INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS

In practical usage, a Robot is a mechanical device which performs automated physical tasks,
either according to direct human supervision, a pre-defined program, or a set of general
guidelines using artificial intelligence techniques. Robots are typically used to do the tasks
that are too dirty, dangerous, difficult, repetitive or dull for humans. This usually takes the
form of industrial robots used in manufacturing lines. Other applications include toxic waste
cleanup, underwater and space exploration, mining, search and rescue, and mine finding.
Recently however, robots are finding their way into the consumer market with uses in
entertainment, vacuum cleaning, and lawn mowing. A robot may include a feedback-driven
connection between sense and action, not under direct human control, although it may have a
human override function. The action may take the form of electro-magnetic motors or
actuators (also called effectors) that move an arm, open and close grips, or propel the robot.
The step by step control and feedback is provided by a computer program run on either an
external or embedded computer or a microcontroller. By this definition, a robot may include
nearly all automated devices.

Ask a number of people to describe a robot and most of them will answer they look like a
human. Interestingly a robot that looks like a human is probably the most difficult robot to
make. It is usually a waste of time and not the most sensible thing to model a robot after a
human being. A robot needs to be above all functional and designed with qualities that suit
its primary tasks. It depends on the task at hand whether the robot is big, small, is able to
move or nailed to the ground. Each and every task means different qualities, form and
function; a robot needs to be designed with the task in mind

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MOBILE ROBOTS

Mobile robots are able to move, usually they perform task

such as search areas. A prime example is the Mars Explorer,
specifically designed to roam the mars surface. Mobile robots
are a great help to such collapsed building for survivors
Mobile robots are used for task where people cannot go.
Either because it is too dangerous of because people cannot
reach the area that needs to be searched.
Fig 1.Mars Explorer image

Mobile robots can be divided in two categories:

Rolling Robots: Rolling robots have wheels to move
around. These are the type of robots that can quickly and
easily search move around. However they are only useful in
flat areas, rocky terrains give them a hard time. Flat terrains
are their territory.
Walking Robots: Robots on legs are usually brought in
when the terrain is rocky and difficult to enter with wheels.
Robots have a hard time shifting balance and keep them from
tumbling. That’s why most robots with have at least 4 of
them, usually they have 6 legs or more. Even when they lift
one or more legs they still keep their balance. Development
of legged robots is often modeled after insects or crawfish.

STATIONARY ROBOTS
Robots are not only used to explore areas or imitate a human
being. Most robots perform repeating tasks without ever
moving an inch. Most robots are ‘working’ in industry
settings. Especially dull and repeating tasks are suitable for
robots. A robot never grows tired, it will perform its duty day
and night without ever complaining.

AUTONOMOUS

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 Autonomous robots are self supporting or in other words self
contained. In a way they rely on their own ‘brains’.
Autonomous robots run a program that give them the
opportunity to decide on the action to perform depending on
their surroundings. At times these robots even learn new
behavior. They start out with a short routine and adapt this
routine to be more successful at the task they perform. The
most successful routine will be repeated as such their
behavior is shaped. Autonomous robots can learn to walk or
avoid obstacles they find in their way. Think about a six
legged robot, at first the legs move ad random, after a little
while the robot adjust its program and performs a pattern
which enables it to move in a direction.

REMOTE-CONTROL ROBOTS
An autonomous robot is despite its autonomous not a very
clever or intelligent unit. The memory and brain capacity
is usually limited. An autonomous robot can be compared
to an insect in that respect. In case a robot needs to
perform more complicated yet undetermined tasks an
autonomous robot is not the right choice. Complicated
tasks are still best performed by human beings with real
brainpower. A person can guide a robot by remote
control. A person can perform difficult and usually
dangerous tasks without being at the spot where the tasks
are performed. To detonate a bomb it is safer to send the
Fig 6.Dante 2, a NASA robot.
robot to the danger area.

VIRTUAL ROBOTS Virtual robots don’t exist in real life. Virtual robots are just
programs, building blocks of software inside a computer. A virtual robot can simulate a real
robot or just perform a repeating task. A special kind of robot is a robot that searches the
world wide web. The internet has countless robots crawling from site to site. These
WebCrawler’s collect information on websites and send this information to the search
engines. Another popular virtual robot is the chatterbot. These robots simulate conversations

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with users of the internet. One of the first chatterbots was ELIZA. There are many varieties
of chatterbots now, including E.L.V.I.S.

BEAM ROBOTS
BEAM is short for Biology, Electronics, Aesthetics and
Mechanics. BEAM robots are made by hobbyists. BEAM
robots can be simple and very suitable for starters.

