Lesson Plan: Industrial System and Engineering (BE Mechanical)

Industrial System and Engineering (BE Mechanical)
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LESSON PLAN
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After successful completion of this course the student will be able to:
1. Solve forecasting problem by applying different techniques & understand planning, scheduling
and sequencing problems for shop floor.
2. Apply work study techniques and understands its importance for better productivity.
3. Demonstrate wage and incentive plans & acquire knowledge of industrial legislation.
4. Create know-how on solving open-ended problems, utilizing creativity, problem formulation
& generation of need statements.
5. Apply various realistic aspects such as safety, reliability, manufacturability, operations, aesthetics,
ethics and sustainability.
UNIT-II
CLASS-1
LECTURE CONTENTS:
Work System Design: Taylor’s scientific management, Gilbreths’s contributions
Frederick W. Taylor Contribution:-
Frederick W. Taylor is generally considered to be the founder of modern method and time study,
although time studies were conducted in Europe many years before Taylor 's time. In 1760, Jean
Rodolphe Perronet, a French engineer, made extensive time studies on the manufacture of No. 6
common pins.
Taylor began his time study work in 1881 while associated with the Midvale Steel Company in
U.S.A... He evolved a system based on the “task”, and proposed that the work of each employee
be planned out by the management in advance. Each job was to have a standard time, deter
mined by time studies made by experts. In the timing process, Taylor advocated dividing the
work into small divisions of effort known as "elements." Experts were to time these individually
and use their collective values to determine the allowed time for the task.
Early presentations of Taylor’s findings were received with little enthusiasm, because many
interpreted his findings to be somewhat new piece-rate system rather than a technique for
analyzing work and improving methods. Both management and employees were sceptical of
Not for Sale Mr. A.V RAJPUT For private circulation only
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piece rates, because many standards were earlier typically based on the supervisor's guess or
even sometimes inflated by bosses to protect the performance of their departments.
In June 1903, at the American Society of Mechanical Engineers meeting, Taylor presented his
famous paper, "Shop Management," which included the elements of scientific management: time
study, standardization of all tools and tasks, use of a planning department, use of slide rule and
similar timesaving implements, instruction cards for workers, bonuses for successful per-
formance, differential rates, mnemonic systems for classifying products, routing systems, and
modern cost systems. Taylor’s techniques were well received by many factory managers, and by
1917, of 113 plants that had installed "scientific management," 59 considered their installations
completely successful, 20 partly successful, and 34 failures.
In 1898, while at the Bethlehem Steel Company, Taylor carried out the pig-iron experiment that
became the most celebrated demonstrations of his principles. He established the correct method,
along with financial incentives, and workers carrying 92-pound pigs of iron up a ramp onto a
freight car were able to increase their productivity from an average of 12.5 tons per day to
between 47 and 48 tons per day. This work was performed with an increase in the daily rate of
$1.15 to $1.85. Taylor claimed that workmen per formed at the higher rate "without bringing on
a strike among the men, without any quarrel with the men and were happier and better
contented."
Another of Taylor’s Bethlehem Steel studies that became famous was on shovel in work.
Workers who shovelled at Bethlehem would use the same shovel for any job—lifting heavy iron
ore to lifting light rice coal. Taylor designed shovels to fit the different loads: short- handled
shovels for iron ore, long-handled scoops for light rice coal, and showed their usefulness in
improving productivity.
Not as well known as his engineering contributions is the fact that in 1881, he was a U.S. tennis
doubles champion. Here he used an odd-looking racket he had designed with a spoon curved
handle.
Gilbreths’s contributions:-
Frank and Lilian Gilbreth are considered as the founders of the modern motion study technique,
which may be defined as the study of the body motions used in performing an oper ation, for the
purpose of improving the operation by eliminating unnecessary motions, simplifying necessary
motions, and then establishing the most favorable motion sequence for maximum efficiency.
Frank Gilbreth originally implemented ideas into the bricklayer's trade in which he was
employed. After introducing meth ods improvements through motion study, including an
adjustable scaffold that he had invented, as well as operator training, he was able to increase the
average num ber of bricks laid from 120 to 350 per worker per hour.
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More than anyone else, the Gilbreths were responsible for industry's recognition of the
importance of a detailed study of body motions to arrive at the best method of performing an
operation that would increase production, reduce operator fatigue. They developed the technique
of filming motions for study, known as micromotion study.
The Gilbreths also developed the cycle graphic and chrono cycle graphic analysis techniques for
studying the motion paths made by an operator. The cycle- graphic method involves fixing small
electric light bulb to the finger or part of the body being studied and then photographing the
motion while the operator is performing the operation. The resulting picture gives a permanent
record of the motion pattern employed and can be analyzed for possible improvement. The
chrono- cycle graph is similar to the cycle graph, but its electric circuit is interrupted regularly,
causing the light to flash. Instead of showing solid lines of the motion patterns, the resulting
photograph shows short dashes of light spaced in proportion to the speed of the body motion
being photographed. Consequently, with the chrono cycle graph it is possible to determine
direction and compute velocity, acceleration, and deceleration, in addition to study of body
motions.
CLASS-2
LECTURE CONTENTS:
Method study, Micro-motion study
Method Study
Method study, aims to achieve the better method of doing work, and for this reason method study
is sometimes called Work Method Design.
Definition: Method study can be defined as the procedure for systematic recording, analysis and
critical examination of existing or proposed method of doing work for the purpose of
development and application of easier and more effective method.
Method Study Procedure
The following general steps describe the procedure for making a method study.
1. Select the job – on which method study is to be applied.

