Chapter One: Understanding Civics and Ethics WOYAHA, DELH, FTVETI

Course Introduction
Dear learner, Civic and Ethical Education is an important component of education that cultivates citizens to
participate in the public life of a democracy, to use their rights and to discharge their responsibilities and
duties with the necessary knowledge and skills that they acquire.

It should be recognized that the realization of a free society whose members exercise self-governance highly
depends on the active involvement of the citizens in every angle of the social life.

Literally, democracy is defined as a political system implemented in a society in which the members (citizens)
administer themselves. In this political system, citizens are decision makers on their socio-political and
economic affairs. That is to mean self-governing.

Here what should not be forgotten is that democracy is a process not an event. It is a process in which it
renews itself or progresses to the better level. This can be achieved if the citizens are alert, informed and
those who feel sense of belongingness. In this building up process of democracy, the active involvement of
citizens is vitally important. The enjoyment of the fruits of democracy: development, peace, stability and the
like is possible, provided that citizens actively involvement in the process. In short, citizens in democratic
society are expected to be vigilant, active participant, informed, duty-minded and responsible, and the way to
infuse them with the necessary qualities, knowledge, skills and attitudes is through education. That could be
the very goal of this course, Civic and Ethical Education.

Furthermore, this course is designed to deepen your competence of actively participating in the public life
using your democratic rights and discharging responsibilities with the necessary civic knowledge, values and
skills. It is also intended to help you to be visionary citizens who are concerned with civic and political issues
affecting you, the society and the country. To this effect, the course provided a detailed discussion on civic
and ethical issues, such as competences of good citizens, professional ethics, society, state and government,
citizen and citizenship, constitution and constitutionalism democracy and human rights, , amongst others. The
course further deals with contemporary global issues such as issues of development, issues of governance
and democratization and issues of peace and stability. In addition to this, the course attempts to engender
participatory civic skills such as working with others, collaborative deliberation and decision making, and how
to constructively and peacefully influence each other.

Civic and Ethical Education (CEE101) -1-

At the end of the course, you will be able to:
 understand clearly their rights and responsibilities and then exercise accordingly in local, national and
international involvement
 know important civic knowledge, attitude and skills, such as patriotism, civic mindedness, active
participation, tolerance, critical thinking, conflict resolution etc.
 comprehend with the concept of civics, ethics, morality and professional ethics
 recognize the meaning, historical development and origin of society, state and government nationally
and internationally
 understand the meaning, origin and development of citizen and citizenship
 grasp the concept and development of constitution and constitutionalism nationally and
internationally
 distinguish the meaning, history, conceptual principles, features and theoretical development of
democracy and human rights
 identify the development, concept, values and principles of democracy and human rights
 comprehend chosen contemporary national and international issues of development; issues of
democracy and globalization; and issues of peace and stability
 identify ways and positive attitudes to commit oneself to play a significant and constructive role
towards the developmental effort of the society and the country
 know with various approaches to overcome dynamic national and global challenges and utilize
recurrent opportunities for the benefit of all

This teaching material in general, is made in line with the above mentioned purpose of civic and ethical
education. For that end, this material has six chapters and sixteen units each of which has brain storming,
related quotations (sayings), review questions, assignments and selected references.
 CHAPTER ONE
UNDERSTANDING CIVICS AND ETHICS

UNIT 1.1: WHAT IS CIVICS?

Contents
1.1.1 Introduction
1.1.2 Aims and objective
1.1.3 Definition and subject matter of Civics
1.1.4 The ultimate goal of civics
1.1.5 The importance of civic education
1.1.6 Check your progress
1.1.7 Selected references

1.1.1 INTRODUCTION

Dear learner, it is common and appropriate to begin with questioning about the very intention, meaning and
importance of learning a certain discipline. There must be purpose(s) when we attend an education. In similar
way, civics as an education about free people has a purpose. Its’ goal is arming citizens with the necessary
knowledge, skill and attitudes that will enable them to be informed, responsible, competent and active
participant in all the three life aspects (political, social and economic). After having the necessary knowledge
and skill citizens are expected to develop attitude.

The following sub-divisions of this unit deal with the meaning of civics and its subject matter. In this sub-unit,
you will see also the multi disciplinary nature of civic education.

1.1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this unit is to familiarize you with the very nature, essence and intention of civics and civic
education. You might have asked yourself, the reason why you learn civics and civic education. This unit tries
to give you the reason/importance of having this education.

In order to exercise, self administration, as a democratic citizens we need to enjoy those rights that allow and
encourage us to be active participant. The most important political right, reserved to citizens is the right to
participate in governing their nation. The unit will discuss the importance and purpose of citizens’
participation.

When you finish the unit, you should be able to:

 explain what civic and civic education means
 discuss the purposes and uses of learning civics
 describe the interdependence between active participation of citizens and building democratic system
 discuss goal of civics.
 Appreciate the multi-disciplinary nature of civic education

1.1.3 DEFINITION AND SUBJECT MATTER OF CIVIC EDUCATION

Dear learner, have you ever thought the relation among these words civic, civil, civilian,
civility, citizen, civilization, city? Do you think that they have all one origin? And when and
how civic education started?
According to various scholars and school of thought, the subject field of civics originates from the nature of
human being itself i.e. from the natural behavior and levels of interaction of human beings itself. One basic
nature of human beings related with this statement is the fact that “man is a social animal” whose life is
closely related to each other.

Almost all instincts, demands and progresses of human beings are fulfilled in society. The superiority that
human beings try to achieve over nature and other living things is the result of the social bond among human
beings. If such bond is a requirement for the survival of human beings, then what should be the pattern of
social interaction that exist among human beings is closely related with the subject matter of civics.

In this regard civics is considered as a subject field which is mainly concerned with teaching citizens as to
how they can live harmonious and peaceful life with other citizens and as to how they can resolve conflicts
peacefully among themselves.

The other basic nature of human being is the political view of philosophy by Plato that, “Man is a political
animal”, which means no human being can escape from the deeds of politics and its day-to-day life is either
directly or indirectly affected by it. For this reason human beings have to know the workings of politics,
institutions that affect their day to day life, norms, principles and laws which are set in motion by politicians to
govern their societies and above all the duties and rights that they have in the political community in which
they are leading their life. So, civics tries to make you familiar with such and other concepts that make you
active and awarded citizens.

The origin of the concept civics is a Latin term ‘civis’ meaning a citizen or free individual belonging to a
political community. Citizens are legal members of a politically organized community- called state. The term
citizen refers to a person who has the right to be a full member of a particular state, while the actual legal
status of membership to a state is called citizenship. The Latin term civis specifically refers to free native
individuals belonging to a civitas. ‘Civitas’ is a Latin term, from which the English word city is derived,
signified not merely urban center or local municipality but the state or the political community as a whole. In
the ancient time the Greek small political units (city-states) were known as civitas. The inhabitants particularly
who were native and adult were termed as civis. Civics deals with the various aspects of social life of a
citizen. It studies everything about citizens. The great political thinker, Aristotle defined “man as a social
animal”. He further goes to say that man as a social being interacts with other members of the society. But in
his interaction with the society, there may be cooperation and/or conflict. What matters most is not why
conflict arise among human beings rather the question should be how to solve differences and live in
harmony with each other. And therefore, civics as a branch of social science and discipline is concerned with
the understanding and the relationship between man and his society/state.

Civis is also the root word for the present time widely used concepts such as civil, civility, civic, civics etc.
One of the derivatives of this word, civics is also used as the study of a person's rights and duties as a
citizen. Civics is also sometimes understood as a science of citizens and citizenship. It is a combination of
many subjects, including history, political science, geography, law, philosophy, economics, etc. Civics is the
science of comparative government and means of administering public trust - the theory of governance as
applied to state institutions. From its Etymological meaning, we can understand that civic education is
education about citizens (civis). In general, it is treated as the study of citizenship and government, usually
having to do with the rights and duties of citizens and government.

Civics is also defined as the study of institutions, habits and spirits by means of which a man or woman
(citizens) may fulfill the duties and receive the benefits of membership in political community.

It is also concerned with the intensive study and understanding of political institutions such as law- making
institutions or legislatives (parliament), executive bodies, and political institutions of various type or kinds
existing in a country. The purpose of government, the nature of law, and the way private behavior affects the
public order and the political system is also the concern of civics.

Civics as an interdisciplinary study, specifically deals with the following issues;

 The meaning and essence of citizens and citizenship.
 How law is made, executed and interpreted.
 Rights, duties and responsibilities of citizens, government bodies and their officials.
 Issues of society, state and government
 The nature and importance of constitution, democracy and human rights.
 Contemporary issues of civics and ethics, i.e. globalization, global warming etc.

“There is in our hands as citizens an instrument to mould the minds of the young and to
create great and good and noble citizens for the future.”
Edward Shortt (1862-1935) British politician. Referring to the British Board of Film
Censors

1.1.4 THE ULTIMATE GOAL OF CIVICS

The active participation of citizens in their own socio-economic and political affairs is vitally important for the
realization of a healthy democratic system. Democracy is a political system in which people are decision
makers on their own affairs. It is a system in which people exercise self administration (self governance). Self
administration demands the active participation of citizens. The participation should not be for the sake of
participation, but for the purpose of bringing change (betterment) in the society.

In order to actively participate in the political, economic and social affairs, citizens require the necessary
knowledge, awareness and skills. Particularly, in the process of building up a democratic system citizens
should be armed with the necessary knowledge and skill that enable them to be active participant.

“Democracy is a difficult kind of government. It requires the highest qualities of self-

discipline, restraint, a willingness to make commitments and sacrifices for the general
interest, and it also requires knowledge.”
John Fitzgerald Kennedy (1917-1963) U.S. president. Speech, Dublin Castle, Republic of

The ultimate goal of civics is to enable students to participate competently and responsibly in the monitoring
and influencing of public policy. The primary concern of civics is training in self government. Democratic self
government means that citizens are actively involved in their own governance; they do not just passively
accept the authoritative saying, statement, or pronouncement of others. In a genuine democratic system
citizens are expected to be critical thinkers. They critically examine the government policy, behavior and
activities. And when ever need arises they influence the law making processes. The main goal of the study
is to identify and examine, in a comparative framework, the ways in which citizens are prepared to undertake
their role as citizens, in democratic system. To that goal civics provides students or trainees with the
necessary knowledge and skill that enable them to be competent, responsible and vigilant citizens.

1.1.5 THE IMPORTANCE OF CIVIC EDUCATION

Political philosophers insisted always that enlightened citizens, capable of following their own initiatives are
necessary for both, the perpetuation and the continuous renewal of democracy. To foster the development of
democratic values and institutions requires careful attention assiduous cultivation. Civic education aims at
producing such kind of citizens who are competent, vigilant, informed, and responsible citizens.
The active participation of citizens in their own socio-economic and political affairs is vitally important for the
realization of a healthy democratic system. Citizens require the necessary knowledge, awareness and skills
in order to actively participate in the political, economic and social affairs. Taking civic education course
involves acquiring the necessary knowledge, skill, and attitudes for the students to become, active participant
and responsible citizens.

Studying civic education is helpful because it enables citizens to:

 have knowledge of democratic principles

 develop skills in interpreting political, social and economic activities and communication
 know concepts of democracy and citizenship;
 develop attitudes related to trust in government institutions, the nation, and Women’s political rights
 effectively participate in civic-related and other aspects of their life etc.

1.1.6 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Part I: Select the best answer among the given alternatives.

1. Civic education does not borrow ideas or theories from one of the following science. Which one is that?
A. Economics B. Sociology C. Anthropology D. Philosophy E. None

2. Why are vigilant, informed, responsible and active citizens needed in a democratic society? Because
A. in the system citizens administer themselves
 B. they control the activity and behavior of their government
C. they can properly enjoy their rights and discharge their duties and responsibility
D. all of the above
3. As citizen is to civis is to civitas?
A. People B. Political community C. Citizenship D. None
4. All of the followings are uses of studying civic education except
A. It help us to know how government operates
B. It enables us to develop the skill of protecting our rights and involving in political activities
C. Developing political, social and economic awareness
D. None
5. Which of the followings refer(s) to democracy?
A. It is a government of the people
B. It allows little participation of the people
C. It is a political system in which people are decision makers
D. A& B
E. A&C
6. One of the following is not the purpose of civic education. Identify that one?
A. It focuses at enabling citizens to be competent, responsible, active participant
B. Providing the citizens with the necessary knowledge and skill that make them capable of participating
in different dimension of social life
C. Establishing a self-governing society
D. None
Part II: Match the items on the left with the items on the right.
LEFT RIGHT
1. Citizen A. self-governance
2. Democracy B. Legal member
3. Civic education C. Political community
4. State D. Civics
5. The Greek city states E. Civitas
F. minority rule
G. Interdisciplinary study
Part III: Define the following terms
Civic Democracy Rule of Law
Civic education Government Self-governance
Civic Participation Political Community State
Citizen

Part IV: Questions for reflection

1. Why are citizens required to be watchful, alert, actively involving in the decision making process, in
democracy?
2. What kind of democratic system do you imagine in which the people are passive recipient of orders?

1.1.7 SELECTED REFEENCES

Alan, R.Ball (1978) Modern Politics and Government. Hong Kong

Aleeds, C. (1975) Political Studies.
Barker, W.E. (n.d) Social Political Theory
Kassaye Amare (2003) Fundamental Principle of Civic Education(II)
Oruka, Odera H. (1976) The Philosophy of Liberty. USA
Peter, R.S. (1987) Ethics and Education. London
Robert, R. (1952) Calling All Citizens.
Street, H. (1972) Freedom of the Individual and the Law. Great Britain
UNIT 1.2: WHAT IS ETHICS?

