% effective
Pros
 Free
 Does not involve drugs or medical procedures
Cons
 No STD protection
 Difficult to do correctly
 Requires self-control, experience, and trust
 Not recommended for men who ejaculate prematurely
Hormonal Methods of Birth Control

There are several different hormonal methods of birth control. The differences among them involve
 the type of hormone,
 the amount of hormone, and
 the way the hormone enters a woman's body.
The hormones can be estrogen and/or progesterone, or preparations that contain a combination of these
hormones. These hormones may be taken orally (taken by mouth), implanted into body tissue, injected under the
skin, absorbed from a patch on the skin, or placed in the vagina. The mode of delivery determines whether the
hormonal exposure is continuous or intermittent.
What are advantages and disadvantages of hormonal birth control methods?
Advantages of hormonal methods of birth control include that they are all highly effective and their effects
are reversible. They do not rely on spontaneity and can be used in advance of sexual activity.
Disadvantages of hormonal methods for birth control include:

 The necessity of taking medications continuously
 The cost of the medications
 Women must remember to take them regularly or use them exactly as prescribed
 A doctor’s visit and prescription are required.
 They do not protect a woman against STDs or sexually transmitted diseases
 Women must begin using hormonal contraceptives in advance before they become effective.
For some women, hormonal preparations are associated with unpleasant side effects or increased health risks.
 May make sex too messy because of the required liquid
 May make cause vaginal dryness

1. Birth Control Pills
The birth control pill, “the pill”, is the most common
method of hormonal contraception. The birth control pill is taken
daily and most pills use a combination of estrogen and progestin
hormones.
How Do Birth Control Pills Work?

Understanding how birth control pills work can be pretty
confusing. Basically, birth control pills are made of hormones, and
hormones are chemicals made in our bodies. Our hormones
control how different parts of our bodies work. Birth control pills
contain a small amount of man-made estrogen and progestin
hormones, which work to prevent eggs from leaving the ovaries. If
there is no egg to join the sperm, there is no pregnancy. Birth
control pills also make the cervical mucus thicker, which keeps
sperm from joining with the eggs.
Side Effects of Birth Control Pills
Some women have side effects with the birth control pill, but their bodies are usually able to adjust over
time. Common side effects of birth control pills include the following:
 Bleeding between periods
 Breast tenderness
 Nausea and vomiting
 Change in sexual desire
Birth control pills rarely cause serious problems, but here are a few health problems caused by birth control pills:
 Blood clots
 Increased potassium in your blood
 Heart attack
 Stroke
 High blood pressure
 Liver tumors
 Gallstones
 Yellowing of the skin or eyes
Remember, these serious side effects are extremely uncommon.
How Effective Are Birth Control Pills?
Pros
 Very effective Cons
 May reduce menstrual cramping  No STD protection
 May lead to lighter periods  Cost is P200 to P700/month
 Cost may be covered by your health  Requires a doctor visit and prescription
insurance  Side effects
 Doesn’t interrupt sexual activity  Must be taken daily
2.1 Spermicide
Spermicides are chemicals that kill sperm and prevent
them from fertilizing the egg. They are available in different forms

such as foams, creams, jellies, or films. Spermicides must be
inserted deep into the vagina before sexual activity. Spermicide
blocks the cervix and keeps the sperm from moving, which
prevents the sperm from reaching the eggs. They are most
commonly used in combination with other birth control methods,
rather than alone.
How Effective Is Spermicide?

Pros
 Low cost (about $8 per package) Cons
 Easy to use  No STD protection
 Can be inserted by a partner as foreplay  May be messy
 Extremely easy to purchase  May irritate the penis or vagina
 Can be used during breastfeeding  Low effective rate if used alone
2.2 Diaphragm
Although not as popular as other birth control
methods, the diaphragm is another way to prevent
conception. The diaphragm is a rubber dome that is
inserted into the vagina and placed over the cervix before
sexual activity. When the diaphragm is in place, the
opening to the uterus is blocked and the sperm is unable
to join with an egg.
How Is the Diaphragm Used?
Inserting the diaphragm is not as simple as condoms, but practice makes perfect. Start by washing your
hands with soap and water. Put about a tablespoon of spermicide in the cup and around the rim. Find a
comfortable position and separate the lips of the vulva with one hand. With the other hand, pinch the rims of the
diaphragm to fold it in half. For a firmer grip, place your index finger in the center of the fold. Push the diaphragm
as far up and back into the vagina as possible. Make sure your cervix is covered and tuck the edge of the diaphragm
behind the pubic bone.
The diaphragm must be left in for six hours after the last time you had sex. If you have sex more than six hours after
the last time you had sex, leave it in but put more spermicide deep into the vagina. Do not leave the diaphragm in
for more than 24 hours.
To remove the diaphragm, start by washing your hands with soap and water. Place a finger into your vagina
and hook the rim of the diaphragm. Pull the diaphragm down and out and wash it with mild soap and warm water
to prevent infection.
How Effective Is the Diaphragm?

Pros Cons
 Low cost ($15-$75 every two years)  No STD protection
 Can be used during breastfeeding  Requires a doctor visit for fitting
 Immediately effective and reversible birth  Cannot use during menstruation
control  May be difficult to insert
 Cannot be felt by you or partner  Must be placed prior to sex, every time
 Reusable  Spermicide may have side effects
2.3 Cervical Cap
A cervical cap is another barrier method of contraception.

It is smaller than a diaphragm and fits over the cervix. Like the
diaphragm, a cervical cap is used with spermicide. The cervical cap
blocks the opening to the uterus and prevents sperm from joining
with an egg. FemCap is the only brand of cervical cap available in
the United States.
How Is a Cervical Cap Used?

Inserting the cervical cap can be tricky. Start by washing your hands with soap and water. Put one-quarter
teaspoon of spermicide in the cervical cap and on the brim. Put one-half teaspoon in the folded areas between the
brim and the dome. Find a comfortable position and separate the lips of the vulva with one hand. With the other
hand, squeeze the rim of the cap together. Slide the cervical cap dome-side down into your vagina, with the long
brim entering first. Push down toward the anus and then up onto the cervix. Make sure the cervix is completely
covered.
The cervical cap must be left in for six hours after the last time you had sex. If you have sex more than six
hours after the last time you have sex, leave it in but put more spermicide deep in your vagina. Do not leave the
cervical cap in for more than 48 hours.
To remove the cervical cap, start by washing your hands with soap and water. It is easiest if you squat down and
pull the removal strap while rotating the cervical cap. You can push the dome with your finger to break the suction
and pull the cervical cap out. Wash it with mild soap and warm water.
How Effective Is the Cervical Cap?

