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High Voltage
AC Power
Unit 2

TRANSMISSION &
DISTRIBUTION
T&D Systems And Theory
 GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR STUDENTS

High Voltage AC Power, Unit 2 is composed of a one-hour videotape presentation and an

accompanying text. The videotape program is divided into five segments, and the text
corresponds to the tape in both organization and basic content. The recommended sequence of
instruction is as follows:

1. After the instructor's introductory remarks, read the segment objectives found in the
block at the beginning of the first segment.
2. Briefly discuss the segment objectives with the instructor and other class members.
3. View the first segment of videotape.
4. Read the text segment that corresponds to the first segment of videotape.
5. Answer the questions included in the text segment. Check your answers against the
answers given at the end of the unit.
6. Participate in a class discussion of the material in the segment. Ask any questions you
might have concerning the material in the videotape and the text, and note any
additional information given by the instructor.
7. Before going on to the next segment, be sure that you understand the major concepts
presented and the answers to the text questions.
8. WORK THROUGH ALL SEGMENTS IN THIS MANNER.
9. A quiz covering the material in the entire unit (all five segments) will be administered
by the instructor after the unit has been completed.
10. Additional instruction and testing may be given at the discretion of the instructor in
accordance with plant requirements.

This recommended sequence may be modified slightly by your instructor due to scheduling or
other special considerations.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section Title Page

2.1 Power ......................................................................................................... 2.1-1

2.1.1 Forms of Power .......................................................................................... 2.1-2
2.1.2 Power Factor....................................... ........................................................ 2.1-3

2.2 Three-Phase Power .................................. ................................................ 2.2-1

2.2.1 Power Generation........................................................................................ 2.2-2
2.2.2 Power Calculations .................................. .................................................. 2.2-4
2.2.2.1 Measuring Voltage ..................................................................................... 2.2-4
2.2.2.2 Using Line-to-Line Voltage to Calculate Three-Phase
Power ............................................. ............................................................ 2.2-10
2.2.2.3 Using Line-to-Ground Voltage to Calculate Three-Phase
Power ............................................. ............................................................ 2.2-11
2.2.3 Single-Phase and Three-Phase Distribution Systems ................................. 2.2-12

2.3 Delta and Wye Configurations ................................................................ 2.3-1

2.3.1 Delta Configuration .................................................................................... 2.3-2
2.3.2 Wye Configuration ..................................................................................... 2.3-3
2.3.3 Delta-Wye Transformers ............................................................................ 2.3-4
2.3.4 Delta and Wye Distribution Systems ................... ...................................... 2.3-8

2.4 Voltage Regulator Applications .............................................................. 2.4-1

2.4.1 Function of a Voltage Regulator ................................................................ 2.4-1
2.4.2 Induction Voltage Regulators ......................... ........................................... 2.4-4
2.4.3 Step Voltage Regulators ............................................................................. 2.4-8
2.4.4 Voltage Regulators in a Feeder System ................. .................................... 2.4-11

2.5 Capacitor Applications .............................. .............................................. 2.5-1

2.5.1 Capacitor Connections ............................... ................................................ 2.5-1
2.5.2 Shunt Capacitor Operation ......................................................................... 2.5-2
2.5.3 Capacitors in a Distribution System ........................................................... 2.5-5
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Title Page

2.1-1. An Equation for Calculating Power Factor ................................................ 2.1-3

2.1-2. A Simplified Power System ....................................................................... 2.1-3
2.1-3. Power Triangle ........................................................................................... 2.1-4
2.1-4. Power Triangle Example ............................. .............................................. 2.1-5
2.1-5. Changes to Angle Theta ............................................................................. 2.1-6

2.2-1. 120-Volt, Single-Phase AC Sine Wave .................. ................................... 2.2-2

2.2-2. Sine Waves for a Three-Phase Circuit ....................................................... 2.2-3
2.2-3. Simplified Illustration of a Three-Phase Generator ...... ............................. 2.2-4
2.2-4. Three-Phase Power Line Example ............................................................. 2.2-5
2.2-5. Sine Waves for Power Line Example ................... ..................................... 2.2-6
2.2-6. Line-to-Line Voltage Measurements ................... ...................................... 2.2-7
2.2-7. Three-Phase Sine Waves: Line-to-Line Voltage ......... .............................. 2.2-8
2.2-8. Three-Phase Vector Relationship...................... ......................................... 2.2-9

2.3-1. Delta Configuration ................................. .......................................... ....... 2.3-2

2.3-2. Wye Configuration .................................. .................................................. 2.3-3
2.3-3. Delta-Wye Configured Transformers .................. ..................................... . 2.3-4
2.3-4. Delta-Wye Transformer Example ...................................................... ....... 2.3-5
2.3-5. Current Flow in Delta-Wye Transformer ............... ........................... ....... 2.3-7
2.3-6. Typical Delta System ................................................................................. 2.3-8
2.3-7. Comparison of Delta and Wye Current and Voltage ................................. 2.3-9

2.4-1. Two Variations of an Auto-Transformer ................ ................................... 2.4-2

2.4-2. Voltage Regulators .................................. .................................................. 2.4-3
2.4-3. Induction Voltage Regulator, Example 1 ................ .................................. 2.4-4
2.4-4. Induction Voltage Regulator, Example 2 ................ .................................. 2.4-5
2.4-5. Components of a Typical Induction Voltage
Regulator .................................................................................................... 2.4-6 & 2.4-7
2.4-6. Effective Voltage Range ............................................................................ 2.4-8
2.4-7. Step Voltage Regulator .............................................................................. 2.4-8
2.4-8. Voltage Boosted: Position 1 .......................... ............................................ 2.4-9
Figure Title Page

