SEMI-FINALS

Single-Phase Motor
Introduction
As the name suggests, these motors are used on single-phase supply. Single-phase motors are the most
familiar of all electric motors because they are extensively used in home appliances, shops, offices etc. It is true
that single- phase motors are less efficient substitute for 3-phase motors but 3-phase power is normally not
available except in large commercial and industrial establishments. Since electric power was originally generated
and distributed for lighting only, millions of homes were given single-phase supply. This led to the development
of single-phase motors. Even where 3-phase mains are present, the single-phase supply may be obtained by using
one of the three lines and the neutral. In this chapter, we shall focus our attention on the construction, working
and characteristics of commonly used single-phase motors.

Types of Single-Phase Motors

Single-phase motors are generally built in the fractional-horsepower range and may be classified into the
following four basic types:

1. Single-phase induction motors

(a) split-phase type
(b) Capacitor type
(c) shaded-pole type

2. A.C. series motor or universal motor

3. Repulsion motors
(a) Repulsion-start induction-run motor
(b) Repulsion-induction motor

4. Synchronous motors
(a) Reluctance motor
(b) Hysteresis motor

1. Single-Phase Induction Motors

A single phase induction motor is very similar to a 3-phase squirrel cage induction motor. It has (i) a
squirrel-cage rotor identical to a 3-phase motor and (ii) a single-phase winding on the stator. Unlike a 3-phase
induction motor, a single-phase induction motor is not self- starting but requires some starting means. The single-
phase stator winding produces a magnetic field that pulsates in strength in a sinusoidal manner. The field polarity
reverses after each half cycle but the field does not rotate. Consequently, the alternating flux cannot produce
rotation in a stationary squirrel-cage rotor. However, if the rotor of a single-phase motor is rotated in one direction
by some mechanical means, it will continue to run in the direction of rotation. As a matter of fact, the rotor quickly
accelerates until it reaches a speed slightly below the synchronous speed. Once the motor is running at this speed,
it will continue to rotate even though single-phase current is flowing through the stator winding. This method of
starting is generally not convenient for large motors. Nor can it be employed fur a motor located at some in
accessible spot.
 In figure above shows that single-phase induction motor having a squirrel cage rotor and a single-phase
distributed stator winding. Such a motor inherently docs not develop any starting torque and, therefore, will not
start to rotate if the stator winding is connected to single-phase a.c. supply. However, if the rotor is started by
auxiliary means, the motor will quickly attain me final speed. This strange behaviour of single-phase induction
motor can be explained on the basis of double-field revolving theory. Single phase induction motors are classified
and named according to the method employed to make them self-starting.

(a) split-phase type - started by two phase motor action through the use of an auxiliary or starting
winding.

The stator of a split-phase induction motor is provided with an auxiliary or starting winding S in addition
to the main or running winding M. The starting winding is located 90° electrical from the main winding (Fig. i)
and operates only during the brief period when the motor starts up. The two windings are so resigned that the
starting winding S has a high resistance and relatively small reactance while the main winding M has relatively
low resistance and large reactance as shown in the schematic connections in Fig.(ii).Consequently, the currents
flowing in the two windings have reasonable phase difference c (25° to 30°) as shown in the phasor diagram in
Fig.(iii)

Advantages
1. It operates at ~ constant speed, 4 pole, 60 Hz:
–1780 RPM (no load)
–1700/1725 RPM at full load
2. Reversible at low speed
3. Rapid acceleration
4. Relatively low cost
Disadvantages
1. Repeated start/stop cycles heat the windings (high start resistance)
2. Less useful for large inertial loads
3. Requires large wiring to handle starting currents

(b) Capacitor type - started by two-phase motor action through the use of an auxiliary winding and a
capacitor.

The capacitor-start motor is identical to a split-phase motor except that the starting winding has as many
turns as the main winding. Moreover, a capacitor C is connected in series with the starting winding as shown in
Fig. below (i). The value of capacitor is so chosen that Is leads Im by about 80° (i.e.,α ~80°) which is considerably
greater than 25° found in split-phase motor that shows in Fig. below (ii). Consequently, starting torque (Ts= k
ImIs sinα) is much more than that of a split-phase motor Again, the starting winding is opened by the centrifugal
switch when the motor attains about 75% of synchronous speed. The motor then operates as a single-phase
induction motor and continues to accelerate till it reaches the normal speed. The power rating of such motors lies
between 120 W and 7-5 kW

Advantages

1. Quieter, smoother than split phase

2. Reduced starting current
– Longer life
– Higher reliability
3. Capable of frequent start/stop cycles

Disadvantages

1. More expensive for same HP

2. Lower performance when starting
3. Need to always use manufacturer's desired capacitor value

(c) shaded-pole type - started by the motion of the magnetic field produced by means of a shading coil
around a portion of the pole structure.

For applications requiring small power ratings, 1/20 hp or less, the shaded-pole induction motor is
probably most widely used today. Shaded-Pole Motor: A shaded-pole motor may be defined as a single phase
induction motor provided with an auxiliary short-circuited winding or winding displaced in magnetic position
from the main winding. In usual form of construction, salient poles are used, and the auxiliary short-circuited
winding consists of a single turn placed around a portion of the main pole. This coil is known as shading coil
because it causes the flux in that portion of the pole surrounded by it to lag behind the flux in the rest of the pole.

Working Principle of a shaded pole motor

When a single phase ac power is applied to the stator winding, a magnetic field is created. The winding
of shaded pole delays the creation of magnetic field in the portion of the stator poles. This produces a magnetic
field in the shaded portion that is approximately 90° apart from the magnetic field produced in the main portion
of the pole. That means two fluxes are obtained which are displaced both in time and space. The net effect of
these two fluxes is moved across the pole from the unshaded portion to the shaded portion. Thus a rotating field
is obtained which is always moved from the unshaded portion to the shaded portion. The net rotating flux cut the
rotor conductor thus an emf is induced in the rotor and current flows through the conductor. Thus the force is
developed to the conductor of rotor and rotor start to rotate.