2. Obtain information and record.
3. Examine the information critically.
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4. Develop the most practical, economical and effective method by considering real
limitations of the situation.
5. Install the new method as standard practice.
6. Maintain the standard practice by regular follow up.
Let us consider these steps in some detail.
Selection of Job for Method Study
Practically, any activity or a job is a potential project for improvement but as the work study
engineer is to sell his ideas and maintain his existence in the organisation, he should always
attempt to select those jobs for improvement which are unpopular among employees or are
considered “dirty” by them.
By improving such jobs, he would earn goodwill from the employees as well as the management,
and can expect their full cooperation for other studies in the future.
Considerations may be given to the following factors while selecting a job for method study
• Economic Factors
• Technical Factors
• Human Factors
Economic Factors:
If the economic importance of a job is small, it is not wise to start or continue a long study.
Priorities should be given to those types of job which offer greater potential for cost reduction.
Such jobs are easily identifiable, as they have
• High labour content, i.e. they consume more time
• Excessive machine or man idleness
• Higher frequency of occurrence, i.e. they have large demand
• Bottlenecks in production line
• Higher proportion of accidents
• Movement of material or men over long distance
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• High scrap and reprocessing costs
• High payment of overtime bills.
Technical Factors: The method study engineer must have the necessary technical knowledge
about the job to be studied. Only surface knowledge about the subject may not lead to the right
solution to the real problem. To illustrate, consider that a particular machine tool in proving
bottleneck. The output from this machine is not reaching the assembly line in the required
quantity. Through a preliminary study, it is found that it is running at lower speed and feed than
that recommended for the pair of work and tool material used. Just increase in speed or feed may
not be the solution of this problem. It may be possible that the machine itself is not rigid enough
to operate at higher speeds or take a deeper cut. Just increase in speed may increase the output
but the quality of job may be seriously affected. Technical expertise in machine tools and metal
cutting process would be essential to solve problem of this kind.
Human Factors: Emotional reaction of the workers to the method study and changes in method
are important considerations. If the study of a particular job is suspected to cause unrest or ill
feeling, it should not be undertaken, however useful it may be from the economic point of view.
It is always better to take up first those jobs which are considered ‘dirty', unsafe, unpleasant,
boring, or highly fatiguing, and improvements brought about as a result of method study. This
would possibly ensure cooperative from the workers for the other jobs as well.
After it is recognized that a problem exists, the first step is to properly formulate it. From the
general statements like “Costs are too high“, “Increase the production”, “Reduce shop floor
accidents”, it is necessary to determine just what the real problem is. After it is ascertained that
the problem merits consideration, it is decided whether this is the proper time to solve it, and
how much time can be spent in solving it. The problem may then be defined broadly giving
minimum constraints at this stage, as it will permit the use of imagination and creativity in
finding a solution. It may sometimes be desirable to divide the complete problem into a couple of
small problems and solve them.
Motion Study
Motion study is a technique of analyzing the body motions employed in doing a task in order to
eliminate or reduce ineffective movements and facilitates effective movements. By using motion
study and the principles of motion economy the task is redesigned to be more effective and less
time consuming.
The Gilbreths pioneered the study of manual motions and developed basic laws of motion
economy that are still relevant today. They were also responsible for the development of detailed
motion picture studies, termed as Micro Motion Studies, which are extremely useful for
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analyzing highly repetitive manual operations. With the improvement in technology, of course,
video camera has replaced the traditional motion picture film camera.
In a broad sense, motion study encompasses micro motion study and both have the same
objective: job simplification so that it is less fatiguing and less time consuming. While motion
study involves a simple visual analysis, micro motion study uses more expensive equipment. The
two types of studies may be compared to viewing a task under a magnifying glass versus viewing
the same under a microscope. The added detail revealed by the microscope may be needed in
exceptional cases when even a minute improvement in motions matters, i.e. on extremely short
repetitive tasks.
Taking the cine films @ 16 to 20 frames per second with motion picture camera, developing the
film and analyzing the film for micro motion study had always been considered a costly affair.
To save on the cost of developing the film and the cost of film itself, a technique was used in
which camera took only 5 to 10 frames per minute. This saved on the time of film analysis too.
In applications where infrequent shots of camera could provide almost same information, the
technique proved fruitful and acquired the name Memo Motion Study.
Traditionally, the data from micro motion studies are recorded on a Simultaneous Motion (simo)
Chart while that from motion studies are recorded on a Right Hand - Left Hand Process Chart.
Therbligs
On analysing the result of several motion studies conducted, Gilbreths concluded that any work
can be done by using a combination of some or all of 17 basic motions, called Therbligs
(Gilbreth spelled backward). These can be classified as effective therbligs and ineffective
therbligs. Effective therbligs take the work progress towards completion. Attempts can be made
to shorten them but they cannot be eliminated. Ineffective therbligs do not advance the progress
of work and therefore attempts should be made to eliminate them by applying the Principles of
Motion Economy gives different therbligs along with their symbols and descriptions.
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SIMO Chart
It is a graphic representation of an activity and shows the sequence of the therbligs or group of
therbligs performed by body members of operator. It is drawn on a common time scale. In other
words, it is a two-hand process chart drawn in terms of therbligs and with a time scale.
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Making the Simo Chart. A video film or a motion picture film is shot of the operation as it is
carried out by the operator. The film is analyzed frame by frame. For the left hand, the sequence
of therbligs (or group of therbligs) with their time values are recorded on the column
corresponding to the left hand. The symbols are added against the length of column representing
the duration of the group of therbligs. The procedure is repeated for the right hand and other
body members (if any) involved in carrying out the operation.
It is generally not possible to time individual therbligs. A certain number of therbligs may be
grouped into an element large enough to be measured.
Uses of Simo Chart
From the analysis shown about the motions of the two hands (or other body members) involved
in doing an operation, inefficient motion pattern can be identified and any violation of the
principle of motion economy can be easily noticed. The chart, therefore, helps in improving the
method of doing an operation so that balanced two-handed actions with coordinated foot and eye
motions can be achieved and ineffective motions can be either reduced or eliminated. The result
is a smoother, more rhythmic work cycle that keeps both delays and operator fatigue to the
minimum extent.
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CLASS-3
LECTURE CONTENTS:
Work measurement – Time study, Work sampling
Work Measurement
Work measurement refers to the estimation of standard time for an activity, that is the time
allowed for completing one piece of job by using the prescribed method. Standard time can be
defined as the time taken by an average experienced worker for the job with provisions for
delays beyond the worker's control.
There are several techniques used for estimation of standard time in industry. These include time
study, work sampling, standard data, and predetermined motion time system.
Applications:
Standard times for operations are useful for several applications in industry, like
• Estimating material, machinery, and equipment requirements.
• Estimating production cost per unit as an input to
• Preparation of budgets
• Determination of selling price
• Make or buy decision
• Estimating manpower requirements.
• Estimating delivery schedules and planning the work
• Balancing the work of operators working in a group.
• Estimating performance of workers and using that as the basis for incentive payment to those
direct and in director labour who show greater productivity.
We will study some of the popular techniques of work measurement.
TIME STUDY. It is the most versatile and the most widely used technique of work
measurement.
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Definition:
Time study is a technique to estimate the time to be allowed to a qualified and well-trained
worker working at a normal pace to complete a specified task by using specified method.
This technique is based on measuring the work content of the task when performed by the
prescribed method, with the allowance for fatigue and for personal and unavoidable delays.
Time Study Procedure:
The procedure for time study can best be described step-wise, which are self-explanatory.
Step 1: Define objective of the study. This involves statement of the use of the result, the
precision desired, and the required level of confidence in the estimated time standards.
Step 2: Verify that the standard method and conditions exist for the operation and the operator is
properly trained. If need is felt for method study or further training of operator, the same may be
completed before starting the time study.
Step 3: Select operator to be studied if there are more than one operator doing the same task.
Step 4: Record information about the standard method, operation, operator, product, equipment,
and conditions on the Time Study observation sheet.
Step 5: Divide the operation into reasonably small elements, and record them on the Time Study
observation sheet.
Step 6: Time the operator for each of the elements. Record the data for a few number of cycles
on the Time Study observation sheet. Use the data to estimate the total number of observations to
be taken.
Step 7: Collect and record the data of required number of cycles by timing and rating the
operator.
Step 8: Calculate the representative watch time for each element of operation. Multiply it by the
rating factor to get normal time.
Normal time = Observed time x Rating factor
Calculate the normal time for the whole operation by adding the normal time of its various
elements.
Step 9: Determine allowances for fatigue and various delays.
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Step 10: Determine standard time of operation.
Standard time = Normal time + allowances
Selection of job for Time Study
Time Study is conducted on a job
• Which has not been previously time-studied.
• For which method change has taken place recently.
• For which worker(s) might have complained as having tight time standards.
Selection of Worker for Time Study
The selection of worker for time study is a very important factor in the success of the study. If
there is only one person on the job, as usually is, then there is no choice. But if more than one
person is performing the same operation, the time study man may time one or more of the
workers. If all the workers are using the same method for doing the job and there is different in
the rate of their doing it, it is necessary to select a suitable worker for the study. The worker on
which time study should be conducted must
• Have necessary skill for the job.