2.4-9. Voltage Boosted: Position 5 ...................................................................... 2.4-10

2.4-10. Voltage Bucked: Position 1 ....................................................................... 2.4-10
2.4-11. Voltage Bucked: Position 5 ....................................................................... 2.4-11
2.4-12. Voltage Profile Graph ................................................................................ 2.4-12
2.4-13. Graph with New Profile Line .................................................................... 2.4-13

2.5-1. Shunt Capacitor Installation ...................................................................... 2.5-2

2.5-2. Vector Diagram ......................................................................................... 2.5-3
2.5-3. Net Reactive Current ................................................................................. 2.5-4
2.5-4. Capacitor Bank with Oil Switch ................................................................ 2.5-5
2.5-5. Shunt Capacitor Bank Oil Switch Connections ......................................... 2.5-6
 HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
UNIT 2

Linemen are responsible for installing and maintaining transformers, capacitors, voltage
regulators, and other essential components of transmission and distribution systems.
Understanding how these components function in a transmission and distribution system
makes it easier for linemen to solve problems and make informed decisions on the job. To
understand how these components function, it is first necessary to understand some basic
concepts related to AC power.

This training unit focuses on how utility companies increase the amount of available power to
customers. The emphasis is on the role of transformers, capacitors, and voltage regulators.

2.1 Power
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.1 Power (continued)

2.1.1 Forms of Power

Power is the rate at which work is performed. A simple example demonstrates how power is
calculated in electrical circuits. For purposes of the example, assume that a motor draws 16.5 amps
of current at 208 volts. To determine how much electrical power is consumed by the motor, the
equation P = E x I is used. In the equation, "P" represents power, "E" represents voltage, and "I"
represents current. Using this equation, the power consumed by the motor is calculated as follows:

When this electric motor is operating, the generator that provides the electricity to run the motor
must produce more power than is actually consumed by the motor. The additional power is
needed because resistance, capacitive reactance, and inductive reactance contribute to power loss
in the power system. Power that is lost does no useful work.

To understand why the generator in this example must produce more power than the motor
consumes, it is necessary to examine three forms of power: apparent power, true power, and
reactive power.

Apparent power is the power that is actually produced by the generator. It includes the power that
does work (runs the motor, in this example) and the power that does no useful work. Apparent
power is measured in volt-amperes.

True power is the power that actually does work in an AC circuit. It is measured in watts. Electric
appliances, such as irons, for example, are generally rated in watts. The rating shown on the label of
the appliance actually represents true power, that is, the power that actually does the work of
operating the appliance.

Reactive power is the power in an AC circuit that does no useful work. Reactive power includes the
inductive reactance and the capacitive reactance in the circuit. It is measured in volt-amperes-
reactive, or VAR's.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.1 Power (continued)

2.1.2 Power Factor

Because of power losses, true power is not equal to apparent power. The relationship
between true power and apparent power is often expressed as a ratio, which is known as
power factor (pf).

Power factor describes the efficiency of an AC circuit. It can be calculated if apparent power
and true power are known. An equation for calculating power factor is shown in Figure 2.1-1.

Another way to see the relationship between true power and apparent power is to look at one
phase of a hypothetical power system, as illustrated in Figure 2.1-2.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.1 Power (continued)

The power station represented in Figure 2.1-2 is transmitting 138,000 volts at 30 amps to
produce 4,140 kilo-volt-amperes (KVA) of apparent power. The prefix "kilo" means one
thousand, so 4,140 KVA is the same as 4,140,000 volt-amperes. The consumers in this
power system are using a total of 3.6 megawatts (MW) of true power. The prefix "mega"
means one million, so 3.6 MW is the same as 3,600 kilowatts, or 3,600,000 watts. Power
factor for this AC power system can be determined as follows:

The relationship between true power, apparent power, and reactive power can also be
represented graphically by means of a power triangle (Figure 2.1-3). A power triangle is
a right triangle, which means that one of its three angles is 90 degrees. Each side of a
power triangle represents a different form of power. Angle "C" represents the
relationship between apparent power and true power, which can be converted to power
factor. In the power triangle, this angle is represented by the symbol, theta ( θ ). The
cosine of theta, which is a trigonometric function, represents power factor.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.1 Power (continued)

The power triangle for the simplified power system example is shown in Figure 2.1-4. In this
example, true power (P T ) is 3,600 KW, apparent power (P A ) is 4,140 KVA, and reactive

power (P R ) is about 2,044.4 KVAR. Power factor, or cosine of theta (θ), as calculated earlier,
is about 87%.

Power factor changes, depending upon the inductive load, that is, the load due to induction,
in the distribution system. For example, on a hot day, when many customers run air
conditioners, the inductive load on the distribution system increases. As the inductive load
increases, reactive power also increases, because inductive reactance is being added to the
distribution system.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.1 Power (continued)

Reactive load is the load due to reactance. An increase in reactive load results in an increase in reactive
power and an increase in the angle theta. An increase in the angle theta (Figure 2.1-5A) decreases the
cosine of theta, or power factor. Similarly, a decrease in reactive load results in a decrease in reactive
power, and a decrease in the angle theta. A decrease in the angle theta (Figure 2.1-5B) increases the cosine
of theta, or power factor. On a power triangle, the larger the angle theta, the lower the power factor, and
the smaller the angle theta, the higher the power factor.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.1 Power (continued)

The changes in reactive power indicated in Figure 2.1-5 change apparent power, but they do not
affect true power. When reactive load increases, reactive power and apparent power increase, as
illustrated in Figure 2.1-5A, but true power remains the same. Also, when reactive load decreases,
reactive power and apparent power decrease, as illustrated in Figure 2.1-5B, but true power
remains the same.