Pros Cons
 Low cost ($0-$75 every two years)  No STD protection
 Can remain in place up to 48 hours  Requires a doctor visit for fitting
 Cannot be felt by you or your partner  Cannot use during menstruation
 Can be used during breastfeeding  May be difficult to insert
 Must be placed prior to sex, every time
 Spermicide may have side effects
2.4 Today Sponge

This is not the same type of sponge you use to
wash the dishes! The Today Sponge is a small, doughnut-
shaped, foam sponge saturated with spermicide. The
sponge is inserted into the vagina and placed against the
cervix. A nylon loop attached to the bottom of the sponge
makes removal extremely simple. The sponge covers the
cervix and blocks sperm from entering the uterus. The
Today Sponge is the only available birth control sponge in
the United States.
How Is the Today Sponge Used?
The Today Sponge is much easier to use than a diaphragm or cervical cap. The sponge can be inserted up to
24 hours prior to sexual activity. To insert the Today Sponge, start by washing your hands with soap and water and
also wet the sponge with at least two tablespoons of clean water. Gently squeeze the sponge in order to activate
the spermicide. Next, fold the sides of the sponge up and away from the loop to make it look long and narrow. Use
your finger to slide the sponge far back into your vagina. Once the sponge is inserted, it will unfold and cover the
cervix. You can slide your fingers around the edge of the sponge to make sure it is in position.
The Today Sponge must be left in place for at least six hours after the last time you have sex. Do not leave
the Today Sponge in for longer than 30 hours.
To remove the Today Sponge, start by washing your hands with soap and water. Luckily, the sponge is a lot
simpler to remove than the diaphragm and cervical cap. Put a finger inside your vagina and through the loop.
Gently pull out the sponge. The sponge is not reusable, so make sure to always throw it away after removal.
How Effective Is the Today Sponge?

 Typical use: 88% effective for women who have never given birth
 Typical use: 76% effective for women who have given birth
Pros
 Immediate effectiveness Cons
 Prescription and doctor visit not required  No STD protection
 Cannot be felt by your or your partner  May be difficult to insert
 Can be used during breastfeeding  May cause vaginal irritation
3. Birth Control Patch

The birth control patch is another type of hormonal contraceptive.
The patch is thin and beige, like a bandage, and contains the same
hormones as birth control pills.
How Is the Birth Control Patch Used?
The birth control patch is applied to the skin and left in place for a
week. The patch is extremely easy to use! You can either stick it to the skin

of your buttocks, stomach, upper outer arm, or back. Make sure to avoid
oils, lotions, and makeup around the area you chose. The patch is changed
weekly for 3 weeks, then for the fourth week no patch is worn.
The patch contains estrogen and progestin, which prevent pregnancy by keeping the eggs in the ovaries
and thickening the cervical mucus. Keeping the eggs in the ovaries make them inaccessible to the sperm, meaning
no pregnancies.
Birth Control Patch Side Effects
Some women have side effects with the birth control patch, but their bodies are usually able to adjust over
time. Common side effects of the birth control patch include the following:
 Bleeding between periods
 Breast tenderness
 Nausea and vomiting
 Change in sexual desire
 Skin irritation
How Effective Is the Birth Control Patch?

Pros Cons
 May lead to lighter periods  May cost up to $80/month, if not covered by
 Applied only once a week your health insurance
 Cost may be covered by your health  Side effects
insurance  Requires a doctor visit and prescription
4. Vaginal Ring
The vaginal ring is a small, flexible ring that contains the

same hormones as the pill and patch, estrogen and progestin. The
hormones in the vaginal ring keep the eggs from leaving the
ovaries and thicken the cervical mucus, which prevents
pregnancies. It is worn inside the vagina to prevent pregnancies.
How Is the Vaginal Ring Used?
Vaginal ring is fairly easy to use. Start by washing your hands with soap and water. Next, insert the ring into
your vagina by pressing the sides of the ring together and pushing the ring into your vagina. Don’t worry about the
exact location of the ring, it doesn’t matter. It is inserted into the vagina and left in place for three weeks.

After three weeks, remove the ring by hooking your finger under the forward rim and pulling it out. You will
then go one week without the vaginal ring, this usually corresponds to when you will have your period. After
exactly one week, insert a new ring into your vagina.
How Effective Is the Vaginal Ring?

Pros Cons
 May lead to lighter periods  May cost up to $80/month, if not covered by
 Cost may be covered by your health your health insurance
insurance  Side effects
5. Birth Control Shot
A hormonal injection can protect against pregnancy for three
months.
How Does the Birth Control Shot Work?
A doctor will inject you with the birth control shot every 12
weeks in the arm or buttocks. The hormone in the birth control
shot, progestin, will work with the body to prevent pregnancy. This
keeps the eggs from leaving the ovaries and makes the cervical
mucus thicker. Keeping the sperm from the eggs will prevent
pregnancy.
How Effective Is the Birth Control Shot?
Pros
 Very effective Cons
 Only injected once every 12 weeks  No STD protection
 Does not contain estrogen  May cost up to $240/year, if not covered by
 Cost may be covered by your health your health insurance
insurance  Side effect
6. Birth Control Implant
The same hormone in the birth control shot can be delivered in an

implant. Implanon and Nexplanon are brands of birth control implants. The
hormone in the implant, progestin, works with the body to prevent the
eggs from leaving the ovaries. Since the eggs stay in the ovaries, the sperm
is unable to join the egg.
The implant is a small, matchstick-sized device implanted beneath

the skin of the upper arm. A doctor will numb a small area of your arm and
insert the implant. After 4 years or any time before this that you wish, the
implant will be removed by a doctor.

Mirena is inserted for up to 5, and Skyla and Liletta are
How Effective Is the Birth Control Implant? effective for up to 3 years. All types of IUDs are highly
 Typical use: 99.95% effective effective.
How Does an IUD Work?