Contents

1.2.1 Introduction
1.2.2 Aims and objectives
1.2.3 Definition and subject matter of Ethics
1.2.4 Definition and subject matter of Morality
1.2.5 Relationship of Ethics with other fields
1.2.6 Classifications of Ethics
1.2.7 Professional Ethics
1.2.8 Ethiopian Civil Service Code of Ethics
1.2.9 Importance of studying Ethics
1.2.10 Check your progress
1.2.11 Selected References

1.2.1 INTRODUCTION

Dear learner, this unit is your introduction to Block I that contains the ethics part of your course. The unit
begins by defining ethics and pointing out its subject matter. This will be followed by the sub-unit that
describes the relationship of ethics to other fields. The purpose of this sub-unit is to explain further the
meaning and concern of ethics by comparing and contrasting it with other related fields. The next sub-unit
presents description of different parts or subdivisions of ethics. This is also intended to give you still more
idea about the concern of ethics. The section on the importance of studying Ethics will explain the relevance
of ethics and the benefits you are expected to gain from your study of ethics. The last sub-unit contains
questions that help you to “check your progress”.

1.2.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this unit is to introduce you to the meaning Ethic, its concern/subject matter a s well as the
relevance or importance of studying it. After you have studied the unit, you are expected to be able to:
 define ethics
 name the subject matter of ethics
 explain the relationship between ethics and philosophy and other behavioral sciences
 distinguish ethics and morality
  distinguish ethical relativism (ethical subjectivism and conventionalism) and ethical
objectivism/universalism
 name and describe the various sub-divisions of ethics
 know and explain the relevance of ethics and professional ethics

1.2.3 DEFINITION AND SUBJECT MATTER OF ETHICS AND MORALITY

The following are some of the several but related definitions of Ethics: etymologically, the term “ ethics” was
derived from a Greek words “ethika” and “ethos”, which means a “character,” or “custom”, “norm”, “tradition”,
“habit”. It also refers to the principles or standards of human conduct, sometimes called morals (Latin mores,
“customs”), and, by extension, it is the study of such principles and sometimes called moral philosophy. In
one simple sense, “ethics’’ is “the study of standards of conduct and moral judgment: the system of morals of
a particular person, religion, group, etc.’’. Here the word ethics is used interchangeably with that of morality.
In another sense, ethics is a normative science which is a branch of philosophy concerned with norms of
human conduct. Here the word ethics is used slightly different from that of morality.

Ethics as a separate academic filed can be limited to a study of the meaning of moral language basing itself
in another broad field known as moral philosophy- the study of moral choices and the arguments that spring
from them. From this we can also say that ethics is about the art of living – seeing our life through the choices
we make and gradually we construct a work of art. In other words, we human beings are more than flesh,
bones and mortgages. We cannot solely be defined by our financial, work, social or political status. We are
not simply consumers, nor unthinking slaves in society. We are not automata, programmed by genetic,
environmental and social factors instead we have feelings, intuitions, dreams, and ambitions. Hence, our
lives are continually being shaped by the choices we make, and by the convictions and values that underline
them. In this way, our lives are like works of art: they are what we make of them, and they ‘say’ what we are .
In line with thinking, Ethics is therefore concerned with what is right or wrong, just or unjust and good or bad
about peoples’ ideas and then dictates how people should/should not live accordingly. It examines the
choices people make and the values and reasoning that lie behind them.

Ethics is the field of study that is concerned with moral values . Moral values are values that determine human
conduct (behaviors, actions, decisions) as right or wrong, good or bad, moral or immoral. Hence, ethics could
also be defined as the field that studies rightness or wrongness (goodness or badness, morality or
immorality) of human conduct.
Ethics is also defined as “ a set of principles prescribing a behavior code that explains what is good and right
or bad and wrong and outlines moral duty and obligations”.

According to still another definition, “ Ethics is the discipline that is concerned with what constitutes human
welfare (good, happiness, benefit, safety) and the kind of conduct necessary to promote it”.

We can give a working definition of ethics (the definition that we maintain in this course) as follow: Ethics is a
branch of philosophy that is concerned with rightness or wrongness (morality or immorality) of human
conduct/behavior.

Working definition of Ethics: Ethics is a branch of philosophy that is concerned

with rightness or wrongness (morality or immorality) of human conduct/behavior.

The subject matter of a discipline or field of study is what it is about or concerned with. Ethics is about or
concerned with human conduct/behavior.

Ethics is concerned with human conduct because only human beings are said to be moral or immoral. We
cannot speak or think about morality of other things or animals. We do not say, for example, a car or cow is
moral or immoral. Hence, morality (that is, the capacity of moral decision making, or being moral or immoral)
is a major quality that distinguishes human beings from other animals. It is in this sense that man is defined
as moral animal.

The reason why morality applies only to human beings is that it involves choice, choice between right and
wrong; and only human beings are endowed with the capacity for choice. This capacity is known as will.
Human beings are peculiarly endowed with the will of choosing to do or not to do something.

Consideration of the will (also called will power) is important to understand or to talk about morality because
morality does not make sense otherwise. A person is regarded or evaluated as right or wrong, moral or
immoral, good or bad only if he/she did the action willingly, by his/her free will or choice. We cannot blame a
person who performed an action without his/her will or choice (or did it forced to do); or we do not regard such
person as immoral or bad person.

In dealing with human conduct from the perspective of obligation and value, ethics investigates a variety of
related concerns. Among them are whether a standard of morality exists that applies to all peoples at all
times everywhere (which is the question whether morality is relative or absolute), the origin of moral values
(whether moral values derived from an ultimate value), the precise nature of moral responsibility, the
condition under which one is accountable or responsible, and the proper end of law. Ethical objectivism and
absolutism and ethical subjectivism and relativism are positions that arise when ethicians deal with the first of
these concerns.

Objectivism is the doctrine that things are, when not experienced by us, just what they seem when
experienced by us. Hence, moral objectivism could be defined as the view according to which morality is
outside and independent the wishes and desires of individuals. Ethical absolutism is the doctrine that there
exists one and only moral code that applies to everyone, at all times and places. What is a moral duty for me
(Ethiopians, etc.) must also be a duty for you (Americans, etc.).

Relativism, in epistemology, refers to the doctrine that every known object is relative to the knowing subject
and as such is dependent in its being upon the knowing subject and is incapable of existing apart from
consciousness. Ethical relativism is the doctrine that denies that there is a single moral standard or code that
is universally applicable to all people at all times. Positively defined, ethical relativism is the doctrine that
believes that morality is relative to individuals; that is, it depends upon the perceptions, desires, inclinations or
tastes of the individual (whether the individual is a person, country, society, or a group of people).

Likewise, ethical relativists believe that moral values and principles are created by, or, are relative to, the
people who hold the beliefs (Boss, pp 29). The advocates of Ethical relativism believe that morality is
conventionally constructed by the human beings and hence varies from society to society.

There are two main types of ethical relativism; namely ethical subjectivism and cultural relativism. Both claims
that humans, either individually or collectively, are the ultimate measure of what is right and what is wrong.
Ethical subjectivism states that morality is simply the expression of individual opinions. What is right for you
may be wrong for me, depending on our respective feelings.

Dear learner, to what extent the ethical subjectivism is valid and practical among Ethiopian citizens? D

The danger behind ethical subjectivism is that:

 1) Individuals might not be critical of their own views and positions even
though they are wrong. Good citizens are those open minded ones who are
ready to communicate their views, get listened and listen the views of others
which possibly might lead to adjustment of one’s view.
2) Individuals might not give due respect to the golden values that have been
cherished by our society. As result individuals might face condemnation and
The positive things you can learn from ethical subjectivism are:
 It helps citizens cultivate habit of self-confidence. Citizens value of the ``self`` will be elevated that in
turn motivates them to develop their personality and the society
 It gives freedom to citizens to exercise their rights which are provided by the constitution. Among
other things
 It empowers women. In Ethiopia, like any society, the marginalization of women has been sanctioned
by culture of the society. If moral rules reflect the preference of individuals, every woman will not
choose to live under masculine culture and patriarchy!
Cultural relativism/ethical conventionalism, on the other hand claims that societal norms, rather than the
opinion of isolated individuals, form the basis of morality. According to this view, morality not only differs from
culture to culture but may also change within a culture over time. In order to know what is right and wrong, we
only need to ask what are the norms and customs of our culture. Hence, the difference between ethical
relativism and cultural relativism is that whereas the former is normative position that involves value judgment
the latter is non-normative position that is value neutral.

As we learn from cultural relativism, there are no universal values by which we measure the rightness or
wrongness of an action or beliefs. Thus, one can confidently argue that the moral value of one culture cannot
be judged to be any better or worse than those of any other culture. Ethical relativism, particularly cultural
relativism can be considered as the bed-rock of multiculturalism.

Dear learner, as you know Ethiopian society is so much diverse. About 80 linguistic communities exist and
over 200 dialects are spoken in Ethiopia. When we apply the above view to our context, it’s ethically good to
recognize and respect diversity. The duty to respect the cultural diversity is not only limited to individual
citizens. It is also the responsibility of the state. State has a social responsibility to protect dying culture.

Dear learner, read the FDRE Constitution and identify those provisions
related to the cultural rights of Nations and Nationalities and Peoples of
As it has been indicated in the constitution, Nation and Nationality and people of Ethiopia has been entrusted
Ethiopia?
with self-government rights, special representation rights, linguistic rights and exemption rights which are
referred as group differentiated rights.
Dear learner, analyzing this case:
Mr ``X`` after graduating from one of the University, has been placed by the Ministry of
Education to Teach Civics and Ethical Education in the area where kidnapping has for
long been practiced. As he is single, he tried to have life partner but failed. Over time
Mr `x` realized that love marriage is something un -common to the community. So, he
decided to have a partner through the widely practice way-kidnapping. He did not regret
because kidnapping is moral in the community in which he lives. Do you think that Mr
On the other hand, ethical universalism believes that moral principles exist independently of cultural context
of societies. It assumes that moral value and principles are not culture specific, rather it is argued that moral
principles transcends across societies. Among the advocates of Ethical Universalism, Immanuel Kants
contribution is paramount. Kant believes that moral duties and rights are inherent to human nature regardless
of particular culture. For him ,the fact that human beings are endowed with the mental faculty to think and
reason out things as opposed to other animals which have only instincts. So, for Kant it is reason, to use his
term, the will, which makes human moral and obligates them to act morally irrespective of their cultural
backgrounds. Kant goes on identifying categorical/ absolute/ moral rules that guides human beings as: Not
Killing, Not stealing, not harming Human beings, respecting and treating human beings with dignity, not lying
and the like.

The study of ethics can thus offer two things.

1. It helps to appreciate the choices that others make, and evaluate the justification they give for those
choices.
2. It involves a reflective sharpening of one’s own moral awareness – a conscious examination of values
and choices, of how these have shaped one’s life so far, and (more importantly) of how they can be
used to shape the future.
In practice ethics tends to start by observing the moral choices people make and the reasons they give for
them. From these it produces theories about what is, or should be, the bases for moral choice. It then returns
to actual situations, to see whether the theories help to make sense of the moral issues and to come to
conclusions about matters of right and wrong. In doing this, ethics follows scientific method, for scientific
hypothesis are framed as a result of observations, but are then tested out against subsequent evidence to
see if they are adequate. For instance, you do not have to know the term ‘utilitarian’ in order to see the sense
in wanting to choose what promises to give the greatest benefit to the greatest number of people.

1.2.4 DEFINITION AND SUBJECT MATTER OF MORALITY

The term morality is derived from the Latin word’’ moralitas’’ which means ‘’manner, character and proper
behavior’’. It is the belief or recognition that certain behaviors are either ‘good’ or ‘bad’. It is the conformity of
human behavior to the established code of conduct. Morality is concerned with principles and practices of
morals such as:
 What ought or ought not to be done in a given situation?
 What is right or wrong about the handling of a situation?
Therefore, morals are the welfare principles enunciated/articulated by the society/ the wise people, based on
their own their experience and wisdom. However, it can be changed, modified or edited in accordance
development of science and technology, human development and time.

1.2.5 RELATIONSHIP OF ETHICS WITH OTHER FIELDS

The purpose of this sub-unit is to explain further the meaning and concern of ethics by comparing and
contrasting Ethic with other related fields. This is because there are some questions that come necessarily
from above explanation of the meaning and subject matter of Ethics. We have said, for example, that the
subject matter of Ethics is human conduct/behavior. One may ask here: Is it only Ethics that is concerned
with human conduct/behavior? This question creates a need to point out the fact that there are a number of
field concerned with human conduct and to explain the difference between Ethics and these fields.

As mentioned, there are several other fields that are concerned with human conduct/behavior. For example,
the fields that are commonly known as behavioral sciences (fields such as psychology, sociology,
anthropology, history and economics) study different aspects of human behavior. Ethics is distinguished from
such fields by being normative. In other words, it is concerned with pronouncing judgment upon human
behavior, not merely describing the behavior. Ethics is the study not only of what is but also that of what
ought to be. Ethics, and only Ethics, is concerned with the “ ought” of human conduct. That is, whereas all
other fields are limited to descriptions of how human beings in fact behave, Ethics (particularly normative
Ethics) is concerned with prescriptions of how human beings ought to behave. Ethics not merely describes
moral ideals held by human beings but asks which ideal is better than others, more worth pursuing, and why.