• Have sufficient experience with the given method on the job (that is, he should have
crossed the learning stage).
• Be an ‘average' worker as regards the speed of working.
• Be temperamentally suited to the study (those who can't work in normal fashion when
watched, are not suitable for the study).
• Have knowledge about the purpose of study.
Time Study Equipment
The following equipment is needed for time study work.
• Timing device
• Time study observation sheet
• Time study observation board
• Other equipment
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Timing Device. The stop watch is the most widely used timing device used for time study,
although electronic timer is also sometimes used. The two perform the same function with the
difference that electronic timer can measure time to the second or third decimal of a second and
can keep a large volume of time data in memory.
Time Study Observation Sheet. It is a printed form with spaces provided for noting down the
necessary information about the operation being studied, like name of operation, drawing
number, and name of the worker, name of time study person, and the date and place of study.
Spaces are provided in the form for writing detailed description of the process (element-wise),
recorded time or stop-watch readings for each element of the process, performance rating(s) of
operator, and computation.
Time Study Board. It is a light -weight board used for holding the observation sheet and
stopwatch in position. It is of size slightly larger than that of observation sheet used. Generally,
the watch is mounted at the centre of the top edge upper right-hand corner of the board. The
board has a clamp to hold the observation sheet. During the time study, the board is held against
the body and the upper left arm by the time study person in such a way that the watch could be
operated by the thumb/index finger of the left hand. Watch readings are recorded on the
observation sheet by the right hand.
Other Equipment. This includes pencil, eraser, device like tachometer for checking the speed,
etc.
Dividing Work into Short Elements
Timing a complete task as one element is generally not satisfactory. For the purpose of time
study the task is normally broken
into short elements and each element is timed separately, for the following
reasons:
(1) To separate unproductive part of task from the productive one.
(2) To improve accuracy in rating. The worker may not work at the
same speed throughout the cycle. He may perform some elements faster and
some slower. Breaking of task into short elements permits rating of each
element separately which is more realistic than just rating once for the complete
cycle.
(3) To identify elements causing high fatigue. Breaking of task into short elements permits
giving appropriate rest allowances to different elements.
(4) To have detailed job specifications. This helps in detection of any variation in the method
that may occur after the time standard is established.
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(5) To prepare standard data for repeatedly occurring elements.
The following guidelines should be kept in mind while dividing a task into elements.
(1) The elements should be of as short duration as can be accurately timed. (This in turn, depends
on the skill of the time study man, method of timing and recording, and many other factors.
Generally, with the stop watch, elements of duration less than 0.03 to 0.05 minute are difficult to
time accurately. The elements should not normally be longer than 0.40 min.).
(2) Manually performed elements should be separated from machine paced elements. (Time for
machine paced elements can be determined by calculation). Machine elements are not rated
against a normal. This rule also helps in recognition of delays.
(3) Constant elements should be separated from variable elements.