Why the shaded pole motor is noisier than the other single phase induction motor?
The field of the shaded-pole motor is not constant in magnitude but shifts from one side of the pole to the
other. Because the shaded-pole doesn’t create a truly revolving field, the torque is not uniform but varies from
instant to instant. Thus this type of motor tends to make the motor noisier than it would be for a conventional
split-phase or capacitor type single phase induction motor of the same size.

Advantages of shaded-pole motors:

(i) Rugged construction
(ii) There are no brushes, no commutator, no capacitor, no moving switch, no governor, no slip-rings.
(iii)Cheaper in cost
(iv) Small in size
(v) Requires little maintenance
(vi) Its stalling locked-current is only slightly higher than its normal rated current so that it can remain
stalled for short periods without harm.
Disadvantages of shaded-pole motors:
(i) Very low starting torque
(ii) Low efficiency due to the presence of harmonics in the winding current particularly third
harmonics. (iii)Low power factor

Applications:
Shaded-pole motors have many applications, among which are fans, blowers, heaters, vending machines,
hair dryer, slide and moving projectors, advertising displays, rotisseries etc..
 1. Single-Phase Series Motor (Universal)
The single-phase series motor is a commutator-type motor. If the polarity of the line terminals of a dc
series motor is reversed, the motor will continue to run in the same direction. Thus, it might be expected that a dc
series motor would operate on alternating current also. The direction of the torque developed in a dc series motor
is determined by both filed polarity and the direction of current through the armature (T α ΦIa). Let a dc series
motor be connected across a single-phase ac supply. Since the same current flows through the field winding and
the armature, it follows that ac reversals from positive to negative, or from negative to positive, will
simultaneously affect both the field flux polarity and the current direction through the armature. This means that
the direction of the developed torque will remain positive, and rotation will continue in the same direction. Thus,
a series motor can run both on dc and ac.
Motor that can be used with a single-phase ac source as well as a dc source of supply voltages are called universal
motor. However, a series motor which is specifically designed for dc operation suffers from the following
drawbacks when it is used on single-phase ac supply:

1. Its efficiency is low due to hysteresis and eddy-current losses

2. The power factor is low due to the large reactance of the field and the armature winding.
3. The sparking at the brushes is excessive.

In order to overcome these difficulties, the following modifications are made in a d.c. series motor that is to
operate satisfactorily on alternating current:


 core is constructed of a material having low hysteresis loss. It is laminated to reduce eddy-current
The field
loss.



The field winding is provided with small number of turns. The field-pole areas area increased so that the flux
density is reduced. This reduces the iron loss and the reactive voltage drop.
 
The number of armature conductors is increased in order to get the required torque with the low flux.


 thereby improving commutation and reducing armature
In order to reduce the effect of armature reaction,
reactance, a compensating winding is used.

The compensating winding is put in the stator slots. The axis of the compensating winding is 90°
(electrical) with the main field axis. It may be connected in series with both the armature and field as shown in
fig. In such a case the motor is conductively compensated.
The compensating winding may be short circuited on itself, in which case the motor is said to be inductively
compensated
(fig.2)


The armature of universal motor is of the same construction as ordinary series motor. In order
to
minimize commutation problems, high resistance brushes with increased brush area are used.

The universal motor is simply, and cheap. It is used usually for rating not greater than 750 W. The
characteristics of universal motor are very much similar to those of d.c. series motors, but the series motor
develops less torque when operating from an a.c. supply than when working from an equivalent d.c. supply. The
direction of rotation can be changed by interchanging connections to the field with respect to the armature as in
d.c. series motor. Speed control of universal motors is best obtained by solid-state devices. Since the speed of
these is not limited by the supply frequency and may be as high as 20,000 r.p.m. (greater than the maximum
synchronous speed of 3000 r.p.m. at 50 Hz), they are most suitable for applications requiring high speeds.

Applications

There are numerous applications where universal motors are used, such as portable drills, hair dryers, grinders,
table-fans, blowers, polishers, kitchen appliances ets. They are also used for many other purposes where speed
control and high values of speed are necessary. Universal motors of a given horse power rating are significantly
smaller than other kinds of a.c. motors operating at the same frequency.
A repulsion motor is similar to an a.c. series motor except that: brushes are not connected to supply but
are short-circuited. Consequently, currents are induced in the armature conductors by transformer action and the
field structure has non-salient pole construction. By adjusting the position of short-circuited brushes on the
commutator, the starting torque can be developed in the motor.

Construction

The field of stator winding is wound like the main winding of a split-phase motor and is connected directly
to a single phase source. The armature or rotor is similar to a d.c. motor armature with drum type winding
connected to a commutator. However, the brushes are not connected to supply but are connected to each other or
short-circuited. Short-circuiting the brushes effectively makes the rotor into a type of squirrel cage. The major
difficulty with an ordinary single-phase induction motor is the low starting torque. By using a commutator motor
with brushes short-circuited, it is possible to vary the starting torque by changing the brush axis. It has also better
power factor than the conventional single-phase motor.
Characteristics

1. The repulsion motor has characteristics very similar to those of an a.c. series motor i.e., it has a high
starting torque and a high speed at no load.
2. The speed which the repulsion motor develops for any given load will depend upon the position of the
brushes.
3. In comparison with other single-phase motors, the repulsion motor has a high starring torque and
relatively low starting current.

a. Repulsion-start induction-run motor

Sometimes the action of a repulsion motor is combined with that of a single-phase induction motor to
produce repulsion-start induction-run motor (also called repulsion-start motor). The machine is started as a
repulsion motor with a corresponding high starting torque. At some predetermined speed, a centrifugal device
short-circuits the commutator so that the machine then operates as a single-phase induction motor. The repulsion-
start induction-run motor has the same general construction of a repulsion motor. The only difference is that in
addition to the basic repulsion-motor construction, it is equipped with a centrifugal device fitted on the armature
shaft. When the motor reaches 75% of its full pinning speed, the centrifugal device forces a short-circuiting ring
to come in contact with the inner surface of the commutator. This snort-circuits all the commutator bars. The rotor
then resembles squirrel-cage type and the motor runs as a single-phase induction
motor. At the same time, the centrifugal device raises the brushes from the commutator which reduces the wear
of the brushes and commutator as well as makes the operation quiet.