BIOLOGY

Robots are often modeled after nature. A lot of BEAM robots look remarkably like insects.
Insects are easy to build in mechanical form. Not just the mechanics are in inspiration also
the limited behavior can easily be programmed in a limited amount of memory and
processing power. Two basic ways of using effectors are to move the robot around
(locomotion) or to move other objects around (manipulation). This distinction divides
robotics into two mostly separate categories: mobile robotics (moving) and manipulator
robotics (grabbing).Joints connect parts of manipulators. A parallel robot is one whose arms
(primary axes) have three concurrent prismatic joints or both prismatic and rotary joints.
Degrees of freedom (DOF) means axes of movement. The human arm has seven Degrees of
Freedom. A "6 DOF" arm is highly flexible.Proprioceptive sensors sense the robot's actuators
(e.g., shaft encoders, joint angle sensors). Proprioception is one of the most important senses
of the human body.Alternately, robot has been used as the general term for a mechanical
man, or an automaton resembling an animal, either real or imaginary. It has come to be
applied to many machines which directly replace a human or animal in work or play. In this
way, a robot can be seen as a form of biomimicry. Lack of anthropomorphism is perhaps
what makes us reluctant to refer to the highly complex modern washer-dryer as a robot.
However, in modern understanding, the term implies a degree of autonomy that would
exclude many automatic machine tools from being called robots. It is the search for ever
more highly autonomous robots which is the major focus of robotics research and which
drives much work in artificial intelligence.

POWER SUPPLY
Types of Power Supply

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There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high voltage AC mains
electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronic circuits and other devices. A power
supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a particular
function.
For example a 5V regulated supply:
230V Transforme Regulator Regulated
Rectifier Smoothing
AC r 12V DC
Mains
Figure 3.1: Block Diagram of Regulated Power Supply System

Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:

• Transformer - steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.

• Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
• Smoothing - smoothens the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
• Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

Power supplies made from these blocks are described below with a circuit diagram and a
graph of their output:

• Transformer only
• Transformer + Rectifier
• Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing
• Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator

Transformer

Transformer Output: low voltage AC

The low voltage AC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and special AC motors. It is not
suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a rectifier and a smoothing capacitor.

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Transformer

Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of power.
Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains electricity is AC.
Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage. Most power
supplies use a step-down transformer reduces the dangerously high mains voltage (230V in
UK) to a safer low voltage. The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called
the secondary. There is no electrical connection between the two coils; instead they are
linked by an alternating magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The
two lines in the middle of the circuit symbol represent the core. Transformers waste very little
power so the power out is (almost) equal to the power in. Note that as voltage is stepped
down current is stepped up. The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turn
ratio, determines the ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of
turns on its primary (input) coil which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a
small number of turns on its secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage.

Transformer + Rectifier

Figure 3.4

The varying DC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and standard motors. It is not suitable
for electronic circuits unless they include a smoothing capacitor.

Rectifier

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There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to convert AC to DC. The
bridge rectifier is the most important and it produces full-wave varying DC. A full-wave
rectifier can also be made from just two diodes if a centre-tap transformer is used, but this
method is rarely used now that diodes are cheaper. A single diode can be used as a rectifier
but it only uses the positive (+) parts of the AC wave to produce half-wave varying DC.

ROBOT BATTERIES

fig.9

ABOUT
The robots are no longer limited to bulky low power non-rechargeable batteries, and today
there is a large assortment to suit your robots' demands. How are batteries rated? With any
battery you will see a voltage and a power rating. Battery voltages can be somewhat
complicated. When fully recharged, a battery will often be 15% above its voltage rating.
When fully discharged, about 15% below its rating. A fully charged battery will also
immediately drop below its rating when driving heavy loads, such as a DC motor. To
increase battery voltage, wire multiple of them in series. Batteries also cannot supply an
infinite current. So expect batteries of different types but equal voltages to have different
current outputs. To increase battery current output, wire multiple of them in parallel. This is
why batteries often come in assembled packs of smaller cells. So when using a battery, make
sure your circuit handles changes in battery voltage. For the power rating you will see
something like 1200mAh. mAh means milliamps per hour. So if it is 1200mAh, that means

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the battery can supply 1.2 amps for one hour or 2.4 amps for 30 minutes or 0.6 amps for two
hours.
Alkaline batteries are the most common, easiest to get, and
cheapest too. However they are useless, dont buy them. They have
low power capacities, are heavy, have trouble supplying large
amounts of current in short time periods, and get expensive to
constantly replace. The same goes for Zinc-carbon batteries,
which suck even more.
Fig.10

Introduction of Collision Avoidance System

What is a Collision Avoidance System?

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A Collision Avoidance System can be defined as a device that detects possible obstructions in the
way of a host vehicle (i.e. the vehicle that has the system installed in it), and helps in evading a
collision.

Why use a Collision avoidance System?

