ISSUED TO: _______________________________

DATE: _______________________________

CHECKED BY: _______________________________

DATE: _______________________________

High Voltage
AC Power
Unit 1

TRANSMISSION
&DISTRIBUTION

T&D Systems And Theory

 GENERAL GUMELINES FOR STUDENTS

High Voltage AC Power, Unit 1 is composed of a one-hour videotape presentation and an accompanying
text. The videotape program is divided into five segments, and the text corresponds to the tape in both
organization and basic content. The recommended sequence of instruction is as follows:

1. After the instructor's introductory remarks, read the segment objectives found in the block at the beginning of
the first segment.
2. Briefly discuss the segment objectives with the instructor and other class members.
3. View the first segment of videotape.
4. Read the text segment that corresponds to the first segment of videotape.
5. Answer the questions included in the text segment. Check your answers against the answers
given at the end of the unit.
6. Participate in a class discussion of the material in the segment. Ask any questions you might have
concerning the material in the videotape and the text, and note any additional information given
by the instructor.
7. Before going on to the next segment, be sure that you understand the major concepts presented and the answers to
the text questions.
8. WORK THROUGH ALL SEGMENTS IN THIS MANNER.
9. A quiz covering the material in the entire unit (all five segments) will be administered by the instructor after the
unit has been completed.
10. Additional instruction and testing may be given at the discretion of the instructor in accordance with plant
requirements.

This recommended sequence may be modified slightly by your instructor due to scheduling or other
special considerations.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section Title Page

1.1 Factors That Affect Power Loss ...................... 1.1-1

1.1.1 Power Loss .........................................................................................1.1-1
1.1.2 Ohm's Law ......................................... ................................................1.1-2
1.1.3 Power ............................................. ....................................................1.1-3
1.1.4 Power and Voltage .................................. ...........................................1.1-4
1.2 Inductance and Inductive Reactance .................... 1.2-1
1.2.1 Inductance ......................................... .................................................1.2-1
1.2.2 Inductive Reactance ................................. ..........................................1.2-5
1.2.3 Inductive Reactance Example ............................................................1.2-7
1.3 Capacitance and Capacitive Reactance ................ 1.3-1
1.3.1 Capacitance........................................ .................................................1.3-1
1.3.2 Capacitive Reactance ............................... ..........................................1.3-3
1.3.3 Capacitive Reactance Example ..........................................................1.3-5
1.4 Resistance ......................................... 1.4-1
1.4.1 Factors Affecting Resistance ......................... ....................................1.4-1
1.4.1.1 Conductor Length ................................... ...........................................1.4-1
1.4.1.2 Conductor Material and Conductivity ................................................1.4-2
1.4.1.3 Conductor Size ...................................................................................1.4-3
1.4.2 Skin Effect and Bundles .....................................................................1.4-4
1.5 Impedance ......................................... 1.5-1
1.5.1 Characteristics of Impedance ......................... ....................................1.5-1
1.5.2 Resonance ......................................... .................................................1.5-3
1.5.3 Impedance and Power Loss ................................................................1.5-4
1.5.4 Corona ................................................................................................1.5-5
1.5.5 Static Wires.........................................................................................1.5-8
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Title Page

1.1-1. Ohm's Law Equations ................................ ................................................ 1.1-2

1.1-2. Power Equation, Example 1 ....................................................................... 1.1-3
1.1-3. Power Equation, Example 2 ....................................................................... 1.1-3
1.1-4. Transmission Systems Example ................................................................. 1.1-4
1.1-5. Power Loss Comparison .............................. .............................................. 1.1-7
1.2-1. Induction in a Conductor ............................................................................ 1.2-2
1.2-2. Transmission Line as a Loop of Wire ........................................................ 1.2-3
1.2-3. Types of Induction .................................. ................................................... 1.2-4
1.2-4. An Equation for Calculating Inductance .................................................... 1.2-5
1.2-5. An Equation for Calculating Inductive Reactance ..................................... 1.2-5
1.2-6. 25-Mile Transmission Line ........................................................................ 1.2-g
1.3-1. Capacitor .......................................... .......................................................... 1.3-1
1.3-2. Transmission Line as a Large Capacitor .................................................... 1.3-2
1.3-3. An Equation for Calculating Capacitance .................................................. 1.3-3
1.3-4. An Equation for Calculating Capacitive Reactance ................................... 1.3-3
1.4-1. Power Loss Due to Resistance in a 50-Mile Transmission Line ................ 1.4-1
1.4-2. Circular Mil (Enlarged to Show Detail) ..................................................... 1.4-3
1.4-3. Different-Sized Conductors and Current-Carrying Capacities .................. 1.4-3
1.4-4. Effect of Bundles ................................... .................................................... 1.4-5
1.5-1. An Equation for Impedance ........................... ............................................ 1.5-1
1.5-2. Phase Angles Shown by Vectors ....................... ........................................ 1.5-2
1.5-3. Corona Ring ........................................ ....................................................... 1.5-6
1.5-4. Corona Rings Connected to Transmission Lines .......... ............................. 1.5-7
 HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
UNIT 1