Characteristics
1. The starting torque is 2.5 to 4.5 times the full-load torque and the starting current is 3.75 times the full-
load value.
2. Due to their high starting torque, repulsion-motors were used to operate devices such as refrigerators,
pumps, compressors etc.

However, they posed a serious problem of maintenance of brushes, commutator arid the centrifugal device.
Consequently, manufacturers have stopped making them in view of the development of capacitor motors which
are small in size, reliable and low-priced

(i) Repulsion-induction motor

The repulsion-induction motor produces a high starting torque entirely due to repulsion motor action.
When running, it functions through a combination of induction-motor and repulsion motor action.
Construction
Figure below shows the connections of a 4-pole repulsion-induction motor for 230V operation. It
consists of a stator and a rotor (or armature).
1. The stator carries a single distributed winding fed from single-phase supply.
2. The rotor is provided with two independent windings placed one inside the other. The inner winding is a
squirrel-cage winding with rotor bars permanently short-circuited. Placed over the squirrel cage winding
is a repulsion commutator armature winding. The repulsion winding is connected to a commutator on
which ride short-circuited brushes. There is no centrifugal device and the repulsion winding functions at
all times.

Characteristics

1. The no-load speed of a repulsion-induction motor is somewhat above the synchronous speed because of
the effect of repulsion winding. However the speed at full-load is slightly less than the synchronous speed
as in an induction motor.
2. The speed regulation of the motor is about 6%.
3. The starting torque is 2.25 to 3 times the full-load torque; the lower value being for large motors. The
starting current is 3 to 4 times the full-load current.
This type of motor is used for applications requiring a high starting torque with essentially a constant running
speed. The common sizes are 0.25 to 5 H.P.

SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

The word “SYNCHRONOUS” is originated from Greek. The prefix “SYN” means “with” and
“CHRONOS” means “time”. A synchronous motor literally operates “in time with” or “in synchronism with” the
power supply system. Due to the fact the synchronous motors are fitted with special operating characteristics,
industries are more and more using such motors. Included in the main reasons for the industries to specify
SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS to drive a wide range of applications are the high efficiency and the fact they are
suitable to operate as synchronous compensating machines for power supply factor correction. In addition to that,
these motors also feature high torque, constant speed under load variation, along with low maintenance cost
allowing major economical and operational advantages to end users. Very small single-phase motors have been
developed which run at true synchronous speed. They do not require d.c. excitation for the rotor. Because of these
characteristics, they are called unexcited single-phase synchronous motors.

The most commonly used types are:

a. Reluctance motors
 It is a single-phase synchronous motor which does not require d.c. excitation to the rotor. Its
operation is based upon the following principle: Whenever a piece of ferromagnetic material is located in
a magnetic field; a
force is exerted on the material, tending to align the material so that reluctance of the magnetic path that
passes through the material is minimum.

Construction
A reluctance motor (also called synchronous reluctance motor) consists of:

i) a stator carrying a single-phase winding along with an auxiliary winding to produce a synchronous-
revolving magnetic field.
(i) a squirrel-cage rotor having unsymmetrical magnetic construction. This is achieved by symmetrically
removing some of the teeth from the squirrel-cage rotor to produce salient poles on the rotor. As
shown in Fig.(i), 4 salient poles have been produced on me rotor. The salient poles created on the
rotor must be equal to the poles on the stator.
Note that rotor salient poles offer low reluctance to the stator flux and, therefore, become strongly
magnetized

Characteristics

(i) These motors have poor torque, power factor and efficiency.
(ii) These motors cannot accelerate high-inertia loads to synchronous speed.
(iii) The pull-in and pull-out torques of such motors are weak.

Despite the above drawbacks, the reluctance motor is cheaper than any other type of synchronous motor.
They are widely used for constant-speed applications such as timing devices, signaling devices etc.

(b) Hysteresis motors

The efficiency and torque-developing ability of these motors is low; The output of most of the commercial
motors is only a few watts. It is a single-phase motor whose operation depends upon the hysteresis effect.i.e.,
magnetization produced in a ferromagnetic material lags behind the magnetizing force.

Construction

It consists of:
 (i). a stator designed to produce a synchronously-revolving field from a single-phase supply. This is
accomplished by using permanent-split capacitor type construction. Consequently, both the windings (i.e., starting
as well as main winding) remain connected in the circuit during running operation as well as at starting. The value
of capacitance is so adjusted as to result in a flux revolving at synchronous speed.

(ii). a rotor consisting of a smooth cylinder of magnetically hard steel, without winding or teeth.

Characteristics
(i) A hysteresis motor can synchronize any load which it can accelerate, no matter how great the
inertia. It is because the torque is uniform from standstill to synchronous speed.

(ii) Since the rotor has no teeth or salient poles or winding, a hysteresis motor is inherently quiet and
produces smooth rotation of the load.

(ii) The rotor takes on the same number of poles as the stator field. Thus by changing the number of
stator poles through pole-changing connections, we can get a set of synchronous speeds for
the motor.

