control forces are needed coincides with the time when the power cut is the most likely,

such as during an earthquake or large wind storm. This raises question on reliability
concerns. Beyond the issue of energy supply, engineers also hesitate to embrace non-
traditional technologies for structures. The placement of sensors and the design of
feedback schemes are also beyond the scope of most practicing engineers, and poorly
designed active system may lead to deleterious energy inputs and destabilization of the
primary system.

1.2.3 SEMI-ACTIVE CONTROL

The semi-active control devices combine the best features of active and
passive control devices. Possessing the adaptability of active control without the
potential for instability, semi-active systems can respond quickly to a sudden gust front
or earthquake and provide damping which is excitation-level independent, unlike
passive systems which operate at non-optimal values of damping most of the time.
Research work indicates that such devices can approach performance levels obtained
by active systems without the risk of destabilization or high power requirements
(Spencer & Sain 1997). This latter feature is particularly attractive. Since the devices
do not introduce mechanical energy into the system, power requirements are relatively
low, insuring that the system can remain operational even on battery power during
extreme events such as earthquakes.

Semi-active devices range from impact configurations to variable orifice

concepts for applications to conventional hydraulic fluid dampers (Symans &
Constantinou 1996). Such concepts may also be extended to TLCDs. In the case of
TSDs, an analogous semi-active control would adjust the screen or vane openings or
control a membrane over the free surface for optimum damping (Kareem & Tognarelli
1994). While semi-active devices which employ forces generated by surface friction
have also been considered, the work in controllable fluid devices has gained much
notoriety for potential semi-active applications. The numerous experimental studies,
including full-scale work on bridges for seismic retrofit, confirm the applicability of
this emerging technology.