Put differently, all ethical questions involve a decision about what one should do in a specific instance. Notice
here the word should. It implies that ethical questions are not concerned with what one would or may do
(which is an essentially psychological concern) but what one ought to do. Judgments about such decisions
are generally expressed with words like right and wrong, should and ought, or obligation and duty. For
instance, “I should tell the truth” or “Telling truth is the right thing to do”. A good portion of ethics is devoted to
problems concerning the right thing to do or what we should do, which is the question of obligation. Hence,
ethics is about ought, obligation, duty, or responsibility. Think about what are our duties or obligations are as:
human beings, citizens, brothers, sisters, fathers/mothers, children, teachers, students, doctors, accountants,
etc.
All ethical decisions involve choice. But implied in any choice is a value or value judgment. In effect, every
choice involves an assessment of worth. We feel obliged to behave a certain way because we seek a specific
value or good. These values, just as actions themselves, can be described with words such as good, bad,
evil, desirable, undesirable, beneficial, harmful, etc. In addition to dealing with obligation, therefore, Ethics
deals with questions of value. Taken together, questions of obligation and value form the heart of ethics.

Ethics and Philosophy

Ethics is essentially a philosophical field. It is one of the branches or standard field of philosophy. Other major
branches of philosophy are Metaphysics, Epistemology, Aesthetics, Logic and Axiology. Each of these fields
has its distinct respective subject-matter or areas of concern. Briefly put: Metaphysics is the study of reality;
Epistemology is the study/theory of knowledge; Aesthetics is the study of beauty, particularly in art, as a
result of which Aesthetics is alternatively called Philosophy of Art; Logic is the field of philosophy concerned
with formulation of principles of correct thinking; Axiology is the field of philosophy concerned with value.

Ethics is distinguished from other fields of philosophy by being concerned with moral values (i.e., morality of
human behavior). As a result, ethics is also known as moral philosophy.

Within philosophy, ethics is a branch of the above mentioned philosophical field known as axiology. Axiology,
which comes from Greek word axios meaning “worthy”, is the study of value in general. As such it is
alternatively known as value theory. Specific concerns of axiology include the nature of value (whether values
are subjective or objective, relative or absolute, etc.), the origin of values, classification of values and the like.

As a branch of axiology, ethics is concerned with a particular type of value , namely moral value. That is why
ethics is also called known as moral philosophy. Moral values are values that determine our actions/conduct
as right or wrong, moral or immoral, good or bad/evil.

Ethics and Morals/Morality

There is a common confusion regarding the meaning and relationship between ethics and morals/morality. In
ordinary language, these two terms are used interchangeably as if they mean one and the same thing. In
strict usage, however, there is remarkable difference between the two terms. As could be seen from the
above explanation of the meaning and purpose of ethics, ethics is the discipline that studies or enquires into
morality. Hence, the difference between Ethics and morality is that whereas ethics is the study or inquiry,
morality is what is studied or inquired into by ethics. Morality refers to a set of rules and principles that guide
the people’s behavior/conduct in day-to-day life; they are set of rules we ought to obey, or tell us what is right
and wrong. Ethics, as the philosophy of morals/morality, is the discipline that examines and formulates these
rules and principles; it attempts to discover how these rules and principles are justified, and the logical
consequences of the moral beliefs. To put the same thing in different words, morality refers to the degree to
which an action conforms to a standard or norm of human conduct; ethics refers to the philosophical study of
values and of what constitutes good and bad human conduct.

1.2.6 CLASSIFICATION OF ETHICS

Ethics is generally divided into two major types, namely Normative Ethics and Non-normative Ethics. In this
sub-unit you will study these two types of Ethics and their further classifications.

1.2.6.1 Normative Ethics

Normative ethics is the area of ethics that involves attempts to determine precisely what moral standards to
follow so that our actions may be morally right or good. It is called normative because establishes norms of
right conduct. Normative statements are assertions that express value judgment. Every normative statement
says or implies that something is good or bad, better or worse, ought to be done or ought not to be done.

Normative ethics is further divided into two sub areas, namely general normative ethics and applied
normative ethics.

1.2.6.1.1 General Normative Ethics:

General normative ethics is reasoned search for principles of right conduct. It formulates the principles that
we should follow so that our conduct be morally right, principles that are used to determine human behavior
as right or wrong, good or bad, moral or immoral. The word right comes from the Latin rectus which means
straight or according to the rule. Hence, an action is right/moral if it agrees with the rules and principles
established by General normative ethics.

1.2.6.1.2 Applied Normative Ethics: is the attempt to explain and justify positions on specific moral
problems/issues. It is called applied because here ethicists attempt to use (apply (implement/put into
practice) the general theoretical ethical principles to resolve concrete or specific moral problems. Some of the
issues of applied ethics include capital punishment, abortion, euthanasia, war, sex, and corruption.
There are many sub-divisions of applied ethics depending upon the diverse moral issues that call for
theoretical considerations. The following are just few examples of the specialized areas of applied ethics:
Development Ethics, Environmental Ethics, Professional Ethics, Medical Ethics, Business Ethics, Work
Ethics, Social Ethics, Individual Ethics, Political Ethics, and Historical Ethics. Though there may exist
overlapping between some of these subdivisions of ethics, each could be treated as distinct area/concern of
ethics. Some of these areas of applied ethics are defined below to give you more ideas about the concern of
applied normative ethics.

Environmental Ethics is the area of applied ethics where ethicists consider the ethical relationship between
human beings and the natural environment. There are many ethical decisions that human beings make with
respect to the environment. Consider the following questions, for example: Should we continue to clear cut
the forests for the sake of human consumption? What environmental obligations do we need to keep for
future generation? Is it right for humans to knowingly cause the extinction of a species for the convenience of
humanity?

Medical Ethics is the discipline of evaluating the merits, risks, and social concern of activities in the field of
medicine. Ethicists of this area suggest methods that provide principles that physicians (doctors) should
consider while decision making. Medical ethics is a branch of applied ethics generally known as Professional
Ethics. Other related branches of medical ethics are health care ethics and nursing ethics.

Business Ethics is a form of applied ethics that examines the ethical rules and principles within a
commercial/business context; the various moral problems that may arise in the commercial/business settings;
and any special duties or obligations that apply to persons who are engaged in commerce/business. Hence,
business ethics is also a branch of applied ethics generally known as Professional Ethics.

Legal Ethics is refers to an ethical code that governs the persons in the practice of law. In other words, it is
the area of ethics concerned with professional responsibility of the persons involved in legal decision making.
Hence, legal ethics, too, is a branch of applied ethics generally known as Professional Ethics.

1.2.6.2 Non-normative ethics

Non-normative ethics is the area of ethics that consists of two fields, namely Scientific or Descriptive ethics
and Meta-ethics. It is called non-normative because, unlike the normative ethics, it does not involve the
 establishment of norms of right conduct. Its statements are non-normative; that is, they do not assert or
express value judgment. In a word, they are value neutral.

1.2.6.2.1 Scientific or descriptive ethics

This area of ethics involves factual investigation of moral behavior of a given community. It is concerned with
how people do in fact behave. It is therefore factual description that does not involve value judgment.

1.2.6.2.2 Meta-ethics
Meta-ethics is the second field of non-normative ethics. It is highly technical discipline in which philosophers
analyze and clarify the meaning of important terms used in ethical discourse or writings, terms such as the
good, right or wrong, moral or immoral, obligation, responsibility, duty, and freedom of will. The concern of
meta-ethics also includes a critical study of how ethical statements can be verified.

Diagram 1 Classification of Ethics

Ethics

Normative Ethics Non-normative ethics

Scientific/Applied Descriptive ethics

General normative ethics Applied normative ethics Meta-ethics

1.2.7 PROFESSIONAL ETHICS

Dear learner, before we get into the discussion of professional Ethics, it will be logical to understand the
essence of profession. So, what does it mean by profession? In simple terms profession means a type of job
that requires special training. From this one can deduce that a professional is someone who has acquired
training which help him/her to have knowledge and skill in a certain area. The area could be medicine,
engineering, teaching and the like. The other distinguishing factor of profession is that every profession
expected to promote public good. That is, the job/ work must help the public and contribute for the wellbeing
of the people. For example, medicine is for promoting health, law is for protecting the legal rights of the
public and engineering towards improving the public health, safety and welfare with the help of technological
advancements. More often the expected qualities of a certain profession are defined in some kind code of
Ethics.

What is, then professional Ethics?

The term professional ethics and professionalism are interchangeably used. When, for example we say Mr. X
is doing from the sense of professionalism, it to mean the person is doing his task well and fulfilled the
qualities expected from his profession. Professional ethics, as part of applied Ethics, is concerned with the
moral obligations and responsibilities expected from office holders and professionals. It deals about the
specific and general guide line that should be followed and exhibited by every profession and office holders.

Dear learner, now a day having a certain Degree or Certificate is not sufficient to maintain certain office or
position. Of course the Degree or Diploma may help us getting job. But it cannot be a guarantee for anyone
to stay in office. Unless we discharge our responsibility properly the employer could easily fire off. No longer
is a technical degree sufficient to obtain and maintain good job; employees must also be aware of how and
his/her work ethics affect co workers, clients/ customers, and, ultimately, the success of the business.
Employers have already realized this impact and are now demanding that employees come work-ready and
not just trained.

The issue of professionalism is critical in this competitive world. You know, in the U.S.A, 80% of the workers
in Georgia State lost their jobs not because of lack of occupational skills, but because of poor work ethics.
 No longer is a technical degree sufficient to obtain and maintain good job;
employees must also be aware of how and his/her work ethics affect co workers,
clients/ customers, and, ultimately, the success of the business. Employers have
already realized this impact and are now demanding that employees come work-
ready and not just trained.
Dear Learner, can you list out the basic principles of Professional Ethics?

Some of the basic standards that should guide the behaviors of every professional are the following:
 Impartiality: objectivity
 Openness; full disclosure
 Confidentiality
 Due diligence/ hard working
 Avoiding potential or apparent conflict of interest

Dear learner, distinguish the difference between confidentiality and openness?

In addition to the above general guidelines, employees are expected to be punctual, show descent behaviors,
communicative and cooperative. Please note of the following qualities that are most required in the work
environment.

  Attendance: arrive on time and give advance notice of absence

 Character: displays loyalty, honesty, trustworthiness, dependability,
reliability, initiative, self discipline, and Self-responsibility
 Team work: Respect the right of others; is a team worker and is
cooperative
 Appearance: Displays appropriate dress, grooming, hygiene and etiquette
Attitude: demonstrate a positive attitude
 Productivity: good work habits result in a good work product
 Organizational skills: manifest skill in personal management, time
management, prioritizing, flexibility, stress management and the ability
to deal with change
 Communication: displays appropriate verbal and non verbal skills
 Cooperation: display leadership skills, maintain appropriate relationships
Now a days, workers are not only required to have qualified and competent level of knowledge in their
profession but also to know and apply their professional code of ethics. The quality of service to be provided
deteriorates as the professionals discharge their duty arbitrarily with less or no reference to their ethical
individuals in that specialization. Therefore, non- observance and negligence to conform to one’s own
professional ethical codes has its own consequence both on the individual professional and the work
environment as a whole.

Field Related Ethical Cods

Ethical codes of conduct instruct us on what we ought or ought not to do. The observance and adherence to
ethical codes enables a professional to exploit its inward capacity and materialize its knowledge in front of
those who need its service.

Professional ethical codes are broadly classified as specific field related ethical codes and general (universal)
ethical codes. Specific codes of ethics are those, which can only be viewed and applied to a certain specific
profession. Whereas, universal ethical codes are those that can be referred, and complied by all professions
altogether. Some of the common disciplinary rules expected from workers in all professions include;
punctuality, proper utilization of instruments of labor, working in cooperation with fellow workers, developing
professional skills and execution of commitments entrusted etc. are code of ethics that must be observed by
workers in different profession.

Task: Prepare professional ethical codes for your profession.

1.2.8 ETHIOPIAN PUBLIC SERVICE ETHICS

Dear learner, what do you know about public service Ethics?

Principles of professional ethics and work ethics can be considered as a common denominator for all
professionals. However, depending on the nature of the organization, be it public or private sector or the
purposes of the organization, you can still have some more expected behaviors and conducts that the
employer expects from employees. Business Ethics is appropriate to private and profitable organization. The
required behaviors of private companies will always be tailored to wards maximizing profits of the
organization than sustaining or providing services-which are common to public sector. At the center of public
sector is to serve the customers, usually the public in un- interrupted manner. Despite some overlap, public
service ethics would be different from Business ethics.

Public servants need to know the basic principles and standards they are expected to apply to their work and
where the boundaries of acceptable behavior lie. A concise, well-publicized statement of core ethical
standards and principles that guide public service, for example in the form of a code of conduct, can
accomplish this by creating a shared understanding across government and within the broader community.

Ethiopia has launched Civil service capacity building programs. The program envisions creating merit based,
responsive and professionally responsible civil service is one of the top concerns of the reform. To achieve
this objective, the country has introduced civil service Ethics reforms. Institutions such as Ethics and Anti-
corruption commission, ombudsman, human Right commissions are some of the key institutions to fight
corruption and create society which is free from corruption.

Dear learner, the following principles are the minimum bench marks-standards that should govern the
behaviors of civil servants and officials in the contemporary world:

Serving the Public Interest

Civil servants and public officials are expected to maintain and strengthen the public's trust and confidence in
government, by demonstrating the highest standards of professional competence, efficiency and
effectiveness, upholding the Constitution and the laws, and seeking to advance the public good at all times.

Transparency
Civil servants and public officials are expected to use powers and resources for public good, under
government policy. They should be accountable for the decisions they make, and prepared to justify their
actions.
Integrity
Civil servants and public officials are expected to make decisions and act solely in the public interest, without
consideration of their private interests. Public employment being a public trust, the improper use of a public
service position for private advantage is regarded as a serious breach of duty.