Applications
Due to their quiet operation and ability to drive high-inertia toads, hysteresis motors are particularly well
suited for driving (i) electric clocks (ii) timing devices (iii) tape-decks (iv)from tables and other precision audio-
equipment.

Synchronous motors are used for constant speed, steady loads. High power factor operations of these
motors are sometimes exclusively used for power factor improvement. These motors find application in driving
low speed compressors, slow speed fans, pumps, ball mills, metal rolling mills and process industries.

Methods of Starting

1. By using a starting motor. This motor is directly coupled to the motor. It may be an induction motor
which can run on a synchronous speed closer to the synchronous speed of the main motor.
2. Starting as an induction motor. This is the most usual method in which the motor is provided with a
special damper winding on the poles. The rotor is switched on the supply either directly or by star
delta/reduced voltage starting. When the motor reaches more than 95% of the synchronous speed, the dc
circuit breaker for field excitation is switched on and and the field current is gradually increased. The rotor
pulls into synchronism.
 A. Pull-in Torque. It is the maximum constant load torque under which the motor will pull into
synchronism at the rated rotor supply voltage and rated frequency, when the rated field current is applied

B. Nominal Pull in Torque. It is the value of pull in torque at 95% of the synchronous speed with the
rated voltage and frequency applied to the stator when the motor is running with the winding current.

C. Pull out torque. It is the maximum sustained torque which the motor will develop at synchronous
speed for I minute with rated frequency and with rated field current.

D. Pull up torque. It is the minimum torque developed between standstill and .pull in point. This torque
must exceed the load torque by sufficient margin to ensure satisfactory acceleration of the load during
starting.

E. Reluctance torque. It is fraction of the total torque with the motor operating synchronously. It results
from saliency of the poles. It is approximately 30% of the pull-out torque.

F. Locked rotor torque. It is the maximum torque which a synchronous motor will-develop at rest, for
any angular positions of the rotor at the rated voltage and frequency.

AC Generators
AC generators convert mechanical energy into electrical energy (the same way a DC Generator does) by
means of electromagnetic induction. AC Generators are referred to as ALTERNATORS because they convert
mechanical energy into AC Voltage and Current (Alternating Current). They are similar to DC Generator in that
both generators have Field Winding and an Armature that rotates in a magnetic field.

AC GENERATORS consists of a Field Winding, an Armature (Coil), Slip Rings and Brushes as depicted
in the below picture:

Field Windings are magnets used to produce the magnetic field in a generator. The magnetic field can be
provided by permanent magnets or by Electromagnets. Most AC Generators have their magnetic field generated
by Electromagnets. Electromagnets are supplied with an external current to keep the magnetic field at its desired
magnetic strength.
 An Armature (Coil) is the movable coil of wire that rotates through the magnetic field. An Armature (Coil)
may consist of many coils (similar to the armature in a DC generator). The difference between the DC Generator
and the AC Generator is:

In a DC Generators Armature the ends of the coil(s) are attached to a commutator.

In an AC Generators Armature the ends of the coil(s) are attached to slip rings.

Slip Rings are metallic rings connected to the ends of the armature coils(s) and are used to connect the induced
voltage to the generators brushes. When the armature is rotated in the magnetic field, a voltage is generated in
each half of the armature coil. This voltage is illustrated in the below sine wave of one revolution:

An AC Generator uses slip rings, which will allow the output current and voltage to oscillate through
positive and negative values. This oscillation of voltage and current takes the shape of a sine wave. This is typical
of the AC Voltage we have in our homes and industry throughout the world.

In DC Generators, a commutator is used to provide an output whose current always flowed in the positive
direction as illustrated in the below figure:

Brushes in an AC Generator are the sliding contact that rides against the slip rings and is used to connect the
armature to the external AC Circuit. As the armature is rotated, each half cuts across the magnetic lines of force
at the same speed. Thus the strength of the voltage induced in one side of the armature is always the same strength
of the voltage induced in the other side of the armature.

Each half of the armature cuts the magnetic lines of force in a different direction. As the armature rotates in
the clockwise direction, the lower half of the coil cuts the magnetic lines of force from the bottom up to the to the
left, while the top half of the coil cuts the magnetic lines of force from the top down to the right.
 The voltage induced in one side of the coil, therefore, is opposite to the voltage induced in the other side of
the coil. The voltage in the lower left half of the coil enables current flow in one direction, and the voltage in the

upper half enables current flow in the opposite direction. This means the voltage and current alternates in both
directions as is why it is called ALTERNATING CURRENT VOLTAGE (AC Voltage).

Since the two halves of the coil(s) are connected in a closed loop, the voltages add to each other. The result
is that the total of a full rotation of the armature is twice the voltage of each coil(s) half. This total voltage is
obtained at the brushes connected to the slip rings, and is applied to an external circuit.

ALTERNATORS
Alternators are electrical machine converting mechanical energy to AC electrical energy.

General Types of Alternator

A. Synchronous Generator
A generator called synchronous because it is driven at constant speed (synchronous speed) and it is used
in almost all types of applications.

B. Induction Generator
It is an induction motor which run as a generator with speed above synchronous speed. Its power factor
(p.f) is usually leading and connected in parallel with a synchronous generator in order to supply power for
lighting loads.

C. Induction Alternator
It gives voltage at a higher frequency (500Hz to 10 000 Hz). It is used to supply power to induction
furnace in order to heat and melt metal.

Two Types of Alternator:

1. Revolving armature type
2. Revolving Field Type
a) Stator - Stationary Armature
b) Rotor - Rotating Field Poles
Advantages of Stationary Armature
1. Output current is delivered to the load without passing it through the brush contacts.
2. Easier to insulate stationary armature winding for high voltage.
3. Armature winding can be easily braced to prevent deformation which could be produced by
mechanical stresses.
4. Easily insulated slip rings which transfers low voltage, low power dc field circuit.