Many systems and technologies are now being implemented to alert the driver of a vehicle of a
potential hazard and assist him or her in taking action to avoid that hazard.
Although object detection and collision avoidance systems may still be regarded as being in their
infancy, their perceived value in enhancing safety and reducing accidents is high. Such systems
provide special benefits for older systems: as drivers grow in age, they expect to continue to be
able to drive safely, even though their reaction times are increasing and senses like sight and
hearing are diminishing.
Two categories of systems are currently available or under development: Passive collision
warning systems and Active collision avoidance systems. A passive system detects a hazard and
alerts the driver to risks, whereas an active system detects the hazard and then takes preventive
action to avoid a collision, if possible. Both types of systems require object detection. The only
difference in them is how a collision diverting event is actuated following object detection, by the
driver or automatically.
Like other automotive safety systems, to be truly effective and influence safety statistics, these
systems need to be widely adopted, and that in turn would require a low production cost. The
technology impact is significant, as an improvement in sensing capability on the vehicle is
necessary, and increased computing throughput is required. The challenge now faced by the
suppliers of such systems is to find a balance between the perceiving value by the customers and
the cost of producing such a system. The University of Michigan Transportation Research
Institute has predicted that by 2007 passive systems will be implemented on 1% of North
American vehicles and active systems will be implemented on further 10% vehicles.
Development engineers are proceeding cautiously with active collision avoidance work. Any
systems that control the brakes from the driver are potential sources of litigation. Standards and
federal regulations will emerge during the next few years which will cover such systems. For
example, today there are no universally accepted standards for false-alarm rates and the certainty
of detecting a target for automotive object detection systems. In Europe and the United States (by
the Federal Communications Commission), a frequency standard of 76 to 77 GHz has already
been approved for vehicle frontal radar systems.

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In the United States, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) is
establishing functional requirements for collision avoidance systems. These will cover
parameters such as sensor range and sensitivity, system reliability, drive warning information and
data architecture standards. Similarly, in Japan the Ministry of Transport is conducting an
advanced safety program (ASV).
The total cost of such systems may largely within existing vehicle costs, as there will be much
reuse of existing electronic controllers. It is now commonplace for to have engine controllers,
anti-lock braking systems, electronic steering control and audio systems.

Different Types of Systems

There are different types of Collision Avoidance systems. Categories are based on different
aspects viz. the functionality of the system, the location of the sensors in the vehicle, and the
technology used to implement such a system.
Based on functionality the systems are differentiated as Passive or Active systems. In a passive
system when a situation arises, an alarm is generated for the driver to take further action.
Whereas an active system itself takes control and performs the necessary action to prevent the
accident.
In case of system based on location of sensors the systems are of three types; Frontal system,
Rear system and Side system. In a Frontal system the sensors are placed only in front of the
vehicle to detect the object coming in the way when vehicle is moving in forward direction.
Similarly in Rear and Side systems the sensors are located at the back and sides of the vehicle
respectively.
Third criterion is of the technologies or the type of sensors used. Based on this there are again
two types one is the radar based systems and second is the Camera based systems. A radar based
system may use Laser or Ultrasonic radars. While a camera based system uses a digital camera
which gives images of the object in front of the vehicle and then it is decided by the
microcontroller whether the object is static or moving and whether it is a threat to the host
vehicle or not.
The details of all the above mentioned systems along with the appropriate diagrams is given in
the subsequent chapters

The types of Systems

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Types of Systems based on Functionality
Active and Passive Safety Systems
A passive collision warning safety system seeks to reduce the risk of a collision by warning the
driver of an impending risk so that he or she can take action to avoid the hazard. For example –
Parking assist type of systems that provide an audible alarm when parallel parking and
approaching a stationary object such as another vehicle or wall. A passive collision warning
system is shown in Figure 2.1

Driver Vehicle

Audio Warning
Visual Warning

Passive
System

fig 39 Passive Safety System

Active safety systems take the Collision avoidance philosophy a stage further by interacting with
the power train, braking, and even the steering systems.
Advanced active collision avoidance systems use many clever techniques, over and above object
event is facilitated safely and efficiently.

+
Driver +/- Vehicle

Audio Warning
Visual Warning

Active
System

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 Fig.40 Active Safety System

Types of systems based on their position in Vehicles

There are types of systems categories of such safety systems for collision avoidance viz. Frontal
Vehicle Systems Rear Vehicle systems Side Vehicle Systems. These categories are explained
below.
Frontal Vehicle Systems
For Frontal systems, long range and large azimuth resolution radars are required because of the
high forward speed of the car and the need to determine objects in adjacent lanes. The forward
range of these systems is usually about 100 to 200m, which gives about 3 to 6 seconds warning
of a stationary hazard when the host car is traveling at 100Kmph. It may be possible to detect all
obstacles but if a warning is generated for each of such circumstances then there will be a lot of
false alarms which may irritate the driver.
Rear Vehicle Systems
Rear warning systems can use short range, often non scanning sensors to provide close range
sensing for parking assist capability. These systems are nowadays provided in many cars by
different manufacturers.A rear system uses lower frequency radar system than a frontal system,
as the azimuth resolution required is not as large. The operating range is also shorter.
Side vehicle Systems
Side warning systems use radar sensors to detect objects in the traditional blind spots that are
often responsible for causing accidents. These sensors would be mounted in the rear quarter area
of the cars (usually rear doors) and detect objects in adjacent lanes. These systems enhance the
car safety by complementing the use of the wing mirrors. The radars mounted on the sides of car
are not just useful for blind spot warnings, but also aid in lane tracking, in order to determine
corridor trajectory.

