RESEARCH PAPER TEMPLATE

North American University

Education Department
M.Ed. in EDLE & CUIN
EDUC 5312: CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

Name:Esra Erkal Date: 04/19/2021

Instructional Project 3

Directions:

This is a research assignment. Use your textbook, web articles, and NAU library to conduct resear
when writing this paper.

Use APA style references and in-text- citations. You need to use at least 3 different resources
besides Castronova (2002), and Moore (2015).

Part 1. DISCOVERY LEARNING:

Download and read the following article:

 Castronova, J. A. (2002). Discovery learning for the 21st century: What is it and how
does it compare to traditional learning in effectiveness in the 21st century. Action
Research Exchange, 1(1), 1-12. Retrieved from
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?
doi=10.1.1.594.6363&rep=rep1&type=pdf
 After reading this article and conducting additional research, answer to the following
questions.

What is discovery learning?

Discovery learning is a teaching approach that encourages students to make judgments based on
their own activities and observations. This teaching model was developed by J. S. Bruner. This
model has been applied in many countries of the world since the early 1960's when it was first
introduced. According to Bruner, the role of the teacher is to create an environment where the
student can learn on his own. The teacher presents examples and works with the examples until th
student discovers the features of the subject.

Discovery learning is a means by which students engage in problem solving in developing

knowledge or skills. A good working definition of discovery learning is intentional learning through
supervised problem solving following the scientific method of
investigation. (Moore,2015)

How does this form of teaching compare to traditional, teacher-centered instruction?

Teacher-centered education is the education that we have become accustomed to until today, tha
the teacher determines the subject to be learned, the objectives to be reached at the end of the
lesson, the teaching method of the subject, the method of evaluation, prepares lesson plans, write
the steps to be applied in the lesson one by one, and enters the lesson and conveys the content o
the subject to the students mostly verbally.
The fact that the trainings from the past to the present are generally in this direction has made the
name of this education "traditional". When we review our educational life up to now, we can easily
see that such training is predominant.
It makes the students familiar with the readiness and directs them to memorization. It reduces the
feeling of curiosity. It causes the individuals who do not question and therefore produce to grow.
In teacher-centered education, the student is passive. Teacher-centered education is an
understanding that focuses only on mental development. The teacher is at the center of the teachi
The main reason why it is called teacher-centered education; All decisions are made and
implemented by the teacher, and the student passively listens and watches the content presented
him.
In discovery learning, students are active. Learning is not defined as simply absorbing what is bein
said or read, but actively seeking new knowledge. Students are engaged in hands-on activities tha
are real problems needing solutions. The students have a purpose for finding answers and learnin
more (Mosca & Howard, 1997)
An essential part of discovery learning is the opportunity for feedback in the learning process
(Bonwell, 1998). Student learning is enhanced, deepened, and made more permanent by discussi
of the topic with other learners (Schank & Cleary, 1994). Without the opportunity for feedback,
learning is left incomplete. Instead of students learning in isolation, as is typical in the traditional
classroom where silence is expected, students are encouraged to discuss their ideas to deepen th
understanding.
Lastly, incorporating all of these differences, discovery learning provides for deeper learning
opportunities.
What educational theories support the discovery learning model?
John Dewey (1916/1997), Jean Piaget (1954, 1973), and Lev Vygotsky (Rice & Wilson, 1999)
developed theories that serve as the foundation to discovery learning. All of these theories describ
learning as active, process-based, and collaborative.
In Democracy and Education, Dewey (1916/1997) describes learning as action where knowledg
and ideas emerge as learners interact with other learners in a community and build their knowledg
by applying conclusions from past experiences that had meaning and importance. Catronova (200
Dewey believed in an interdisciplinary curriculum, or a curriculum that focuses on connecting multi
subjects, where students are allowed to freely move in and out of classrooms as they pursue their
interests and construct their own paths for acquiring and applying knowledge. The role of the teach
in this setting would be to serve more as a facilitator than an instructor. In Dewey's view, the teach
should observe the interest of the students, observe the directions they naturally take, and then
serve as someone who helps develop problem-solving skills. Traditionally, a teacher would stand i
front of a group of students who are all sitting in rows. The teacher is usually the deliverer of
information and the job of the students is usually to receive this information and regurgitate it in so
form of a written test.
In contrast, in a classroom based on the ideas of John Dewey, you may see a teacher deliver
background content information, but you would also likely see students working in groups, with tho
groups exploring differing concepts within the content. You would see lots of conversation and lots
collaboration. While you may see a written test, you may also see student projects, presentations,
other differentiated techniques of evaluation.
In To Understand is to Invent (1973), Piaget wrote that understanding comes from discovery an
that without understanding production and creativity are lost and the individual is caught in only
repetition. Piaget theorized that children do not think with the same logic as adults (Papert, 2001).
Piaget was the first to show that children were not “empty vessels” to be filled with knowledge, but
active builders of knowledge. Piaget saw children as constantly creating and testing their
understanding of the world, in other words, active, participatory learners. Piaget did not strive for
educational reform like Dewey, but his theory about children’s understanding has permeated
education.
Lev Vygotsky emphasized the impact of cultural and social influences on cognitive development,
particularly the interaction of children with other people in cognitive development (Rice & Wilson,
1999). Vygotsky claimed that initial development was prompted by the child’s immediate social
interactions, but that, as learning became internalized, there was a shift to the individual level. For
Vygotsky, children were apprentices who learned from and alongside those with greater experienc
who understood their abilities and needs.