Two Types of Rotors Used:

A. Salient Pole Construction

Used for low speed alternator, large diameter than axial length, having more poles (from 6 to 40 poles).
B. Smooth Cylindrical Construction
Used for high speed alternator, diameter is less than axial length having less number of poles ( 2 or 4
poles).

Prime Movers for Alternators

A. For large AC Generator
a) Steam Turbine
b) Gas Turbine
c) Hydraulic Turbine
d) Internal Combustion Engine

B. For Small Generator

a) Use internal combustion engines

Frequency (f) of Generated Emf

f PNs
120

Where:
P = number of Poles

NS = synchronous Speed (rpm)

Generated Emf Equation (per phase)

E 4.44 NfK K x10 8 volts (rms) (if øp is in lines or maxwells)

P p d

E volts (rms) (if ø p is in weber)

Or 4.44 P NfK p Kd
Or E2.22Z P fK p Kd volts (rms) (if ø p is in weber)

Or EZEZ K p Kd volts (rms)

Notations:

Eø = generated emf per phare

Ez = rms voltage per conductor

øP = flux per pole in maxwell/webers/lines

N = number of turns per phase

Z = number of conductors per phase

f = frequency in Hz

Kp = pitch factor or the coil span factor

Kd = distribution breadth factor

Pitch Factor or the Coil Span Factor (Kp)

vector _ sum _ of _ induced _ emf _ per _ coil

Kp
Arithmetic _ sum _ of _ induced _ emf _ per _ coil

o o
K cos sin
p
2 2

Where:

α o = 180o - ρo

Where:
o coilpitch o
slotpitch x180
Distribution or Breadth Factor (Kd)

Kd Vector _ sum _ of _ coil _ emf emf _ with _ distributed _ winding

Arithmetic _ sum _ of _ coil _ emf emf _ with _ concentrated _ winding

n o
sin

K 2
d o
n sin
2

Where:

0
180o
slots / pole

Notations:

ρ o = distance in electrical degree between coil sides

αo = required distance in electrical degree to make it a full-pitch

coil βo = distance in electrical degree between adjacent slots n =

number of slots per pole per phase

Sample Problems:

1. What is the speed of a 100 kW, 230 volts, three phase, four pole, 60 Hz alternator? (Ans. 1800 rpm)
2. A six-pole, 3-phase AC generator has 72 slots, the coil span is 12. What is the pitch factor? (Ans. 1.00)

3. A three-phase alternator has 6 slots per pole per phase. Determine the distribution factor. (Ans. 0.956)
 FINALS
TRANSFORMERS

A transformer is a static (or stationary) piece of apparatus by means of which electric power in one circuit is transformed
into electrical power of the same frequency in another circuit. It can raise or lower the voltage in a circuit but with a
corresponding decrease or increase in current. The physical basis of a transformer is mutual induction between two circuits
linked by a common magnetic flux. In its simplest form, it consists of two inductive coils which are separated but
magnetically linked through a path of low reluctance.

The two coils possess high mutual inductance,. If one coil is connected to a source of alternating voltage, alternating
flux is set up in the laminated core, most of which is linked with the other coil in which it produces mutually induced emf
(according to Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction e=MdI/dt). If the second coil circuit is closed, a current flows in
it and so electric energy is transferred (entirely magnetically) from the first coil to the second coil. The first coil, in which
electric energy is fed from the ac supply mains, is called primary winding and the other from which energy is drawn out, is
called secondary winding.

In brief, a transformer is a device that:

1. Transfers electric power from one circuit to another.

2. It does so without a change of frequency
3. It accomplishes this by electromagnetic induction, and
4. Where the two electric circuits are in mutual inductive influence of each other.
FARADAY’S LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

According to Faraday’s Law, “The rate of change of flux linkage with respect to the time is directly proportional to the
induced emf in a conductor or coil”

BASIC THEORY OF TRANSFORMER

Say you have one winding which is supplied by an alternating electrical source. The alternating current through the
winding produces a continually changing flux or alternating flux that surrounds the winding. If any other winding is brought
nearer to the previous one, obviously some portion of this flux will link with the second. As this flux is continually changing
in its amplitude and direction, there must be a change in flux linkage in the second winding or coil. According to Faraday's
law of electromagnetic induction, there must be an EMF induced in the second. If the circuit of the later winding is closed,
there must be an current flowing through it. This is the simplest form of electrical power transformer and this is the most
basic of working principle of transformer.

TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION

The simple elements of a transformer consists of two coils having mutual inductance and a laminated core. The two
coils are insulated from each other and the steel core. Other necessary parts are: some suitable container, for assembled core
and windings, a suitable medium for insulating the core and its windings from its container, suitable bushings (either of
porcelain, oil-filled or capacitor-type) for insulating and bringing out the terminals of windings from the tank.

In all types of transformers, the core is constructed of transformer sheet steel laminations assembled to provide a
continuous magnetic path with a minimum of air-gap included. The steel used is of high silicon content, sometimes heat
treated to produce a high permeability and a low hysteresis loss at the usual operating flux densities.

Constructionally, the transformers are of two general types, distinguished from each other merely by the manner in
which the primary and secondary coils are placed around the laminated core. The two types are known as (i) core type and
(ii) shell-type. Another recent development is spiral-core or wound -core type, the trade name being spirakore
transformer.

