CHAPTER-7

Cultural Diversity and communication

Graffiti artist-
• Uses his medium to do more than just vandalize public buildings; it’s his
way of objecting to oppressive social and economic control by waging a
cultural war and declaring independence from society’s restrictions.

Thinking like an anthropologist

Cultural anthropology (Omohundro, 2008) describes and seeks to

explain similarities and differences in thought and behavior among
groups of humans.
Culture is the learned and shared understandings among a group of
people about how to behave and what has meaning in our lives. Culture
forms the pattern of our lives and guides how we think, feel, act, and
communicate (W. Lee, 2000; Omohundro, 2008). The influence of culture
is so pervasive that it’s hard to realize how powerfully it shapes our
perceptions.

A subculture is a particular mix of shared understandings held by a

group within the larger society. One subculture might be distinguished
from the next by language, dress, religion, work habits, food
preferences, or child-rearing practices, to mention just a few
parameters. Fishers in the Maritimes, home-scholars, and vegetarians
are three such subcultures.
Ebonics and dialect
A word has been coined to identify the language of the Black community
as a unique speech community. What was termed “Black English” is now
called “Ebonics,” a blend of the words “ebony,” meaning black, and
“phonics,” the sounds of speech. In British Columbia, consideration has
been given to Aboriginal students whose experience of the English
language may put them at a disadvantage.
An ethnic group functions within society to maintain a subculture based on
religion, language, common origin, or ancestral traditions. Typically, an
ethnic group makes an effort to distinguish itself from others in the wider
society. In North America, First Nations people are renewing their
commitment to learning and preserving their languages and traditions.
Franco phones in Canada are highly conscious of their group identity and
devote energy to fostering awareness of their distinctiveness. Little
Mosque on the Prairie and Monsoon House are two media programs that
bring greater visibility to the growing diversity in Canada.

Adolescence as an example of a Subculture

Early adolescence is characterized by a growing ability to use abstract

thought; social and emotional growth, including awareness of others;
increasing development of a sense of fairness, social consciousness,
purpose, and personal identity; peer bonding; separation from family;
sudden, intense emotions; and a strong sense of recognition of no longer
being a child but still not yet fully an adult.

Diversity in Canada
In July 2014, Canada’s population was estimated at over 35.5 million.
Canada has a cultural, ethnic, and linguistic makeup found nowhere
else on earth. The 2006 census indicates that more than 200 different
ethnic origins are currently reported and that the Canadian population
is increasingly diverse (Multiculturalism Act). According to projections,
this trend will continue. These changes present new challenges, for the
needs of Canadians will change with the population.

• Collectively, teenagers are the “replacement generation” that is, they will
eventually inherit the world the previous generation created.
• They begin to try out more adult roles and can now put “brain power”
behind the prior decade of learning communication skills, physical mastery,
and emotional awareness. They reject the old ways and seek to re-create
reality as a clearer reflection of themselves.
• The “hippie” generation of the 1960s changed the Western world through
its defiant protests against war, sexism, and racism; its back-to-earth
mentality; and its experiments with mind-altering substances and sexual
“freedom.” Feminism, diversity recognition, awareness of the world as a
“global village,” the “green revolution,”
Adolescent characteristics
• Dr. Jay Giedd is a neuroscientist at the National Institute of
Mental Health in the United States and one of the pioneers
in brain research using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
• There is “exuberant growth” of brain cells during the pre-
puberty years and then a “pruning” time during adolescence,
Dr. Giedd and others hypothesize that stimulating brain
activity during these years is critical.

Characteristics of a Culture
The Seven Characteristics of Culture

1. Cultures are integrated.

2. Cultures are products of history.
3. Cultures can be changed, and they can cause change.
4. Cultures are strengthened by values.
5. Cultures are powerful influences on behavior.
6. Cultures are largely composed of and transmitted by symbols.
7. Cultures are unique in their complexity and variability.
• Values and the acceptance of what is important and unimportant,
good and bad, right and wrong, can determine how a society functions.
A belief in similar standards or morals can produce behavior that adds
to the cohesiveness of the whole. Jewish cultures, for example, centre
around the synagogue and religious rites of passage.

• Symbols and symbolic objects and actions carry agreed-upon meanings

within a culture. A cross typically denotes Christian beliefs; a pentacle,
Wiccan traditions. In Canada, the Maple Leaf symbolizes the country.
Winking can indicate levity, flirtatiousness, or a shared inside joke,
depending on the context.

• A culture is also affected by climate and geography. Coastal fishers,

desert nomads, equatorial tribes, and polar communities have their own
historical traditions, styles of apparel, and diet and nutrition.