Legitimacy
Civil servants and public officials are required to administer the laws, and to exercise administrative power on
behalf of the Government, or the Parliament, or other such authority. That power and authority should be
exercised legitimately, impartially and without fear or favor, for its proper public purpose as determined by
the Parliament or their employer.

Fairness
Civil servants and public officials should make decisions and act in a fair and equitable manner, without bias
or prejudice, taking into account only the merits of the matter, and respecting the rights of affected citizens.

Responsiveness
As agents and employees of the elected Government, Civil servants and public officials are required to serve
the legitimate interests and needs of the Government, other civil servants, and all citizens, in a timely
manner, with care, respect and courtesy.

Efficiency and Effectiveness

Civil servants and public officials are required to obtain best value for public assets deployed in or through
public management, and to avoid waste and extravagance in expenditure and the use of public assets.

Dear learner, as part of the overall efforts to ensuring good governance in the public sector, the country has
endorsed the Twelve Principles of Public Services Ethics. And you have to bear in mind that the above
principles are subsumed within the Twelve Principles.
 Exercising leadership Rule of law/respecting law Impartiality
Promoting public interest Accountability Integrity
Responsiveness Confidentiality Honesty
Openness/transparency Loyalty Proper use of authority

Dear learner, visit any public office and make assessment of the application
of these principles? Why do you think is the most important role of civil
servants in Ethiopia?
Citizens have rights to services of many kinds. Civil servants are expected to concentrate primarily on serving
the community, and the government, and in so doing to put possibilities for personal advantage to one side.
Unnecessary administrative impediments to effective service delivery should be identified and removed.

Dear learner, ask any anti-corruption expert who is employed in your

locality about the perception and extent of corruption in the area?

Designing and adopting codes of Ethics per se may not be successful. There need to be institutional and
legal structures to enforce them. In this regard the Ombudsman, Human Right Commissions and Ethics &
Anti corruption commissions have been put in place. In Ethiopia, an independent Ombudsman was elected
for the term of five years in 2004 for the first time. The Ombudsman is elected and accountable to the
Parliament. The main role of the Ombudsman is to defend the constitutional rights of citizens, prevent
maladministration and make recommendations to revise existing laws and practices.

The Federal Ethics and Anti-Corruption Commission (FEACC) was established in May 2001 by Proclamation
number 235/200117, as an independent Federal Government body capable of investigating and prosecuting,
checking and preventing corruption and other improprieties, as well as fighting corruption through the
promotion of ethical values in the society. The Commission has far reaching powers ranging from combating
corruption through Public awareness; preventing corruption and corrupt practices; and investigating
suspected corruption. The Proclamation also gives the Commission the investigation and prosecution powers
o f the police and Public Prosecutor specified in the Criminal Procedure Code and other laws.

Dear learner, what are you going to do if you come to know that your boss has received
bribes from someone?
The minimum thing that you have to do is to communicate the issue to the concerned bodies, Ethics and Anti
corruption commission, secretly. You’re the right of citizen for the disclosure of official wrong doing is
protected.

In the interests of improving accountability and fostering the fight against corruption, some Countries
including our country have passed laws to establish a right whereby a person may make a protected ‘public
interest disclosure’ of any suspected or actual corruption, misconduct, or Maladministration by a civil servant
or public official. The main task of “whistleblower” protection provisions such as this is to maintain a
reasonable and workable balance between encouraging the desirable disclosure of official wrongdoing, (by
protecting those who make disclosures against acts of reprisal or revenge).
1.2.9 IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING ETHICS

What is that makes Ethics relevant subject to students like you? Or, why should you study Ethics? In order to
get the best from your study of ethics, you must have a satisfying explanation as to why you are studying
ethics as a part of this course. Of course you may answer the question by saying “I am studying ethics
because I am required to do so”. However, you should also know the reason why you are required to study
ethics. This section of the unit tries to answer such questions. That is, it will explain the relevance of ethics
and the benefits you are expected to gain from your study of ethics.

Firstly, whether you are ordinary person, a manager, teacher, lawyer, and the like, as a rational person you
have to have moral justification for all your actions and decisions. Your study of ethics (the rules, principles
and theories) helps you to that end. That is, they will make you sensitive to ethical/moral issues and help you
to think and act in ethically sound or justifiable way.

Secondly, you can also consider the general nature and concern of ethics to realize its relevance. Ethics,
especially through its, normative approach towards life, has practical importance. Its problems and solutions
have to do with the real questions of the conduct of living. Its solutions are solutions for the problems of goals
and means of goals in the practical life of all human beings. As the question of the manner of living, ethics is
also concerned with the question of the meaning of life; and how we live our actual life could be determined
by our conceptions of the meaning of life. Hence, though theoretical, the concern of ethics is clearly related to
the concrete or practical life situations. That is to say, it has obvious relevance to practical difficulties which
confront every human being. Its theorizing almost always stems from the efforts of human beings to solve the
practical, immediate, and pressing problems which arise in the everyday living.

Put differently, the ethical theories and principles you study in the course are the framework by which we can
intelligently conduct moral investigations. If adequately understood, they could be applied to concrete moral
situations or to solve specific moral problems/dilemmas. However, you should note that the fundamental
value of studying and understanding of the ethical theories is not to obtain definitive guides to moral conduct.
Rather, the primary and fundamental value lies in becoming aware of the moral options available to us for
dealing with complex moral decisions on a personal and collective level.

Finally, we hope you have recognized that there is currently a kind of universal movement for ethical
education. That is, everywhere in the world including our country there is common understanding/urge by
scholars as well as leaders and common people for ethical education. If you have noticed this, what do you
think the reason for that? Discuss about it with your friends or colleagues. You may realize from your
discussion that there is great need for ethical education to the present generation.

1.2.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Part I: From the alternatives given to each question below, choose the best one.
1. Which of the following is wrong match?
A. Aesthetics/beauty C. Ethics/conduct E. None of the above
B. Epistemology/knowledge D. Logic/thinking
2. Which of the following questions is not among the concerns of ethics?
A. What is the source of human knowledge? C. What are the responsibilities of citizenship?
B. How should human beings live? D. Is abortion moral or immoral? E. None
3. The area of ethics that is concerned with clarification of ethical terms is known as
A. Normative ethics B. Applied ethics C. Meta ethics D. Scientific ethics E. None
4. The fundamental value of studying and understanding of the ethical theories lies in
A. obtaining definitive guides to moral conduct
B. becoming aware of the moral options available to us for dealing with complex moral decisions on a
personal and collective level.
C. protecting immoral actions against us
D. providing particular skills of doing business
E. None of the above
5. Which of the following is an example of normative statements?
A. Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. C. Alcoholism should be made illegal.
B. Haile Gebresilassie is an athletic hero. D. All of the above E. None of the above

Part II: Define the following terms

Ethical absolutism Ethics Business ethics Moral objectivism
Moral value Normative ethics Medical ethics Legal ethics
Applied ethics Scientific/Descriptive ethics Cultural relativism Ethical relativism
Metaethics Non-normative ethics Ethical subjectivism Environmental ethics
Part III: Say True or False
1. Ethics is concerned with part of our human values.
2. Ethics and morality have the same meaning.
3. Metaethics is normative study of human behavior.
4. Ethics is a branch of social science and philosophy.
5. All ethical questions involve a choice.

Part IV: Questions for comprehension and reflection

1. What does “man is moral animal” mean?
2. What are the benefits you are expected to gain from your study of ethics?
3. According to your opinion, what is the reason for the universal urge for ethical education?

1.2.11 SELECTED REFERENCES

Avrum, Stroll and Popkin, Richard H. (1961) Introduction to Philosophy. (Chapter 5, Ethics/Appraisal of
Human Character, Conduct, and Aims)
Barry, Vincent (1980) Philosophy: A Text With Readings. (Chapter 3, Ethics, pp. 89-103)
George, Cryssides D. and Kaler, John H. (1993) An Introduction to Business Ethics.
Miller, E. D. L.(1984) Questions That Matter: An Invitation to Philosophy. Part Four, The Question of morality,
Chapter 16 (pp 349-378)
Palmner, Donald (1996). Does the Center Hold? An Introduction to Western Philosophy. (Chapter 7, Ethics;
Chapter 8, Critique of traditional Ethical theories)
UNIT 1.3. CLASSICAL ETHICAL THEORIES

Contents

1.3.1 Introduction
1.3.2 Aims and objectives
1.3.3 Sophists and Sophism
1.3.4 Platonism: ethical theory of Socrates and Plato
1.3.5 Nicomachean Ethics: ethical theory of Aristotle
1.3.6 Relevance of the classical ethical theories
1.3.7 Check your progress
1.3.8 Selected References

1.3.1 INTRODUCTION

Dear learner, this unit intends to introduce you to the Greek Classical Ethical Theories, particularly Platonism
and Nicomachean Ethics, ethical theories of the three popular Greek giants, namely Socrates, Plato and
Aristotle. The first is ethical theory of Socrates and Plato whereas the second is that of Aristotle. As such, this
unit gives you an opportunity to familiarize yourself with the most influential persons and philosophical ideas
in the history of mankind whose thoughts have laid foundation for all subsequent thinkers including those of
our times and that of each of us.

Platonism was a reaction to sophism, philosophical views of sophists; and Nicomachean ethics was a
reaction to Platonism. Hence we begin by outlining some of the major features of the philosophy of the
sophists. This will be followed by a relatively more detailed description of Platonic ideas. Next to that you will
study Nicomachean ethics and its relation to Platonism. Finally you will find the section that explains the
relevance of the classical ethical theories or the reason why you have to study them.

1.3.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

At the end of your study of the unit you are expected to:
 explain the importance of knowing the relevance of the classical ethical theories
 know the meaning of sophists and sophism
 comprehend Platonism
 know the major elements of Nicomachean ethics
  the meaning of golden mean and the theory of moderation

1.3.3 SOPHISTS AND SOPHISM

Plato and Socrates severely criticized the Sophists because of their relativism, subjectivism or skepticism.
Indeed, a major part of Platonism was a reaction to the philosophy and teaching of these Sophists, known as
sophism. Hence, to understand Platonism, you have to be acquainted with the major elements of the
Sophists’ philosophy.

Sophists (literally “wise men”) were a group of philosophers in the fifth century BC who offered to teach young
Athenians how to use logic and rhetoric to defeat opponents in any controversy. They were the first to teach
wisdom for a fee, something that irked Socrates.

Actually, the Sophists may not have been as wise as they were clever with words, and they were accused of
making the stronger arguments appear to be the weaker and the weaker arguments appear to be the
stronger. But in the days of the Athenian democracy, when an individual was required to defend himself in the
law courts, the Sophists’ “wisdom” was much in demand. Socrates and Plato sharply criticized the Sophists
because they accepted monetary rewards for encouraging unprincipled persuasive method.

Fifth century Athens was a politically troubled city-state. During several decades, however, Athenians
maintained a nominally democratic government in which “citizens” had the opportunity to participate directly in
important social decisions. This contributed to a renewed interest in practical philosophy. The Sophists
offered to provide their students with training in the effective exercise of citizenship. Since the central goal of
political manipulation was to outwit and publicly defeat an opponent, the rhetorical techniques of persuasion
naturally played an important role.

Protagoras, one of the two most popular sophists who was active about 425 BC, expressed the central
philosophy of the sophists in the following statement which is known to be one of the most famous lines ever
uttered. He wrote: “A man is the measure of all things; of the things that are, that they are, and of the things
that are not, that they are not.” This means that the individual, each and every person, is the criterion unto
himself or herself as to what exists and what does not. This thought was expanded to include truth and
morality. It implies that whatever you perceive as true or false is true or false, and whatever you think as
good/right or bad/wrong is good/right or bad/wrong.
This position is known as Relativism or Subjectivism because it makes the most important things relative to
and dependent upon the individual, or because it asserts that the subject (either an individual person,
community, or society) is the source and standard of being, truth, and goodness.

“A man is the measure of all things; of the things that are, that they are, and of
the things that are not, that they are not.” Protagoras

The Sophists expanded this relativism to skepticism, uncertainty with respect to knowing; philosophical
epistemological position that doubts or denies the possibility of knowledge, or holds that mankind cannot
possess certain knowledge about anything. Skepticism is, in other words, the epistemological position that
varies between doubting all assumption until proved and claiming that no knowledge is possible. The latter
extreme position is called absolute skepticism and the Sophists tend to hold this position (that is, that of
absolute skepticism).

The transition from the relativism of Protagoras to skepticism was expressed in the following statement of
Gorgias, the second popular Sophist: “Nothing exists; if something does exist, we cannot know it; if we come
to know it, we cannot teach it to others.” Hence, the only thing remaining is the use of the word, and Gorgias
affirmed that all things can appear true and just, if oratorical power is capable of revealing things as true and
just, beyond every pretension of reality of content.

The traditional belief of the Greeks had been that their cities had received laws from some divinity; protector
of the cities, and that goodness or happiness consists in conforming one’s life to these laws, accepted as
divine and eternal. The Sophists shook this faith to its very roots. By their subjectivist and skeptical prejudices
they ended in the conclusion that the good is that which satisfies one’s instincts and passions.

You have been studying about who the Sophists are and their philosophy or teachings. You may ask at this
point “what is then Sophism?” Sophism is just the manner of the Sophists, which associated with cheating,
making the stronger arguments appear to be the weaker and the weaker arguments appear to be the
stronger. Sophism is, in other words, a plausible argument that is actually fallacious, especially when one
presents it as if it were legitimate reasoning.