Both the copper and the hormonal IUDs work by preventing the sperm from joining an egg. For women
using a hormonal IUD, the eggs are unable to leave the ovaries and the cervical mucus is thickened. This means that
the eggs and sperm will not join together.
How Effective Is an IUD?
Pros Cons
 Long-lasting  No STD protection
 May reduce period cramps  Requires doctor visit and costs up to $1000
 Cost may be covered by your health (lasts up to 10 years, depending on the type)
insurance  Mild to moderate pain when IUD is inserted
 May reduce menstrual flow  Spotting between periods from the first 3-6
months
 Irregular periods in the first 3-6 months (with
Mirena or Skyla)
 Heavier periods and worse menstrual cramps
(with ParaGard)
 May slip out of place
8. Emergency Contraception
If you need protection after having sex, you may want to
consider an emergency contraception. Emergency contraception
can be hormonal or non-hormonal and it is used after sex to
protect against pregnancy if no birth control was used.
Emergency Contraceptive Pill

Examples of emergency contraceptives include Plan B, Plan
B One-Step, and Next Choice. All of these contain a high dose of a
hormone used in birth control pills, and they must be taken within
72 hours of sexual activity. Ella is a new type of emergency
contraception that uses a non-hormonal drug and can be used up
to 5 days after sexual activity.
Copper T IUD
The Copper T IUD is one of the most effective methods of emergency contraception. There are no
hormones in the Copper T IUD. There is a tiny copper filament wrapped around the T shape of the IUD that
prevents the sperm from coming in contact with the eggs.
How Effective Are Emergency Contraception’s?

 Pills- 89% effective if taken within 72 hours of unprotected sex
 Copper T IUD- 99% effective

9.1 Male Condoms
Glow-in-the-dark condoms, flavored condoms, studded

condoms and many more provide birth control that can make your
sex life safe and exciting! The male condom is a barrier method
involved in preventing contact between sperm and egg. Latex male
condoms are the classic methods of barrier contraception, but they
can be made of natural animal membrane, polyurethane, silicone,
or other synthetic material. During ejaculation, a condom is
designed to catch semen, stopping it from entering the vagina.
How to Put on a Condom

Everyone who is sexually active should know how to put on a condom. If you want it to work properly, you
have to know how to use it. Luckily it’s super easy! Start with the condom on the tip of the erect (hard) penis and
roll it down toward the base of the penis. Make sure there is a small pouch at the condom tip so it can catch the
ejaculated semen. After ejaculation, hold on to the condom at the base of the penis before removal from the
vagina in order to avoid leakage. Condoms are not reusable, use one and it’s done! Keep track of the condom’s
expiration date, as expired condoms should not be used.
How Effective Are Condoms?

Pros
 STD prevention
 Extremely easy to purchase
 Inexpensive, some are even free! The average condom costs about $1.
 Very easy to use
 Spices up your sex life! Male condoms can provide increased sensation for both partners. Try
experimenting with different styles, shapes, flavors, and textures of male condoms.
 Can be used for oral, anal, and vaginal sex.
 Can be used with other birth control methods
Cons
 One-time use
 Required every time you have sex
 Must be used properly in order for effectiveness
 Not as effective as other birth control methods
9.2 Female Condom
Looking for a way to enhance your sex life and

practice safe sex? This birth control option is a plastic,
pouch-like device inserted in the vagina before sex that
offers clitoral stimulation. The female condom can also be

inserted into the anus prior to anal sex. The female
condom has flexible rings at each end that can stimulate
the clitoris during vaginal sex.
How Do Female Condoms Work?
Female condoms can be inserted up to 8 hours prior to sexual activity, and they are very simple to use.
Female condoms can be inserted by a partner as part of foreplay. To insert a female condom, first apply lubricant
or spermicide to the outside of the closed end. Next, squeeze the sides of the ring at the closed end and insert it
into the vagina like a tampon. Push the inner ring into the vagina as far as it can go, until it reaches the cervix. The
outer ring will hang about an inch from the vagina. Once the pouch is inserted, the ring at the closed end holds it in
the vagina and sperm is prevented from entering the vaginal canal.
Don’t worry if you feel the condom move side to side, that is normal. You should definitely stop intercourse
if the penis slips between the condom and the vagina or if the outer ring is pushed into the vagina. Once your
partner has ejaculated, squeeze and twist the outer ring to keep the semen in the pouch. Gently pull the female
condom out of the vagina or anus and throw it away.
How Effective Are Female Condoms?

Pros Cons
 STD prevention  Not as effective as other birth control
 Safe, simple, and convenient methods
 Extremely easy to purchase  May cause irritation of the vagina, vulva,
 Inexpensive, about $4 each penis, or anus
 Offers clitoral stimulation  Reduced sensation during intercourse
 Allows additional foreplay  Crackling or popping noise may occur during
intercourse
10. Permanent Birth Control
A surgical procedure that makes a person who can produce sperm unable to cause a pregnancy or a person
who can ovulate unable to become pregnant. Permanent birth control is not reversible and prevents pregnancy
99% of the time. While women can choose from bilateral tubal ligation in the hospital (aka “having your tubes
tied”) or a tubal block done in a health center, men may choose a vasectomy.
10.1 Tubal Ligation
Tubal ligation, having “your tubes tied,” is

a permanent birth control option for women who
are certain they do not want to have children in
the future. Tubal ligation is a surgical procedure

that blocks, ties, or cuts the fallopian tubes so eggs
do not travel into an area where contact with
sperm is possible.
How Effective Is Tubal Ligation?

 100% effective
Pros Cons
 Highly effective  No STD protection
 Permanent  Surgery required
 May not be reversible
 Costly
10.2 Tubal Implants
Tubal implants are small metal springs or sponges

are placed inside the fallopian tubes to block them and
permanently prevent pregnancy. Tubal implants do not
require surgery; they are guided through the vagina,
cervix, and uterus until they are lodged in a fallopian tube.
The implants are made of metal or silicone and cause scar
tissue to form and block the fallopian tubes. It takes a few
months for the scar tissue to form. Once the scar tissue has
formed, the eggs will not be able to travel from the ovaries
to the fallopian tubes, where eggs are normally fertilized
by sperm.
How Effective Are Tubal Implants?
 100% effective
Pros Cons
 Permanent  No STD protection
 Surgery not required  Delay of a few months until effective
 Very effective  May not be reversible
 Costly
 May increase risk of infection
10.3 Vasectomy
Vasectomy is a permanent birth control option for

men. Vasectomy is the surgical closure of the vas deferens,
the tubes that transport sperm from the testes. Instead of
ejaculating sperm, the body will absorb the sperm and
release sperm-free ejaculate.