What is the most important thing you discovered about discovery learning?

What I like most about the learning by discovery model is that the student is taken seriously no
matter how old he is. It is a great way for the student to make a judgment by trying, discovering an
learning to take place. With this method, the student feels valuable and realizes that his ideas are
given importance. This enables the student to grow up as an independent individual with self-
efficacy. Another point is that the teacher has to make a preliminary preparation to stimulate the
students' sense of curiosity. Learning by discovering requires an environment preparation.
How can you apply this method to your future classroom?
If I want to use this method in my future class, I will first determine the goals and behaviors to be
gained. By asking questions, I can help students analyze their data and come to conclusions. I ask
questions that seem surprising to students at first glance and make them think.
The important thing in discovery learning is to activate the sense of curiosity in order to motivate th
student to learn. For this reason, I prepare my lesson beforehand and enter the classroom with
materials such as examples, problems, stories that will evoke a sense of curiosity. My goal is to
guide them in analyzing the situations as well as reaching the solution.
Part 2. ADDITIONAL CHAPTERS
 Select one of the following chapters to conduct research: Chapter 2, 3, 5 or 12. Revie
the chapter and respond to related questions for that chapter by conducting your ow
research.

Chapter 2- Teaching Diverse Students

1. Teaching all students. Remember that a teacher’s job is to teach all students and assume an
attitude that all students can learn. Research techniques and strategies that can be used to
accomplish this task. Sources of information include the library, the Internet, current journals, and
recent books.

2. Intelligence profile. Evaluate your own intelligence profile according to Gardner. In what frame
of mind (intelligence areas) do you come out strongest?
Chapter 3- Managing Classroom Environment
 
1. Discipline approaches. Analyze the three approaches to classroom management. Which
approach, if any, do you prefer? Can you put together parts of the different approaches and come
with an eclectic approach that you think would work for you? Can you identify some basic concept
that appear to be true of all three approaches?

2.   Causes of misbehavior. Think back over the classes you have attended in which there have
been disciplinary incidents. List the possible causes for any such misbehavior. How might knowled
of the causes of these incidents influence a teacher’s actions? Some behavior problems are teach
created and some are student centered. Can you think of examples?

Chapter 5- Using Classroom Technology

1. How does technology enhance the teacher’s ability to plan instruction? Use one of the available
search engines to explore the web for technological tools such as lesson planning software,
worksheets and puzzle tools, poster and bulletin board production tools, and time management too
that will assist you in planning. Share your findings with your class.

2. Technology offers tools that can help students learn. To what technology should students have
access? Do you have any educational concerns about the use of these technologies in schools? If
so, what are they? If not, why not?

Chapter 12- Teaching Effective Thinking Strategies

Today's educational approaches put the student at the center of all educational activities and aim
improve their language and mental skills at a high level. The heart of mental skills is thinking and
questioning. Thinking and questioning activates the mental processes and processes of the
individual and improves their problem solving, decision making and conceptualization skills. It also
brings information to be processed and structured better in the mind. Thus, high-level skills such a
learning to learn, creative thinking, critical thinking, and reflective thinking are developed faster.