One of the major goals of transmission and distribution systems is to maintain efficient
transfer of electricity with minimal power loss. When a transmission and distribution system
is designed, all the factors that influence transmission and distribution efficiency and power
loss are taken into consideration. For the personnel who actually build and maintain
transmission and distribution systems, an understanding of the factors that affect power loss
is a necessary tool. With such an understanding, transmission and distribution personnel can
take the actions required to keep power loss to a minimum and ensure that transmission and
distribution lines operate as close to design specifications as possible.

1.1 Factors That Affect Power Loss

1.1.1 Power Loss

Power loss can be defined as electrical power that is produced, but not used productively.
There are many ways in which power can be lost in a transmission and distribution system.
For example, one of the main forms of power loss in transmission and distribution lines is
heat due to conductor resistance.

Electrical systems are designed to keep power loss to a minimum. Design engineers know
where and why power losses are most likely to occur in a system, as well as how to keep
these losses to a minimum. The engineers accomplish their purpose by making decisions
based on several theories that usually are expressed as mathematical equations.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.1 Factors That Affect Power Loss (continued)

1.1.2 Ohm's Law

Ohm's Law is a basic theory that can be used to understand the relationships between current,
voltage, and resistance in an electrical circuit. Ohm's Law states that current in a circuit is
directly proportional to the applied voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance in the
circuit. In other words, if the resistance in a circuit is held constant while the voltage is
increased, current will also increase. If the voltage in the circuit is held constant while
resistance is increased, current will decrease.

Ohm's Law is usually expressed as a mathematical equation that can be used to calculate the
current, voltage, or resistance in a circuit. Figure 1.1-1 shows two arrangements of the equation
for Ohm's Law. In the equations, I represents current, in amperes; E represents voltage, in volts;
and R represents resistance, in ohms. The arrangement in Figure 1.1-1A is used to calculate
current when voltage and resistance are known. The arrangement in Figure 1.1-B is used to
calculate voltage when current and resistance are known.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.1 Factors That Affect Power Loss (continued)

1.1.3 Power

Another mathematical equation that can be used to understand the relationship between voltage
and current in a circuit is shown in Figure 1.1-2. This equation is used to calculate the power in
a circuit. In the equation, P represents power, in watts; E represents voltage, in volts; and I
represents current in amperes.

Figure 1.1-3 shows another equation that can be used to calculate the power in a circuit. This
equation is derived from the arrangement of Ohm's Law that solves for voltage (E = IR). The
equivalent expression IR (from Ohm's Law) is substituted for E in the first power equation, making it
P = (IR)I. The equation is then shortened, for convenience. Since this power equation takes
resistance into account, it can be used to determine the power that is lost from a circuit because of
resistance. Power losses that result from resistance are often referred to as "I2R" losses.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.1 Factors That Affect Power Loss (continued)

1.1.4 Power and Voltage

The two power equations (Figure 1.1-2 and Figure 1.1-3) can be used to determine how
changes in circuit design can affect power loss caused by circuit resistance. In the example
that follows, the power equations are used to calculate the power loss in two transmission
systems that are the same except for the applied voltage.

Figure 1.1-4 is a simplified illustration of the transmission systems used in the example. For
purposes of the example, the only power loss considered is the power loss due to the
resistance of the conductors in each transmission line. (There are other causes of power loss,
which are discussed later in this program.) In addition, although the transmission lines in
these systems are strung in three phases, like most transmission lines, this example
considers one phase of each system as if it were a single separate circuit. This is done to
maintain simplicity in the calculations.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.1 Factors That Affect Power Loss (continued)

As shown in Figure 1.1-4, each power plant generates 150 megawatts of power. Although the
power in each phase varies continuously, this example considers one specific point in time when
the power in one phase is at 50 megawatts. Both systems are assumed to be 50 miles long,
connecting into a transmission substation. The phase being considered has a resistance of .1 ohm
per mile, which results in a total of 5 ohms of resistance. The hydroelectric power plant system in
Figure 1.1-4 has an applied voltage of 250 kilovolts, while the fossil-fueled power plant system
has an applied voltage of 500 kilovolts.

To calculate the power loss for the 250 kilovolt system, the first step is to find the current in the
circuit. The equation used is the power equation P = EI, which is rearranged to solve for current as
follows: I = E.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.1 Factors That Affect Power Loss (continued)

As calculated, the power loss for the 250 kilovolt system is .2 megawatts. The net power
received by the distribution station can be calculated by subtracting the power loss from the
power transmitted.