• Globalization has brought about awareness that societies can no longer

be viewed as discreet, unrelated units. The air we breathe circulates
throughout the planet, and the foods we eat cross continents and oceans;
in the same way, we cannot escape our connections with one another.
Communicating in a multicultural
world
Communicating effectively with diverse people begins
with learning metacommunication, which is how
people in different cultures view communication and
actually practice it.

Nonverbal Communication reflects and expresses

Cultural Values

This implies that most nonverbal behavior is not instinctive but rather
learned through processes of socialization.

North Americans’ fierce territoriality.

 The German culture also emphasizes private space. Germans often
build walls and hedges to insulate themselves from their neighbors.

Brazilians stand close together in shops, buses, and elevators, and

when they bump into one another, they don’t apologize or draw back
(Andersen et al., 2002; Wiemann & Harrison, 1983)

Middle Eastern countries, men often walk with their arms around other
men, but in North America, touching between male friends is
uncommon except during sports events.
Norms for touching also reflect cultural values.
North Americans, who are relatively reserved, were observed
engaging in an average of only two touches per hour.
The emotionally restrained British averaged zero touches per hour.
Parisians, long known for their emotional expressiveness, touched 110
times per hour.
Puerto Ricans touched the most, averaging 180 touches per hour
(Knapp, 1972).
Iraqis don’t want or expect the amount of personal space that most
Americans do; in fact, they consider it offensive if one steps or leans
away from a male.

Patterns of eye contact also reflect cultural values.

In North America, frankness and assertion are valued, so eye contact
is considered appropriate and a demonstration of personal honesty.
Eye contact is also valued among most Hispanics.
In many Asian and northern European countries, direct eye contact
is considered abrasive and disrespectful (Axtell, 1990a, 1990b; E.
Hall, 1968; Samovar & Porter, 1994).
In Brazil, on the other hand, eye contact often is so intense that many
North Americans consider it rude.
Cultural training also influences which emotions we express and how we
express them (Matsumoto et al., 2002). Traditional Italian and Jewish
communities are more emotionally expressive than people raised in
English or German communities. In Japan and many other Asian cultures, it
is generally considered rude to express negative feelings toward others. In
North America, the display of negative feelings is less constrained.

Approaches to the study of cultures

Aggregate approach
Edward Hall and Geert Hofstede are two researchers who take a values-
based approach to culture, drawing from an anthropological tradition
that emphasizes both the identification and the classification of core
cultural values. These authors have developed typologies of various
countries’ cultural values that include dimensions such as power
orientation, individualism, and time orientation.
Hall (1983), an anthropologist, found that the cross-cultural experience
of time varied enormously.
 In North America, for many of us, our social and business lives, and
even our sex lives, tend to be schedule-dominated. We speak of time
being spent, wasted, or lost.
By contrast, Mediterranean and Latin American cultures model time as
an involvement in several things at once. Time in these cultures
stresses the involvement of people and the completion of transactions
schedules seem to be in a constant state of flux.
Western culture emphasizes technology and its offspring, speed. Most
Westerners expect things to happen almost instantly.

Cultural views of time

Monochronic (one time) cultures, such as Canada, view time as a
valuable commodity to be saved, scheduled, and carefully guarded. In
monochronic cultures, punctuality and efficiency are valued. Thus,
people are expected to be on time for appointments and classes, and
they are expected to complete work quickly (E. Hall, 1976; Honoré, 2004,
2005
Polychronic (many times) cultures take a more holistic, systemic view of
time. People in these cultures assume that many things are happening
simultaneously. Thus, punctuality is seldom emphasized. Meetings may
start late, with people joining in after discussions begin.
Tangential discussions and social conversations are part of normal
meetings in polychronic cultures. People may even cancel meetings
without the dramatic reasons expected for cancelling in monochronic
cultures.
Hall (1976) also described societies as having “high” or “low” context
distinctions, which created broad cultural differences.
High context refers to societies or groups with close connections over
a long period of time, and where relationships are more important
than tasks. Great emphasis is placed on the holistic understanding of
meanings. Words themselves have little meaning until placed in the
context of particular people, relationships, and histories.
Low context refers to societies and groups where people tend to have
many connections but of shorter duration or for some specific reason.
In these societies, cultural behaviors and beliefs tend to be more
explicit, rule-oriented, and task- centered.
Dutch academic Geert Hofstede developed markers that reflect the
national cultural characteristics or dimensions of a given country. These
cultural differences describe averages or tendencies and not
characteristics of individuals. His “5D” model includes five major
dimensions: power distance; individualism; masculinity; uncertainty
avoidance; and time orientation (Hofstede, 1991, 2001).