Technologies already in use or under consideration

The key element in a collision warning and collision avoidance system is a sensor that sends
information to the electronic control unit on distance between the host vehicle and a potentially

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hazardous object. The object could be another vehicle or even an inanimate object such as a road
sign or tree.
If the object is scanned as a horizontal line and its distance is known, it can be tracked as the
movement of the target vehicle negotiates the curves in the road. A smart algorithm may also
analyze the placing of roadside identifiers such as reflectors. For these reasons, scanning radars
are a popular solution in the industry.

Scanning Pulse Laser Radar

The principal operation of the scanning radar is very straight forward. The time of flight of a
pulse, which is proportional to range, is measured. The scanning device transmits a pulse of light
in a horizontal line, back and forth. Distance is calculated easily, as the microcontroller timer can
determine the time interval from the transmitting pulse and received pulse. The receiver looks for
an echo pulse, hence the transmission is non continuous.
As transmission frequency is phase coherent from pulse to pulse, it is also possible to measure
the Doppler Shift of the target. This information can in turn yield target motion, speed and
direction. Doppler shift occurs when the frequency of the reflected waves becomes higher or
lower, relative to the receiver, as the target moves closer or farther away.
A simplified control circuit for this system is shown in the Figure 2.3. The circuit consists of a
microcontroller which executes the control algorithm and generates output signals to control the
laser diode. The laser diode signal is reflected via a system of mirrors and lenses, controlled by
stepper motor. The motor is used to step through different positions and allows the deflected
horizontally in a scanning motion. There are several different mechanisms that can scan the laser
beam, the most popular being the galvanomirror and a polygon mirror. Both have good
accuracy and anti vibration capabilities.

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 Fig .41 Block Diagram for Scanning Pulse Laser Radar System

In each position, the laser beam echo will be reflected back to a complementarily located mirror,
through a laser diode, and then back to the microcontroller. The microcontroller will then
calculate distance to target or object using the formula D= c(t)/2, where D is distance, t is time
and c is speed of light. The time value is measured using a counter which is enabled when the
pulse is transmitted and read when the input is received from the signal amplifier. As the speed of
light is 3 x 108m/s, the microcontroller clock speed must be reasonably high in order to measure
distance with acceptable resolution. A disadvantage of the pulse radar is the requirement of a
narrow pulse. In order to achieve an acceptable resolution on range, a very high receiver
bandwidth is required. This in turn means that a lot of noise is received with the echo pulse, so
the transmitter must have a relatively high peak power. The radar will provide several hundred
distance measurements and calculations per scan, and the algorithm executed by the
microcontroller will average these data to obtain a higher degree of reliability in the result.
A photo diode is also used in the system to determine whether the optical port is clean and free
from debris. If the port glass is dirty, the laser beam pulse may be scattered, and performance can
be affected. Bad weather can also affect performance, although this may be overcome by
increasing the output power of laser pulse. The addition of the photodiode to determine clarity of
the optical port is necessary, as this type of frontal scanning pulse radar system is likely to be
mounted at the front of car, where debris and dirt from the road are common place. One solution
is a wiper system for optical port.

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An alternative for laser radar can be Ultrasonic radar. The same principle of sending a pulsed
wave and measuring the time for an echo to return applies, except with ultrasonic sensors a sound
wave is used instead of a pulse of light. Knowing the speed of sound the distance can be
calculated. As speed of sound is relatively slow, ultrasonic sensors are only considered effective
for use in low-speed type applications such as parking assistance.

Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW)

Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW) based radar systems linearly ramp the
transmission frequency of an electromagnetic wave with time. This generates a linear slope of
frequency versus time for a fixed duration. The signal is reflected back off the target and is mixed
with the transmission frequency. As there is a propagation delay between the transmitted and
received signal, the mixer frequency output is a measure of time delay and frequency modulation.
The FMCW radar is often referred to as millimeter wave or microwave radar.
The principle of FMCW linear frequency modulation is illustrated in Figure 4. The time delay
from transmission to reception is indicated by t and the rate of change of frequency is given by d.
The beat frequency is then given by Fb = d*t.

Fig 42 Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave

Given that the range is r, then as t = 2r/c, where c is the speed of light, the range of the target can
be calculated by first finding the beat frequency. The beat frequency would then be Fb = 2dr/c.
The range to the target is r = Fb / 2dc.

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When more than one target is present, the intermediate frequency spectrum will contain
components from each target. In order to determine each component, a digital signal processor is
generally used to execute the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) on intermediate frequency, which is
the main processing required in the system.
The transmitter bandwidth in the FMCW system is more easily controlled than in a pulse based
system because of the slow FM sweep. This is advantageous for power consumption reasons, as
the FMCW power/frequency spectrum is basically a pulse, whereas the frequency spectrum for a
pulse based system has substantial side lobes, due to sharp edges of the pulses, which dissipate
more power when range resolution of both systems is the same.
The transmitter frequency would ramp linearly under the control of digital data via the D/A
converter. Receiver signals are mixed, filtered, amplified and then sampled by an A/D converter.
If a signal target is detected, the mixer frequency will be constant for the modulation. In order to
resolve multiple targets, several modulation slopes are used. One of the biggest challenges in
FMCW- based systems is maintaining modulation linearity and resolving multiple targets. Gunn
oscillators are normally used to generate the transmitter waveform, as the technology is matured
and is commonly used in systems such as Garage door openers.