Next, the power loss for the 500 kilovolt system is calculated. Again, the first step is to find
the current in the circuit, using an arrangement of the power equation that solves for
current.

The values for current and resistance are then substituted into the power equation P = 12R,
and power loss due to resistance is calculated.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.1 Factors That Affect Power Loss (continued)

As calculated, power loss for the 500 kilovolt system is .05 megawatts. The net power
received by the distribution station is then calculated as follows:

Figure 1.1-5 compares the results of the two sets of calculations. As the results show, with a
higher transmission voltage, power loss is lower. Thus, transmitting power at a higher
voltage is more efficient. This is one of the factors taken into consideration when a
transmission system is designed.

Questions

1.1-1. Define power loss.

1.1-2. Power loss is often in the form of heat due to conductor

HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.1 Factors That Affect Power Loss (continued)

1.1-3. Circle the correct answer.

Ohm's Law states that if resistance in a circuit is held constant while voltage is
increased, current will
a. Decrease
b. Increase
c. Stay the same
d. First increase, then decrease

1.1-4. Circle the correct answer.

Power losses are often referred to as
a. Ohm's Law losses
b. P = EIlosses
c. I 2R losses
P
d. Net

1.1-5. True or False. Higher transmission voltages result in higher power losses and
lower net power in a transmission system.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER (continued)
1.2 Inductance and Inductive Reactance

The total opposition offered to current flow in AC circuits is referred to as impedance. Impedance is a
combination of resistance, inductive reactance, and capacitive reactance. When a transmission system
is designed, the variables that make up impedance can be manipulated to help maintain power loss at a
minimum. Since it is possible for these variables to be changed during the construction, replacement, or
repair of a transmission system, it is important for personnel who work on transmission systems to
understand the properties of impedance and how they can affect power loss. Each property of
impedance is examined individually in this program. Then, they are discussed together to show how the
total opposition to current flow in a transmission system affects power loss. This section concentrates
on inductive reactance.

1.2.1 Inductance

Inductive reactance is the opposition to changes in current flow caused by inductance. Inductance is
the property of an electrical circuit that gives it the ability to induce a voltage in the circuit that is
opposite to the applied voltage; the development of inductance is called induction.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.2 Inductance and Inductive Reactance (continued)

The illustration in Figure 1.2-1 represents an end view of a conductor with an AC voltage applied.
The dashed line circles around the conductor represent the expanding and contracting magnetic
field created by the alternating current flow resulting from the applied voltage. The relative
motion between the conductor and the expanding and collapsing magnetic field induces a voltage
in the conductor. This induced voltage is opposite in polarity to the applied voltage; it tends to
cancel the effects of the applied voltage, thereby opposing changes in current flow.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.2 Inductance and Inductive Reactance (continued)

To show how induction develops in a transmission line, Figure 1.2-2 illustrates a transmission
line as if it were a loop of wire running from a power source, through a load, and back to the
power source. Current flow through the line establishes a magnetic field (represented by arrows)
similar to that established by a one-turn coil.
 HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.2 Inductance and Inductive Reactance (continued)

Since transmission lines are strung in phases, two types of induction generally develop in them: self
induction and mutual induction. Both types are represented in Figure 1.2-3. Self induction occurs
when the magnetic field surrounding a conductor builds up and collapses on the conductor itself,
creating the relative motion necessary to induce a voltage. Mutual induction occurs when the
magnetic field builds up and collapses across another conductor, creating the relative motion
necessary to induce a voltage in the second conductor.

(Note: When work is done on transmission lines, it is always necessary to ground the circuit in
the area being worked on, because of the possibility of mutual induction. Energized conductors
will induce a voltage in de-energized conductors, creating the possibility of injury to workers.
Grounding de-energized circuits directs the induced voltage harmlessly to ground.)
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.2 Inductance and Inductive Reactance (continued)

The amount of inductance in a transmission line is determined by the length of the line, the
distance between conductors, and the size of the conductors. Inductance is measured in
units called henrys.

An equation that can be used to explain how to calculate the amount of inductance in a
transmission line is shown in Figure 1.2-4. This equation is not directly applicable to
transmission line calculations; it is a simplified equation used only for explanation. The
equation shows how the physical properties of conductors are used to determine the
inductance in a transmission line. In the equation, L represents inductance, in henrys; .4 is
a constant; n (pi) is also a constant (about 3.14); N is the number of turns, or loops, in the
line; A represents the crosssectional area of the wire; and u (mu) is the magnetic
permeability of the core. (In transmission lines the core is air, because air fills the space
between conductors. Air has a magnetic permeability of 1.) The lower case letter "1" in the
equation represents the length of the conductor.