(Constant elements are those elements which are independent of the size, weight,
length, or shape of the work piece. For example, the time to pick screw driver
from its place and bring it to the head of a screw is constant, whereas the time
to tighten or loosen the screw is a variable, depending upon the length and
size of the screw).
(4) The beginnings and endings of elements should be easily distinguishable. These should
preferably be associated with some kind of sound.
(5) Irregular elements, those not repeated in every cycle, should be separated from regular
elements. For example, if the jig is cleaned off after every ten parts produced, "cleaning" is an
irregular element, and its time should be spread over ten cycles.
(6) Unnecessary motions and activities should be separated from those considered essential.
(7) Foreign or accidental elements should be listed separately. Such elements are generally of
non-repetitive type.
Number of cycles to be timed.
The following general principles govern the number of cycles to get the representative average
cycle time.
(1) Greater the accuracy desired in the results, larger should be the number of cycles observed.
(2) The study should be continued through sufficient number of cycles so that occasional
elements such as setting-up machine, cleaning of machine or sharpening of tool are observed for
a good number of times.
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(3) Where more than one operator is doing the same job, short study (say 10 to 15 cycles) should
be conducted on each of the several operators than one long study on a single operator.
It is important that enough cycles are timed so that reliable average is obtained.
Following techniques are used to determine the number of cycles to be timed.
(i) Use of Tables: On the consideration of the cost of obtaining the data and the desired accuracy
in results, most companies have prepared their own tables for the use of time study people, which
indicate the number of cycles to be timed as a function of the cycle time and the frequency of
occurrence of the job in the company. For example, one Company uses for such purposes.
(ii) Statistical methods: On the basis of the requirements of the particular situation
involved, accuracy and confidence level are decided (An accuracy of a confidence level of 95%
is considered reasonable in most cases). A preliminary study is conducted in which some
(say N) cycles are timed. Standard deviation o of these (N) observations is calculated as
CLASS-4
LECTURE CONTENTS:
PMTS; ergonomics;
Predetermined Motion Time System
A predetermined motion time system (PMTS) may be defined as a procedure that analyzes any
manual activity in terms of basic or fundamental motions required to perform it. Each of these
motions is assigned a previously established standard time value and then the timings for the
individual motions are synthesized to obtain the total time needed for performing the activity.
The main use of PMTS lies in the estimation of time for the performance of a task before it is
performed. The procedure is particularly useful to those organizations which do not want
troublesome performance rating to be used with each study.
Applications of PMTS are for
(i) Determination of job time standards.
(ii) Comparing the times for alternative proposed methods so as to find the economics of the
proposals prior to production run.
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(iii) Estimation of manpower, equipment and space requirements prior to setting up the facilities
and start of production.
(iv) Developing tentative work layouts for assembly lines prior to their working in order to
minimize the amount of subsequent re-arrangement and re-balancing.
(v) Checking direct time study results.
A number of PMTS are in use, some of which have been developed by individual organizations
for their own use, while other organizations have developed and publicized for universal
applications.
Some commonly used PMT systems are:
• Work factor (1938)