Camera based systems

Proponents of camera–based object detection systems believe that while radar is excellent for
very accurate range estimates, it is not as reliable as video camera for determining potential static
false alarm objects, such as road signs. The most challenging problem for camera-based systems
is estimating the distance and closing rate of objects, as a camera cannot determine Doppler’s
shift like a radar can.
Camera based systems operate by producing a sequence of digitized video images, which are
segmented into discrete portions. The outlines of objects are detected using recognition
algorithms, and then moving objects are tracked. After estimating the vehicle motion, algorithms
which estimate bearing and time-to-contact are applied. There are many different techniques for
segmentation, including statistical regularization and analytic image transformations, the basic
aim being to determine potential hazards. This is done bye matching the consecutive frames of
the video to determine what background scenery is, what the estimated trajectory is, and whether
the image is clear. Image brightness is another technique used to facilitate this task. This is
particularly useful technique in conditions reduced visibility, as taillights are easily recognizable.

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The algorithm that is used for object detection with the video camera system is generally very
intelligent. It is known that from the rear, a vehicle structure tends to consist of rectangular
shapes and straighter edges than normal phenomenon such as trees. This observation is used to
help filter out non hazards. The algorithm may also determine the horizon in the vision field, and
seek to make intelligent decisions about objects which may have straight edges but appear above
the horizon.
Note that several other algorithms are likely to be required in the control system, such as tracking
roadside identifiers, lane markings, and static hazards.
Another point in favor of camera based systems is that since many objects are detected
simultaneously, it should be easier to make more intelligent judgments on how to categorize
these objects.
Camera systems are most likely to be used to provide data for fusion with another source like
radar. By using both sources, a redundant system would result for safety purposes, as well as
utilizing the best possible methods for estimating hazards on a busy multilane highway.

Systems Developed by different companies

Collision Avoidance System by Toyota Motors

Toyota Motor Corp. is adding new radar- and sensor-based safety sensors to its vehicles that
could sense and prevent rear-end collisions. The new technology will debut in the LS460 Lexus
that will be released in Japan this month. As part of Toyota's integrated safety management
concept, the company is integrating stability control, anti-lock braking and sensing systems to
determine the optimal support to give a driver to prevent an accident.The pre-crash safety system
uses millimeter-wave radar to detect vehicles and obstacles on the road ahead and help reduce the
severity of collisions, along with newly developed stereo camera to detect pedestrians and
support evasion maneuvers by the driver. Rear millimeter-wave radar has also been added that
detects a vehicle approaching from behind. A near-infrared projector located in the headlights
supports nighttime detection.The system retracts the seatbelts and warns the driver when it
determines a high possibility of a collision. If the driver does not brake, the pre-crash brakes are
applied to reduce collision speed. When the driver takes emergency evasive maneuvers, VGRS
(variable gear ratio steering) and AVS (adaptive variable suspension) control the steering gear

Working of collision avoidance system

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Introduction
The system here in consideration consists of five vehicles with two sensors each, one at the front
end and the other at the rear end. The vehicles are initially kept at different coordinates and then
turned on. Each vehicle moves in forward and reverse directions and the sensors check for
obstructions in the front and rear of the vehicle. Based on the obstruction detected by any of the
two sensors, the collision is avoided by moving the vehicle in appropriate direction.

Bock Diagram of the system

The system mainly consists of three blocks viz. Sensors block, Control unit and Actuators, as
shown

SENSORS

CONTROL UNIT
(µC)

ACTUATORS
(DC MOTOR)

Sensors Block
This part of the system contains the sensors which perceive the signals reflected by the objects
falling in the path of host vehicle. This is an important part of the system as based on the signals
received the sensors the system is made to perform some scheduled tasks.
There are different types of sensors that can be used for the purpose viz., IR sensors, Radars and
even digital cameras.
The system here, being just a prototype uses two IR sensors with a range of 1-3m. One sensor is
placed in front of the vehicle and one at the rear end. Based on the signals from these sensors the
vehicle will move.
Control Unit
The control unit consists of a microcontroller which receives signals from sensors, and decides
what operation to be performed by the system. The microcontroller used here is 8051 core.

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The microcontroller here is interfaced with a DC motor whose motion is controlled on the basis
of the signals received from the sensors at the front and rear of the vehicle.
Actuators
The actuator used in this system is a DC Motor. The motor is interfaced with the microcontroller
using the motor driving IC L293D. This IC has an H-bridge built into it, which allows the motor
to be run in both clockwise and anti-clockwise by changing the polarity. This motor is
responsible for the movement of the vehicle.