One of the important aims of education is the creativity of students, to develop skills such as probl
solving, critical thinking, and high-level thinking. In this process, a special emphasis is placed on
thinking processes, processes and skills, and they are tried to be developed with specially prepare
programs. Based on this understanding, thinking education programs are prepared, students are
taught basic skills, techniques and high level skills of thinking. With these programs, it is tried to
guide not only the thinking skills of the student but also his life and future.
According to Beyer, attention should be paid to issues such as curiosity, skepticism, tolerance, and
respect for truth in order to develop basic thinking skills in students. According to Nickerson, in ord
to criticize a mental attitude, studies such as respecting different opinions, thinking before acting,
gathering sufficient information are important (Nickerson 1988)
1-Teaching methods. What teaching methods and procedures can be used to improve students’
critical thinking abilities? Creative thinking abilities?

Critical thinking deals with events and situations with an interrogative approach. Critical thinking
includes the processes of self-directedness, self-discipline, self-control and self-correction. This
thinking is effective in developing effective speaking, communication, and social relationships (Pau
Elder 2008).

Creative Thinking: It is an inventive, innovative way of thinking that produces new and different
solutions to problems, and enables original ideas to emerge. In other words, it is flexible, fluent,
original, unusual thinking. It allows generating new ideas and possibilities, reaching more than one
correct answer. There are 4 basic stages in generating new ideas. These include preparation,
incubation, enlightenment, and evaluation. The first two of these involve formations and the last tw
involve implementation. New ideas are created and organized during the formation phase. This is
called creative thinking. During the implementation phase, the ideas are evaluated and put into
effect.

What can be done to improve students' critical and creative thinking?

A good way to develop critical thinking skills is by teaching students to recognize propaganda, a fo
of persuasion that is intended to influence the audience by the use of exaggerations and emotiona
appeals. Students often enjoy looking for examples of propaganda that are readily found in politica
promotions and product advertisements. Samples from newspapers, magazines, and television ca
be analyzed for evidence of misleading statements, biased or one-sided reports, false assumption
avoidance of issues, exaggerated statements, and emotional appeals. Critical thinking tends to
require higher levels of thinking—that is, more evaluation and synthesis than application or analys
Indeed, it should be remembered that Bloom’s Taxonomy is hierarchical; therefore, operation at th
evaluative level requires the use of the previous thinking levels as well.

Setting Environment: An environment that enables questioning and thinking in the

classroom. It is very important to create and maintain an environment. For this students without fe
of being ridiculed or ridiculed give them the opportunity to express their thoughts, make mistakes
should be given. The classroom should be seen as a kind of thinking lab or a thinking production
center. Another determinant of the environment is the accepting and encouraging attitude of the
teacher. The teacher needs to show that he cares for the students and respects their thinking. In
addition, in order to encourage them, they should evaluate their thoughts as much as possible, dir
them to research, and highlight every attitude that they see meaningful in students.

Appropriate Working Style: First of all, a working style that enables students to think should be
determined. If the student is to think and question by himself, a working style in which he can do
these should be created. In order to achieve this, during the training process, by giving the subject
the student should not be overwhelmed with information. On the contrary, learned activities that ai
to use the information actively should be emphasized.

The content of a lesson should focus on thinking and questioning what students have learned rath
than memorizing information. Course practices should be geared towards a working style that
requires the student to actively process the information and be responsible for this process.

Sampling and Modeling: The teacher improves the students' skills by showing how different men
processes are carried out through their behaviors. During this process, thoughts can be displayed.
For example, different situations involving different stages of thought can be shown. One of the
prescribed techniques on the subject is to think out loud. Thinking aloud verbalizes the stages of a
thinking processes shows them practically, makes annotated comments on them. This application
gives students the opportunity to understand and observe the various stages in the thinking proces
while solving any problem.

Brainstorming Method: As Thomas Edison put it, "1% of the source of genius creativity, 99% is
also working. " Therefore, with a methodological study critical thinking that can be developed; It
requires overcoming mental dogmas, defining problems well and handling them from different ang
as possible, showing patience for creativity, searching for similar or different situations, taking
rational risks and not rushing to reach an evaluation. The Brainstorming Method, which is based o
the production of as many ideas as possible without any concern for criticism, is one of the method
successfully applied in gaining these thinking requirements. The method is a way of thinking from
similar argumentation methods. It distinguishes itself by prioritizing creating confusion. Therefore,
application of the method takes place in an atmosphere where it is not necessary to defend the
thoughts, the quantity of the thought is more important than the quality, and the imagination is free

Asking Questions Method (The Socratic Method) Pre-thought questions, first of all defining the
tasks, the function of explaining problems and limiting the topic of discussion they see. For this
reason, thinking skills cannot be developed without developing questioning skills. At the beginning
the questioning skills are “analytical questions” that allow to dissect a problem and discover the su
problems that make up the problem.