• Method Time Measurement (1948)
• Basic Motion Time (1951)
• Dimension Motion Time (1954)
Important considerations which may be made while selecting a PMT system for application to
particular industry are:
1. Cost of Installation. This consists mainly of the cost of getting expert for applying the
system under consideration.
2. Application Cost. This is determined by the length of time needed to set a time standard
by the system under consideration.
3. Performance Level of the System. The level of performance embodied in the system
under consideration may be different from the normal performance established in the
industry where the system is to be used. However, this problem can be overcome by
'calibration' which is nothing but multiplying the times given in the PMT Tables by some
constant or by the application of an adjustment allowance.
4. Consistency of Standards. Consistency of standards set by a system on various jobs is a
vital factor to consider. For this, the system can be applied on a trial basis on a set of
operations in the plant and examined for consistency in the so obtained operation times.
5. Nature of Operation. Best results are likely to be achieved if the type and nature of
operations in the plant are similar to the nature and type of operations studied during the
development of the system under consideration.
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Advantages and limitations of using PMT systems
Advantages
Compared to other work measurement techniques, all PMT systems claim the following
advantages:
1. There is no need to actually observe the operation running. This means the estimation of
time to perform a job can be made from the drawings even before the job is actually
done. This feature is very useful in production planning, forecasting, equipment selection,
etc.
2. The use of PMT eliminates the need of troublesome and controversial performance
rating. For the sole reason of avoiding performance rating, some companies have been
using this technique.
3. The use of PMT forces the analyst to study the method in detail. This sometimes helps to
further improve the method.
4. A bye-product of the use of PM times is a detailed record of the method of operation.
This is advantageous for installation of method, for instructional purposes, and for
detection and verification of any change that might occur in the method in future.
5. The PM times can be usefully employed to establish elemental standard data for setting
time standards on jobs done on various types of machines and equipment.
6. The basic times determined with the use of PMT system are relatively more consistent.
Limitations
There are two main limitations to the use of PMT system for establishing time standards. These
are: (i) its application to only manual contents of job and (ii) the need of trained personnel.
Although PMT system eliminates the use of rating, quite a bit of judgment is still necessarily
exercised at different stages.
Physiological Methods for Work Measurement
The physiological cost to an operator of performing any given physical work results from the
activities of the muscles of arms, legs, back and other parts of the body and is, therefore, affected
by the number and type of muscles involved in either moving the body member(s) or controlling
antagonist contraction.
The activities of body muscles cause changes in oxygen consumption, heart rate, body
temperature, lactic acid concentration in blood, 17-ketosteroid excretion in urine, pulmonary
ventilation, and other factors. Studies have shown that some of these factors are only slightly
affected by muscular activity. The important factors which have linear correlation with the
physiological cost of work performed by an individual are oxygen consumption, heart rate, and
pulmonary ventilation.
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Increase in Heart Rate
When a person is at rest, his heart rate is at a fairly steady level (generally at about 70
beats/minute). Then when he starts doing some muscular work his pulse rate increases rapidly to
about 110 beats/minute and remains near to this level during the working period. When work
ends, the recovery begins and his heart rate drops off and finally returns to the original resting
level.
The increase in heart rate during work has been used as an index of the physiological cost of the
job. Some physiologists have also proposed the use of 'the rate of recovery immediately after
work stops' for the evaluation of physiological cost of certain types of work. It is to be noted that
the total physiological cost of a task consists of the energy expenditure during work and the
energy expenditure above the resting rate during the recovery period. It is generally agreed that
the optimum limit of industrial performance is reached when the average pulse rate during the
work lies 30 beats/minute above the resting pulse rate.
Measurement With every heart beat, a small electric potential is generated. This signal can be
picked up by placing silver electrodes on either side of the chest, and transmitted to a receiver,
where these can be counted directly or recorded continuously on a ruled graph paper or
integrated over time to measure in units of beats per minute with the help of a cardio tachometer.
Another method of getting the heart beat signals is through the use of an ear lobe unit, which is a
photo duo diode with a light source. This unit is mounted on an ear of the subject in such a way
that the duo diode is on one side and the light source is on the other side of the ear. As the
capacity of the ear lobe changes due to the blood surges through the ear with beats of the heart,
impulses are created which are transmitted and recorded.
A simple method to get the heart beat rate is through the use of a stethoscope and stop watch.
Studies have shown that the data obtained in this manner are fairly reliable and also easy to
obtain.
Oxygen Consumption. It may be defined as the volume of oxygen which a person extracts from
the air he inhales. Increase in the rate of oxygen consumption from the resting level to the
working level is also taken as a measure of the physiological cost of the work done. The oxygen
consumption per unit time is usually measured indirectly. To do this the volume of air exhaled
by a person in a certain time is collected and the oxygen content of this air is determined. For
this, use is made of a portable respire meter. It is a lightweight gas meter which is worn on the
back of the subject. A mask is fitted on the face of the subject, and the exhaled air is collected in
the respire meter through a rubber tube. The respire meter directly shows the volume of exhaled
air in litres.
A sample of the exhaled air is taken out at random intervals into a rubber bladder and an analysis
is carried out of its content. Comparison is then made between the oxygen content of the two
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samples-drawn from the exhaled air and another from the room air. For each litre of oxygen
consumed by the human body, there is an average energy turnover of 4.8 Kcal.
Physiological measurements can be used to compare the energy cost to the operator on a job for
which no time standard exists, with the energy cost to the same operator on a similar operation
for which a satisfactory time standard already exists. By this comparison it is possible to
establish the time standard on the job for which it does not exist already. For the sake of
illustration, consider a job of lifting boxes weighing 2-3 kgs. from the floor level and placing it
on a conveyor belt. For this job a time standard of 6 seconds (10 boxes/min.) is being used.
When energy measurements were taken, it was found that to Mr. Singh, the operator on the job,
the energy cost of this job was 300 W. Let us suppose now that there is another jab, similar to the
first one, with the difference that here, the weight of the boxes is 5-6 kgs. If it is required to
establish the time standard for this job, we need Mr. Singh to do this job of handling 5-6 kg.
boxes at various speeds. From the energy cost data collected on him, we can select the speed of
working that gives an energy cost of 300 W. So, by keeping the energy cost of the two jobs
same, the time standard (the number of 5-6 kg. boxes/min.) can be determined.
CLASS-5
LECTURE CONTENTS:
Job evaluation, merit rating,
Job evaluation is an orderly and systematic technique of determining the relative worth of the
various jobs within the organisation so as to develop an equitable wage and salary structure.
Objectives of Job Evaluation:

(i) To determine equitable wage differentials between different jobs in the organisation.
(ii) To eliminate wage inequities.
(iii) To develop a consistent wage policy.
(iv) To establish a rational basis for incentive and bonus schemes.
(v) To provide a frame work for periodic review and revision of wage rates.
(vi) To provide a basis for wage negotiation with Trade Unions.
(vi) To provide a basis for wage negotiation with Trade Unions.
(vii) To minimize wage discrimination on the basis of age, sex, caste, region etc.
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(viii) To enable management to gauge and control the pay roll costs.
Principles of Job Evaluation:

The principles of job evaluation are as follows:
(a) Job evaluation must attempt to rate the job and not the man.
(b) Elements of job selected for the job must be common to most of the jobs, few in number and
simple to identify and easy to understand.
(c) Clean definition of elements and consistency of degrees of such elements, improve accuracy
of job evaluation.
(d) Secure willing co-operation and support of supervisors on job evaluation. This is obtained by
selling this idea among them and obtains this participation in the process.
(e) Secure co-operation and participation from employees.
Methods of the Evaluation:

There are different methods of job evaluation.
They can be classified as:

1. Non-Quantitative Methods:
(a) Ranking or job comparison
(b) Grading or Job Classification
2. Quantitative Method
(a) Point rating
(b) Factor comparison.
1. Non-Quantitative Methods:
Here a job is compared as a whole with other jobs.
(a) Ranking or Job Comparison:

Ranking of job is normally done by an “expert committee” formed by the organisation. This
committee consists of representatives from management and employees.
This committee may also consist of a certain number of experts either as permanent members or
co-opted members on as required basis. Here the jobs are ranked as a “whole job” instead of
breaking them into parts.
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Three techniques can be used for ranking jobs.
Merit Rating:-
Merit rating is the systematic evaluation of the performance of an employee on the job in terms
of the requirements of the job. It may also be ascertained by comparing the superiority of an
employee over others. Quantity and quality of work, attendance, obedience, skill, desire to learn,
loyalty, family background, personality, etc. are some of the factors that are taken into
consideration in assessing merit.
Merit rating or performance appraisal is, “a systematic, periodic end so far as humanely possible,
an impartial rating of an employee’s excellence in matters pertaining to his present job and to his
potentialities for a better job”. This type of appraisal is systematic in that it evaluates all
performances in the same manner, utilizing the same approach, so that the ratings obtained of
separate personnel are comparable.
Merit rating grades employees on their jobs on the basis of an objective and provides for the
comparative review of their individual performances.
Objectives and Importance

The Objective of Merit Rating:
1. For each individual worker, assessment of the standard of performance,
2. Providing a basis for rewarding for high merit without detailed work study being applied,
3. Providing a basis for determining the remuneration of the indirect workers, the performances
of whom cannot be easily determined.
4. Choosing suitable worker for a job; job evaluation mentions the job requirement of the
worker, while merit-rating mentions what qualities the worker should possesses. The selection
will be perfect if these two fits in each other,
5. Providing basis for increment, promotion etc.,