Fallacy is incorrect or illogical argument that appears or seems correct or logical. It is, in other words,
deceptive argument, an argument that deceives, cheats or misleads. Sophism (also called Sophistry) is
intentional or deliberate use of such arguments to defeat one’s opponent (or teaching to do so).
Contribution of Sophists to the history of philosophy
The pre-Socratics had turned all their attention to the physical world (cosmology). Man had been considered
as one of the many phenomena of the physical world. The Sophists were the first to show complete
indifference to the problem of the world of matter and to center their efforts upon man. Thus, in the picture of
history, Sophistic thought could be considered as the transition from the old cosmological concepts to the
new ideas about man. (It is to be recalled that the Sophists centered their efforts on the problems of
knowledge as well as the problems of morality and justice.) But man can be an object of study in his sense of
knowledge as well as in that profound one of reason. The Sophists stopped at the first, at the immediacy of
sense impressions. (The analysis of reason was reserved for Socrates and his disciples.) It was what they
started that, in the immediate process of time, culminated in the high speculations of Plato and Aristotle.

1.3.4. PLATONISM: THE ETHICAL THEORIES OF SOCRATES AND PLATO

Dear learner, as mentioned above, Platonism is the ethical theory of Socrates and
Plato. Who is Socrates? What is the relationship between Socrates and Plato and between
Socrates’ views and those of Plato?
In what follow immediately below you will read about who Socrates is and his major moral views, the
relationship between Socrates’ and Plato’s views, and the finally views of Plato.

Socrates and his philosophical life

Although he was well known during his own time for his conversational skills and public teaching, Socrates
(469-399 BC) wrote nothing. As a result, the main evidence for his opinions comes to us second hand and
primarily from the writings of his student, Plato. Indeed, Socrates is the protagonist (central character) of the
Platonic dialogues.

Socrates has always been regarded as a kind of symbol of philosophical activity, especially its rational and
critical nature. This is because philosophy itself could be defined as “rational and critical enterprise” or “the
love and pursuit of wisdom”. The wisdom of Socrates (for which he dedicated his whole life) consists of a
critical habit, an eternal vigilance about all things and a reverence for truth, whatever its form, wherever its
place. His is a perspective that allows him to transcend the narrowness, the smugness, the arrogance, and
the pettiness of mundane ego fulfillment. His method (popularly known as Socratic Method) consisted of
asking someone about the meaning of important terms or ideas, usually moral concept, and then to cross-
examining his opponent mercilessly until some progress or clarity is achieved.
In his use of critical reasoning, by his unwavering commitment to truth, and through the vivid example of his
own life, Socrates set the standard for all subsequent Western philosophy. His dedication to careful
reasoning transformed the entire enterprise (Western philosophy). Since he sought genuine knowledge rather
than mere victory over an opponent, Socrates employed the tricks (logic) of the Sophists to a new purpose,
the pursuit of truth. His willingness to call everything to question and his determination to accept nothing less
than an adequate account of the nature of things makes him the first clear exponent of critical philosophy.
Critical philosophy is the analysis and definition of basic concepts and the precise expression and criticism of
basic beliefs.

For the most part of his life, Socrates devoted himself to free-wheeling discussions with the aristocratic young
citizens of Athens, insistently questioning their unwarranted confidence in the truth of popular opinions. Unlike
the professional Sophists of the time, Socrates refused to accept payment for his work with students. Despite
(or, perhaps, because) of his loft disdain for material success, many of his students were fanatically loyal to
him. Their parents, however, were often displeased with his influence on their offsprings.

An Athenian jury found charges of impiety (corrupting the youth and interfering with the religion of the city)
upon which to convict him, and they sentenced him to death in 399 B.C, which he accepted with remarkable
grace in obedience to the rule of law. He drank hemlock and died in the company of his friends and disciples.
The trial provides us with one of the heroic moments in human history. Instead of defending himself, Socrates
continued his campaign. He refused to apologize or to promise to reform (to stop asking everybody
questions). As such, Socrates became one of the first and greatest martyrs in mankind’s search for truth.

Civilization and all that it implies have not come easily. Many along the way have suffered enormous
intellectual agony. One of such persons is Socrates, who ultimately paid with his life for what he believed.
Consider how profoundly impoverished we would be, personally and collectively, had Socrates been unwilling
to pay the price. He, like countless others, has paid his intellectual dues and, to a large extent, ours as well.”

Socrates, the great ethical philosopher, is thus regarded as a model of moral person with respect to the
search for, and devotion to, truth. “Unexamined life is not worth living”, he said, and his whole life was
dedicated to self-examination and questioning of both the self and others. Analysis of his life provides a
model as to “how life should be lived”. Some find analogy between the place of Jesus Christ in the Christian
religion and that Socrates in philosophy, mainly because the latter is regarded as the symbol of
philosophizing and also because he gave his life for the principles/truth he taught.
 “I tell you that to let no day pass without discussing goodness and all the other
subjects about which you hear me talking and examining both myself and others is
really the very best thing that a man can do, and life without this sort of examination
is not worth living.” Socrates
The moral views of Socrates
The history of hortatory ethical speculations, whether ancient or modern, can be interpreted in the light of the
philosophical attempts to answer the following two interrelated questions: “What is the good life for man?”
and “How ought men to behave?” This was especially true for the classical ethical theories under discussion,
namely Platonism and Nicomachean ethics.

For Socrates, the answer to the second question, from the above two questions, was obvious: Men ought to
act in such a way as to achieve the good life . It was the first question that was more troublesome – namely,
what constitutes the good life? In dealing with that question, the teaching of Socrates can be summarized in a
remark: The good life can be discovered if and only if men have knowledge . Indeed, “Socrates’ main
philosophical concern was with how anyone can know the right way to live.”

Note that this remark does not directly answer the question. That is, Socrates does not purport to tell us what
the good life is but only what we must do in order to discover it. Nevertheless it was a remark of great
historical significance. It was accepted by almost all Greeks who followed Socrates.

The remark also expresses Socrates’ doctrine which is sometimes termed “the Socratic paradox”. The
paradox lies in the fact that although men in fact act immorally, none do so deliberately. For it was Socrates’
belief that if a man knows what is good, he will always act in such a way to try to achieve it. Evil, seen from
this standpoint, is thus always the product of ignorance (that is, a case of a man believing something to be
good when it is not). Socrates defended this point of view by the following argument: The good, he
maintained, is that which is most serviceable to men. Everyone aims at doing that which is most serviceable
to himself. It is, accordingly, unthinkable that anyone should not do that which he recognizes as being most
serviceable to himself. If anyone should act in a way which is not conducive to his own good, therefore, his
action must result from a failure to recognize what is good in those circumstances. It follows from this that
immoral action is always due to lack of knowledge. It is this doctrine which is summarized in the epigram
“virtue is knowledge”, and also in the remark “ nobody errs wittingly”, which means nobody act immorally
knowingly. In a word, Socrates held that men do not act immorally if they know what is moral.

“Unexamined life is not worth living”. “Only thing I know is that I know
nothing.” Socrates
Socratic problem
Platonism is the ethical theories of Socrates and Plato. As mentioned above, Plato was a student of
Socrates. Plato (427-347) expressed his philosophy in numerous dialogues. In earlier of these dialogues
Plato develops the ideas of his teacher Socrates through portrayals of Socrates’ discussions with his
contemporaries, discussion which proceeded by questions and answers. In the dialogues, which were
composed over a long period of nearly fifty years, Plato gradually introduced his own and more developed
ideas in place of those of the historical Socrates, though he continued to employ Socrates as the mouthpiece
of these ideas. It is difficult to determine where the real Socrates leaves off and Plato’s own ideas begin. This
is called the Socratic problem in the history of philosophy. For the purpose of the discussions in this course
we will not concern ourselves with this problem; that is, we will make very simple distinctions between the
two: except the statements indicated by quoting directly to be Socrates’ or Plato’s and the specifically
distinguished views, all other views are regarded here to belong to Platonism, which equally refers, in this
course, to Socrates and Plato.

Plato and his moral views

Like Socrates, Plato never answers the question “What is the good life for man?” But he regarded the
question as fundamental. What motivated the intensive search for the good life is that Plato, like Socrates,
believes that if a man knows what is good, he will always act so as to try to attain it. In the complex
arguments that involves his metaphysics, epistemology and ethics, Plato also provides the reason why men
must possess knowledge in order to understand the nature of good life.

Is knowledge necessary to lead the good life? Can not a person lead the good life without knowledge? In The
Republic, the major work of Plato which is known to be one of the most popular literary works, Plato portrays
Socrates maintaining that it is possible for some men to lead the good life without possessing knowledge.
They might do so if they are men having virtuous character which has been molded through their imitating
people who are already virtuous. But in all such cases, they will lead the good life only haphazardly or
accidentally. It is only if they possess knowledge that they will necessarily act morally.

Plato’s reaction to the Sophists/relativism:

Plato, implacable enemy of these philosophers, was the first to call them Sophists.
For Plato the relativism of the sophists leads to impossible conclusion. For him it was absurd to say that
being, truth, and morality are “up to grabs” and can be and mean whatever an individual wishes. This would
mean immediate collapse not only of all serious talks about what is real and unreal, and what is true and
false, but also of all talks about moral responsibility, blame, praise, punishment , and so on. No, says Plato.
Our understanding of being, truth, and goodness or morality must – if it is to be really meaningful – be
anchored in some objective (that is, it exists outside of our minds), independent (it is not dependent on
anything else for its existence), and absolute (it does not come or go or otherwise change) reality.

Plato’s claim that knowledge of the good life is possible has been of the greatest theoretical importance.
Platonism constitutes one of the classical bulwarks or protection against a commonly held point of view often
termed “moral skepticism”. In Plato’s own day, the most vigorous exponents of this outlook were the Sophists,
but it is an outlook which has never really vanished from the philosophical scene. Even today, it is possible to
find professional thinkers and ordinary men who hold the same idea about morality.

Advocates of this doctrine maintain, as you have seen above, that moral standards or moral principles such
as “you should not steal” are basically the products of arbitrary human decisions. Such decisions, they argue,
merely reflect the attitudes, preferences, tastes, opinions and likings which people have. But since such
attitudes, preferences, tastes, and so forth are, in the last analysis, beyond the control of reason, the
decisions which reflect them cannot have rational justifications or objective validity. Whether an action is to be
counted as right or wrong thus ultimately depends upon whether someone approves or disapproves of it. If he
approves of it, it is right; if he disapproves of it, it is wrong – and that is the end of the matter. Indeed, in a
sense, the same action may be both right and wrong. Seen from one standpoint, it may be right; seen from
another, wrong. What label we choose to apply to it depends upon the point of view from which we see it. It
thus makes no sense to ask whether the action is really right or really wrong. It follows from this principle that
anybody’s opinion on moral matters is as good as anyone else’s, whether one is Prime Minister of a country
or a madman, a saint or sinner. The oft-quoted remark of Protagoras that “a man is the measure of all things”
is a succinct expression of this point of view.

It was against such point of view (which could alternatively be called as subjectivism, ethical relativism, or
moral skepticism) that Plato was urging that moral standards are as objective just as the principles of physics
or mathematics. Those who think morality is a matter of opinion think so because they lack the knowledge to
judge otherwise.

Still another important element of Platonism is that, according to Socrates and Plato morality
(goodness/justice) consists in “minding one’s business” and not interfering in the “business” of others. This is
tantamount to saying fulfilling one’s moral responsibility/obligation/duty. This is both in politics and individual
life. Thus, morally good person is one who “minds one’s business”; good/just or ideal society or political
system is one in which its members “mind their respective business”

Like that of Socrates, the basis of Plato’s ethics is that “if we know what the good life is we will naturally act in
such a way as to try to achieve it.” According to the beliefs of both Socrates and Plato, “evil is due to lack of
knowledge.” If a man can discover what is right, he will never act wrongly. But the problem is to discover what
is right, or as Plato called it, “the good.” How could this be done where men differ so greatly in their opinion
about the good life?

Plato’s answer is that finding the nature of the good life is an intellectual task very similar to the discovery of
mathematical truths. Just as the latter cannot be discovered by untrained people, so the former cannot be
either. In order to discover what the good life is men must first acquire certain kinds of knowledge.

Put in precise words, Plato’s view, too, is: knowledge is the good. According to Platonic contention, reason
comprises the essential nature of human being. It is what distinguishes man from other animals. Man is
human being. It is what distinguishes man from other animals. Man is “a factional animal.” Human good and
happiness lie therefore in the activity and fulfillment of the rational faculty. That is, they lie in contemplation
and knowledge.

Plato believed that of the three aspects of the soul (Reason, Appetite, and Spirit), Reason should
predominate. Through Reason, through the intellect, humans can attain knowledge about the Forms,
especially of the predominant one, the Form Good. Thus, while Plato’s emphasis is on the intellect, on
knowledge, it is also on morality because of his belief that virtue is a matter for human knowledge, and not
just belief or opinion. Briefly, there is such a thing as the truth about how we ought to live, and we can know
this truth via the human intellect, when we achieve knowledge of the timeless Forms”

Another basic element in Platonism is what contemporary scholars term his absolutism. According to Plato,
there is fundamentally one and only one good life for all men to lead. This is because the good is something
which is not dependent upon men’s desires, inclinations, or their opinion. Goodness in this respect resembles
the mathematical truth that 2-3=5.this is a truth which is absolute; it exists whether any man likes such fact or
not, or even whether he knows mathematics or not. Likewise, goodness exists independently of men and
remains to be discovered if we can be trained properly.
This can be put in another way: Plato is arguing for the objectivity of moral principles as opposed to all
philosophies which contend that morality is a matter of opinion or preference (which is known as ethical
relativism). In more summarized way, his view is that certain action is right or wrong absolutely and
independently of anyone’s opinion.