The Socratic method, in general, involves teaching by asking questions and, in so doing, leading
students into a logical conclusion. Essentially, the Socratic method follows a general pattern:

1. A broad, open-ended question that most students can answer is asked first.

2. A second questioning sequence begins to narrow the range of responses and focuses the
students’ thinking onto the topic of the questioning strategy.

3. Review lectures and/or statements are interspersed among the questions in order to keep the
salient points in the forefront.

4. A concluding question then brings students to the desired endpoint.

The techniques as originally developed by Socrates must be adapted to the reality of the classroo
The method Socrates conceived requires a one-to-one relationship between the student a
teacher, with the teacher posing a series of questions that gradually tangle the student up to
point where ideas and thinking must be carefully scrutinized. In the classroom, the teacher genera
does not focus the questioning sequence on one student but, rather, questions one student first, th
another, and
then another—moving slowly throughout the class. Although this technique usually works well,
pure essence of the Socratic technique is often difficult to capture. Still, the Socratic method can
quite effective, and it works best in small-group and tutorial sessions.
Critical thinking skills dull and disappear in childhood and when they are not used by activating the
in various areas of life. For this reason, teachers should organize experiences that will enable thei
students to gain these skills and use them at all levels, in all lessons and in every field related to lif
and they should evaluate these skills with appropriate techniques and report back (Huitt, 1998). It
clear that this is a goal that can be achieved by teachers themselves having these skills. From this
point of view, it can be said that the techniques that will evaluate and develop the critical thinking
powers of teachers as well as students in future studies are vital for the construction of a society
compatible with the information age. Moreover, such a society constitutes the basis of a democrat
and peaceful life.

Asking High-Level Questions: A tool that improves Creative Thinking skills technique is the use
high-level questions. Most researchers and the educator underlines the importance of asking
questions in the classroom. These types of questions are aimed at developing creative and critical
thinking skills rather than verifying or remembering learned information. There are also low-level
questions or low-level questions. These questions aim to verify and recall the information learned.
The difference of these questions from high-level questions is that the student activates his prior
knowledge and searches for the necessary information to answer these questions. In this regard,
Bloom's taxonomy is also used, the analysis, synthesis and evaluation steps are called high-level
questions, and the first three steps (knowledge, understanding and application) are called low-leve
questions. In order to develop creative thinking skills, students should be asked questions that
require more complex mental processes. These are like comparing, analyzing, guessing, making
inferences and criticizing.

Concept Attainment

Concept attainment is an instructional strategy that uses a structured inquiry process. The strategy
based on the research of Jerome Bruner (1977) and his associates, who investigated how differen
variables affected the concept-learning process. In concept attainment, students figure out the
attributes of a group or category that has been provided by the teacher. To do so, students compa
and contrast examples that contain the attributes of the concept with examples that do not contain
those attributes.
2.  Thinking. What type of thinking is emphasized in most schools? Is critical thinking rewarded?
Creative thinking? Is school success based on students’ ability to think critically? Creatively?

I came to America 3 years ago. What I observed in my country was that primary education program
based on behavioral approaches had been implemented for years. In the behavioral approach, the
mind was seen as a black box, attention was paid to the behavior of the student instead of the min
and no emphasis was placed on developing skills such as thinking and questioning. There is no
thinking training course in education programs, thinking indirect teaching of skills, that is, with the
information is given in the lesson development is focused on. In the education process, the studen
taking the information transmitted exactly without questioning, repeating it constantly and he/she w
expected to learn by memorizing. However, great importance has been attached to developing
thinking skills in the primary education curriculum, which has been developed based on the
constructivist approach in recent years. Thinking training has been introduced as an independent
course and its program has been prepared.