1.2.2 Inductive Reactance

By definition, inductive reactance is the opposition to changes in current flow caused by

inductance. An equation commonly used to calculate inductive reactance is shown in Figure
1.2-5. In the equation, XL represents inductive reactance, in ohms; n (pi) is a constant (about
3.14); f represents frequency, in hertz; and L represents inductance, in henrys.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.2 Inductance and Inductive Reactance (continued)

Since inductive reactance is one of the factors that make up impedance, it is a contributor to
power loss in a transmission system. Inductive reactance is also one of the elements that can
be controlled to minimize power loss when a transmission system is designed. Control of
inductive reactance is achieved by controlling inductance. The other elements of the
inductive reactance equation (2 it and frequency) are not variables. (Frequency is not
considered a variable, because most transmission systems in the United States are regulated
to a frequency of 60 hertz.)

At the design stage, one factor that can be used to control inductance is spacing. Spacing
refers to the physical distance between phases, that is, the spacing between conductors in a
transmission system. Transmission lines must be spaced far enough apart to prevent phases
from touching one another and causing a phase-to-phase fault. However, the closer the
phases are to each other, the less the net effect of mutual induction and self induction.
Mutual induction has a greater effect than self induction when lines are closer together:
mutual induction tends to cancel some of the effects of self induction, reducing the net
effect of induction, and thereby reducing power loss. Therefore, when a transmission
system is designed, lines must be far enough apart to prevent phase-to-phase faults from
occurring, but they should be close enough together to obtain the minimum amount of
power loss caused by induction.

When a transmission system is being worked on, it is important to maintain the inductance in the
system as close to design values as possible. Although separate incidents may not significantly
alter the overall power in a transmission line, an accumulation of inaccuracies may cause changes
in the amount of power transmitted.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.2 Inductance and Inductive Reactance (continued)

One thing that can be done to maintain inductance at design specifications is to use proper
clamps and connectors on transmission lines. (Clamps are devices that connect two
conductors together.) Using clamps or connectors of the wrong size could alter the cross
sectional area of a conductor. Since conductor size is one of the factors that determine
inductance, altering the cross-sectional area of a conductor can change the inductance in a
transmission line. A clamp or connector that is too small decreases the cross sectional area,
causing inductance to decrease. This could lead to overheating of the conductor, which is a
very dangerous condition. A clamp that is too large increases the cross-sectional area,
causing inductance to increase. Increasing inductance increases inductive reactance,
impedance, and power loss. If the correct-size clamp or connector is not available, it is
generally advisable to use a larger clamp or connector rather than a smaller one. The dangers
of overheating could be more serious than an increase in inductance.

1.23 Inductive Reactance Example

The following example shows how to calculate the inductive reactance for a hypothetical
transmission line. Later in this program, the calculated value will be used, along with a
capacitive reactance value and a resistance value, to calculate the circuit's impedance and
power loss.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.2 Inductance and Inductive Reactance (continued)

Figure 1.2-6 illustrates a transmission line with three phases that are relatively close together.
The line is 25 miles long. In order to simplify the example, the inductive reactance of only
one phase will be calculated.

The first step in the calculation is to determine the inductance of the phase. In this example, it
is assumed that 1 millihenry of inductance is produced per mile of transmission line.
(Inductance in conductors may also be given as millihenrys per 1,000 feet.)
L = (1 mh/mi)(25 mi)
L = 25 mh = .025 henrys
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.2 Inductance and Inductive Reactance (continued)

The value for inductance and the other values are then substituted into the equation used to
calculate inductive reactance.

In this example, inductive reactance is 9.42 ohms. This value will be used later to calculate
the impedance of the hypothetical 25-mile transmission line.

Questions

1.2-1. Define inductance.

1.2-2. The development of inductance is called

1.2-3. Circle the correct answer.

In order for a voltage to be induced in a conductor, there must be
a. A conductor
b. A magnetic field
c. Relative motion
d. All of the above
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.2 Inductance and Inductive Reactance (continued)

1.2-4. List the two types of induction that develop in transmission lines.
a. ______________________________
b. ______________________________

1.2-5. List three factors that determine the amount of inductance in a transmission
line.
a. ______________________________
b. ______________________________
c. ______________________________

1.2-6. Define inductive reactance.

1.2-7. True or False. Power loss due to inductive reactance can be reduced by
reducing the spacing between transmission lines.
 HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER (continued)
1.3 Capacitance and Capacitive Reactance

1.3.1 Capacitance

Capacitance is the property of AC circuits that opposes changes in voltage. Capacitance is

developed by a capacitor, which is a device that has the ability to store a charge. A capacitor
usually consists of two plates separated by a dielectric, as illustrated in Figure 1.3-1.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.3 Capacitance and Capacitive Reactance (continued)

When a voltage is applied to the plates of a capacitor, the plates become charged to the voltage that is
applied. The dielectric between the plates is an insulating material, which prevents the flow of electrons
between the plates and thus allows the plates to store a charge. The charge remains on the plates until the
voltage begins to drop below the value of the charge.