6. Finding out the abilities and defects of each worker, and
7. Improving labour relations and reducing labour turnover
Importance of Merit Rating:
(i) It helps in ascertaining the suitability of the worker for a particular job.The objective is
achieved by linking merit rating with job evaluation.
(ii) It helps in ascertaining an employee’s merit for grant of promotion, increment etc.,
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(iii) It helps in introducing a system for incentive, wage payment and simplification of the wage
structure,
(iv) It analyses the worker’s defects and brings out the strong points and special abilities.
CLASS-6
LECTURE CONTENTS:
Incentive schemes
An incentive scheme is a plan to motivate individual or group performance. An incentive scheme
basically involves monetary rewards, i.e., incentive pay but also includes non-monetary rewards.
Incentives are variable rewards granted according to level of achievement of specific results.
Incentives are payment for performance or payment by results.
In other words, an incentive plan must include in its purview the characteristics of time-based
and output-based systems of wage payment.
There are a large number of such plans that are applied in industrial concerns these days.
However, before these different types of plans are discussed, the various requirements of a sound
wage-incentive system must be noted.
Characteristics and Features of Sound Incentive Plans

The following characteristics of sound incentive plans are:
1. The incentive plan consists of both monetary and nonmonetary schemes.
2. The incentive plan must be guaranteed minimum wages to all employees of the organisation.
3. The incentive plan should be properly communicated to all the employees of the organisation
to encourage both individual and group performance.
4. The employee is expected to perform his task within the standard time because the standard
time is fixed and set after making job analysis or time and motion study.
Characteristics of Incentive Plan:

(a) Incentives have direct linking to performance.
(b) Incentives induce the employee to move from existing level of performance to optimum
achievable performance.
(c) It helps to improve level of technology and thus increases productivity.
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(d) Incentives are measurable in monetary terms.

(e) The timing, accuracy and frequency of incentives or the very basis of successful incentive
plans.
(f) Incentive plan encourages attendance and reduces absenteeism.
(g) Incentives vary from person to person, depending on their performance.
(h) Minimum wages are guaranteed to all workers.
Features of Incentive Plan:
An incentive plan has the following important features:
(a) An incentive plan may consist of both ‘monetary’ and ‘non-monetary’ elements. Mixed
elements can provide the diversity needed to match the needs of individual employees.
(b) The timing, accuracy and frequency of incentives are the very basis of a successful incentive
plan.
(c) The plan requires that it should be properly communicated to the employees to encourage
individual performance, provide feedback and encourage redirection.
(d) The plan requires that it should be properly communicated to the employees to encourage
individual performance, provide feedback and encourage redirection.
(e) Pay and allowances – Salary is the top most priority/incentive for work to any employee in
the organisation. If performance of an employee improves each year, then he may be rewarded
by hike in salary and other allowances.
(f) Retirement benefits – Every employee wants to secure his life after retirement, therefore
benefits like provident fund, pension, gratuity act as a motivator for employees.
(g) Prequisities – Employees feel motivated if the company provides benefits like housing, car
allowance, etc.
Non-Financial Incentives:
Incentives which are not measurable in terms of money are known as non-financial incentives.
They tend to satisfy the psychological, social and emotional needs of a person.
Some important non-financial incentives are:

(a) Status – It means formal position in the organisation. Higher status motivates people by
satisfying their ego needs as lot of perquisites and authority is attached to it.
(b) Career advancement opportunity – Most of the employees want to grow in their careers. If
sound promotion policy and training programmes are implemented, it will help them to achieve
promotions.
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(c) Organisational climate – If management takes special efforts in maintaining better

organisational climate in the form of better working conditions, consideration towards employees
etc. as compared to other companies, it acts as motivating factor to an employee for better
performance.
(d) Job security – In India, due to widespread unemployment, job security is very important. It
ensures regular income in future and relieves them of worry. However, it may make them
complacent.
(e) Job enrichment/Assignment of challenging jobs – It involves basic changes in the content
and level of responsibility of a job so as to provide greater challenge to the employees. It gives
the employees more authority and more control over the job situation. He is allowed to plan,
decide, schedule, inspect and evaluate his own work activities. Job enrichment results in high
internal work motivation, high ‘growth and development’ satisfaction, high work effectiveness
and high commitment.
(f) Employee participation – Managers should encourage participation of subordinates in
organisational matters even if the ultimate decision-making power vests with the managers.
The objectives of an incentive plan include one or more of the following:

1. To increase productivity of individual as well as group.
2. To reduce per unit cost and increase employee’s earnings.
3. To improve industrial and interpersonal relations,
4. To increase profit of the organisation.
CLASS-7
LECTURE CONTENTS:
Wage administration.
Wage and salary administration is defined as the process by which wage and salary levels and
structures are determined in organisational settings.
Wages are payments for labour services rendered frequency, expressed in hourly rates, while a
salary is a similar payment, expressed in weekly, monthly or annual rates.
Thus the term ‘wage’ frequently connote payments in terms of the number of hours worked and
may fluctuate depending upon hours actually worked.
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The determination of wage rates, administration of wage policies and satisfying the employees as
regards to wages and rates of wages is an important aspect of wage administration.
As a matter of fact wage and salary administration is one of the major responsibilities of modern
manpower management.
Wage and Salary Administration – Nature and Characteristics
Nature:
1. The basic purpose of wage and salary administration is to establish and maintain an equitable
wage and salary structure.
2. It is concerned with the establishment and maintenance of equitable labour cost structure i.e.
an optimal balancing of conflicting personnel interest so that the satisfaction of the employees
and employers is maximised and conflicts are minimised.
3. The wage and salary administration is concerned with the financial aspects of needs,
motivation and rewards.
4. Employees should be paid according to the requirements of their jobs i.e. highly skilled jobs
are paid more compensation than low skilled jobs.
5. To minimise the chances of favouritism.
6. To establish the job sequences and lines of production wherever they are applicable.
7. To increase the employees’ morale and motivation because a wage programme can be
explained and is based upon facts.
Characteristics:
1. Payment of wages is in accordance with the terms of contract between the employer and the
worker.
2. The wages are determined on the basis of time-rate system or piece-rate system.
3. Wages change with the change in the time spent by the labourer.
4. Wages create utility.
5. Wages may be paid weekly, fortnightly, hourly, or on monthly basis.
6. Wage is the reward paid to the workers for the services rendered by them.
7. Wages can be paid in cash or in kind.
8. All kinds of allowances are included in wages.
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Wage and Salary Administration – 10 Important Objectives