Power distance

Power distance (high versus low) describes how a society handles

inequalities and is defined by Hofstede as “the extent to which the less
powerful members of institutions and organizations within a country
expect and accept that power is distributed unequally.”

This dimension represents inequality as it is defined from below, not

from above. It suggests that a society’s level of inequality is endorsed
by the followers as much as by the leaders.
In low–power-distance nations such as the United Kingdom,
inequalities among people tend to be minimized, decentralization of
activities is more likely, subordinates expect to be consulted by
superiors, and privileges and status symbols are less evident.
In high–power- distance nations, inequalities among people are
considered desirable. There is greater reliance by the less powerful
on those who hold power, centralization of power is more normal,
and subordinates are likely to be separated from their bosses by
wide differentials in salary, privileges, and status symbols.

Individualism
Individualism versus its opposite, collectivism is the degree to which
individuals are integrated into groups.
On the individualistic side, we find societies in which the ties between
individuals are loose; people are expected to look after themselves and
immediate family. Individualistic goals and achievements are
encouraged, and individual rights are seen as most important. Rules
promote independence, choices, and freedom of speech. Canada, the
United States, Australia, and Ireland are countries with generally
individualistic quality.
 Collectivist and individualistic child-care
practices

The difference between collectivist and individualistic

cultures is evident in child care practices. Palma
Ramalho, Foubert, and Burri (2015) cite the Charter of
Fundamental Rights of the European Union (CFREU).
Article 33(2) states that “to reconcile family and
professional life, everyone shall have the right to
protection from dismissal for a reason connected with
maternity, and the right to paid maternity leave and to
parental leave following the birth or adoption of a child.”

In Canada, since December 31, 2000, maternity and parental leave

with Employment Insurance benefits has been extended to 50 weeks
(15 weeks maternity and 35 weeks parental).
Masculinity refers to the distribution of roles between the genders and
pertains to societies in which social gender roles are clearly distinct.
Femininity pertains to societies in which social gender roles overlap
and tend to be more androgynous. A culture that is more conducive to
dominance, assertiveness, and acquisition of things indicates
masculinity, while a culture that is more conducive to people, feelings,
and the quality of life indicates femininity.
According to Hofstede (2001), in a feminine society such as France, the
emphasis is on relationships, compromise, life skills, and social
performance. The past 10 to 15 years have seen a shift toward
“feminization” in Western democracies.
The characteristic of uncertainty avoidance relates to society’s tolerance
for uncertainty and ambiguity; it indicates the extent to which a culture
programs its members to feel either comfortable or uncomfortable in
unstructured situations.
Uncertainty acceptance cultures, by contrast, are more tolerant of
different opinions and try to have as few rules as possible. These
cultures are more indifferent and contemplative and are not as
disposed to express emotions.
Term orientation
The fifth dimension, long-term orientation versus short-term
orientation, describes the degree to which a society does or
does not value long-term commitments and respect for
traditions. Long-term traditions and commitments tend to
hamper institutional change and reflect values oriented toward
the future, such as thrift, industriousness, and perseverance, as
opposed to short-term values, such as fulfilling social
obligations, living for the day, and protecting one’s “face”

Individualistic approach

The individualistic approach posits that each person has a unique,

psychological “fingerprint” that makes her or him different.
This psychological fingerprint is the complex set of memories,
thoughts, ways of thinking, and feelings that each of us has about
the world around us (Earley & Mosakowski, 2004).

Cultural Intelligence Quotient

Cultural intelligence (CQ) improves cultural understanding at an

individual level (Earley & Mosakowski, 2004). Earley and Mosakowski
proposed that if we understand why people from different
backgrounds act as they do, we can improve how we relate to one
another.
This Earley and Mosakowski emphasize one aspect of intelligence as a
person’s capacity to solve problems and adapt to changing situations in
cultural contexts.
Cultural intelligence is related to emotional intelligence but picks up
where emotional intelligence leaves off. A person with high emotional
intelligence grasps what makes us human and at the same time what
makes each of us different.
 cultural intelligence has the following three
dimensions:
Head: Rote learning about the beliefs, customs, and
taboos of foreign cultures will never
completely prepare a person for every situation that
arises.
Body: You cannot simply say you understand another
culture; your actions and demeanour must prove that
you are ready to some extent to enter their world.
Heart: Adapting to a new culture involves
do that
only if they believe in their own efficacy.