Conductors in dose proximity to each other, such as transmission lines strung in phases, develop capacitance:
the conductors function like plates in a capacitor, and the air space between the conductors functions like a
dielectric. Figure 1.3-2 illustrates a transmission line as if it were a large capacitor. The voltages on the two
conductors are different with respect to each other at any time. Therefore, there is a potential difference
between the conductors that establishes an electrostatic charge between them as if the transmission line were
a large capacitor.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.3 Capacitance and Capacitive Reactance (continued)

Capacitance is measured in units called farads. The amount of capacitance developed by a

capacitor is determined by the plate area, the distance between the plates, and the dielectric
material. In general, the larger the plate area and the closer the plates are to each other, the
greater the capacitance. Each type of dielectric material (air, glass, porcelain, etc.) has a
specific value that contributes to the amount of capacitance. In a transmission line, the amount
of capacitance is determined by the length of the line; the size of the conductors; the distance
between conductors; and the dielectric material, which, in this case, is air.

An equation that can be used to find the capacitance of a capacitor is shown in Figure 1.3-3.
This equation is not directly applicable to transmission line calculations; it is a simplified
equation used only for explanation. In the equation, C represents capacitance, in farads; A is
the area of the plates; K is a constant determined by the dielectric material; and d is the
distance between the plates.

1.3.2 Capacitive Reactance

Capacitive reactance is the opposition to changes in voltage caused by capacitance. An

equation commonly used to calculate capacitive reactance is shown in Figure 1.3-4. In the

equation, XC represents capacitive reactance, in ohms; n (pi) is a constant (about 3.14); f is

frequency (60 hertz); and C is capacitance, in farads.

HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.3 Capacitance and Capacitive Reactance (continued)

Since capacitive reactance is one of the factors that make up impedance, it is a contributor
to power loss in a transmission system. Capacitive reactance is also one of the elements that
can be controlled to minimize power loss when a transmission system is designed. Control
of capacitive reactance is achieved by controlling capacitance, because capacitance is the
only factor that is considered a variable in the equation for calculating capacitive reactance.
When capacitance is increased, capacitive reactance is decreased; when capacitance is
decreased, capacitive reactance is increased.

At the design stage, spacing and conductor size can be used to control the capacitance and
capacitive reactance in a transmission line. The closer the conductors are to each other, the
greater the capacitance and the less the capacitive reactance. Also, increasing the size of the
conductors (like increasing the plate area of a capacitor) increases capacitance and decreases
capacitive reactance.

The only factor that can change the capacitance of a transmission line when it is being worked
on is spacing. For example, if an insulator requires replacement and the only available substitute
insulator is different in length from the one called for in the system plans, the design
configuration of the line can be changed by decreasing or increasing spacing. Changing the
spacing would cause capacitance to increase or decrease from design specifications.

As with inductance, individual incidents may not critically affect the overall power loss in a
system. However, repeated inaccuracies could cause cumulative changes that might increase
power loss.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.3 Capacitance and Capacitive Reactance (continued)

1.3.3 Capacitive Reactance Example

The following example shows how to calculate the capacitive reactance for the hypothetical
25-mile transmission line used earlier to calculate inductive reactance. The calculated value
for capacitive reactance will be used, along with the inductive reactance value and a
resistance value, to calculate the impedance and power loss in the circuit. For simplicity, the
capacitive reactance of only one phase will be calculated.

The first step in the calculation is to determine the capacitance of the phase. In this example,
it is assumed that .5 microfarads of capacitance are produced per mile of transmission line.

In this example, capacitive reactance is 212.3 ohms. This value will be used later to calculate
the impedance of the hypothetical 25-mile transmission line.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.3 Capacitance and Capacitive Reactance (continued)

Questions

1.3-1. Define capacitance.

1.3-2. Circle the correct answer.

The air space between conductors in a transmission line acts as the
______________________________ of a capacitor.
a. Dielectric
b. Plates
c. Charge
d. None of the above

1.3-3. List four factors that determine the amount of capacitance in a transmission
line.
a. ______________________________
b. ______________________________
c. ______________________________
d. ______________________________

1.3-4. Define capacitive reactance.

1.3-5. List two things that can be varied to control the capacitive reactance in a
transmission line.
a. ______________________________
b. ______________________________
 HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER (continued)
1.4 Resistance

1.4.1 Factors Affecting Resistance

Resistance is a physical property that is the opposition to current flow within a conductor. The
resistance of a conductor is determined by several factors, including the conductor length, the material
the conductor is made of, and the size of the conductor.