If it were possible to transmit electricity without any power loss, power factor would be 1 and the
angle theta would be 0 degrees. In reality, however, power factor is usually between 80% and
95%. Because power loss must always be considered, true power in a single-phase circuit is
calculated with the following equation:

Power = Voltage x Current x Power Factor

P= E x I x pf

Components such as capacitors, transformers, and voltage regulators affect power factor. Most
power companies try to maintain a high power factor at satisfactory voltage levels by using
efficient engineering practices and corrective equipment.

Questions

2.1-1. True or False. Apparent power is the power that does work in an AC
circuit.

2.1-2. Power is the _________________________ at which work is performed.

2.1-3. Circle the correct answer.

True power is usually measured in
a. Watts
b. Volt-amperes
c. Volt-amperes reactive
d. Volts

2.1-4. True or False. Reactive power is the power in an AC circuit that does no
useful work.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.1 Power (continued)

2.1-5. Circle the correct answer.

Power factor can be calculated by dividing
a. True power by reactive power b. Reactive power by true power
c. True power by apparent power
d. Apparent power by true power
e. Apparent power by reactive power

2.1-6. True or False. Power factor describes the efficiency of an AC circuit.

HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER (continued)
2.2 Three-Phase Power

So far in this program, power has only been discussed in relation to single-phase circuits.
However, power is generally produced and transmitted in three phases. The basic equations
used to calculate true power, apparent power, reactive power, and power factor for single-
phase circuits also apply to three-phase circuits. However, as shown in this section, an
additional factor is included in each equation for calculating three-phase power.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.2 Three-Phase Power (continued)

2.2.1 Power Generation

A sine wave, like the one shown in Figure 2.2-1, is a graphic representation of AC voltage. The
sine wave in Figure 2.2-1 represents the voltage for a 120-volt, single-phase AC circuit. The
vertical axis on the display represents voltage amplitude, in both positive and negative
directions, between line and ground. The horizontal axis represents time. The distance between
points "A" and "B" represents 360 degrees, or one complete cycle.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.2 Three-Phase Power (continued)

The graphic display for a three-phase AC circuit (Figure 2.2-2) shows three sine waves instead of
one. The sine waves in a three-phase circuit run parallel to each other and are 120 degrees apart.
Therefore, as shown in Figure 2.2-2, when phase 1 begins its cycle at 00, phase 2 is at 1200, and
phase 3 is at 2400. The reason that the phases are 1200 degrees apart is that the three phases of
three-phase power are generated 1200 apart.
 HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.2 Three-Phase Power (continued)

Figure 2.2-3 is a simplified illustration of a three-phase generator. The generator produces

electricity by rotating a magnetic field inside three sets of stator windings. The windings are
spaced at 120-degree intervals around the rotor. Each time the rotor turns, voltage is
induced in each stator winding.

2.2.2 Power Calculations

2.2.2.1 Measuring Voltage

On systems that have a ground, three-phase voltage can be measured in two ways: (1) from
line to ground, and (2) from line to line. On systems that do not have a ground, only line-to-
line measurements can be made. Either of these measurements can be used in calculations of
three-phase power.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.2 Three-Phase Power (continued)

Figure 2.2-4 is an illustration of a typical three-phase distribution line with a grounded neutral.
In this example, the voltage from each phase to ground is about 7,620 volts.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.2 Three-Phase Power (continued)

Because each phase in Figure 2.2-4 has the same voltage, the amplitude, or peaks and
valleys, of their sine waves are exactly the same, as shown on the graphic display illustrated
in Figure 2.2-5. Therefore, the effective voltage, that is, the voltage that would be read by a
voltmeter, is also the same for each phase.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.2 Three-Phase Power (continued)

For the system represented in Figure 2.2-6, the line-to-line voltage between phases "A" and "B"
between phases "A" and "C," and between phases "B" and "C" is about 13,200 volts. From these
readings, it is evident that each line-to-line voltage is not the sum of two phase voltages, as might
be expected. The reason is that in a three-phase system, each sine wave is 1200 out of phase with
the others. This means that the instantaneous voltage of one phase is not the same as the
instantaneous voltage of another phase at the same time.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.2 Three-Phase Power (continued)

Figure 2.2-7 illustrates why line-to-line voltage is not equal to the sum of the voltages of the two
phases being measured. The vertical line on this graph represents a specific point in time. The
voltage readings at points "A," "B," and "C" are different, because the phases are 1200 apart. The
effective voltage for each phase, however, is the same.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.2 Three-Phase Power (continued)

The relationship between the phases of a three-phase system is a factor of the square root of three.
Figure 2.2-8 illustrates the relationship between the phases of a three-phase system as a simple vector
relationship. A vector is a line that shows magnitude and direction. The vectors in Figure 2.2-8
represent voltage in each phase of a three-phase system. The phases are labeled "A," "B," and "C."
Since the voltage for each phase is the same, each vector can be given a value of one unit. Because
the voltages in the three phases are 1200 apart, the vectors are also drawn 1200 apart.

The distance between the ends of two vectors is equal to the vector sum. In Figure 2.2-8, the
vector sum is represented graphically by the distance between the ends of lines "A" and "B, "'B"
and "C, " or "C" and "A." When vectors are drawn accurately, with all vectors being the same
length, it is possible to find the vector sum graphically by measuring the distance between the
ends of the vectors. The distance between the ends of the vectors in Figure 2.2-8 is 1.73 units, so
the vector sum for three-phase voltage is 1.73, which is the square root of three √3.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2 .2 Three-Phase Power (continued)

The number 1.73 is a constant that describes the relationship between the phases of a three-
phase system. It is used in the equation for calculating true power in a three-phase system.