How Effective Is Vasectomy?
 Nearly 100% effective
Pros Cons
 Effective  No STD protection
 Permanent  Costly, may cost up to $1,000
 Surgery required
 May not be reversible
 Not immediately effective
Least Effective Birth Control Methods
Without birth control, about 85% of couples will

become pregnant in a year. Using any type of birth
control is better than using none at all. The following
are the least effective birth control methods:
 No birth control-15% effective

 Spermicide -72% effective
 Fertility awareness- 76% effective
 Female condom- 79% effective
 Withdrawal (pulling out)- 86% effective
Most Effective Birth Control Methods
While abstinence is the only birth control method that is

100% effective, hormonal contraceptives, IUDs, and
permanent birth control methods are also highly effective.
Barrier methods are moderately effective for typical users.
The following are the most effective birth control methods:
 Implant, IUD, vasectomy, and tubal methods- 99%

effective
 Birth control shot- 94% effective
 Birth control pill and vaginal ring- 91% effective
 Condom, diaphragm, cervical cap, and birth control
sponge- 79-88% effective

 Overview of Philippine RH Bill
The Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012, known as the RH Law, is a
groundbreaking law that guarantees universal and free access to nearly all modern contraceptives for all citizens,
including impoverished communities, at government health centers. The law also mandates reproductive health
education in government schools and recognizes a woman's right to post-abortion care as part of the right to
reproductive healthcare.
“With universal and free access to modern contraception, millions of Filipino women will finally be able to regain
control of their fertility, health, and lives,” said Nancy Northup, president and CEO at the Center for Reproductive
Rights. “The Reproductive Health Law is a historic step forward for all women in the Philippines, empowering
them to make their own decisions about their health and families and participate more fully and equally in their
society.”
President Benigno S. Aquino III signed the RH Law in December 2012, which was immediately challenged in
court by various conservative Catholic groups. On March 19, the Supreme Court issued a status quo ante order for
120 days that was later extended indefinitely, halting the RH Law from going into effect. Fourteen petitions
questioning the constitutionality of the law on the grounds that it violated a range of rights, including freedom of
religion and speech, were consolidated for oral arguments that began on July 9, 2013 that continued through
August 2013.
In today's decision the Supreme Court struck down a number of provisions in the RH Law. Health care
providers will be able to deny reproductive health services to patients based on their personal or religious beliefs in
non-emergency situations. Spousal consent for women in non-life-threatening circumstances will be required to
access reproductive health care. Parental consent will also be required for minors seeking medical attention who
have been pregnant or had a miscarriage. Petitioners in the case will now have 15 days to appeal the Supreme
Court decision.
“While it’s concerning that certain provisions in the Reproductive Health Law were struck down, the Supreme
Court has put women first and now the benefits of this law can finally become a reality for millions of
Filipinos,” said Melissa Upreti, regional director for Asia at the Center. “Women have waited long enough for the
reproductive health services and information they deserve, and the government must now move quickly to
implement all the necessary policies and programs without delay.”
Around the world, the unmet need for safe and effective contraceptive services is staggering: roughly 222
million women in developing countries who want to avoid pregnancy rely on traditional contraceptives, such as the
rhythm method, with high failure rates or do not use a contraceptive method at all.
The Filipino government’s long-standing hostility towards modern contraception has contributed to 4,500
women dying from pregnancy complications, 800,000 unintended births and 475,000 illegal abortions each year.
The Center for Reproductive Rights has worked on reproductive health issues throughout Asia, with major
campaigns addressing issues ranging from maternal mortality in India to access to modern contraception in the
Philippines. In Manila, the Center has documented the human rights violations that stem from an executive order

that effectively bans access to modern contraceptives and that prevents women from protecting their health and
exercising reproductive autonomy.
In March 2011, the Center and UNFPA released the joint briefing paper, The Right to Contraceptive
Information and Services for Women and Adolescents, demonstrating how access to family planning information
and services is a fundamental human right that States are obligated to actively respect, protect, and fulfill.
Millions of Filipinos will finally have universal, free access to contraception and expanded reproductive
health education.
 HIV/AIDS
 Meaning and Nature of HIV/AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is the late stage of an infection that is generally
acknowledged to be caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). HIV is a retrovirus that attacks and
destroys certain white blood cells. The targeted destruction weakens the body's immune system and makes the
infected person susceptible to infections and diseases that ordinarily would not be life threatening. AIDS is
considered a blood-borne, sexually transmitted disease because HIV is spread through contact with blood, semen,
or vaginal fluids from an infected person.
o THE HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS (HIV)
A virus is a tiny infectious agent composed of genes surrounded by a protective coating. Until a virus
contacts a host cell, it is essentially an inert bag of genetic material. Viruses are parasites. They must invade other
cells and commandeer the host cell's replication machinery in order to reproduce. A frequent outcome of viral
infection is the destruction of the host cell, as the newly made virus particles burst out of the cell. The host cell
destruction can harm the host (in the case of HIV, a human). The common cold, influenza (flu), and some forms of
pneumonia are also caused by specific, non-HIV viruses.
HIV belongs to a group of viruses known as retroviruses. The name arises from the presence of a special
enzyme—reverse transcriptase—that reverses the usual pattern of translating the genetic message. In animals the
genetic units of information that are called genes are made up of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA is the blueprint
from which another type of genetic material called ribonucleic acid (RNA) is made, in a process called transcription.
The RNA in turn serves as the blueprint for the various proteins that are the structural building blocks of the virus.
In contrast to animals, retroviruses have their genes stored in RNA. After HIV infects a human cell, the viral reverse
transcriptase works to transcribe HIV RNA into DNA. The viral DNA then becomes part of the host DNA—a process
called integration—and is replicated along with the host DNA to produce new HIV particles.
Prior to 1980 retroviruses had been found in some animals. Indeed, as far back as 1911 Peyton Rous
isolated an infectious and debilitating virus from a chicken. The Rous sarcoma virus was later shown to be both an
oncogenic (cancer-causing) virus and the first known retrovirus. The first human retroviruses, human T
cell leukemia virus (HTLV-I) and the very closely related human T cell lymphotropic virus (HTLV-II), were discovered

in 1980 by Robert Gallo and his colleagues at the U.S. National Cancer Institute (NCI). This breakthrough provided
the groundwork for the discovery of the virus that would eventually be known as HIV.
 The origin and means of Transmission of HIV - AIDS
Identifying the Virus
In September 1983 Luc Montagnier and researchers at the Pasteur Institute in Paris, France, isolated and
identified a retrovirus they named lymphadenopathy-associated virus (LAV). Eight months later Gallo's group at NCI
isolated the same virus in AIDS patients, which they called HTLV-III. LAV and HTLV-III were found to be identical and
are now referred to as HIV. A conflict arose about which researcher should be credited with the discovery. In 1991,
in an intense, politically charged atmosphere, Gallo dropped his claim to the discovery of HIV.
The Origins of the Virus