1.4.1.1 Conductor Length

Although the length of the conductors in a transmission system cannot be controlled by the system
designer, it is one of the factors that determine the conductors' resistance. Therefore, conductor length
must be taken into consideration when a system is designed. If all other determining factors are equal,
the longer the conductor, the greater the resistance and, consequently, the greater the power loss. For
example, as shown earlier, the power loss for one phase of a 50-mile transmission line is .05 megawatts
when resistance is .1 ohm per mile (5 ohms for the phase), voltage is 500 kilovolts, and current is 100
amps. The calculations for this example are shown in Figure 1.4-1.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.4 Resistance (continued)

In the following example, the resistance and power loss for one phase of another
transmission system are calculated. This system has a voltage of 500 kilovolts, a current of
100 amps, and a resistance of .1 ohm per mile. The only difference between this example
and the previous example is that this transmission line is 25 miles long (one half the length
of the line in the previous example). The resistance is calculated as follows:

For the 25-mile line, resistance is 2.5 ohms, half the resistance of the 50-mile line (5 ohms). To
calculate the power loss for the 25-mile line, the calculated resistance and the known value for
current are used in the power equation P = 12 R.

From these two examples, it can be concluded that the shorter the conductor, the less the
power loss due to resistance. Conversely, the longer the conductor, the greater the power
loss due to resistance.

1.4.1.2 Conductor Material and Conductivity

Conductivity is the ease with which a substance allows current flow. The conductivity of a
transmission line varies depending on the material used in its construction. The greater the
conductivity of the material, the less the line's resistance to current flow. Conductivity is the
inverse of resistance; it can be represented by the following equation:
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.4 Resistance (continued)

Two materials commonly used in the construction of transmission line conductors are copper
and aluminum. Copper is a highly conductive material; it conducts current very easily.
Aluminum is not as conductive as copper, but it is lighter than copper, and it costs less. For an
aluminum conductor to carry the same amount of current as a copper conductor of a given
size, the aluminum conductor must have a larger diameter. A larger diameter results in a lower
resistance, which, in turn, reduces power loss. As a general rule, an aluminum conductor
should be two sizes larger than a copper conductor that would be used for the same job.

Because aluminum is not as strong as copper, aluminum conductors are often manufactured
with steel reinforcing strands in the middle to increase their overall strength. Such a conductor
is called an aluminum-conductor, steel-reinforced, or ACSR. ACSR's are the most widely
used conductors in transmission and distribution systems.

1.4.1.3 Conductor Size

Conductor size is usually expressed in units called circular mils (CM). A mil is equal to 1/1000
of an inch, that is, there are 1,000 mils in one inch. A circular mil (Figure 1.4-2) is the area of a
circle that has a diameter of one mil. Conductors in transmission lines may be 3 million
circular mils or larger. In general, the larger the conductor, the lower its resistance.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.4 Resistance (continued)

1.4.2 Skin Effect and Bundles

Large conductors, such as those used in transmission systems, experience a phenomenon

known as skin effect. Skin effect results in an increased resistance to the flow of AC current
in larger conductors, because it causes the flow of alternating current to concentrate, or to
be more dense, in the outer surface of the conductors.

Figure 1.4-3 shows conductors of two different sizes. The size of one conductor is 250,000
circular mils; that conductor has an AC current-carrying capacity of 405 amps. The other
conductor is twice as large - 500,000 circular mils - but it only has an AC current-carrying
capacity of 635 amps. Skin effect increases the resistance in the larger conductor, and
thereby decreases its relative current-carrying capacity.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.4 Resistance (continued)

Skin effect can be reduced, to decrease the overall resistance and increase the AC current-
carrying capacity of conductors, by grouping the conductors in bundles. A conductor bundle
usually consists of two to four relatively small conductors that make up one phase. The
conductors in the bundle are tied together electrically, but they are separated from each other
physically.

Figure 1.4-4 illustrates how conductor bundling can reduce skin effect. The size of the larger,
single conductor is 750,000 circular mils; that conductor has an AC current-carrying capacity of
825 amps. The overall size of the three separate conductors that form the bundle is 750,000
circular mils. The bundle has an overall AC current-carrying capacity of 1215 amps. The
reduction in resistance caused by using bundles to counteract skin effect reduces power loss in
transmission lines.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.4 Resistance (continued)

Questions

1.4-1. List three factors that determine the resistance of a conductor.

a. ____________________
b. ____________________
c. ____________________

1.4-2. True or False. The longer a conductor, the greater its resistance.

1.4-3. Define conductivity.

1.4-4. True or False. The larger a conductor, the greater its resistance.

1.4-5. Circle the correct answer.