The equation P = E x I x pf was used earlier to calculate single-phase true power. Three-
phase true power is calculated in a similar way. The value for voltage (E) can be either a line-
(E
to-line measurement (E LL ) or a line-to-ground measurement LG ).

2.2.2.2 Using Line-to-Line Voltage to Calculate Three-Phase Power

The equation for calculating three-phase power using line-to-line voltage (E LL is

as follows:
P = E LL x 1 x pf x √3

The examples shown in Figures 2.2-4 and 2.2-6 can be used to demonstrate how three-phase
power is calculated. The primary three-phase line illustrated in Figure 2.2-6 consists of three
conductors, which can handle 690 amps of current. The line-to-line voltage, as stated earlier,
is about 13,200 volts at a specific point in time. For purposes of this example, power factor
is assumed to be 90% or .9, and - √ 3 i s a s su me d to be 1.73. With these values, power is
calculated as follows:

P = E LL x 1 x pf x √3

P = 13,200 volts x 690 amps x .9 x 1.73 (Substituting the known

Values in the equation)

P = 14, 181, 156 watts (Multiplying)

P = 14.2 MW (Converting watts to

megawatts (MW) and
rounding off)
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.2 Three-Phase Power (continued)

2.2.2.3 Using Line-to- Ground Voltage to Calculate Three-Phase Power

The equation for calculating three-phase power using line-to-ground voltage (ELG) is as
follows:
P = ELG x I x pf x 3

For this method of calculating three-phase power, the single-phase equation for power is multiplied
by 3, because there are three phases. For the example illustrated in Figure 2.2-4, line-to-ground
voltage is 7,620 volts, current is 690 amps, and power factor is .9. With these values, power is
calculated as follows:
P = ELG x I x pf x 3

P = 7,620 volts x 690 amps x .9 x 3 (Substituting the known values

in the equation)

P = 14,196,060 watts (Multiplying)

P = 14.2 MW (Converting watts to MW and

rounding off)

With either method of calculation, power equals about 14.2 MW, so three-phase power can be
determined in two ways. Line-to-line voltage can be used if the single-phase power equation is
multiplied by the square root of three (1.73), and line-to-ground voltage can be used if the equation
is multiplied by three. (Note: When these calculations are to be done for a specific system, the
power factor can generally be obtained by using a power factor meter at the location or by using
the power factor meter at the control center.)
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.2 Three-Phase Power (continued)

2.2.3 Single-Phase and Three- Phase Distribution Systems

Many distribution systems use a three-phase, three or four wire configuration.

three-phase power system has several advantages over a single-phase power
system. For example, a three-phase power system is more economical, because it
only requires three or four wires to carry the same amount of power that Mould be
carried by six wires (two for each phase) in three single-phase systems.

Another advantage is component size and efficiency. For example, a three-phase

motor is smaller than a comparable single-phase motor of the same rating. Because
overall voltage and current are never zero in a three-phase system, a three-phase
motor runs more evenly on less power than a single-phase motor.

Questions

2.2-1. The three phases of three-phase power are generated __________

degrees apart.

2.2-2. Voltage in a three-phase system can be determined by reading the

voltage from (a) ____________________ or reading the voltage from
(b) ____________________.

2.2-3. True or False. In a three-phase system, primary voltage is the sum of

the voltages of any two phases.

2.2-4. The relationship between the phases of a three-phase system is a

factor of ____________________.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.2 Three-Phase Power (continued)

2.2-5. Write the formula for calculating three-phase power using line-to-ground voltage.

2.2-6. A three-phase power system is ____________________ economical than a

single-phase system. (more, less)
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER (continued)
2.3 Delta and Wye Configurations

Three-phase transformers, motors, and generators all have three or more windings. The
electrical configuration of these windings affects the way that power is used and
distributed. Two basic three-phase electrical configurations, delta and wye, are
examined in this section.

The principles of delta and wye configurations are the same for any three-phase device
that uses windings to induce voltage. Transformers are used as examples in this section
to demonstrate how delta and wye systems are configured.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.3 Delta and Wye Configurations (continued)

2.3.1 Delta Configuration

A simplified electrical diagram of a delta configuration used in a transformer is shown in Figure

2.3-1. Each winding in a delta configuration is connected to the beginning of the next winding.
When laid out graphically, the configuration looks like a delta ( ∆ ) symbol.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.3 Delta and Wye Configurations (continued)

2.3.2 Wye Configuration

A simplified electrical diagram of a wye configuration used in a transformer is shown in Figure

2.3-2. In the wye configuration, the beginnings of all the windings are connected together. When
laid out graphically, the configuration looks like a star, or the letter "Y."
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.3 Delta and Wye Configurations (continued)

2.3.3 Delta-Wye Transformers

Two or three single-phase transformers are often connected together in a three-phase

power system. The primary and secondary windings of the transformers may be
connected delta-delta, wye-wye, wye-delta, or delta-wye. The transformers
illustrated in Figure 2.2-3 are delta-wye configured. The primary windings are delta-
connected, and the secondary windings are wye-connected. In this example, the
primary is an ungrounded delta, and the secondary is a four-wire wye system.

The primaries of the transformers represented in Figure 2.3-3 are connected together
in a delta configuration. The end ("H2") of winding "1" is connected to the
beginning ("Hl") of winding "2"; the end ("H2") of winding "2" is connected to the
beginning ("H1") of winding "3"; and the end ("H2") of winding "3" is connected to
the beginning ("Hl") of winding "1" (by way of the A phase line). The leads are
attached to the points where the ends of the windings meet. Measuring line-to-line
voltage across leads "A" to "B," "B," to "C" or "C" to "A" also measures the voltage
across the windings.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.3 Delta and Wye Configurations (continued)

In the transformers represented in Figure 2.3-3, the beginnings ("X1") of the secondary windings
are connected together in a wye configuration. The other ends ("X2") of the secondary windings
are connected together through the circuit. In this example, the common point of the transformer is
connected to neutral (or ground). The beginnings ("X1") of the three windings are connected to
phases "A," "B" and "C;" respectively. Measuring line-to-line voltage across leads "A" to "B," "B"
to "C" or "C" to "A" results in a vector sum measurement across the two windings.