SENSORS
A sensor is a type of transducer. A sensor is a device that converts a physical phenomenon
into an electrical signal. As such, sensors represent part of the interface between the physical
world and the world of electrical devices, such as computers. The other part of this interface
is represented by actuators, which convert electrical signals into physical phenomena.
Sensors are used in everyday life. Applications include automobiles, machines, aerospace,
medicine, industry and robotics.
Key characteristics of sensors:-
There are a vast number of different sensors being used in robotics, applying different
measurement techniques, and using different interfaces to a controller.
What is important is to find the right sensor for a particular application. This involves the
right measurement technique, the right size and weight, the right operating temperature range
and power consumption, and of course the right price range.
The key characteristics of sensors are as:
S.No. KEY POINT CONSIDERATION
1. Range How far the object to be detected?
2. Environment How dirty or dark is the environment?
3. Accessibility What accessibility is there to both sides of the object to be
detected?
4. Wiring Is wiring possible to one or both sides of the object?
5. Size What size is the object?
6. Consistency Is the object consists in size, shape, and reflectivity?
7. Requirements What are mechanical and electrical requirements?
8. Output signal What kind of output is needed?
9. Logic functions Are logic function needed at the sensing point?
10. Integration Is the system

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Types of sensors
Sensors are classified broadly in two types:
1. On the basis of energy detected.
2. On the basis of signal detection method.
On the Basis of energy detected
Since there is a significant exchange of energy involved, on the basis of energy sensors are
classified as:
S.No. Energy Example
1. Thermal Thermometer, bolometer
2. Electromagnetic Multimeter, RADAR
3. Mechnical Pressure gauge, strain gauge
4. Chemical Oxygen sensors, pH glass
5. Optical radiation Photodetector, Fiber optics
6. Ionising radiation Neutron detection
7. Acoustic Microphones, Ultrasonic

There are much more examples & types of sensor eg. motion sensor, orientation sensor etc.

On the Basis of signal detection method

Different sensors require different sensing strategies. There are three modes of signal
detection used by sensors:

1. Through-beam detection
2. Reflex detection.

Through beam detection method

The through-beam method requires that the source and detector are positioned opposite each
other and the light beam is sent directly from source to detector. When an object passes
between the source and detectors, the beam is broken; signal shows the detection of an object.
Through-beam detection generally provides the longest range of the three operating modes
and provides high power at shorter range to penetrate steam, dirt, or other
contaminants between the source and detector. Alignment of the source and detector must be
accurate.

Reflex detection method

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The reflex method requires that the source and detector are installed at the same side of the
object to be detected. The light beam is transmitted from the source to a retro reflector that
returns the light to the detector. When an object breaks a reflected beam, the object is
detected.
The reflex method is widely used because it is flexible and easy to install and provides the
best cost-performance ratio of the three methods. The object to be detected must be less
reflective than retro reflector.

Proximity detection method

The proximity requires that the source and detector are installed on the same side of the
object to be detected and aimed at a point in front of the sensor. When an object passes in
front of source and detector, light from the source is reflected from the object’s surface back
to the detector, and the object is detected.
The only difference between reflex detection & proximity method is reflection of signal from
retro reflector and from object to be detected. Each sensor type has a specific operating range.
In general through-beam sensor offer the greatest range, followed by reflex sensors, then by
proximity sensors.

Infrared Emitter Detector

Figure 3.1

Description:The infrared emitter detector pair act as an eye with a flashlight in the infrared
spectrum. The detector (a transistor) detects all ambient infrared light. The emitter (a LED)
emits infrared light into an otherwise dark (in the infrared spectrum) room.

Availability:It is easily available anywhere, very cheap.

Power:Low, Typical LED power requirements.

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LED & LDR Sensor:

We have used this sensor in our project as this is one of the cheapest sensors available in the
market.

FEATURES

• Input common-mode voltage range

• Includes ground
• Largevoltage gain: 100dB
• very lowsupply current/ampli: 375mA
• Low input bias current: 20nA
• Low input offset voltage: 5mV max.
• Low input offset current: 2nA

DESCRIPTION
We have used this sensor in our project as LED & LDR sensor is one of the cheapest sensor
used in mobile robotics. The major parts of this sensor are as:

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Light-dependent resistances (LDR): are cheap light sensors. The light dependent
resistor (LDR) is a sensor whose resistance decreases when light impinges on it. The
schematic symbol of LDR is as:-

Figure 3.3

This kind of sensor is commonly used in light sensor circuits in open areas. LDR’s are made
of semiconductors as light sensitive materials, on an isolating base. The most common
semiconductors used in this system are cadmium sulphide, lead sulphide, germanium, silicon
and gallium arsenide.
The light falling on the brown zigzag lines on the sensor causes the resistance of the device to
fall. This is known as a negative co-efficient. There are some LDRs that work in the
opposite way i.e. their resistance increases with light called positive co-efficient. The
resistance of the cell varies depending on the intensity of the light striking it. When no light
strikes the cell, the device exhibits very high resistance, typically in the high 100 kilo ohms,
or even mega ohms. Light reduces the resistance, usually significantly. An LDR may be
connected either way round and no special precautions are required when soldering.