Skin effect
a. Decreases resistance in large conductors
b. Causes the flow of alternating current to concentrate on the outer
surface of a conductor
c. Increases the voltage in a conductor
d. None of the above
 HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER (continued)
1.5 Impedance

1.5.1 Characteristics of Impedance

Impedance is the total opposition offered to current flow in AC circuits. It is a combination of

inductive reactance, capacitive reactance, and resistance. An equation commonly used to express
impedance is shown in Figure 1.5-1. In the equation, Z represents impedance, in ohms; R represents
resistance, in ohms; XL represents inductive reactance, in ohms; and XC represents capacitive
reactance, in ohms.

As a combination of resistance, inductive reactance, and capacitive reactance, impedance causes a

special relationship to develop between voltage and current in AC circuits. This is a time
relationship called "phase angle," in which current either lags or leads voltage. Phase angle is a
measure of the degrees in which current lags or leads voltage.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1..5 Impedance (continued)

Figure 1.5-2 shows the relationships between resistance (R), inductive reactance (XL), capacitive
reactance (XC), current (I), and voltage (E) in terms of vectors. A vector is a quantity with a direction.
Line A in Figure 1.5-2 shows the vector relationships between current, voltage, and resistance in a
purely resistive circuit. In a purely resistive circuit, current and voltage are in phase: resistance has an
angle of 00, so current neither lags nor leads voltage. Line B shows that inductive reactance has an angle
of 900. In a purely inductive circuit, inductive reactance causes current to lag voltage by 900. Line C
shows that capacitive reactance also has a phase angle of 900. In a purely capacitive circuit, capacitive
reactance causes current to lead voltage by 900.

Most AC circuits are not purely resistive, purely inductive, or purely capacitive. Therefore, to
determine the total opposition to current flow in an AC circuit, the effects of resistance, inductive
reactance, and capacitive reactance must be combined. This is done by adding vector quantities.
The result is an angle that is greater than 00 but less than 900.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.5 Impedance (continued)

Since capacitive reactance and inductive reactance are direct opposite vectors, they are
considered to have an opposite effect on a circuit. For this reason, the difference between
the two is the overall effect of reactance in AC circuits. This is shown in the impedance
equation (Figure 1.5-1), in which XC is subtracted from X L.

1.5.2 Resonance

Because of the vector relationship between inductive reactance and capacitive reactance,
these two properties of impedance cancel each other if their values are the same. In such a
case, the impedance of the AC circuit is only due to resistance, and the circuit is said to be
in resonance. The impedance of a circuit that is in resonance can be calculated as shown in
the following example. In this example, it is assumed that resistance is 20 ohms, inductive
reactance is 10 ohms, and capacitive reactance is 10 ohms.

Transmission systems are not usually designed specifically to prevent resonance.

However, it is unusual for inductive reactance and capacitive reactance to have the same
value in a circuit.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.5 Impedance (continued)

1.5.3 Impedance and Power Loss

In the following example, impedance and power loss are calculated for one phase of a 25-mile
transmission system. (The values for resistance, inductive reactance, capacitive reactance were
calculated earlier. To simplify the calculation, these values have been rounded off. Resistance (R)
was calculated to be 2.5 ohms (rounded off to 3 ohms); inductive reactance (XL) was calculated to
be 9.42 ohms (rounded off to 9 ohms); and capacitive reactance was calculated to be 212.3 ohms
(rounded off to 212 ohms.)
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.5 Impedance (continued)

The impedance of the 25-mile transmission system is about 203 ohms. Since impedance is
one of the greatest contributors to power loss in a transmission system, this value can be
substituted for R in the power equation used to calculate power loss. Power loss is then
calculated as follows:

1.5.4 Corona

Another contributor to power loss is an effect called corona. Corona is the ionization of air
surrounding a conductor at high potential, in which power is lost directly to the atmosphere.
The electrostatic field around a conductor that results from corona creates power loss in the
form of high voltage impulses, radio frequency interference (RFI), television interference
(TVI), and audible noise. Sometimes the electrostatic field is visible as a blue glow.

The RFI caused by corona can inhibit effective communication transmission. Therefore, the
effects of corona on radio frequencies are monitored and regulated to ensure that corona
levels are not high enough to significantly inhibit communication transmissions.

Audible noise is a good indication of power loss due to corona. Audible noise that is
detected during routine patrols of transmission lines should be reported to a supervisor.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.5 Impedance (continued)

Corona loss along transmission lines is at its highest level in areas where sharp bends occur
or where conductors have been nicked or otherwise damaged. Current tends to flow along
smooth lines, and sharp bends or nicks provide areas where power can be lost to the
atmosphere. Corona levels can be minimized by ensuring that conductors are handled
properly so that sharp bends and nicks do not occur.