Understanding how a transformer is configured is helpful to anyone who takes voltage readings on
the secondary of three-phase transformer banks. The electrical configuration of a transformer
determines the electrical characteristics of a circuit. Delta and wye configurations affect line-to-
line voltage, line-to-ground voltage, and current readings.

Figure 2.3-4 shows in schematic form the same delta-wye transformers illustrated in Figure 2.3-3.
This time, however, voltage and current values are included. (Note: the values used in this
example are not realistic; they are used for simplicity.)
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.3 Delta and Wye Configurations (continued)

In the example shown in Figure 2.3-4, the measured voltage is 100 volts at 1 amp across each of
the primary windings. Line-to-line voltage between phases "A" and "B" "B" and "C" or "C" and
"A" on the primary windings is 100 volts, because it is the same as the voltage measured across
any winding. For simplicity, it is assumed that there is no power loss in the transformer and that
each secondary winding is induced with 100 volts at 1 amp from the primary windings.

Line-to-line voltage between phases "A" and "B" "B" and "C " or "C" and "A" on the secondary
winding in Figure 2.3-4 is 173 volts, because there are two windings between any two
connections. The reason that the three-phase line-to-line voltage is not twice the value of the
winding voltage is that the windings are 1200 out of phase with each other. Therefore, the line-
to-line voltage in this example is 100 volts times the square root of three (1.73), or 173 volts.
The wye configuration actually increases voltage in a three-phase circuit without changing the
transformers' turns ratio.

Because the configuration of a transformer affects voltage, it also affects current. In the example
shown in Figure 2.3-4, the current through each winding on the primary side is 1 amp. Line
current is a combination of the currents flowing through the windings, but the total line current
is not equal to the sum of the individual winding currents.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.3 Delta and Wye Configurations (continued)

When current is flowing in the same direction, towards phase "A," phase "B" or phase
"C," the combination of these currents equals the current in the line at any point in
time. In the delta connection in Figure 2.3-5, when the current is flowing toward
phase "A," the combination of currents equals the current in phase "A" at any point in
time. However, the relationship between the windings in any three-phase system is the
square root of three (1.73). Therefore, the total line current is the value of the current
in one winding times the square root of three. For this example, the winding current of
1 amp is multiplied by 1.73, so the total line current is 1.73 amps.

In the wye-connected secondary side of the transformer in Figure 2.3-5, current flows
through two windings. Line current is the same as the current through one winding,
because there is only one path for the current to follow. For this example, line current
is 1 amp.

In any three-phase system, delta and wye configurations affect line-to-line voltage and
line current. A wye configuration generally provides an increase in voltage, and a delta
configuration generally provides an increase in current.
H I GH V O L T A GE A C ' P OW E R
2.3 Delta and Wye Configurations (continued)

2.3.4 Delta and Wye Distribution Systems

Distribution systems are often named after the configuration of the transformers that serve
them. For this reason, systems are commonly referred to as being either delta systems or
Wye systems. Figure 2.3-6 is a simplified illustration of a typical delta system. It consists
of a substation transformer; breakers; feeders; and two branch lines. One branch line has a
delta-wye step-down distribution transformer, and the other branch has a wye-delta step-
down distribution transformer.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.3 Delta and Wye Configurations (continued)

The configuration of the step-down distribution transformers in a distribution system

does not have to be the same as the the configuration of the substation transformer.
Distribution transformers are generally connected to a distribution system in delta-delta,
delta-wye, wye-delta, or wye-wye configurations.

Figure 2.3-7 indicates how the configuration of the secondary side of the distribution
transformers shown in Figure 2.3-6 affects voltage and current in the distribution
system. In this example, line-to-line voltage on the primary side is about 69,000 volts
for each system, and load current is 100 amps. As the figure shows, the configuration of
the secondary winding affects the voltage and current in the system. Wye-connected
systems have a higher voltage than delta-connected systems, but delta-connected
systems have a higher current than wye-connected systems. For this reason, delta
systems are often used for large industrial loads that consist mostly of three-phase
loads. These systems are typically ungrounded. Wye systems are often used for light
commercial loads and residential loads. They are typically grounded. The ground, or
neutral, as it is often called, is connected to the center of the wye.

Delta systems were developed and put into use before wye systems. Factors such as
load, efficiency, and cost must be considered before a system is selected or before an
existing system is converted to another configuration.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.3 Delta and Wye Configurations (continued)

Questions

2.3-1. On the transformer configuration illustrated below, the primary is connected in

(a)__________ and the secondary is connected in (b) __________
(wye, delta) (wye, delta)

2.3-2. True or False. Measuring line-to-line voltage across any two leads
("A," "B," or "C") on a wye-configured transformer results in a
vector sum measurement across the two windings.

2.3-3. Delta systems are often used for (a) __________ loads and are
typically (b) ___________________.
(grounded, ungrounded)

2.3-4. Wye systems are often used for (a) ____________________ loads and are
typically (grounded, ungrounded)
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER (continued)
2.4 Voltage Regulator Applications

Voltage regulators are used in many distribution systems to maintain line voltage
at a specified level. For example, when customers report a drop in voltage,
linemen are usually sent out to take voltage readings, which are analyzed to
determine the extent of the voltage drop. In certain cases, voltage regulators may
be installed to adjust line voltage.