1.3.5 NICOMACHEAN ETHICS: ETHICAL THEORY OF ARISTOTLE

Nicomachean Ethics, the first systematic presentation of morality, is the ethical theory of Aristotle (384-322
BC), one of the three Greek giants. It is so named after his father or son, both of whom were of the same
name. As Plato was the student of Socrates, Aristotle was the student of Plato. However, Aristotle ruthlessly
criticized the theories of his master, Plato.

Greek philosophy was generally characterized by speculative approach. That is the Greek philosophers
attempted to discover the true nature of the world by the use of reason alone. This speculative approach’s
also noticeable in their ethical writings. Generally, the speculative approach is non-scientific – for it does not
try to collect facts and derive conclusions for them; rather it tries to deduce facts about the nature of the world
and the nature of man by use of reason alone.

Aristotle one of these Greeks, departs from this tradition in his ethical writings and adopts a scientific or
empirical approach to ethical problems. Instead of trying to discover the nature of good life for all men by
reflection/ or reason” alone, he examined the behavior and talk of people in everyday life. From this he
noticed that what men of common sense consider to be good contains one common character: via,
Happiness. Thus Aristotle’s answer to the basic ethical question “what is the good life for man?” can be
stated in one statement: “it is a life of Happiness.”
Dear learner, what is this “happiness”? Is it success? fame? Pleasure? Or what?

In the Nicomachean ethics, which is the title of Aristotle’s chief work on ethics, he gave the definition of the
word “happiness” as follow: “Happiness is an activity of the soul in accordance with the perfect virtue.” What
Aristotle is stressing here is the fact that happiness is not something static, but an activity. It is not something
we arrive at; not some object. It is not certain goal of this activity. It is the way of engaging in the various
activities of life such as eating, making love, etc.
As we have mentioned already, the ethical theories that we are discussing attempt to answer two questions:
“what is the good life for men?” and “how ought men to behave?” Aristotle’s answer to the first questions was
“the good life for men is a life of happiness.” His answer to the second questions is equally direct: “men ought
to behave so as to achieve happiness.” This second answer is vague or question begging. We can ask, more
specifically, how should we behave in order to achieve happiness? Aristotle’s answer to this question is to be
found in the well-known formula called “the Doctrine of the mean “or sometimes called the “golden mean”. We
shall now turn to a discussion of the Doctrine of the mean, and in this way we will show how Aristotle’s moral
philosophy differs from that of Plato.

Being happy, according to Aristotle, is like being well-fed. How much food should a man eat in order to be
well fed? Aristotle’s contention is that there is no general answer to this question; i.e. we cannot fix the
amount, like two kilos. It depends on the size of the man. What sort of work he does, whether he is ill or well.
The proper amount for anyone of work he does, whether he is ill or well. The proper amount for anyone to eat
can be ascertained by trial and error: if we eat certain amount of food and still feel hungry, we should eat
less, the correct amount is a mean between eating too much and too little. NB. The word “mean” should not
be interpreted as being synonymous with “average”.

The two important consequences of this doctrine for ethics are that: there are various correct ways of living
for different people. What is good for one person may not be good for another. And, further, one cannot tell
prior to actual experimentation, by use of reason alone, which is correct way of living for him. We can
summarize these two points by saying that Aristotle is both relativist and empiricist in ethics.

So with happiness “the proper way for a man to behave in the moral sphere is in accordance with the mean.
For Example, in order to be happy he must be courageous, liberal, proud, witty, modest, and so on. Courage
is the mean between cowardice and rashness; liberty between prodigality and fragility, pride between vanity
and so forth. So, Aristotle’s philosophy of the golden mean can be condensed as follows:
In order to achieve happiness, men must act moderately, they must act so as to be striving for the mean
between two extremes middle course between two activities. If they do this: than they will be happy. But the
mean will vary from man to man: some men can be more carious than others, and some less and each will be
proper for that man.

Here it seems very important to note that Aristotle is one of the first great philosophers of common-sense in
dealing with ethical matters. As we have seen, Plato maintained that good life is in no way connected with
pleasure – for he lays down a rigid requirement for all men to follow, regardless of their inclinations, desires,
temperament, in life. Aristotle rejects this view of Plato and maintained the view that no man can be happy
without certain amount of pleasure in his life.

1.3.6 RELEVANCE OF THE CLASSICAL ETHICAL THEORIES

Dear learner, you may ask, what is the relevance of these ancient persons and
theories? Why should you study ethical theories of the ancient times?
To answer this question, you have to know the following facts about the persons and theories here.

Plato and Aristotle are known to be the greatest of all philosophers/thinkers in the history of mankind, not only
with respect to ethical theories but with respect to almost all thoughts. That is, Plato was the student of
Socrates while Aristotle was the student of Plato. (Aristotle was the teacher/tutor of Alexander the Great, a
very popular historical figure.) As expressed by a writer, it is hard to imagine a time so rich in human genius
as the Athens into which Socrates, Plato and Aristotle were born.

Hence, this unit introduced you to the most influential persons and philosophical ideas in the history of
mankind. Their thoughts have laid foundation for all subsequent thinkers. For instance, so encompassing and
magnificent is Plato’s philosophy that it is said that all subsequent philosophy is but a series of footnotes to
it.” That is, they have influenced the way of thinking of all people including those of our times, if not that of
each of us.

To put the same thing in different words, the relevance of the classical ethical theories has to do with the
meaning of the word classical. In usages such as these the word classical means that which has passed the
test of time and space, or that which applies to all times and places: undying ideas.

1.3.7 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Part I: From the alternatives given to each question below, choose the best one.
1. The philosophy of the Sophists was characterized by
A. Relativism C. Objectivism E. A and B are correct answers
B. Skepticism D. All of the above
2. There is one and only one good life for all men to lead, according to Plato. This view is known as .
A. Ethical relativism C. Ethical absolutism E. None of the above
B. Skepticism D. All of the above
3. Who is known to be one of the first great philosophers of common-sense in dealing with ethical matters?
A. Plato B. Socrates C. Aristotle D. Protagoras E. None of the above
4. Which of the following provide Aristotle’s answer to the question: “how should we behave in order to
achieve happiness”?
A. the Doctrine of the mean C. Objectivism E. A and B are correct answers
B. golden mean D. Absolutism
5. What is the virtue or highest good according to Platonism?
A. Wealth B. Power C. Knowledge D. Health E. None of the above

Part II: Define the following terms

Platonism Nicomachean ethics Golden mean Socratic problem
Sophists Sophism Socratic method

Part III: Say True or False

1. The concern of the Sophists was discovering genuine knowledge.
2. Plato believed that “A man is the measure of all things”.
3. Socrates was ethical philosopher.
4. Aristotle was ethical absolutist.
5. Classical ethical theories have great relevance to present day moral thinking.

Part IV: Questions for reflection

1. How do you evaluate the teachings of the Sophists? Is it morally right to teach somebody how to persuade
by cheating?
2. You have read in this unit that Socrates is regarded as a model of moral person with respect to the search
for, and devotion to, truth. Can you think of any person from your experience who could also be regarded as
a model of moral person. Why?
3. Many think that the place of Jesus Christ in the Christian and that of Socrates in philosophy are analogous.
What is the analogy?
4. In this unit you have encountered a statement which is said to be the most quoted statement in the whole
literature. What is the statement? What does it mean? Who is its author?
1.3.8 SELECTED REFERENCES

Aristotle (1996) The Nicomachean Ethics, translated by Harris Rackham, Wordsworth editions Ltd.
Avrum, Stroll and Popkin, Richard H. (1961) Introduction to Philosophy. (Chapter 5, Ethics/Appraisal of
Human Character, Conduct, and Aims)
Barry, Vincent (1980) Philosophy: A Text With Readings. (Chapters 1 and 2 pp. 1-79)
Mawr, Byrn (1999). Platonic Ethics Old and New, Classical Review
Miller, E. D. L.(1984) Questions That Matter: An Invitation to Philosophy. Chapter, 4; Part Four, The Question
of morality, Chapter 16 (pp 349-361)
Palmner, Donald (1996). Does the Center Hold? An Introduction to Western Philosophy. (Chapter 7, Ethics;
Chapter 8, Critique of traditional Ethical theories)
UNIT 1.4: CONSEQUENTIALIST/TELEOLOGICAL ETHICAL THEORIES

Contents
1.4.1 Introduction
1.4.2 Aims and objectives
1.4.3 What are Consequentialist/Teleological ethical theories?
1.4.4 Hedonism (Pleasure principle)
1.4.5 Egoistic hedonism: Epicureanism and Cyrenaicism
1.4.6 Utilitarianism/Social hedonism
1.4.7 Check your progress
1.4.8 Selected References

1.4.1 INTRODUCTION

Dear learner, in the previous unit you studied classical ethical theories. This unit familiarizes you to the most
dominant theories that underlie the ethical and political theories of the modern world, such as egoism,
hedonism, and utilitarianism. As such, the theories and the concepts you study in this unit will help you to
understand most of the ethical and political ideas of the modern time.

Consequentialist/Teleological ethical theories are theories that emphasize consequences of actions as the
criteria of their rightness or wrongness. That is, they maintain that an action is right if its consequences are
good, it is wrong if its consequences are bad. The unit begins by pointing out the common characteristics of
consequentialist or teleological theories. This will be followed by the descriptions of the two major versions of
consequentialist or teleological theories, namely egoistic hedonism and utilitarianism.

1.4.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

At the end of your study of this unit you should be able to:
 point out the common characteristics of consequentialist/teleological theory
 know the meaning of egoistic hedonism and the difference between its two versions (Epicureanism and
Cyrenaicism)
 know the meaning of utilitarianism (social hedonism) and the difference between its two versions
(Bentham and Mill)
 compare and contrast egoism and altruism
1.4.3 WHAT ARE CONSEQUENTIALIST/TELEOLOGICAL ETHICAL THEORIES?

Dear learner, in order to understand hedonism as an ethical theory it is necessary that you make a distinction
between two general types of ethical theories, namely, consequentialist or teleological ethical theories and
non-consequentialist or deontological theories. In this unit you will study about consequentialist or teleological
ethical theories. You will find the non-consequentialist or deontological theories in the next unit.

How do you determine whether a given action is moral or immoral, right or wrong? Consequentialist or
teleological ethics provides one way of answering this question.

Theology, as a philosophical doctrine, is the belief in purpose or goals in the universe. In other words, it is a
belief in the purposeful arrangement of things in the universe. Teleological theory of ethics is then that which
stresses the consequence /end, goal, purpose/ of actions, and even makes the consequence of actions the
criterion or test of their rightness. That is, and action is judged, or said to be right or wrong, moral or immoral,
depending on what happens as a results or consequences of it. It because it emphasizes on consequences
of actions that it is also called consequentialist theory.

As you will study in the next unit, non-consequentialist or deontological theory is the direct opposite of the
consequentialist/teleological theory. According to this theory what makes an action right or wrong has to do
with factors other than consequence.

1.4.4 HEDONISM (PLEASURE PRINCIPLE)

Hedonism is an example of consequentialist or teleological ethics you studies above. It is a general ethical
theory which views pleasure as the good. Hedonism, from the Greek- hedone meaning pleasure, is the ethical
philosophy which holds that only pleasure is worth having for its own sake. In a word, hedonists view
pleasure and only pleasure as having intrinsic value. Therefore, according to this hedonistic principle,
pleasure is the criterion of right action; that is, an action is said to be right or wrong depending on the amount
or kind of pleasure that results from it, and depending on this alone.

Here, therefore, we have the answer to the two leading questions in ethical theories, namely “What is the
good life for man”? and “How ought men to behave?” The answers that the hedonists provide to these
questions are, respectively: “the good life for men is that of pleasure” and “we ought to act so as to achieve
pleasure”. In precise words, hedonism is therefore in ethical doctrine that pleasure is the highest good, and
the production of pleasure is the criterion of right action.

Hedonism has two forms: egoistic hedonism and social hedonism. As forms of hedonism both of them
advocate pleasure as the good. The difference between the two arises when we ask “whose pleasure?” That
is, we are told by hedonists that “men ought to act so as to achieve pleasure”, but whose pleasure? The
answer to this question gives us the two versions or forms of hedonism, namely egoistic hedonism and social
hedonism. In the following two sections of this unit you will study egoistic hedonism and social hedonism, in
that order.

1.4.5 EGOISTIC HEDONISM: EPICUREANISM AND CYRENAICISM

What is egoistic hedonism? Egoistic hedonism is, of course, egoism + hedonism. Above, you studied about
what hedonism is. The question here must be therefore about what egoism is.

Egoism comes from the Greek word “ego” which means “I” any form of egoism thus makes the self the
central concern, the beginning and the end of all consideration. It is, in other words, self centeredness.

There are two forms of egoisms: psychological egoism and ethical egoism. Psychological egoism is a
doctrine about human nature, which claims that in fact everyone by nature pressure’s primarily his or her own
interest. Ethical egoism is, on the other hand, a value judgment, claiming that everyone ought to pursue
primarily his own interests. Ethical egoism is, in other words, a consequentialist theory which contends that
we act morally when we act in a way that promotes our own interests.

Egoistic hedonism is thus the doctrine that each individual should pursue primarily his or her own pleasure. In
other words, egoistic hedonism is the doctrine that the pursuit and production of one’s own pleasure is the
highest good and the orientation of right action.