It has long been speculated that HIV evolved from simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), a retrovirus that
infects monkeys. The theory is that HIV evolved from a human infection with a mutated form of SIV that was
infectious to humans. Consistent with this theory is the finding that HIV is a part of the lentivirus family, which
includes SIV.
In 1982 Isao Miyoshi of Kochi University in Japan identified an HTLV-related virus in Japanese macaque
monkeys. Genetically similar to HTLV, it was designated as the simian T-lymphotropic virus (STLV). Further studies
identified STLV in both Asian and African monkeys and in apes, with an infection rate ranging from 1 to 40%.
Max Essex and Phyllis T. Kanki of the Harvard School of Public Health in Boston, Massachusetts, discovered
that the simian virus found in the African chimpanzee and the African green monkey was more homologous
(related in primitive origin) to the human virus than to the simian virus in the Asian macaque. This discovery
provided strong support for an evolved version of African STLV as being the origin of human HTLV.
In 1999 researchers from the University of Alabama announced their determination that the genetic
sequence of a simian virus isolated from a tissue sample obtained from a chimpanzee was virtually identical to the
HIV discovered by Montagnier. Interestingly, chimpanzees are only rarely infected with SIV. This implies that the
chimpanzee may be a temporary "carrier" of the virus, which normally resides in some other, as yet unidentified,
primate species.
The original HIV is now known as HIV-1. This is because of the 1986 discovery by scientists at the Pasteur
Institute in Paris of a new AIDS-causing virus in West Africans. They labeled the virus HIV-2. The two forms of HIV
have similar modes of transmission. But the symptoms of HIV-2 were found to be milder than those of HIV-1.
Furthermore, HIV-2 was shown to differ in molecular structure from HIV-1 in a way that ties it more closely to a
virus that causes AIDS in macaque monkeys.

Along with the majority of investigators, Montagnier and Gallo believe that HIV has been present in Central
Africa and other regions for some time. Presumably, at some point the virus crossed the species barrier from
primates to humans. Currently, the most accepted theory is that this crossover resulted from a human eating meat
from a chimpanzee or other primate. The rural nature of these societies and the limited access to the outside world
by those infected with the virus may have confined the spread of HIV for many decades. But once migration of
tribal Central Africans to urban areas began, the more liberated sexual practices there promoted the spread of HIV.
Within a comparatively short time, the once rare and remote disease was spread by globe-trotting HIV-infected
people.
 Determinants of Infection
HIV transmission predominantly occurs through three mechanisms: sexual transmission, exposure to
infected blood or blood products, or perinatal transmission (including breast-feeding). The likelihood of
transmission is heavily affected by social, cultural, and environmental factors that often differ markedly between
and within regions and countries. There is also some indication that molecular, viral, immunological, or other host
factors might influence the likelihood of HIV transmission. For a more detailed discussion of sexual behaviors and
the contextual determinants of infection.
Sexual Transmission
Worldwide, sexual intercourse is the predominant mode of transmission, accounting for approximately 80
percent of infections (Askew and Berer 2003). Sexual intercourse accounts for more than 90 percent of infections in
Sub-Saharan Africa. Although many people who know they are infected reduce their risk behaviors, studies in
developed countries suggest that a substantial percentage nevertheless continue to engage in unprotected sex
(Marks, Burris, and Peterman 1999). The risk of sexual transmission is determined by behaviors that influence the
likelihood of exposure to an infected individual and by infectivity in the event of exposure. This also includes factors
related to the infectiousness of the infected partner and the susceptibility of the uninfected partner.
Exposure to Infected Blood or Blood Products
Injection drug use and blood transfusion are two mechanisms of HIV exposure to infected blood.
Determinants of each are discussed below.
Injection
Because of the efficiency of HIV transmission through needle sharing, the introduction of HIV into an urban
network of injecting drugs users can quickly lead to extraordinarily high HIV prevalence in this population. Sharing
of injection equipment and frequency of injection are both important correlates of HIV infection. Attendance at
shooting galleries, where sharing with anonymous injecting partners is likely to occur, is also an independent risk
factor across many studies. Injecting cocaine (associated with "booting" or "kicking," where blood is drawn into the
syringe and then injected) and having a number of needle-sharing partners are also associated with HIV infection.
Blood Transfusion
The probability of becoming infected through an HIV-contaminated transfusion is estimated at more than
90 percent (UNAIDS 1997), and the amount of HIV in a single contaminated blood transfusion is so large that
individuals infected in this manner may rapidly develop AIDS. Currently, between 5 and 10 percent of HIV infections

worldwide are transmitted through the transfusion of contaminated blood products (WHO 2002a). Setting up and
maintaining a safe blood supply will virtually eliminate HIV transmission through transfusions.
Perinatal Transmission
Perinatal HIV transmission includes both vertical transmission and transmission during breastfeeding.
Determinants of each are discussed below.
Vertical Transmission
Perhaps the most compelling evidence of the significance of viral load and transmission risk has been
documented with respect to MTCT. Maternal viral load, as quantified by RNA polymerase chain reaction, is
associated with increased risk in each mode of vertical transmission. A recent randomized clinical trial in Kenya
found that maternal plasma HIV RNA levels higher than 43,000 copies per milliliter were associated with a fourfold
increase in vertical transmission.
Independent of HIV RNA levels in maternal plasma, additional risk factors include cervical HIV
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), vaginal HIV DNA, and cervical or vaginal ulcers. Chorioamnionitis has also been
documented as a risk factor for MTCT among African mothers, as has exposure to maternal blood during labor and
delivery. Newell (2003) estimates that for every hour an infant is exposed to ruptured membranes, the risk of
transmission increases by 2 percent.
Breastfeeding
Transmission through breastfeeding is likely associated with an elevated viral load in the breast milk, which
in turn is associated with maternal plasma viral load and CD4 T cell levels. Mastitis has also been associated with
increased risk of vertical transmission. Meta-analyses suggest that the cumulative probability of HIV infection
increases from 0.6 percent at age 6 months to 9.2 percent at age 3. A study in Malawi, however, indicates that
most transmission occurs in the early breastfeeding months, with an incidence per month of 0.7 percent at age 1 to
5 months, 0.6 percent at age 6 to 11 months, and 0.3 percent at age 12 to 17 months. In one study, infants who
were breastfed in combination with receiving other supplementary foods were twice as likely to be infected at age
6 months than infants fed exclusively on breast milk or on formula. The hypothesis is that antigens and bacterial
contaminants present in supplemental fluids and foods consumed by infants who are not exclusively breastfed may
cause inflammation and microtrauma to the infant's intestinal gut, thereby facilitating viral transmission. Another
hypothesis is that mixed feeding increases the risk of subclinical or clinical mastitis in the mother, which could
increase milk viral load.
Decisions about breastfeeding are further complicated by recent data indicating possible increased
mortality among breastfeeding mothers and by the stigma associated with not breastfeeding in countries where
abstaining from breastfeeding is tantamount to disclosing a woman's HIV status.
 Symptoms and Effects