2.4.1 Function of a Voltage Regulator

Excessive voltage drop in a power system is caused by a load demand beyond the
design limits of the system. Voltage regulators are designed to automatically
maintain voltage at its proper level under most load conditions.

A voltage regulator is basically an auto- transformer. An auto- transformer is a

transformer that has only one winding. This single winding acts as both the
primary winding and the secondary winding. An auto-transformer steps up or
steps down voltage.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER

2.4 Voltage Regulator Applications (continued)

Simplified diagrams of two variations of an auto-transformer are shown in Figure 2.4-1.

As indicated, part of the winding is the primary, or source, portion, and part is the
secondary, or load, portion.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.4 Voltage Regulator Applications (continued)

Like an auto-transformer, a voltage regulator has one winding. A voltage regulator is able to vary the
amount of voltage induced in the load portion of the winding by automatically increasing or decreasing
the effects of the source voltage. Two basic types of voltage regulators are induction voltage
regulators and step voltage regulators. A typical induction voltage regulator is shown in Figure 2.4-2A,
and a typical step voltage regulator is shown in Figure 2.4-28.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.4 Voltage Regulator Applications (continued)

2.4.2 Induction Voltage Regulators

A typical induction voltage regulator is illustrated in Figure 2.4-3. The arrangement of the
source and load portions of the winding is similar to that of the auto-transformer illustrated in
Figure 2.4-1. The source portion of the winding in a voltage regulator is usually referred to as
the shunt winding, and the load portion of the winding is referred to as the series winding. The
shunt winding is connected in parallel with the source, and the series winding is connected in
series with the load.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.4 Voltage Regulator Applications (continued)

Figure 2.4-4 illustrates another way of looking at the same induction voltage regulator. This
diagram shows the shunt winding connected in parallel with the source and the series winding
connected in series with the load.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.4 Voltage Regulator Applications (continued)

The main difference between an induction voltage regulator and an auto transformer is that the
shunt winding of the voltage regulator rotates in relation to the series winding. Figure 2.4-5
shows the basic components in an induction voltage regulator: the rotating shunt winding and the
stationary series winding. The direction in which the shunt winding rotates generally depends on
whether voltage is being raised or lowered. The voltage induced in the series winding depends
on the relative position of the shunt winding. When the shunt winding is in the position shown in
Figure 2.4-5A, the induced voltage boosts the series output voltage. When the shunt winding is
in the position shown in Figure 2.4-5B, the series voltage is the same as the shunt voltage, so the
series output voltage is not affected. When the shunt winding is in the position shown in Figure
2.4-5C, the induced voltage bucks, or opposes, the series output voltage.
HGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.4 Voltage Regulator Applications (continued)
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.4 Voltage Regulator Applications (continued)

An induction voltage regulator like the one represented in Figure 2.4-5 can boost or buck
line voltage by as much as 10%, so it has an effective voltage range of 20%, as illustrated in
Figure 2.4-6. For example, a 2,400 volt regulator is capable of varying the source voltage
by 10%, or 240 volts, either up or down. Therefore, its effective range is 2 x 240, or 480
volts.

2.4.3 Step Voltage Regulators

Step voltage regulators are often used in feeder systems. A step voltage regulator works like
an auto-transformer with taps. A simplified illustration of a step voltage regulator is shown
in Figure 2.4-7.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.4 Voltage Regulator Applications (continued)

The step voltage regulator illustrated in Figure 2.4-7, has a reversal switch, which reverses the polarity of
the auto-tap connections to the line so that the line voltage can be either raised or lowered from a
predetermined level. The auto-taps provide additional turns to the series windings.

When the reversal switch is set in position "A," the source voltage is boosted by the voltage induced in the
series windings. The amount of voltage induced depends upon the position of the auto-tap. When the tap is
in position "1" as illustrated in Figure 2.4-8, all the series windings are being induced with voltage that aids
the shunt winding, increasing the output of the regulator.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.4 Voltage Regulator Applications (continued)

When the tap is in position "5," as illustrated in Figure 2.4-9, the voltage induced
in the series winding is the same as the voltage in the shunt winding, and the
output of the regulator is not affected.

When the reversal switch is set in position "B" the source voltage is opposed, or
bucked, by the voltage induced in the series windings. Again, the amount of voltage
induced depends upon the position of the auto-tap. When the tap is in position "1" as
illustrated in Figure 2.4-10, the voltage induced in the series winding is the same as
the voltage in the shunt winding, and the output is not affected.
 HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.4 Voltage Regulator Applications (continued)

When the tap is in position "5;' as illustrated in Figure 2.4-11, all the series windings are
being induced with voltage that opposes the shunt winding, decreasing the output of the
regulator.

The basic difference between induction regulators and step voltage regulators is the method
by which they adjust voltage. Step voltage regulators change voltage in steps, or increments,
over a defined range, while induction voltage regulators provide variable control within a
defined range. Step voltage regulators are more commonly used, because they cost less, have
fewer moving parts, and are physically smaller per KVA than induction voltage regulators.
Also, step voltage regulators are designed to operate at almost any voltage, while induction
voltage regulators are limited in voltage.

2.4.4 Voltage Regulators in a Feeder System

Voltage regulators are often used to maintain line voltage at a predetermined level in a feeder
system. The following example is a typical situation in which voltage regulators might be
used to correct voltage deficiencies in a feeder system.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.4 Voltage Regulator Applications (continued)

For purposes of the example, it is assumed that several customers have complained of low
voltage that has resulted in equipment problems. It is further assumed that the problem is not
caused by transformer overload or some other secondary problem. In response to the
customer complaints, the power company has linemen attach voltage recorders at several
locations along the distribution system to check secondary voltages over a 24-hour period.
Maximeters are also installed on the primary to determine load changes in the area.