Light-emitting diode (LED): is a semiconductor device that emits incoherent narrow-

spectrum light when electrically biased in the forward direction of the p-n junction. The color
of the emitted light depends on the composition and condition of the semiconducting material
used, and can be infrared, visible, or near ultraviolet.

Figure 3.4

Precautions:

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 • Don’t bother using this circuit outside, the sun will flood your IR detector and make it
useless.
• Certain indoor lighting can also emit IR interference.
• Only if you modulate the IR emitter and set the detector to only detect modulated IR
can you use this outside. This is commonly done with Sharp IR rangefinders.
• Tweaking is necessary to determine sensitivity of your circuit. Sensitivity will help
increase range but also increase ambient interference. By using certain resistor values,
your IR emitter detector can also detect color, such as for line tracking
Like a normal diode, an LED consists of a chip of semi-conducting material impregnated, or
doped, with impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from
the p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carriers
electrons and holes flow into the junction from electrodes with different voltages. When an
electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of a
photon. The wavelength of the light emitted, and therefore its color, depends on the band gap
energy of the materials forming the p-n junction.
This is photo of 5mm. white/white LED which is used.
LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials. The most common color
of led & materials used are as follows:

S No Material Used Colour

1. Aluminium gallium red and
arsenide (AlGaAs) infrared
2. Aluminium gallium green
phosphide (AlGaP)
3. Gallium phosphide (GaP) red, yellow
and green

4. InGaN-GaN White
Table 3.4

The accurate use of led depends on the polarity selected, the way to determine the polarity of
an LED is to examine its datasheet, these methods are usually reliable:

Sign + -
Polarity Positive Negative

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 Terminal Anode (A) Cathode (K)
IR LED & PHOTO DIODE Sensor
The major parts of this sensor are as follows:
IR LEDs are not any other special kind of led. These are just like any other simple led they
are differ in only the material used for emitting the light. The emitted light is in the Infrared
range which is not visible by nicked eyes. The symbol of IR LED is:

Photodiode is a semiconductor diode that functions as a photo detector. Photodiodes are

packaged with either a window or optical fiber connection, in order to let in the light to the
sensitive part of the device. Most Photodiodes will look like similar to a Light Emitting
Diode. A photodiode is a p-n junction or p-i-n structure. When a photon of sufficient energy
strikes the diode, it excites an electron thereby creating a mobile electron and a positively
charged electron hole. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one
diffusion length away

H-BRIDGE

Fig.53. H-Bridge Circuit

Programming the Controller

The programmer used for programming the microcontroller AT89C2051 is UMPS. First the code
is written in the UMPS Editor and compiled. When the code is compiled then a hex file is
generated. This hex file is opened into the programming interface and then the option to program
the chip is selected

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 DC Motors

From the start, DC motors seem quite

simple. Apply a voltage to both terminals, and it spins. But what if you want to control which
direction the motor spins? Correct, you reverse the wires. Now what if you want the motor to
spin at half that speed? You would use less voltage. But how would you get a robot to do
those things autonomously? How would you know what voltage a motor should get? Why
not 50V instead of 12V? What about motor overheating? Operating motors can be much
more complicated than you think. DC motors are non-polarized - meaning that you can

26
reverse voltage without any bad things happening. Typical DC motors are rated from about
6V-12V. The larger ones are often 24V or more. But for the purposes of a robot, you
probably will stay in the 6V-12V range. So why do motors operate at different voltages? As
we all know (or should), voltage is directly related to motor torque. More voltage, higher the
torque. But don't go running your motor at 100V because that’s just not nice. A DC motor is
rated at the voltage it is most efficient at running. If you apply too few volts, it just wont
work. If you apply too much, it will overheat and the coils will melt. So the general rule is,
try to apply as close to the rated voltage of the motor as you can. Also, although a 24V motor
might be stronger, do you really want your robot to carry a 24V battery (which is heavier and
bigger) around?

Voltage Fetures

1. Polarized (current cannot be reversed)

2. Typically from 5-12V, but can range to extremes in special application motors

3. Higher voltages generally mean more torque, but also require more power

4. Steppers can run above or below rated voltage (to meet other design requirements)

5. Most efficient at rated voltage

A DC motor is rated at the voltage it is most efficient at running. If you apply

too few volts, it just wont work. If you apply too much, it will overheat and the coils will
melt. So the general rule is, try to apply as close to the rated voltage of the motor as you can.
Also, although a 24V motor might be stronger, do you really want your robot to carry a 24V
battery

Working of the System

As per the flow diagram, the microcontroller receives signals from the sensors placed in front
(SFront) and at the rear end (SRear) of the vehicle. Based on the signals the vehicle is moved forward
and backward.