In the so-called core type transformers, the windings surround a considerable part of the core whereas in shell-type
transformers, the core surrounds a considerable portion of the windings.
Types of Transformers
The types of transformers differ in the manner in which the primary and secondary coils are provided
around the laminated steel core. According to the design, transformers can be classified into two:

1. Core- Type Transformer

In core-type transformer, the windings are given to a considerable part of the core. The coils used for this
transformer are form-wound and are of cylindrical type. Such a type of transformer can be applicable for small
sized and large sized transformers. In the small sized type, the core will be rectangular in shape and the coils used
are cylindrical. The figure below shows the large sized type. You can see that the round or cylindrical coils are
wound in such a way as to fit over a cruciform core section. In the case of circular cylindrical coils, they have a
fair advantage of having good mechanical strength. The cylindrical coils will have different layers and each layer
will be insulated from the other with the help of materials like paper, cloth, micarta board and so on. The general
arrangement of the core-type transformer with respect to the core is shown below. Both low-voltage (LV) and
high voltage (HV) windings are shown.

Core Type Transformer Cruciform Section

 Core Type Transformers

The low voltage windings are placed nearer to the core as it is the easiest to insulate. The effective core area of
the transformer can be reduced with the use of laminations and insulation.

2. Shell-Type Transformer. In shell-type transformers the core surrounds a considerable portion of the
windings. The comparison is shown in the figure below.

Core Type and Shell Type Transformer Winding

The coils are form-wound but are multi layer disc type usually wound in the form of pancakes. Paper is used to
insulate the different layers of the multi-layer discs. The whole winding consists of discs stacked with insulation
spaces between the coils. These insulation spaces form the horizontal cooling and insulating ducts. Such a
transformer may have the shape of a simple rectangle or may also have a distributed form. Both designs are shown
in the figure below:
 Shell Type Transformers Rectangular Form

Shell Type Transformers Distributed Form

A strong rigid mechanical bracing must be given to the cores and coils of the transformers. This will help in
minimizing the movement of the device and also prevents the device from getting any insulation damage. A
transformer with good bracing will not produce any humming noise during its working and will also reduce
vibration.

A special housing platform must be provided for transformers. Usually, the device is placed in tightly-fitted sheet-
metal tanks filled with special insulating oil. This oil is needed to circulate through the device and cool the coils.
It is also responsible for providing the additional insulation for the device when it is left in the air.

There may be cases when the smooth tank surface will not be able to provide the needed cooling area. In such
cases, the sides of the tank are corrugated or assembled with radiators on the sides of the device. The oil used for
cooling purpose must be absolutely free from alkalis, sulphur and most importantly moisture. Even a small amount
of moisture in the oil will cause a significant change in the insulating property of the device, as it lessens the
dielectric strength of the oil to a great extent. Mathematically speaking, the presence of about 8 parts of water in
1 million reduces the insulating quality of the oil to a value that is not considered standard for use. Thus, the tanks
are protected by sealing them air-tight in smaller units. When large transformers are used, the air tight method is
practically difficult to implement. In such cases, chambers are provided for the oil to expand and contract as its
temperature increases and decreases. These breathers form a barrier and resists the
atmospheric moisture from contact with oil. Special care must also be taken to avoid sledging. Sledging occurs
when oil decomposes due to over exposure to oxygen during heating. It results in the formation of large deposits
of dark and heavy matter that clogs the cooling ducts in the transformer.
The quality, durability and handling of these insulating materials decide the life of the transformer. All the
transformer leads are brought out of their cases through suitable bushings. There are many designs of these, their
size and construction depending on the voltage of the leads. Porcelain bushings may be used to insulate the leads,
for transformers that are used in moderate voltages. Oil-filled or capacitive-type bushings are used for high
voltage transformers.

The selection between the core and shell type is made by comparing the cost because similar characteristics can
be obtained from both types. Most manufacturers prefer to use shell-type transformers for high-voltage
applications or for multi-winding design. When compared to a core type, the shell type has a longer mean length

of coil turn. Other parameters that are compared for the selection of transformer type are voltage rating, kilo-volt
ampere rating, weight, insulation stress, heat distribution and so on.

Transformers can also be classified according to the type of cooling employed. The different types according to
these classifications are:

1. Oil Filled Self-Cooled Type

Oil filled self cooled type uses small and medium-sized distribution transformers. The assembled windings and
core of such transformers are mounted in a welded, oil-tight steel tanks provided with a steel cover. The tank is
filled with purified, high quality insulating oil as soon as the core is put back at its proper place. The oil helps in
transferring the heat from the core and the windings to the case from where it is radiated out to the surroundings.
For smaller sized transformers the tanks are usually smooth surfaced, but for large size transformers a greater heat
radiation area is needed, and that too without disturbing the cubical capacity of the tank. This is achieved by
frequently corrugating the cases. Still larger sizes are provided with radiation or pipes.

2. Oil Filled Water Cooled Type

This type is used for much more economic construction of large transformers, as the above told self cooled method
is very expensive. The same method is used here as well- the windings and the core are immersed in the oil. The
only difference is that a cooling coil is mounted near the surface of the oil, through which cold water keeps
circulating. This water carries the heat from the device. This design is usually implemented on transformers that
are used in high voltage transmission lines. The biggest advantage of such a design is that such transformers do
not require housing other than their own. This reduces the costs by a huge amount. Another advantage is that the
maintenance and inspection of this type is only needed once or twice in a year.
3. Air Blast Type

This type is used for transformers that use voltages below 25,000 volts. The transformer is housed in a thin
sheet metal box open at both ends through which air is blown from the bottom to the top.

Single Phase Voltage Transformer

In other words, for a transformer there is no direct electrical connection between the two coil windings, thereby
giving it the name also of an Isolation Transformer. Generally, the primary winding of a transformer is
connected to the input voltage supply and converts or transforms the electrical power into a magnetic field. While
the job of the secondary winding is to convert this alternating magnetic field into electrical power producing the
required output voltage as shown.