Researchers have long been puzzled by the fact that AIDS is virtually always fatal, even though relatively
small amounts of the virus are found in patients, compared to other lethal viral infections. How the virus acts to kill
the cells has been hotly debated. Certainly, this behavior is inconsistent with other retroviruses, which do not kill all
the infected host cells. Although HIV is considered a slow virus (a virus that exerts its effect over a long period of
time), some AIDS activity occurs more quickly and may be associated with the coincidental presence of infectious
mycoplasma (bacteria that lack a cell wall).
Theories of HIV/AIDS Progression
Even after more than two decades of research, there is still no consensus among HIV experts as to the
pathogenesis (the origination and development) of AIDS. Despite this, there is agreement that the latent period
between the establishment of an HIV infection and the appearance of the symptoms of AIDS averages from about
two to eleven years. But some people remain symptom-free for as long as twenty years. Furthermore, a select
group of between 5 and 10% of all HIV-infected people does not appear to develop AIDS. Called "long-term
nonprogressors," these individuals are believed to have genetic and immune response characteristics that slow, or
may even halt, the course of disease progression. Much research interest centers on these people, since an
understanding of their physiological characteristics that allow them to suppress the infection could be invaluable to
the treatment of the disease in other patients.
After HIV infection is established, the immune system regenerates cells only up to a certain point, which
would explain a gradual progression to AIDS. The early regulatory functions of the immune system limit viral
replication until a certain threshold is reached. When the number of different viral mutants becomes too large, the
regulatory system is overwhelmed and shuts down, opening the door to opportunistic infections and eventual total
decline.
When the total CD4+ T cell count falls from the normal 800 to 1,000 per cubic millimeter of blood to 200
per cubic millimeter, the rate of immune decline speeds up and the HIV-positive patient becomes prone to the
opportunistic infections and other illnesses that are characteristic of AIDS. In searching for an antiretroviral therapy,
researchers find that rather than boosting the CD4+ T cell count, interruption of the viral replication may be the
way to reverse immune deficiency in HIV infection, though the nature of a reversing mechanism remains unknown.
CIGARETTES AND ALCOHOL SPEED DEVELOPMENT OF AIDS

Evidence that heavy cigarette smokers and chronic alcoholics can display a suppressed immune response
has led some experts to believe that cigarette and alcohol use accelerates the development of AIDS symptoms.
Accordingly, they counsel HIV-positive patients to abandon smoking and drinking alcohol.
OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTIONS
Once HIV has destroyed the immune system, the body can no longer protect itself against bacterial, fungal,
protozoal, and other viral agents that take advantage of the compromised condition and cause infections. These
infections, which would not otherwise occur but for an impaired immune system, are known as opportunistic
infections (OIs). In the non-AIDS community, OIs are problematic in hospitals, where ill, newborn, or elderly
patients also display a less than adequately functioning immune system. Because the patient is considered to have
AIDS if at least one OI appears, OIs are also referred to as "AIDS-defining events," though OIs are not the only AIDS-
defining events.

HIV and Cancer
People with AIDS are susceptible to cancer. Some malignant tumors, such as Kaposi's sarcoma and cancers
of the lymph system, have been common among AIDS patients since the disease was first discovered in 1981. More
recently, however, physicians and researchers are beginning to find that certain forms of cancer are becoming
prevalent among HIV/AIDS patients who are living longer.
Most AIDS-related cancers are believed to be caused by viruses. These cancers are more common among
HIV-infected people because HIV suppresses the immune system, enabling cancer-causing viruses to attack more
successfully. These cancers include non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (found in lymph tissues) and primary lymphoma of
the brain. People infected with HIV are also at greater risk of myeloma (malignant tumors of the bone marrow),
brain tumors, testicular cancers, and leukemia.
Since newer anti-HIV combination drug therapies, such as highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), have
become available, researchers have reported a decline in Kaposi's sarcoma and primary lymphoma of the brain.
One possible explanation for the decline may be that the combination drug therapies enable the body to recover
partial immunity, which in turn controls the cancer. While the decline appears real, investigators believe it is too
early to accept these findings until a longer-term follow-up has been completed.
 Prevention/Control/Treatment of HIV/AIDS
In December 1993 the NCI reported that the immune function had been restored to HIV-infected cells
grown in a laboratory through the addition of interleukin-12 (IL-12). IL-12 is a member of a group of natural blood
proteins called cytokines that were discovered in 1991 by scientists at the Wistar Institute in
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and Hoffman-LaRoche Inc. in Nutley, New Jersey. Despite this promising result,
the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) halted human testing of IL-12 in June 1995 when two patients died. After
testing the protein on animals, researchers concluded that the problem was not in IL-12 itself, but in the timing of
the doses. Consequently, human testing resumed in November 1995.
In December 1995 a new class of drugs called protease inhibitors received FDA approval. These drugs block
the ability of HIV to mature and to infect new cells by suppressing the protein-degrading activity of a viral enzyme.
Enzymes with this activity are classified as proteases, hence the designation of the enzyme blocker as a protease
inhibitor. If protease inhibitors can block the spread of HIV in the immune system, then AIDS will not develop.
Though patients may be HIV-positive the rest of their lives, they may never die from HIV infection.
Effectiveness of HIV Interventions
Intervention Outcome Effect Citations
School-based Sexual debut The number of students reporting early sexual Hayes and others 2003; Stanton and
education debut was significantly lower in the intervention others 1998
group in both studies.