In areas where corona losses tend to be higher, devices called corona rings may be installed
to provide a smooth surface that limits the effects of corona. A typical corona ring is shown
in Figure 1.5-3.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.5 Impedance (continued)

As shown in Figure 1.5-4, corona rings are connected directly to transmission lines. They are supported
by insulators at structures and at other places where there are bends in lines.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.5 Impedance (continued)

1.5.5 Static Wires

Static wires are often used to dissipate the effects of lightning, preventing damage to
transmission lines that could otherwise lead to serious power loss. Static wires are tied
directly to the tops of structures. They are strung between structures, thus tying the
structures together. The wires are also connected to a counterpoise wire that runs
underground along the transmission path. The counterpoise wire grounds the system and
ties it together. Since lightning tends to be drawn to the highest point above ground, it will
strike a static wire instead of a structure or a transmission line. The voltage surge that
results from the strike is directed through the static wires to the counterpoise wire, and is
then dissipated to ground.

Questions

1.5-1. Define impedance.

1.5-2. List the three properties that make up impedance.

a. ______________________________
b. ______________________________
c. ______________________________

1.5-3. Circle the correct answer.

In a purely resistive circuit, current leads voltage by
a. 500
b. 900
c. 00

d. None of the above

1.5-4. In a purely inductive circuit, inductive reactance causes current to

____________________ voltage by 900.
(lag, lead)
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
1.5 Impedance (continued)

1.5-5. True or False. A circuit is said to be in resonance when inductive reactance and capacitive reactance
have the same value.

1.5-6. Define corona.

HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER SYSTEMS (continued)
Answers

1.1-1. Power loss is electrical power that is produced, but not used productively.

1.1-2. Resistance

1.1-3 b

1.1-4 c

1.1-5 False

1.2-1 Inductance is the property of an electrical circuit that gives it the ability to
induce a voltage in the circuit that is opposite to the applied voltage.

1.2-2. Induction

1.2-3. d

1.2-4. (These answers may be in either order.)

a. Self induction
b. Mutual induction

1.2-5. (These answers may be in any order.)

a. The length of the line
b. The distance between conductors
c. The size of the conductors

1.2-6. Inductive reactance is the opposition to changes in current flow caused by

inductance.

1.2-7. True
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER SYSTEMS
Answers (continued)

13-1. Capacitance is the property of AC circuits that opposes changes in + voltage.

1.3-2. a

1.3-3. (These answers may be In any order.)

a. The length of the line
b. The size of the conductors
c. The distance between conductors
d. The dielectric material (air)

1.3-4. Capacitive reactance is the opposition to changes in voltage caused by

capacitance.

1.3-5. (These answers may be in either order.)

a. Spacing
b. Conductor size

1.4-1. (These answers may be in any order.)

a. The length of the conductor
b. The material the conductor is made of
c. The size of the conductor

1.4-2. True

1.4-3. Conductivity is the ease with which a substance allows current to flow.

1.4-4. False

1.4-5 b
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER SYSTEMS
Answers (continued)

1.5-1. Impedance is the total opposition to current flow in AC circuits.

1.5-2. (These answers may be in any order.)

a. Resistance
b. Inductive reactance
c. Capacitive reactance

1.5-3. c

1.5-4. Lag

1.5-5. True

1.5-6. Corona is the ionization of air surrounding a conductor at high potential, in which power is
lost directly to the atmosphere.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER (continued)
GLOSSARY

This glossary contains terms pertinent to the study of high voltage AC power and gives the meanings of
the terms in that context.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
Glossary (continued)

Bundle - Generally, two to four small conductors that are separated

physically, but tied together electrically to make up one
phase.

Capacitance - The property of AC circuits that opposes changes in voltage.

Capacitive reactance - The opposition to changes in voltage caused by capacitance.

Capacitor - A device that has the ability to store a charge.

Corona - The ionization of air surrounding a conductor at high

potential so that power is lost directly to the atmosphere.

Counterpoise wire - An underground wire that grounds a transmission system

and provides grounding for static wires.

Dielectric - An insulating material that prevents the flow of electrons

between the plates of a capacitor.

Impedance - The total opposition to current flow in an AC circuit.

Inductance - The property of an electrical circuit that gives it the ability to

induce a voltage in the circuit that is opposite to the applied
voltage.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
Glossary (continued)

Inductive reactance - The opposition to changes in current flow caused by inductance.

Ohm's Law - A basic electrical theory stating that current is directly proportional
to applied voltage and inversely proportional to resistance.

Phase angle - A measure of the degree to which current either lags or leads voltage in
a circuit.

Power loss - Electrical power that is produced but not used productively.

Resistance - A physical property that is the opposition to current flow within

a conductor.

Resonance - The condition of an AC circuit when inductive reactance and capacitive

reactance are equal.

Skin effect - A phenomenon in large conductors that results in an increased

resistance to AC current flow because it causes the flow of
alternating current to concentrate on the outer surface of the conductor.

Static wire - A device used to dissipate the effects of lighting on transmission lines
to ground, often to a counterpoise wire.