How do you evaluate the position of egoistic hedonists? Do you approve or disapprove it? Do you think that
we are egoists by nature? Anyway, consider here the principle known as altruism. Altruism is the direct
opposite of egoism. It is the principle that everyone ought as much as possible to seek the good (well being,
pleasure, happiness) of others.
Egoistic hedonism is certainly very old moral philosophy. In fact, its two best examples occur already in Greek
philosophy: Cyrenaicism and Epicureanism. These are the two versions of egoistic hedonism.

The distinction between them arises when we ask the questions of the nature or the type of pleasure to be
pursued. That is, we can categorize pleasure in various ways: lower and higher, positive and negative,
pleasure and displeasure (plain), of the present moment (immediate) and that of long-run, and bodily
(sensual) and mental. The bodily or sensual pleasure is that obtained from bodily sensation- sensation of
being trickled, rubbed, or stroked of example. Mental pleasures are pleasurable states of mind obtained from
sources such as a reforesting swim, reading a good book, grappling with a philosophical problem, creating a
work of art, talking with a congenial basis of our conduct: we should act in such a way as such a to maximize
our own pleasure sensation.

Epicureanism, so named after Epicurus (300 B.C), its founder, is a more important form of hedonism. It has
often mistakenly been represented along with Cyrenaicism as “pig philosophy.” This is a mistake because,
although Epicureanism was certainly also an egoistic hedonism, it differed in important respects from
Cyrenaicism.

Influenced by his atomistic view of soul that we have seen earlier, Epicurus advises that men should live as
pleasant a life as possible. But the pleasant life meant to Epicurus something quite different from what it
meant for Cyrenaics. The pleasure Epicures advocated was leisure according to our distinction. The proper
way of life is to live pleasantly, but without suffering from any of the undesirable effects of such living. The
pleasure to be pursued must b one that does not produce painful or “displaceable” consequences. His idea of
the life of pleasure is this: health of the body peace of mind (serenity).

Hence, one can see that although the epicureans were who believed that there is only one thing worth aiming
at, namely the maximum pleasure for one self, by pleasure they meant long-run pleasure, as estimated over
an entire life span. To obtain pleasure later, one must often sacrifice it now. They condemned most pleasure
seeks because they sought the immediate pleasure such as food, drink and sex, instead of the long-term
pleasures, such as aesthetic satisfaction and knowledge. They considered not only today’s pleasure, but
tomorrow’s and year’s thus the advice “don’t scratch it now, even though it itches, or it will feel worse
tomorrow” opposed to the pro-verb “kill the goose that layers the golden edges” goes to Epicureanism and
Cyrenaicism respectively.
As could be seen from the quotation below, rather than sensual gratification, Epicurus associated pleasure
with what he termed sober thinking. He wrote:
“When I say that pleasure is the goal of living I do not mean the pleasures of the libertines
inherent in positive enjoyment. … I mean, on the contrary, the pleasure that consists in
freedom from bodily pain and mental agitation. The pleasant life is not the product of one
drinking party after another or of sexual intercourse. … On the contrary, it is the result of
sober thinking – namely, investigation of the reasons of every act of choice and aversion,
and elimination of those false ideas about the gods and death which are the chief source of
mental disturbance.”

1.4.6 UTILITARIANISM/SOCIAL HEDONISM

Social hedonism is popularly known as utilitarianism. In this text we use words social hedonism and
utilitarianism to mean the same thing. As a result, we continue to use the word utilitarianism, instead of social
hedonism.

Utilitarianism is ethical doctrine that an action is right or moral if and only if it promotes the greatest pleasure
for the greatest number of people. It is the ethical as well as political theory according to which the best rule
of life is to aim at the greatest pleasure for the greatest number of people.

Utilitarianism is another version of teleological ethics. The utilitarian conceived of their philosophical work as
an attempt to lay down an objective principle for determining when a given action was right or wrong. As
such, it is seen as scientific approach to morality. They called this maxim the principle of utility. This maxim is
where the heart of utilitarianism lies.

The word “utility” simply means “usefulness,” but the utilitarian employ it to mean “that which promotes the
greatest balance of good over evil.” i.e. if an action produces an excess beneficial effects over harmful ones,
then it is right otherwise it is not. Thus utilitarianism is: the doctrine that we ought to act so as to promote the
greatest balance of good over evil. More good over evil is thus usefulness.

But what is the good? In fact utilitarianism has always gone hand in hand with hedonism by specifying the
nature of the good as pleasure. Therefore utilitarianism is: the doctrine that we ought to act so as to promote
the greatest balance of pleasure over pain.
Still another question: whose pleasure is to be maximized? In fact utilitarianism has always gone hand in
hand specifically with social hedonism and indeed may be regarded as identical as social hedonism. Hence it
becomes here necessary for us to compare and contrast egoistic hedonism to social hedonism.

Like egoistic hedonism, social hedonism/utilitarianism holds teleological conception of right action: it judges
the rightness of an action by its consequences. And, like egoistic hedonism, social hedonism (utilitarianism) is
hedonist in it conception of right action: it judges the rightness of an action by its production of pleasurable
consequences. But the difference is that: whereas the egoistic hedonist is motivated out of self interest and
aims at self satisfaction, the social hedonist or utilitarian is motivated out of an interest for the greatest
possible number of persons and aims at their satisfaction. In place of egoism of egoistic hedonism, social
hedonism or utilitarianism substitutes the benevolence principle: happiness is to be distributed as widely and
as equally as possible among all people. Thus utilitarianism is: the doctrine that we ought to act so as to
prompt the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. It is, in other words, hedonism plus
benevolence principle.
Hedonism + benevolence principle=

Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill: the two versions of utilitarianism.
Historically, utilitarianism is identified with the English philosophers Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John
Stuart Mill (1806-1873). These two figures represent the two versions of utilitarianism. Bentham was the
founder of utilitarianism whereas Mill was his successor but the most popular utilitarian of all.

The difference between these two versions is that whereas Bentham emphasized the quantity of pleasure,
Mill emphasized the quality. According to both thinkers, the best rule of life is to aim at the “greatest pleasure
of the greatest number of people”. However, “the greatest” means “the most” for Bentham and “the best” for
Mill. By adding quality to Bentham’s version Mill meant that one pleasure hold moral superiority over another.
The central idea of Mill in that regard is expressed in his popular statement: “ It is better to be a human being
dissatisfied than a pig satisfied.”

Pleasure: Quantity or Quality?

Bentham: “If the game of push-pin furnishes more
pleasure, it is valuable.” Mill: “It is better to be a human
being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied.”
Act and Rule Utilitarianism
Act utilitarianism is the normative position that contends that we should act so as to produce the greatest
happiness/pleasure for the most people. In other words, before acting, ask yourself: what will be the
consequence of my action not only for myself but also for everyone else involved? If the consequences are
good (that is, they are calculated to produce more happiness/pleasure than any other action will produce), the
action is right; if they are bad (that is, they are not so calculated), then the action is wrong. In effect, for act
utilitarianism the end justifies the means.

This position of act utilitarianism raises a problem: What if an action that promises the greatest good for the
greatest number, such as imprisoning an innocent person, appears to be patently wrong? The consequences
of removing a chronic public threat appear to provide greater safety and happiness for the vast majority of
people. Yet suppose that in this particular case the individual is innocent.

A number of ethicists point out that we get into such dilemma when we apply the “greatest happiness”
principle to a particular act and not to the rule that the act implements. What we should be concerned with is
the consequences of keeping or breaking the operative rule under which a particular act falls. This is a rule
utilitarianism position. In short, rule utilitarianism maintains that we should act in such a way that the rule
governing our actions produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.

1.4.7 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Part I: Choose the best answer from the alternatives given to each question
1. The ethical doctrine according to which pleasure and only pleasure is intrinsically good is known as: _
A. Egoism B. Utilitarianism C. Altruism D. Hedonism E. None of the above
2. The principle which the direct opposite of egoism is .
A. Hedonism B. Utilitarianism C. Altruism D. Pleasure E. None of the above
3. As quantity is to Bentham is to Mill.
A. Pleasure B. Utilitarianism C. Majority D. Quality E. None of the above
4. The philosopher who is known to be the founder of hedonism is .
A. Epicurus B. Aristipas C. Bentham D. Mill E. None of the above
5. Which of the following is true about Epicurean ideal of life?
A. Sober thinking B. Sensual pleasure C. Immediate pleasure D. All E. None
Part II: Define the following terms
Consequentialist/teleological theories Hedonism Epicureanism
Utilitarianism (social hedonism) Egoism Psychological egoism
Ethical egoism Altruism Cyrenaicism
Part III: Say True or False
1. All consequentialist/teleological theories are hedonist.
2. Jeremy Bentham was egoistic thinker.
3. An action is morally right if promotes the greatest balance of good over evil, according to utilitarianism.
4. Utilitarianism is part of hedonism.

Part IV: Questions for reflection and comprehension

1. How do you evaluate the position of egoistic hedonism? Do you believe that human beings are always
motivated by self interest (as psychological egoism says)? Even if it be true that human beings are always
motivated by self interest, is it morally right to be so?
2. Both Cyrenaicism and Bentham’s version of utilitarianism are criticized by other philosophers as “pig
philosophy”. Do you understand why?
3. What is your attitude towards Kant’s popular statement: “It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a
pig satisfied”? Do you approve or disapprove it?
4. What is the major difference between Act and Rule utilitarianism?

1.4.8 SELECTED REFERENCES

Avrum, Stroll and Popkin, Richard H. (1961) Introduction to Philosophy. (Chapter 5, Ethics/Appraisal of
Human Character, Conduct, and Aims)
Barry, Vincent (1980) Philosophy: A Text With Readings. (Chapter 3, Ethics, pp. 101-110)
Miller, E. D. L.(1984) Questions That Matter: An Invitation to Philosophy. Part Four, The Question of morality,
Chapter 17 and 18 (pp 379-391)
Palmner, Donald (1996). Does the Center Hold? An Introduction to Western Philosophy. (Chapter 7, Ethics;
Chapter 8, Critique of traditional Ethical theories.)
UNIT 1.5: NON-CONSEQUENTIALIST/DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICAL THEORIES

Contents
1.5.1 Introduction
1.5.2 Aims and objectives
1.5.3 What are non-consequentialist/deontological ethical theories?
1.5.4 Kantian/Duty Ethics
1.5.5 Devine command theory
1.5.6 Check your progress
1.5.7 Selected References

1.5.1 INTRODUCTION

Dear learner, this unit introduces you to nonconsequentialist/deontological ethical theories which are direct
opposite of the type of ethical theories you studied in the previous unit, namely consequentialist/teleological
ethical theories.

In contrast to the consequentialist or teleological ethical theories that emphasize consequences of actions as
the criteria for their morality, nonconsequentialist or deontological ethical theories hold that morality of an
action depends on factors other than its consequences. Two major representatives of nonconsequentialist or
deontological ethical theories are Kantian ethics and Divine command ethical theory. Kantian ethics is one
that emphasizes duty of the agent. Devine command theory is a single-rule nonconsequentialist normative
theory that says that we should always do the will of God. You will study these two types of ethical theories in
that order, beginning by what is common to all nonconsequentialist/deontological ethical theories.

1.5.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit you should be able to

 know the common characteristics of the non-consequentialist/deontological ethical theories
 distinguish consequentialist/teleological and non-consequentialist/deontological ethical theories
 know the essential features of Kantian/Duty Ethics and categorical imperative
 know the meaning and basis of the Devine command theory
1.5.3 WHAT ARE NONCONSEQUENTIALIST (DEONTOLOGICAL) THEORIES

Philosophers who object the consequentialist ethical theories hold that any appraisal of the rightness or
wrongness of an action must take into account the motive from which it is done. These philosophers contend
that moral actions are those for which an agent can be held responsible. To say this is to imply that they are
actions which the agent intended to do. It is thus not behavior per se which is capable of being right or wrong,
but behavior which results from one’s intensions and conscious motives. This explains why we do not morally
condemn a doctor who inadvertently kills a patient during an operation. According to the critics, it is thus clear
that no moral action can be evaluated as right or wrong apart from some consideration of the agent’s
intension in performing.

Deontological derives from the word deontology, which refers to the theory or study of moral commitment.
Deontological theories maintain that the morality of an action depends on factors other than its
consequences, and that is why these theories are alternatively called nonconsequentialist theories.

Deontological theory is the direct opposite of the consequentialist or teleological theory that you studied in the
previous unit. As you recall from you lesson in Unit 3, consequentialist or teleological theories morality (that
is, rightness or wrongness) of actions is determined by their consequences. According to the non-
consequentialist or deontological theories, on the contrary, morality of an action is determined by factors
other than consequences. According to these theories what makes an action right or wrong is the actor’s
conformity to his or her duty. An actors duty has nothing at all to do with what might or might not happen – is
the duty is not connected with the result or the consequence of an action. Hence, whereas
consequentialist/teleological ethics is one that emphasizes on the results of actions as the tests of their
rightness, nonconsequentialist/deontological ethics is one that emphasizes on the performance of duty ,
rather than results, as the sign of right action.

The most influential nonconsequentialist theories can best be categorized either as proposing a single rule
that govern human conduct or proposing multiple rules. Two significant single-rule nonconsequentialist
theories are Kantian theory and Divine Command theory. What are these two ethical theories? You will first
study about Kantian ethics and next the Divine Command theory.
1.5.4 KANTIAN (DUTY) ETHICS

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) is the philosopher who has stressed, above all others, that the moral worth of an
action depends on the motive on which it is done. His ethical theory is an attempt to support this position.
This sub-section of the unit introduces you to Kantian Ethical.