Transformer Construction (single-phase)

Where:
VP - is the Primary Voltage VS
- is the Secondary Voltage
NP - is the Number of Primary Windings
NS - is the Number of Secondary Windings
Φ (phi) - is the Flux Linkage
Notice that the two coil windings are not electrically connected but are only linked magnetically. A single-phase
transformer can operate to either increase or decrease the voltage applied to the primary winding. When a
transformer is used to “increase” the voltage on its secondary winding with respect to the primary, it is called a
Step-up transformer. When it is used to “decrease” the voltage on the secondary winding with respect to the
primary it is called a Step-down transformer.
However, a third condition exists in which a transformer produces the same voltage on its secondary as is applied
to its primary winding. In other words, its output is identical with respect to voltage, current and power transferred.
This type of transformer is called an “Impedance Transformer” and is mainly used for impedance matching or the
isolation of adjoining electrical circuits.
The difference in voltage between the primary and the secondary windings is achieved by changing the number
of coil turns in the primary winding ( NP ) compared to the number of coil turns on the secondary winding
(NS).
As the transformer is basically a linear device, a ratio now exists between the number of turns of the primary coil
divided by the number of turns of the secondary coil. This ratio, called the ratio of transformation, more commonly
known as a transformers “turns ratio”, ( TR ). This turns ratio value dictates the operation of the transformer and
the corresponding voltage available on the secondary winding.
It is necessary to know the ratio of the number of turns of wire on the primary winding compared to the secondary
winding. The turns ratio, which has no units, compares the two windings in order and is written with a colon, such
as 3:1 (3-to-1). This means in this example, that if there are 3 volts on the primary winding there will be 1 volt on
the secondary winding, 3 volts-to-1 volt. Then we can see that if the ratio between the number of turns changes
the resulting voltages must also change by the same ratio, and this is true.
Transformers are all about “ratios”. The ratio of the primary to the secondary, the ratio of the input to the output,
and the turns ratio of any given transformer will be the same as its voltage ratio. In other words for a transformer:
“turns ratio = voltage ratio”. The actual number of turns of wire on any winding is generally not important, just
the turns ratio and this relationship is given as:

A Transformers Turns Ratio

Assuming an ideal transformer and the phase angles: ΦP ≡ ΦS

Note that the order of the numbers when expressing a transformers turns ratio value is very important as the turns
ratio 3:1 expresses a very different transformer relationship and output voltage than one in which the turns ratio
is given as: 1:3.
Transformer Basics Example No1
A voltage transformer has 1500 turns of wire on its primary coil and 500 turns of wire for its secondary coil.
What will be the turns ratio (TR) of the transformer.

Transformer Basics Example No2

If 240 volts rms is applied to the primary winding of the same transformer above, what will be the resulting
secondary no load voltage.

Again confirming that the transformer is a “step-down transformer as the primary voltage is 240 volts and the
corresponding secondary voltage is lower at 80 volts.
Then the main purpose of a transformer is to transform voltages at preset ratios and we can see that the primary
winding has a set amount or number of windings (coils of wire) on it to suit the input voltage. If the secondary
output voltage is to be the same value as the input voltage on the primary winding, then the same number of coil
turns must be wound onto the secondary core as there are on the primary core giving an even turns ratio of 1:1
(1-to-1). In other words, one coil turn on the secondary to one coil turn on the primary.
If the output secondary voltage is to be greater or higher than the input voltage, (step-up transformer) then there
must be more turns on the secondary giving a turns ratio of 1:N (1-to-N), where N represents the turns ratio
number. Likewise, if it is required that the secondary voltage is to be lower or less than the primary, (step-down
transformer) then the number of secondary windings must be less giving a turns ratio of N:1 (N-to-1).

Transformer Action

We have seen that the number of coil turns on the secondary winding compared to the primary winding, the turns
ratio, affects the amount of voltage available from the secondary coil. But if the two windings are electrically
isolated from each other, how is this secondary voltage produced?
We have said previously that a transformer basically consists of two coils wound around a common soft iron core.
When an alternating voltage ( VP ) is applied to the primary coil, current flows through the coil which in turn sets
up a magnetic field around itself, called mutual inductance, by this current flow according to Faraday’s Law of
electromagnetic induction. The strength of the magnetic field builds up as the current flow rises from zero to its
maximum value which is given as dΦ/dt.
As the magnetic lines of force setup by this electromagnet expand outward from the coil the soft iron core forms
a path for and concentrates the magnetic flux. This magnetic flux links the turns of both windings as it increases
and decreases in opposite directions under the influence of the AC supply.

However, the strength of the magnetic field induced into the soft iron core depends upon the amount of current
and the number of turns in the winding. When current is reduced, the magnetic field strength reduces.

When the magnetic lines of flux flow around the core, they pass through the turns of the secondary winding,
causing a voltage to be induced into the secondary coil. The amount of voltage induced will be determined by:
N.dΦ/dt (Faraday’s Law), where N is the number of coil turns. Also this induced voltage has the same frequency
as the primary winding voltage.
Then we can see that the same voltage is induced in each coil turn of both windings because the same magnetic
flux links the turns of both the windings together. As a result, the total induced voltage in each winding is directly
proportional to the number of turns in that winding. However, the peak amplitude of the output voltage available
on the secondary winding will be reduced if the magnetic losses of the core are high.
If we want the primary coil to produce a stronger magnetic field to overcome the cores magnetic losses, we can
either send a larger current through the coil, or keep the same current flowing, and instead increase the number
of coil turns ( NP ) of the winding. The product of amperes times turns is called the “ampere-turns”, which
determines the magnetising force of the coil.
So assuming we have a transformer with a single turn in the primary, and only one turn in the secondary. If one
volt is applied to the one turn of the primary coil, assuming no losses, enough current must flow and enough
magnetic flux generated to induce one volt in the single turn of the secondary. That is, each winding supports the
same number of volts per turn.
As the magnetic flux varies sinusoidally, Φ = Φ max sinωt, then the basic relationship between induced emf, ( E )
in a coil winding of N turns is given by:
 emf = turns x rate of change

Where:
ƒ - is the flux frequency in Hertz, = ω/2π
Ν - is the number of coil windings.
Φ - is the flux density in webers

This is known as the Transformer EMF Equation. For the primary winding emf, N will be the number of
primary turns, ( NP ) and for the secondary winding emf, N will be the number of secondary turns, ( N S ).
Also please note that as transformers require an alternating magnetic flux to operate correctly, transformers
cannot therefore be used to transform or supply DC voltages or currents, since the magnetic field must be

changing to induce a voltage in the secondary winding. In other words,transformers DO NOT operate on steady
state DC voltages, only alternating or pulsating v oltages.