At the end of the 24-hour period, the charts from the voltage recorders can be analyzed to
determine what corrective action is needed. The data from the voltage recorder charts may be
plotted on a voltage profile graph like the one shown in Figure 2.4-12. The graph shows both
the normal, or desired, voltage (line "A") and the actual voltage readings from the voltage
recorders (line "B"). Line "B" is called the profile line; it shows that voltage at one point in
the feeder is only 113 volts. In this example, it should be at least 116 volts. The data from the
voltage recorder and the maximeters suggests that additional voltage regulators be installed to
correct the problem.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.4 Voltage Regulator Applications (continued)

The location for the new voltage regulator can be determined by following the profile line to the
point where customer voltage is at about 116 volts. Installing a voltage regulator at this point
would boost voltage back up to approximately 120 volts. A new profile line can now be drawn
in parallel with the original line, starting at the new point, to show how the additional voltage
regulator would affect voltage. Figure 2.4-13 shows this new profile line (line "C") added to the
original graph. The new profile line indicates that customer voltage that was 113 volts will now
be about 117 volts.

In a three-phase feeder, a voltage regulator would be added to each of the three phases. In a
single-phase tap, only one voltage regulator would be needed. After the additional voltage
regulators are installed, voltage recorder readings should confirm that the problem has been
solved.

Voltage regulators are often used to compensate for voltage drops that occur as a result of
increased demand on feeder lines. For example, when line voltage is low, voltage regulators can
be added to compensate for the additional load. Increased demand tends to cause voltage to
decrease. Voltage regulators cannot solve all voltage problems, but they are used in the power
industry to correct some voltage deficiencies.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.4 Voltage Regulator Applications (continued)

Questions

2.4-1. True or False. Voltage regulators help to maintain line voltage within a
specified range.

2.4-2. A voltage regulator is similar to an ____________________.

2.4-3. The shunt windings inside an induction voltage regulator

____________________ in relation to the series windings.

2.4-4. The reversal switch on a step voltage regulator is used to reverse the
____________________.of the auto-tap connections.

2.4-5. The position of the auto-tap in a step voltage regulator determines

the amount of voltage that is induced in the _______________ windings.
(shunt, series)

2.4-6. True or False. Voltage regulators are often used to compensate for increased
customer demand on feeder lines.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER (continued)
2.5 Capacitor Applications

Capacitors, like voltage regulators, are used to compensate for losses in a

distribution system. Capacitors improve the power factor in a distribution system by
compensating for the inductive load created by customer demand and by the power
system itself.

Basically, a capacitor is a device that adds capacitance to a circuit. It does this by

storing and releasing electrical energy.

2.5.1 Capacitor Connections

Capacitors can be connected into a power system in series or in parallel. Capacitors

that are connected in series with the source improve voltage and are called series
capacitors. When connected in series with distribution transformers and secondaries,
they reduce flicker, which is caused by variations in voltage caused by changes in
inductive loads.

Capacitors connected in parallel with the source are called shunt capacitors. They
improve line voltage and line current by opposing the inductive reactance induced
in the power system by various inductive loads. This section concentrates on shunt
capacitors, because they are more commonly used on power systems.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.5 Capacitor Applications (continued)

2.5.2 Shunt Capacitor Operation

Figure 2.5-1 is a simple one-line illustration of a typical shunt capacitor installation that is
connected to a feeder.

Capacitors are generally located as close to the load as possible, because the capacitor only
affects the current between the capacitor and the source. It has no effect on the current
between the capacitor and the load.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.5 Capacitor Applications (continued)

The capacitive current produced by a capacitor is 1800 out of phase with the inductive current
produced by the inductive load on the circuit. This effect cancels out part of the inductive current.
Figure 2.5-2 is a simple vector diagram that illustrates the effect a capacitor has on a circuit. Line
"IR" represents the resistive current, that is, the current due to the resistive load in a simple AC

circuit. Line "IXL" represents the inductive current, that is, the current due to the inductive load in

a simple AC circuit. Line "IXC" represents the capacitive current, that is, the current due to the

capacitive load in a simple AC circuit. The dashed line, "IT" represents the total current, that is,
the total current due to the vector sum of resistive load and inductive load.
 HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.5 Capacitor Applications (continued)

Because the capacitive current is 1800 out of phase with the inductive current, it cancels out some
of the inductive current. The difference between the inductive current and the capacitive current
is called the net reactive current. Net reactive current is represented by line "IX" in Figure 2.5-3.

The addition of the capacitors changes the total current in the circuit. The dashed line, "IT"
represents the total current due to the vector sum of resistive load, inductive load, and capacitive
load.

By reducing net reactive current, capacitors improve power factor in a distribution system all the
way back to the source. The amount of current present in a distribution system changes:
sometimes it is very high, and sometimes it is low. For example, when a customer turns on an air
conditioner, a power tool, a heat pump, or a fan, inductive current is added to the distribution
system. For this reason, more capacitance is required in a distribution system during peak load
periods.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.5 Capacitor Applications (continued)

2.5.3 Capacitors in a Distribution System

Systems are designed for current to lag voltage to some degree, because of the large
inductive loads that are generally present. If the inductive load is too large, then
current lags voltage to a greater degree, which is indicated by a low power factor.
To compensate for this, capacitors are generally connected into a distribution
system when the demand for power is high. If too much capacitance is added to the
distribution system when demand is low, current may lead voltage. This situation
can cause some electrical devices to become unstable in their operation. One way to
connect capacitors to a distribution system is through an oil switch (Figure 2.5-4)
that automatically puts the capacitors on-line when inductive current is high and
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.5 Capacitor Applications (continued)

Figure 2.5-5 illustrates where switches are typically located in a three-phase

distribution system. The three-phase shunt capacitor represented in Figure 2.5-5 is
connected to a wye primary. A switch is connected between each line and
capacitor so that capacitance can be added to individual phases.