Multiple sex The number of students reporting multiple sex Fawole and others 1999; Hayes and
partners partners was significantly lower in the intervention others 2003
group in both studies.
Condom use Condom use was significantly higher in the Fawole and others 1999; Harvey,
intervention group in three of the four studies and Stuart, and Swan 2000; Hayes and
nonsignificantly higher in one study. others 2003; Stanton and others 1998
HIV incidence The study found no significant differences in HIV Hayes and others 2003
incidence.
STI prevalence The study found no significant differences in STI Hayes and others 2003
and incidence prevalence and incidence.
Abstinence Condom use The study found no significant differences in Jemmott, Jemmott, and Fong 1998
education condom use.
Early sexual The study found no significant differences in early Meekers 2000
debut sexual debut.
VCTa Condom use Condom use was significantly higher in the Bentley and others 1998; Bhave and
intervention group in six of the seven studies and others 1995; Deschamps and others
unchanged in one study. 1996; Jackson and others
1997; Kamenga and others
1991; Levine and others
1998; Voluntary HIV-1 Counseling and
Testing Efficacy Study Group 2000
Unprotected Unprotected intercourse was significantly lower in Deschamps and others

intercourse the intervention group in both studies. 1996; Voluntary HIV-1 Counseling and
Testing Efficacy Study Group 2000
HIV incidence HIV incidence was significantly lower in the Bhave and others 1995; Celentano and
intervention group in one of the studies and others 2000
nonsignificantly lower in the other study.
STI prevalence STI prevalence and incidence were significantly Celentano and others 2000; Jackson
and incidence lower in the intervention group in all three studies. and others 1997; Levine and others
1998

Peer-based Condom use Condom use was significantly higher in the Kelly and others 1997; Norr and others
programs intervention group in all four studies. 2004; Sikkema and others
2000; Stanton and others 1996
Unprotected Unprotected intercourse was significantly lower in Basu and others 2004; Kegeles, Hays,
intercourse the intervention group in all four studies. and Coates 1996; Kelly and others
1997; Sikkema and others 2000
Communication Communication was significantly higher in the Lauby and others 2000
about condoms intervention group.
with partner
HIV incidence HIV incidence was significantly lower in the Ghys and others 2002; Katzenstein
intervention group in both studies. and others 1998
STI prevalence STI prevalence and incidence were significantly Ghys and others 2002
and incidence lower in the intervention group.
Condom Condom use Condom use was significantly higher in the Bentley and others 1998; Bhave and
promotion and intervention group in 10 of the 11 studies and others 1995; Egger and others
distribution and unchanged in 1 study. 2000; Ford and others 1996; Jackson
IECa and others 1997; Jemmott, Jemmott,
and Fong 1998; Kagimu and others
1998; Laga and others 1994; Levine
and others 1998; Ngugi and others
1988; Pauw and others 1996
HIV incidence HIV incidence was significantly lower in the Bhave and others 1995; Celentano and
intervention group in two out of three studies and others 2000; Laga and others 1994
nonsignificantly lower in one study.
STI prevalence STI prevalence and incidence were significantly Bhave and others 1995; Celentano and
and incidence lower in the intervention group in all four studies. others 2000; Jackson and others
1997; Laga and others 1994; Levine
and others 1998
Condom social Condom use Condom use was significantly higher in the Agha, Karlyn, and Meekers
marketing intervention group in one study; no significant 2001; Meekers 2000
differences were found in the other study.

Early sexual The study found no significant differences in early Meekers 2000
debut sexual debut.
STI treatmenta HIV incidence HIV incidence was significantly lower in the Grosskurth and others 1995; Kamali
intervention group in two of the studies, but the and others 2003; Laga and others
other two studies found no significant differences. 1994; Wawer and others 1999
STI prevalence The prevalence and incidence of STIs were Jackson and others 1997; Kamali and
and incidence significantly lower in the intervention group in all others 2003; Laga and others
six studies. 1994; Mayaud and others
1997; Wawer and others 1999
Antiretroviral Mother-to-infant Significant reduction in mother-to-infant HIV Ayouba and others 2003; Connor and
therapy to reduce transmissionb transmission in the intervention group was found others 1994; Dabis and others
MTCT in all eight studies, with a range of 33 to 67 1999; Guay and others 1999; Jackson
percent reduction in transmission. and others 2003; PETRA Study Team
2002; Shaffer and others 1999; Wiktor
and others 1999
MTCT feeding Mother-to-infant Use of breast milk substitutes prevented 44 Nduati and others 2000
substitutions transmission percent of infant infections and was associated
with significantly improved HIV-1-free survival.
Harm reduction HIV incidence Significant reduction in HIV incidence in the Des Jarlais and Friedman 1996; Hurley,
in injecting drug intervention group was found in both studies. Jolley, and Kaldor 1997
users
Reuse or sharing Significant reduction in needle sharing in the Jenkins and others 2001; Ksobiech
of syringes intervention group was found in all three studies; 2003; Peak and others 1995; Vlahov
correlation between needle exchange program and others 1997
attendance and lower needle sharing was found in
one study.
Drug substitution Drug use This meta-analysis found significantly lower rates Metzger, Navaline, and Woody 1998
for injecting drug of drug use.
users
Blood safety HIV infections HIV screening was associated with a reduction in Foster and Buve 1995; Laleman and
averted HIV infections by both studies. others 1992

Units of HIV- HIV screening was associated with a reduction in Jacobs and Mercer 1999
positive blood units of HIV-positive blood.
averted
Universal Blood volume Glove material reduced the transferred blood Mast, Woolwine, and Gerberding 1993
precautions transferred in volume by 46 to 86 percent.
needle stick
injury
Antiretroviral HIV The study found a significant relationship between Cardo and others 1997
therapy for seroconversion seroconversion and not having received
prevention, post antiretroviral therapy.
exposure
prophylaxis
Behavior change Condom use Condom use was significantly higher in the Kalichman and others 2001
for those HIV intervention group.
positive
Unprotected Unprotected intercourse was significantly lower in Kalichman and others 2001
intercourse the intervention group.
TOWARD A VACCINE: THE HOPE AND THE REALITIES
The different routes of attack of HIV on the immune system and the ability of the virus to mutate has
prompted the suggestion by some researchers that the development of an effective vaccine will be difficult to
achieve. This admission is very different from the day in 1984 when Margaret Heckler, the secretary of the
Department of Health and Human Services under President Ronald Reagan, announced that the identification of
HIV would lead to a vaccine within two years.
The intervening years have made many AIDS researchers realize that the chances of developing a vaccine
that would prevent AIDS (confer immunity on the person receiving the vaccine) are remote. Testing the
effectiveness of an AIDS vaccine is also difficult, since the deliberate contamination of people with HIV is both
unethical and illegal. The focus of research has shifted to vaccines that do not prevent infections but rather lessen
their effects and delay the progress of the disease.
Such vaccine efforts continue. At the end of 2001 NIAID and the international HIV Vaccine Trials Network
announced an agreement with Merck & Co., a leading manufacturer of anti-HIV compounds, to support the
evaluation of promising HIV vaccines. The agreement with Merck was expected to spur evaluation of still more
candidate vaccines. According to the HIV Vaccine Trials Network, as of May 2005 sixteen vaccine trials are
underway on 3,639 enrolled participants.