If a transformers primary winding was connected to a DC supply, the inductive reactance of the winding would
be zero as DC has no frequency, so the effective impedance of the winding will therefore be very low and equal
only to the resistance of the copper used. Thus the winding will draw a very high current from the DC supply
causing it to overheat and eventually burn out, because as we know I = V/R.

Transformer Basics Example No3

A single phase transformer has 480 turns on the primary winding and 90 turns on the secondary winding. The
maximum value of the magnetic flux density is 1.1T when 2200 volts, 50Hz is applied to the transformer primary
winding. Calculate:
a). The maximum flux in the core.
b). The cross-sectional area of the core.

c). The secondary induced emf.

Electrical Power in a Transformer

Another one of the transformer basics parameters is its power rating. Transformers are rated in Volt-
amperes, ( VA ), or in larger units of Kilo Volt-amperes, ( kVA ). In an ideal transformer (ignoring any losses),
the power available in the secondary winding will be the same as the power in the primary winding, they are
constant wattage devices and do not change the power only the voltage to current ratio. Thus, in an ideal
transformer the Power Ratio is equal to one (unity) as the voltage, V multiplied by the current, I will remain
constant.
That is the electric power at one voltage/current level on the primary is “transformed” into electric power,
at the same frequency, to the same voltage/current level on the secondary side. Although the transformer can step-
up (or step-down) voltage, it cannot step-up power. Thus, when a transformer steps-up a voltage, it

steps-down the current and vice-versa, so that the output power is always at the same value as the input power.
Then we can say that primary power equals secondary power, ( P P = PS ).

Power in a Transformer

Where: ΦP is the primary phase angle and ΦS is the secondary phase angle.

Note that since power loss is proportional to the square of the current being transmitted, that is:I 2R, increasing
the voltage, let’s say doubling ( ×2 ) the voltage would decrease the current by the same amount, ( ÷2 ) while
delivering the same amount of power to the load and therefore reducing losses by factor of 4. If the voltage was
increased by a factor of 10, the current would decrease by the same factor reducing overall losses by factor of
100.

Transformer Basics – Efficiency

A transformer does not require any moving parts to transfer energy. This means that there are no friction
or windage losses associated with other electrical machines. However, transformers do suffer from other types of
losses called “copper losses” and “iron losses” but generally these are quite small.

Copper losses, also known as I2R loss is the electrical power which is lost in heat as a result of circulating
the currents around the transformers copper windings, hence the name. Copper losses represents the greatest loss

in the operation of a transformer. The actual watts of power lost can be determined (in each winding) by squaring
the amperes and multiplying by the resistance in ohms of the winding (I 2R).
Iron losses, also known as hysteresis is the lagging of the magnetic molecules within the core, in response
to the alternating magnetic flux. This lagging (or out-of-phase) condition is due to the fact that it requires power
to reverse magnetic molecules; they do not reverse until the flux has attained sufficient force to reverse them.
Their reversal results in friction, and friction produces heat in the core which is a form of power loss.
Hysteresis within the transformer can be reduced by making the core from special steel alloys.
The intensity of power loss in a transformer determines its efficiency. The efficiency of a transformer is
reflected in power (wattage) loss between the primary (input) and secondary (output) windings. Then the resulting
efficiency of a transformer is equal to the ratio of the power output of the secondary winding, PS to the power
input of the primary winding, PP and is therefore high.
An ideal transformer is 100% efficient because it delivers all the energy it receives. Real transformers on
the other hand are not 100% efficient and at full load, the efficiency of a transformer is between 94% to 96%
which is quiet good. For a transformer operating with a constant voltage and frequency with a very high capacity,
the efficiency may be as high as 98%. The efficiency, η of a transformer is given a

Transformer Efficiency

where: Input, Output and Losses are all expressed in units of power.
Generally when dealing with transformers, the primary watts are called “volt-amps”, VA to differentiate them
from the secondary watts. Then the efficiency equation above can be modified to:
It is sometimes easier to remember the relationship between the transformers input, output and efficiency by using
pictures. Here the three quantities of VA, W and η have been superimposed into a triangle giving power in watts
at the top with volt-amps and efficiency at the bottom. This arrangement represents the actual position of each
quantity in the efficiency formulas.

Shifting of Transformer Parameters From Primary to Secondary or Vice-Versa

2
N 2 R R R N
R R R 1 2
e2 2 1
e1 1 2
N
N2 1
2 2
X X X N X X X
N
1 2
e1 1 2 e2 2 1
N
N2 1

Z (R )2 ( X )2 Z (R ) 2 ( X ) 2
e1 e1 e1 e2 e2 e2

Where:
Re1 = equivalent resistance referred to the primary side
Re2 = equivalent resistance referred to the secondary side
Xe1 = equivalent reactance referred to the primary side
Xe2 = equivalent reactance referred to the secondary side
Ze1 = equivalent impedance referred to the primary side
Ze2 = equivalent impedance referred to the secondary side
 `

EE 422 – AC & DC MACHINERY

2nd SEMESTER - AY 2019-2020 (FINALS)
ENGR. JENICA ARIANE C. PANALIGAN