Its objectives are:
i. To compare or draft company HR policy
ii. Find out the income level and return ratio of similar industries
iii. To understand wage differentiations
iv. To examine the competitiveness of entry level employees
v. To establish hiring rates favourable to the community
vi. To keep abreast wage and salary rates with production cost
vii. To minimize labour turnover due to pay disparity
viii. To increase employee’s satisfaction and morale
ix. To learn about the trend of perks and benefits in the market
x. To resolve existing labour problems concerning compensation.
Wage and Salary Administration – 9 Important Aspects

Good wage administration should have the following aspects:
i) Wage policies need to be properly made keeping in mind –
a) Interest of management,
b) Interest of employees,
c) Interest of consumers, and
d) Community
ii) Difference of pay based on job requirements like skill, effort, responsibility, working
conditions and mental and physical requirements.
iii) Wages and salaries should have parity existing in the labour market.
iv) The payment plan should distinguish between jobs and employees.
v) Wage policies should have clarified, and it should be in written form so as to enable
uniformity and stability.
vi) Wage decisions need to be carried out only against organisation’s well formulated policies.
vii) Management should ensure that employees are fully aware of the existing wage policies.
viii) Proper evaluation of wage policies to be carried out as and when it is required and also to be
checked. They need to be adequately amended and updated at regular intervals.
ix) Performance rating and job description should be periodically checked and updated for ready
reference.
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It is a common experience, supported by Behavioural Science research that, while pay in itself is
not necessarily the strongest motivator, any unjustifiable inequity or an unacceptably low level of
reward causes great dissatisfaction. One of the most important functions of human resource
management is to provide equitable compensation to employees for their contributions.
The factors affecting the determination of equitable compensation are many, varied and complex,
and management has to arrive at some decision concerning the basic wage or salary.
Compensation means different things to different people; it depends on a person’s perspective.
From employee’s point of view, compensation may be considered as a return for their efforts or a
reward for satisfactory or outstanding work. It may indicate the value the employer attaches to
their skills and abilities – the return on their investment in education and training. In the case of
most of the employees, their pay matters a lot in determining their socio-economic well-being.

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Industrial System and Engineering (BE Mechanical)

Frederick W. Taylor Contribution:-

Method Study Procedure

1. Select the job – on which method study is to be applied.

Let us consider these steps in some detail.

Selection of Job for Method Study

• High labour content, i.e. they consume more time

• Excessive machine or man idleness

• Higher frequency of occurrence, i.e. they have large demand

• Bottlenecks in production line

• Higher proportion of accidents

• Movement of material or men over long distance

• High scrap and reprocessing costs

• High payment of overtime bills.

Uses of Simo Chart

• Estimating material, machinery, and equipment requirements.

• Estimating production cost per unit as an input to

• Estimating manpower requirements.

• Estimating delivery schedules and planning the work

• Balancing the work of operators working in a group.

We will study some of the popular techniques of work measurement.

Time Study Procedure:

Normal time = Observed time x Rating factor

Step 9: Determine allowances for fatigue and various delays.

Step 10: Determine standard time of operation.

Standard time = Normal time + allowances

Selection of job for Time Study

Time Study is conducted on a job

• Which has not been previously time-studied.

• For which method change has taken place recently.

Selection of Worker for Time Study

• Have necessary skill for the job.

Time Study Equipment

The following equipment is needed for time study work.

• Time study observation sheet

• Time study observation board

Dividing Work into Short Elements

(1) To separate unproductive part of task from the productive one.

(5) To prepare standard data for repeatedly occurring elements.

(3) Constant elements should be separated from variable elements.

Number of cycles to be timed.

Following techniques are used to determine the number of cycles to be timed.

Predetermined Motion Time System

Applications of PMTS are for

(i) Determination of job time standards.

(v) Checking direct time study results.

Some commonly used PMT systems are:

• Work factor (1938)

Advantages and limitations of using PMT systems

Physiological Methods for Work Measurement

Increase in Heart Rate

Objectives of Job Evaluation:

(ii) To eliminate wage inequities.

(iii) To develop a consistent wage policy.

(iv) To establish a rational basis for incentive and bonus schemes.

(vi) To provide a basis for wage negotiation with Trade Unions.

(vi) To provide a basis for wage negotiation with Trade Unions.