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 REVERSE FORWARD
SENSORS

NO NO

CONTROL IF
IF
UNIT SFRON
SREAR =1 T
(µC) =1

YES ACTUATORS YES

(DC MOTOR)
FORWARD REVERSE

IF
IF
SFRON T SREAR =1
=1 NO NO

YES FORWARD REVERSE YES

STOP STOP

fig 50 Flow Diagram for Working of System

If the signal from SFront is high (i.e. this sensor detects the object) then the microcontroller turns
the direction of the motor to make the vehicle move in reverse direction, else the vehicle will
continue moving in the forward direction.
When signal from SFront is high and the vehicle starts moving back then, the signal from SRear is
checked by the microcontroller. Now if SRear is high then the vehicle stops, otherwise the vehicle
continues moving in reverse direction. This process takes place when initially the vehicle was
moving in the forward direction.
If initially the vehicle was moving in reverse direction then SRear is checked first and then SFront is
analyzed for similar conditions as explained above.

Improved range circuit for obstacle detection

The circuit designed as per the previous chapter works fine but there is a limitation of the
range of the sensors and also the cost incurred in making the motor driving circuit which uses
L293D.
The problem of range can be solved by using TSOP1738 as the IR receiver. This is the
normal IR receiver used in the common TV remotes. It receives a signal of 38 kHz. This

28
device is active low i.e. when the sensor does not receive a signal its output is high while the
output goes low when it receives the signal.
Giving a signal of 38 kHz gives a range of 25-30 cms in the reflected signal which is
sufficient for detecting an obstacle and stop the robot. Hence this is a better choice than the
normal IR receivers which provide a range of not more than 5-10 cms. The circuit diagram
for the IR transmitter and TSOP1738 is given as below.

Fig.51 IR transmitter circuit using 555 Timer IC [11]

Fig .52 IR receiver circuit using TSOP1738 [12]

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 CONCLUSION

Robotics systems is the collbaration of software & hardware through which most of the
complicity reduces, even systems size & coast also reduced. Such human creation put us spell
bound that why a topic of invention is taken Robotics design.
We humans are fortunate & we always inspired from the nature because it is only which is
our beast friend in the universe. Robotics dreation is also inspired by the human body itself.
The human body is, all things considered, a nearly perfect machine: it is (usually) intelligent,
it can lift heavy loads, it can move itself around, and it has built-in protective mechanisms to
feed itself when hungry or to run away when threatened.
Robots are often modeled after humans, if not in form then at least in function. For decades,
scientists and experimenters have tried to duplicate the human body, to create machines with
intelligence, strength, mobility, and auto-sensory mechanisms. That goal has not yet been
realized, but perhaps some day it will.
Nature provides a striking model for robot experimenters to mimic, and it is up to us to take
the challenge. Some, but by no means all, of nature’s mechanisms—human or otherwise—
can be duplicated to some extent in the robot shop. Robots can be built with eyes to see, ears
to hear, a mouth to speak, and appendages and locomotion systems of one kind or another to
manipulate the environment and explore surroundings.
This is fine theory; what about real life? Exactly what constitutes a real hobby robot? What
basic parts must a machine have before it can be given the title robot? Let’s take a close look
in this report on robotics and the kinds of materials hobbyists use to construct them. For the
sake of simplicity, not every robot subsystem in existence will be covered, just the
components that are most often found in amateur and hobby robots.

30
 REFERENCES

[1] Ronald K Jurgen “Automotive Electronic Handbook”: New York: McGraw-Hill, 2nd ed.,
1999, Part 7 Chapter 29.
[2] Peter Seiler, Bong sob Song, J. Karl Hedrick “Development of a Collision Avoidance
System”: 1998 Society of Automotive Engineers.
[3] Toyota debuts Line Path Follower in Lexus [online], available: http://www.abrn.com
[4] Mercedes Autonomous Braking Can Reduce Crash Severity [online], available:
http://www.abrn.com/abrn/article/articleDetail.jsp?id=359127
[5] General Motors: “The Ultimate Crash Safety is Avoiding Crashes” [online], available:
http://www.gm.com/company/careers/career_paths/rnd/nws_071800.html
[6] Daimler-Chrysler: “Safety on the Interstate” [online], available:
http://www.daimlerchrysler.com/dccom/0-5-7180-1-465281-1-0-0-0-0-0-8-7165-0-0-0-0-0-0-
0.html
[7] Ford Motors: “Active Safety system turns vehicles into co-drivers” [online], available:
http://media.ford.com/newsroom/feature_display.cfm?release=22037
[8] Volvo Cars: “City Safety: System for avoiding collisions at low speeds and line path
follower” [online], available:
http://media.ford.com/newsroom/feature_display.cfm?release=24310
[9] Douglas H. Williams “Line Follower”: New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003, Chapter 6, pg 107-
pg114.
[10] www.google.com
[11] Datasheet of NE555
[12] Datasheet of TSOP1738

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[13] Datasheet of TIP122 and TIP127
[14] www.alldatasheets.com

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