In the mid-1990s a "hit-hard-early" strategy gained favor. In this strategy a cocktail of anti-HIV drugs was
given to patients soon after diagnosis of the presence of the virus. The idea of HAART is to suppress the
reproduction of the virus as much as possible. HAART shows promise. Some of the drugs target the virus's reverse
transcriptase. By inhibiting the enzyme's activity, the ability of HIV to reproduce is thwarted. But HAART has a
downside. The therapy is expensive and hard to maintain, and its long-term use is associated with a number of
serious side effects. A "seven-day-on, seven-day-off" pattern of HAART (structured treatment interruptions)
produces promising results. While it is still too early to say whether these structured interruptions will be
incorporated into the normal course of therapy, it is conceivable that, in the future, the side effects of HAART may
be lessened by the use of intermittent therapy.
The following are general interventions not specifically targeting the mode of transmission:
 Information, education, and communication. This intervention includes education on HIV/AIDS and condom
use through pamphlets, brochures, and other promotional materials in classroom or clinic settings or
through the radio, television, or press. In general, discerning the effectiveness of IEC alone is difficult,
because IEC is often included in condom promotion and distribution interventions. Here we consider the
effectiveness of IEC in concert with condom promotion and distribution. Of all available prevention
interventions, providing information and education about HIV/AIDS is perhaps the most difficult to assess
for cost-effectiveness. Numerous studies have shown that information alone is typically insufficient to
change risk behavior. Accurate information, however, is indisputably the basis for informed policy
discourse—a vital ingredient in the fight against fear-based stigma and discrimination. In the absence of
studies to guide the level of investment in IEC, the only reasonable alternative seems to be to implement
IEC on the basis of data derived from relative levels of knowledge and understanding in the population. For
example, if only 25 percent of the sexually active population were able to describe how HIV is transmitted
and prevented, clearly more IEC would be needed, but if 75 percent of the population understood the basic
facts about HIV/AIDS, the need for additional funding would be diminished.
 School-based sex education. School-based sex education programs, an aspect of IEC, provide information to
young people and reinforce healthy norms in a school setting. Limited data have shown differences in
students who have been exposed to school-based sex education. It reviews the effectiveness of abstinence-
only education and comprehensive sex education, subsets of school-based sex education. In light of more
recent controlled studies that have not shown an effect on condom use, STIs, or HIV infection, any cost-
effectiveness estimate is extremely speculative.
 Voluntary counseling and testing. This intervention enables people to know their HIV status and provides
counseling support to help them cope with the outcome. Knowledge of serostatus may lead individuals to
avoid engaging in risky behaviors. Cost-effectiveness estimates of VCT vary widely, and as with many other
prevention interventions, these estimates are extremely sensitive to the prevalence of HIV in the
population that is seeking testing.
 Peer-based programs. Peer interventions use influential members of a targeted community to disseminate
information or teach specific skills. Such interventions have generally been found to be effective in reducing

unsafe behaviors. Work on the cost-effectiveness of peer-based interventions in developing countries has
been minimal. In Chad, Hutton, Wyss, and N'Diekhor (2003) reviewed data on 12 prevention interventions
and integrated them into a comparative analysis. Their findings suggest that peer education for sex workers
is likely to be highly cost-effective and to entail one-fifth the cost of the next most favorable intervention,
blood safety. However, the estimated cost-effectiveness for the same intervention directed toward young
people and high-risk men is 33- to 36-fold lower.
Successful HIV Prevention Strategies
The HIV prevention success stories highlighted here stem in part from each country's unique cultural,
historical, and infrastructural elements. Nevertheless, these successes share several common features, thereby
offering potential guidance for the development and implementation of prevention strategies in other settings.
These features include:
 high-level political leadership

 active engagement of civil society and religious leaders in a multisectoral approach
 population-based programs designed to change social norms
 increased open communication about sexual activities and HIV/AIDS
 programs to combat stigma and discrimination
 condom promotion
 STI surveillance and control
 interventions targeting key "bridge" populations—populations that transmit the virus from high-risk to low-
risk groups.
V. ACTIVITIES :
A. Create a 1-minute video advertisement advocating for Family Planning.
B. Create a 30 second video about AIDS awareness campaign.
VI. OUTPUT (RESULT) :
1. For Activity A and B:

Submit/upload your recorded video output in our FB group page
VII. EVALUATION :
1. For Activity A and B:
Relevance/Content ……………… 15 points

Organization ……………… 15 points
Creativity ……………… 20 points
Total ……………… 50 points

Note: in lieu of a written final examination, activities A and B will serve as the final examination.

Module 3 Final Term Part 2 (Society and Culture)

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Module 3 Final Term Part 2 (Society and Culture)

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Reference No: KLL-FO-ACAD-000 | Effective Date: August 3, 2020 | Revisions No.

MODULE 4 (Final Term)

III. COURSE OUTCOME :

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Unfortunately, no birth-control method, except abstinence, is considered to be 100% effective.

 Kinds of Family Planning Methods

Natural Birth Control/Natural Family Planning

What Is Natural Family Planning?

How Is Natural Family Planning Used?

How Effective Is Natural Family Planning?

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The withdrawal method or "pulling out," involves the man

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How Effective Is the Pulling Out Method?

Hormonal Methods of Birth Control

What are advantages and disadvantages of hormonal birth control methods?

Disadvantages of hormonal methods for birth control include:

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How Do Birth Control Pills Work?

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How Effective Is Spermicide?

How Is the Diaphragm Used?

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2.3 Cervical Cap

A cervical cap is another barrier method of contraception.

How Is a Cervical Cap Used?

How Effective Is the Cervical Cap?

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How Is the Today Sponge Used?

How Effective Is the Today Sponge?

3. Birth Control Patch

How Is the Birth Control Patch Used?

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Birth Control Patch Side Effects

How Effective Is the Birth Control Patch?

The vaginal ring is a small, flexible ring that contains the

How Is the Vaginal Ring Used?

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How Effective Is the Vaginal Ring?

How Does the Birth Control Shot Work?

The same hormone in the birth control shot can be delivered in an

The implant is a small, matchstick-sized device implanted beneath

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How Does an IUD Work?

Emergency Contraceptive Pill

How Effective Are Emergency Contraception’s?

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Glow-in-the-dark condoms, flavored condoms, studded

How to Put on a Condom

How Effective Are Condoms?

9.2 Female Condom

Looking for a way to enhance your sex life and

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How Do Female Condoms Work?

How Effective Are Female Condoms?

10. Permanent Birth Control

10.1 Tubal Ligation

Tubal ligation, having “your tubes tied,” is

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How Effective Is Tubal Ligation?

Tubal implants are small metal springs or sponges

Vasectomy is a permanent birth control option for