Guidelines for improving cultural intelligence

The acknowledgment of this reality, however, demands a deliberate response. In

recent years, at the constitutional, legal, and policy levels, that response has
been emphatic and dramatic.
At the practical level we recognize that diversity is not merely ethically
correct— it is the law, and furthermore, it leads to personal enrichment,
besides making good policy and business sense.

Diversity has become a dynamic concept that is redefining the

Canadian social landscape.
Cultural Intelligence profiles

Earley and Mosakowski (2004) describe six profiles that may be present in an
individual in varying combinations or degrees during different
times or contexts. The profiles differ with regard to the strength or source of the
kinds of intelligence being used and the ways in which they can be applied.

Cultivating Your Cultural Intelligence

A person high in cognitive CQ has extensive rote learning about the beliefs,
customs, and taboos of other cultures.
To improve your cognitive CQ, you might work on developing your analogical and
inductive reasoning by reading several cross-cultural case studies and distilling
common principles.
A person high in motivational CQ is confident of being able to
understand people from unfamiliar cultures. If your motivational CQ is low,
develop cultural mindfulness by performing simple awareness exercises.
Our physical CQ refers to actions and demeanour that show how ready we are to
enter the world of another culture. Someone having difficulty with physical CQ
might enroll in acting classes to develop more flexible responses. Any activities
that help us enrich our ability to adapt our interactions in culturally sensitive
ways will promote physical CQ.
Cultural Competence in Organizations

The National Center for Cultural Competence (NCCC) embraces a

conceptual framework and model for achieving cultural competence in
organizations adapted from the definitions developed by Cross and
colleagues (1989).

Cultural Competence in health Care

Cultural competence
Cultural competence is a developmental
process that evolves over an extended period.
Individuals and organizations will demonstrate
various levels of competence in any given
situation.

Cultural Competence Conceptual Framework

Cultural Competence in Business

More and more companies are becoming international and not all
workers who are transferred to another country or who do business with
international colleagues find it easy to understand and adapt to the
nonverbal norms of cultures that are new to them (Axtell, 1990a, 1990b).
Putting ethnocentricity into perspective

The term ethnocentrism comes from two Greek words: ethnos, meaning
“nation,” and kentron, meaning “centre.” One views reality as if one’s own group is
the centre of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to
it.
Ethnocentrism is a normal way for people to fill individual and collective needs for
identity and predictability. It can arise in relation to any of the cultural/sub cultural
parameters we noted earlier: age, language, social class, gender, sexual
preference, disability, race, religion, or ethnicity.
Low levels of ethnocentrism can be very important for in-group
development; high levels can damage intercultural communication (Neuliep
& McCroskey, 1997).
Religious fundamentalism is one parameter that deserves special
exploration in regard to ethnocentrism. Gordon Allport (1954)
questioned the role of religion in the creation of prejudice when he wrote:
“The role of religion is paradoxical. It makes prejudice and it unmakes
prejudice. While the creeds of the great religions are
universalistic, all stressing brotherhood, the practice of these creeds is frequently
divisive and brutal. The solemnity of religious ideals is offset by the horrors of
persecution in the name of these same ideals”
They found that the variables that were key when examining the influence of
religion on prejudice were “the covariation of authoritarian
submission, authoritarian aggression, and conventionalism”
Hunsberger (1996) also examined how religious fundamentalism
functioned across various cultural contexts. Members of the Hindu,
Islamic, Judaic, and Christian religious faiths were sought out for
participation in his study. The commonalities across the four religious traditions
yielded surprisingly similar patterns.
Intercultural communication apprehension is “the fear or anxiety associated with
either real or anticipated communication with people
from different groups, especially cultural and/or ethnic groups” (Neuliep &
McCroskey, 1997). In essence, people with high levels of intercultural
communication apprehension will innately have communication
problems stemming from their fear or anxiety. This will cause havoc with an
individual’s physical CQ and emotional/ motivational CQ.
Wrench and McCroskey (2003) found that homophobia and
ethnocentrism are highly related constructs.

Homonegativity is the degree to which an individual has prejudicial biases

against gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgendered/transsexual people. They
found that ethnocentrism and homonegativity were
strongly and positively related constructs and that both were moderately negatively
related to responsiveness.
McCroskey, Richmond, and McCroskey (2006) define tolerance for
disagreement as “the degree to which we can deal with disagreement from
another person before we take it personally”
The word “zealous” has the same root as the word “jealousy.” We jealously
protect our world view and put down all others who do not share it.
Unfortunately, at the far end of the spectrum, zealous personal defensiveness is
manifest; fear, hatred, and violence are rampant.

Beliefs, Feelings, and Values as They

Relate to Cross-Cultural Perceptions