My daughter goes to grade 5 in primary school. The assignments given by the teachers support
creative thinking. For example, the homework they did this week in the ELA class was to make a
project about the life of a famous person in the Wax Museum. And they were free on this project.
They designed everything from costume to model, and this homework is a homework that affects t
GPA very well. As a result, very good projects came out. The children thought about this issue and
came up with creative costumes projects. My son is in high school. Indeed, what I observed in the
lectures as well is that they got points for critical thinking. There are lessons for debate and they
have to find the weaknesses of their thinking on this subject. In this course, it is taught to look at a
topic from a critical point of view. In robotic clubs, they can make their own projects and participate
competitions and receive awards. Traditional methods are slowly changing, and we can observe th
better, especially in America, where educational methods are removed from rote memorization.
3.  The environment. What type of classroom environment would be conducive to developing crit
thinking? Creative thinking? What problems can you foresee in establishing this environment?
Individual, organizational and social characteristics may hinder creativity. While the school transfe
social values from past to present to new generations, it actually suppresses creative thinking,
asking questions and questioning. Creative thinking ability can be developed with education. For th
the educational philosophy should be chosen and structured correctly, the field of education shoul
not be limited to the classroom-workshop, the technical equipment should be determined clearly a
correctly, the curriculum should be enriched with panels, conferences, interviews, intuition,
perception, knowledge, problem solving and production, seeing the gaps , originality, freedom,
learning to learn, reading and research habits should be considered.

Educational games to develop creative thinking in individuals, target behaviors and the level of
readiness of the person can be used in classroom environment according to. School gardens for
this,parks, certain places of settlements, streets, avenues, walls, empty spaces for children and
persons for such activities should be opened, these places should be rearranged. Computer,
television, video, multi-purpose equipment can be used effectively to develop creative thinking.
Especially the computer can help the person think multidimensionally and find new models, theorie
and solutions.

It is known that the school environment has an important place in the development of creative and
critical thinking ability. However, some classroom settings may lead to the regression of this featur
rather than its development. Because the environment in which creative or critical thinking ability
should develop is a non-traditional classroom environment where the child can easily express his
feelings and thoughts. Teachers who discourage their students, are insecure, overly critical, have
enthusiasm, exhibit dogmatic and rigid attitudes that go from one end to the other in their behavior
do not maintain their interest, emphasize straight reading, have narrow interests, and do not have
the opportunity to discuss and speak outside the classroom, prevent the development of children's
creativity.

Similar to how teachers prefer high-intelligence students to creative students, some school
administrators prefer highly creative teachers to less creative ones. A creative teacher, like the
problem a highly creative student brings in the classroom, will cause trouble for the administrator.
Being creative is unpredictable for others. The teacher should be aware of the cultural norms that
prevent new thinking, and should engage in activities that reduce their impact. The opportunity
should provide an environment where they can express their thoughts. Training programs that are
cluttered with stereotypes and must be completed within a certain period of time can also hinder
creativity. Because the completion of the programs becomes the only goal, teachers are held
accountable in this respect. The education system, which does not attach importance to individual
development and rely only on logical thinking, also prevents creativity.
Part 3. REFERENCES:
 Cite at least 5 References in APA.
 You need to use at least 3 different resources besides Castronova (2002), and Moore
(2015).
 You may use http://www.citationmachine.net/apa/cite-a-journal for citing your sourc
in APA style.

References:

BEYER, B. K. (1987), Practical Strategies for the Teaching of Thinking, Boston

NICKERSON, R. S. (1988), “On Improving Thinking Through Instruction”, dans Review of Research in
Education, vol. 15, 1988, p. 3-57

PAUL, Richard et Elder, Linda (2008), Mini-guide de la Pensée Critique Concepts et Instruments, Foundati
for Critical Thinking Press, www. criticalthinking. org

HUITT, W. (1998), Critical thinking: An overview. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA:
Valdosta State University. Retrieved [January 5, 2006] from,
http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/critthnk.html [Revision of paper presented at the Critical Think
Conference sponsored by Gordon College, Barnesville, GA, March, 1993.]

Moore, K. D. (2014). Effective instructional strategies: From theory to practice. Sage Publications.

Castronova, J. A. (2002). Discovery Learning for the 21st Century: What is it and how does it compare to
traditional learning in effectiveness in the 21st Century?

https://resilienteducator.com/classroom-resources/which-is-best-teacher-centered-or-student-
centered-education/

https://study.com/academy/lesson/john-dewey-on-education-impact-theory.html

https://www.scholastic.com/teachers/articles/teaching-content/pioneers-our-field-lev-vygotsky-
playing-learn/