Capacitor bank switches are often controlled by both a timer and a thermostat. The
timer is set to close the switch to bring the capacitor bank on-line during periods
of high customer demand. Typically, this is between about 7:30 a.m. and 11:00
p.m. The switch is also closed when the thermostat, which is a heat sensing
device, senses an increase in air temperature around the capacitor bank. For
example, on hot days, when a lot of air conditioners are running, the thermostat
senses the increase in air temperature and closes the switch to bring the capacitor
bank on-line. When the air temperature falls below a specific value, the thermostat
opens a path to the switch to disconnect the capacitor bank.

Some thermostats are also set to bring capacitor banks on-line during winter,
when heat pumps add inductive load to the distribution system. In this situation,
the thermostat puts the capacitor banks on-line when outside air temperature falls
below a certain value, and takes the capacitor banks off-line when outside air
temperature increases above that value.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
2.5 Capacitor Applications (continued)

Other switches may be controlled by the amount of current flowing through one of the
phases, and still others may be remotely controlled. Most capacitor banks can also be
operated manually, if necessary. Regardless of how they work, all of the controlling devices
do basically the same thing: they control the power to the switch to connect the capacitor
bank to or disconnect the capacitor bank from the distribution system.

Questions

2.5-1. Shunt capacitors are connected in ____________________ in a distribution

system. (parallel, series)

2.5-2. True or False. Shunt capacitors are generally located as far away from the
load as possible.

2.5-3. The difference between the inductive current and the capacitive current in a
circuit is called the ____________________.

2.5-4. Capacitors improve power factor in a distribution system by compensating

for the ____________________ load created by customer demand and by the
power system itself.

2.5-5. True or False. If too much capacitance is added to a distribution system,

current will lag voltage.

2.5-6. List two devices that are used to control capacitor bank switches.
a. ____________________
b. ____________________
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER (continued)
Answers

2.1-1. False

2.1-2. Rate

2.1-3. a

2.1-4. True

2.1-5. c

2.1-6. True

2.2-1. 120

2.2-2. (These answers may be in either order.)

a. Line-to-ground
b. Line-to-line

2.2-3. False

2.2-4. 1.73, or the square root of three

2.2-5. P = E x I x pf x 3

2.2-6. More

2.3-1. a. Delta
b. Delta

2.3-2. True
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
Answers (continued)

2.3-2. a. Industrial
b. Ungrounded

2.3-3. a. Commercial
b. Grounded

2.4-1. True

2.4-2. Auto-transformer

2.4-3. Rotate

2.4-4. Polarity

2.4-5. Series

2.4-6. True

2.5-1. Parallel

2.5-2. False

2.5-3. Net reactive current

2.5-4. Inductive

2.5-5. False

2.5-5. (These answers may be in either order.)

a. Thermostat
b. Timer
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER (continued)

GLOSSARY

This glossary contains terms pertinent to the study of high voltage AC Power. The meanings of
the terms are given in that context.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
Glossary (continued)

Apparent power - Power that is produced by a generator; it

includes the power that does work and the
power that does no useful work.

Auto-tap - An automatic switch inside a step voltage

regulator that adds or subtracts the number of
series windings.

Auto-transformer - A transformer that has only one winding,

which serves as the primary and secondary
winding.

Capacitance - The property of AC circuits that opposes

changes in voltage.

Capacitive reactance - The opposition to changes in voltage caused by

capacitance.

Capacitor - A device that has the ability to store a charge and

is used to improve power factor.

Delta configuration - A type of electrical connection used in three-phase

distribution systems; the end of each winding
is connected to the beginning of the next winding.

Impedance - The total opposition to current flow in an AC

circuit.

Inductance - The property of an electrical circuit that gives it the

ability to induce a voltage in the circuit that is opposite
to the applied voltage.

Induction voltage regulator - A device that can vary line voltage within a
defined range.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
Glossary (continued)

Inductive reactance - The opposition to changes in current flow

caused by inductance.

Power factor - A measurement that describes the

efficiency of an AC circuit; the relationship
between true power and apparent power:
pf = PT .

PA

Power loss - Electrical power that is produced but not used

productively.

Reactive power - Power in a circuit that does no work.

Resistance - A physical property that is the opposition to

current flow within a conductor.

Reversal switch - A device that reverses the polarity of the auto-

tap connections in a step voltage regulator.

Shunt capacitor - A capacitor that is connected in parallel with

the source in a distribution system.

Sine wave - A waveform that represents the amplitude of

AC current or voltage.

Step voltage regulator - A device that can vary line voltage in specific
increments within a defined range.

Transformer - A device composed of two or more windings,

linked by magnetic lines of force; used to
transfer power from one circuit to another.
HIGH VOLTAGE AC POWER
Glossary (continued)

True power - Power that does work in an AC power system.

Vector - A line that shows magnitude and direction.

Vector sum - The sum of two vectors.

Volt-ampere - A unit of measurement for apparent power.

Volt-ampere reactive - A unit of measurement for reactive power.

Voltage profile line - A line that represents the average voltage along a
power line.

Voltage regulator - A device that maintains line voltage at a specified level.

Watt - A unit of measurement for true power.

Wye configuration - A type of electrical connection used in three-phase

distribution systems; the beginnings of all the
windings are connected together, and the ends are
connected to individual phases.