Kantian ethics is the ethical theory of Immanuel Kant. It is the theory that emphasizes the performance of
duty as the criteria of morality and that is why it is alternatively called duty ethics. The third alternative name
for Kantian ethics is “categorical imperative” or the ethics of “categorical imperative”. This is because, as you
will see later, categorical imperative is the most central concept in Kant’s ethical theory.

Kantian ethics is a variety of deontological ethics as opposed to teleological ethics. As we have seen the
teleological theory of ethics is one which emphasizes the intended consequences or results of actions as the
criterion of their rightness. That is, “such and such is the right action because it produces such and such
results.” On the contrary, the Kantian ethics holds that “the consequences or results of your actions have
nothing at all to do with their rightness or wrongness.” Here the criterion is not what might or might not
happen, but the intent to perform one’s duty or obligation. Because they stress the nations of duty and
obligation, these theories are sometimes described as duty ethics.

The nature of morality as unconditional

The age of enlightenment saw a questioning of religion and traditional values, including morality. As a result,
philosophers needed to base moral systems on justifiable grounds. Kant is one of such philosophers. His
moral system is based on rationality. It attempts to show how any rational being would agree to universal
moral laws. Its influence is enormous and modern philosophers still use Kant’s ideas as a starting point for
discussions on morality.

The attempt of Kant is to make morality unconditional, i.e. not conditioned by self interest, majority interest,
consequences, and the like. To that end, he makes distinction between conditional “ought “and unconditional
“ought”. Kant does this because morality must be necessary and universal, that is, it must be absolutely
binding, and absolutely binding on everyone alike: whoever you are, whatever your situation, you ought to do
X. but the conditional “ought” involves “ifs” and “ in order that” and therefore gets mixed up with all sorts of
particular circumstances, changing desires, personal inclinations.
Good will as the basis of morality
As an argument for that nature of morality, Kant eliminates from the start any suggestion that morality can be
based on our natural states and inclinations (gifts of nature) including pleasure or happiness. He eliminates
all innate gifts (such as intelligence, wit and courage) or the accidental gifts (such as power, wealth, and
honor). They cannot be the basis of morality because none of them are absolute goods, or because they do
not have intrinsic or unconditional value; moreover, any one of them could be corrupted or turned to be evil.
There must be more than these and which is absolutely and unconditionally good. And this is something that
all other things depend on for their goodness, and without which they would become corrupted and turned
into evil.

What is this thing, which is absolute good, and which has intrinsic or unconditional value; and that which can
never be corrupted or turned into be evil. This absolute good and the necessary and sufficient condition for all
right action, the foundation for rational morality is the “ good will” according to Kant. He wrote: “Nothing in the
world – indeed nothing beyond the world – can possibly be conceived which could be good without
qualification except a good will.” By the way, what is this good will?

Kant defined good will as “an intention to act in accordance with the moral law” and moral law is what it is no
matter what everything else. Good will is, in other words, to act only out of respect for what is right and not for
any other reason. To act out of good will is, then, to do something because it is right to do it, and for no other
reason. This would be rational morality.

“Nothing in the world – indeed nothing beyond the world – can possibly be
conceived which could be good without qualification except a good will.” I. Kant

To put differently, by will Kant meant the uniquely human capacity to act according to the concepts behind
laws – that is, principles presumably operating in nature. A good will, therefore, acts in accordance with
nature’s laws. For Kant a will could be called good without qualification only if it always had in view one
principle: whether the maxim of its action could become a universal law. This is the standard which is crucial
part of Kant’s theory of ethics. Kant formalizes this principle of all morality in the categorical imperative, which
you will find immediately below.

Natural law is a pattern of necessary and universal regularity holding in physical

ration. It is also a moral imperative, a description of what ought to happen in human
relationships.
Kant’s Categorical Imperative
Kant holds that the fundamental principle at the basis of all our moral duties is categorical imperative, one of
the most famous and important concepts in the history of ethics. The categorical imperative is the
fundamental principle of morality according to him. It is imperative because it is a command. More precisely, it
commands us to exercise our wills in a particular way, not to perform some action or other. It is categorical in
virtue of applying to us unconditionally, or simply because we possess rational wills, without reference to any
ends that we might or might not have. It does not, in other words, apply to us on the condition that we have
antecedently adopted some goal for ourselves.

Categorical imperative as a test of moral actions

The categorical imperative is a test of moral actions. How? Before starting a certain course of action I must
ask: Does universalizing the principle of my action result in (practical) contradiction? If so, the action fails the
test and must be rejected as immoral. In other words, the ability to universalize (apply to everyone) the rule
by which we act in a given situation is a sufficient guarantee of the morality of our action, or that it is being
done out of respect for the moral law alone.

For Kant human beings, as moral agents, are rational and autonomous (free to make choices). He thinks that
as rational beings we are able to judge whether an action is moral by asking if the action is consistent with
the categorical imperative. One formulation of the categorical imperative is, “Act only according to that maxim
by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.” What Kant means by this is
that the way we judge an action to be moral is to universalize it: If I want to know whether telling a lie on a
particular occasion is justifiable, I must try to imagine what would happen if everyone was to lie. Kant thinks
that any rational being would agree a world in which there is no lying is preferable to one in which lying is
common. In a society where lying is common no one would trust the word of anyone else.

Sometimes the categorical imperative is referred to, for short, as the principle of universalizibility , because it
asks us whether we can “universalize” our actions, that is, whether we could demand that everyone else in
similar circumstances act in accordance with the same rule as we would.

Different versions of the categorical imperative

Kant provided several formulations of the categorical imperative, one of which is the one stated above. These
are different versions of the same fundamental principle of morality. Certainly, they overlap with one another,
and they suggest important and differing ways in which the fundamental principle may be viewed and applied.
A second formulation of the categorical imperative is: “Act only so that the will through its maxims could
regard itself at the same time as making universal laws.”
Still another formulation of Kant’s categorical imperative is: “Always act to treat humanity, whether yourself or
others, as an end in itself, never merely as a means”. What Kant means by this is that a rational being should
not be used as a means to another person’s happiness; if we use another person as a means to our ends
then we have removed that person’s autonomy.

Tree versions of Kant’s categorical imperative

1. “Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should
become a universal law.”
2. “Act only so that the will through its maxims could regard itself at the same time as
making universal laws.”
Alternative approach to Kant’s theory
Kant’s theory is known to be highly complex. To make the matter simpler one must use different approaches.
And one of the possible alternative approaches is to base the discussion of the major questions that Kant
attempts to answer.

To bring out the essential features of Kantian ethics, we have to center around Kant’s efforts to answer the
question, “What is the good life for man?” and How do we determine morality of an action? Or “How can we
tell whether our actions are morally right?” However, Kant’s answer to the question “When does a person
have a moral worth?” Or, formulated alternatively, “What distinguishes a person of virtue from a person who
is not virtuous?” will take us to the heart of his moral theory.

Kant’s answer, in brief, is that what determines a person to be morally worthy is not what he does, but why he
does it. A man who repays debts out of the fear of imprisonment is not a virtuous person, according to Kant,
even though he does what he ought to do; nor is a man morally worthy who pays debt because he is inclined
to do so. Kant describes the former person as acting from “prudential considerations” and the latter as acting
“in accord with duty”, not “from duty”. Insofar as a person acts from such considerations, he is not virtuous.
An agent has moral worth only when he recognizes that he ought to act in a certain way because it is his duty
to do so. One who takes care of his children properly, because he understands that he is under obligation to
do so and is motivated by this consideration, is a person of virtue.

For the deontologist Kant, the rightness or wrongness of an action has nothing to do with its consequences
(unlike the consequentialist theories). The question of whether an act is right or wrong arises only if there is
some obligation on the part of the agent to do it; that is, if in relevant circumstances, one could properly say
to the agent, “It is your duty to do so and so”. Therefore, an action is right if it ought to be done in those
circumstances, and wrong, given those circumstances, if it ought not to be done.

Kant’s view can therefore be summarized as maintaining that a morally good person is a person of “good will”
– a man who acts “out of reverence for duty”. To act in this way is always to act in a morally justifiable
manner, for as Kant says: “Nothing in the world – indeed nothing beyond the world – can possibly be
conceived which could be good without qualification except a good will”.

These remarks bring us to the heart of Kant’s theory and enable us to answer the first of Kant’s fundamental
questions, “What is the good life for man?” The highest good, as Kant conceives it, is a product of two
elements: personal happiness and the possession of a virtuous character.

Like Aristotle, Kant holds that happiness is not an entity, a thing, or object; nor is it to be identified with
pleasure. Happiness consists of a sense of well being and it is a concomitant of behavior, not a consequence
of it.

Methodology
Throughout his moral works, Kant returns time and again to the question of the method moral philosophy
should employ when pursuing its aims. A basic theme of these discussions is that the fundamental
philosophical issues should be addressed a priori, that is, without drawing on observations of human beings
and their behavior. Once we “seek out and establish” the fundamental principle of morality a priori, the we
may consult facts drawn from experience in order to determine how best to apply this principle to human
beings and generate particular conclusions about how we ought to act.

A priori is an important epistemological concept that was introduced to the history of philosophy by Kant
himself. It refers to knowledge that is before experience, and therefore independent of experience . A priori
knowledge is opposed to what Kant called a posteriori knowledge. A posteriori knowledge is knowledge that
is after experience, and therefore dependent upon experience.
1.5.5 DIVINE COMMAND THEORY

Divine command theory is one of the two significant single-rule nonconsequentialist normative theories, the
other being Kantian theory which you studied above. It is the theory that says we should always do the will of
God.

To understand the divine command theory of morality you have to familiarize yourself first with what is called
the religious view of human nature. The issue or question of views of human nature is about what it means to
be human or what distinguishes human beings from other things; that what makes us different from anything
else in the world. Religious view of human nature is one of the differing answers to this question. (Other
important views of human nature include the Rationalist view, the Scientific view, Existentialist view, and
Eastern view.)

According to the religious view of human nature, particularly the Judo-Christian tradition, humans are made in
the image of God. They are essentially divine beings, because they contain something of the self-
consciousness and ability to love that characterizes their Creator. This ability to love is the distinguishing
character of the religious view. Where are as the Greeks (particularly Socrates, Plato and Aristotle) held that
only those capable of attaining theoretical and moral knowledge could realize the purpose of living, the divine
view contends that the two purposes of life – loving God and serving God – are open to all regardless of
intelligence. The single personal God created man in His own image; that is, He endowed His creation with
self-consciousness and the ability to love. This ability is what makes humans unique.

The religious view on human nature fosters the following view of self: First, since the universe is the
expression of an intelligent mind (God), believers may see themselves as part of a universe whose meaning
and purpose they personally share through fellowship with God. One’s purpose in life, therefore, is found in
loving and serving God.

The religious view also fosters the concept of a moral self: Each of us is capable of great good, but also of
great evil. When we refuse to love and serve God, we commit our greatest evil. This refusal is expressed in
various ways such as injustice, vanity, pride, and dishonesty.

Thus, in contrast to the Greek belief that we must develop our rational powers to perceive the moral order in
the universe, the divine view holds that intelligence is no prerequisite for a moral sense. We do good when
we make God the centre of our lives; we do wrong when we retreat from this commitment. We are rational,
but what makes us unique is our divine likeness.

Divine command theory is, therefore, a single-rule nonconsequentialist normative theory that says that we
should always do the will of God. In other words, whatever the situation, if we do what God wills, then we do
the right thing; if we do not do what God wills, then no matter what the consequences, we do wrong.

Notice that, this theory does not state that we should obey God’s law because we will, thereby, promote our
own or the general good. Perhaps we may accomplish these ends, but the sole justification for obeying God’s
law is that God wills it. The theory also does not defend the morality of an action by promising some
supernatural reward to the faithful; that is, though the faithful may be rewarded for his/her moral actions,
egoistic actions do not justify morality according to the divine command theorists.

Indeed, divine command theorists would see no intrinsic worth or value in such things as pleasure, power, or
knowledge; instead they propose something like a union with God as taking the form of heavenly salvation.
The great Christian theologian and philosopher Thomas Aquinas, wring in one of his famous ethical works,
Summa Contra Gentiles, refers to the human’s ultimate happiness as being the contemplation of God. He
arrives at this conclusion after arguing that human happiness does not consist in wealth worldly power, or
sensual pleasures. He wrote the following in that regard:
Accordingly, if man’s ultimate happiness consists not in external things, which are called goods
of chance, nor in goods of the body; nor in the goods of the soul, as regards the sensitive
faculty; nor as regards the intellective faculty, in the practice of moral virtue; nor as regards
intellectual virtue in those which are concerned about action, namely art and prudence; it
remains for us to conclude that man’s ultimate happiness consists in the contemplation of the
truth. For this operation alone is proper to man, and none of the other animals communicates
with him therein. Again, this is not directed to anything further as its end: since the
contemplation of truth is sought for its own sake. …. All other human operations seem to be
directed to this as their end. Because perfect contemplation requires that the body should be
disencumbered. …. It follows then that man’s ultimate happiness consists in wisdom, based on
the consideration of divine things. It is therefore evident by way of induction that man’s ultimate
happiness consists in the contemplation of God, which conclusion was proved by above
arguments.

This state of eternal bliss (perfect happiness/great joy) is the ultimate goal of all human endeavors; it is the
only thing of intrinsic value. What is valuable, then, is independent of what any individual thinks or likes and
what any society happens to sanction. Moral laws are established by God; they are universally binding for all
people and are eternally true. Such God-established laws are generally interpreted in a religious tradition.
The Ten Commandments are good examples therein.
1.5.6 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Part I: Choose the best answer from the alternatives given to each question
1. Which of the following is most relevant for Kant’s theory of morality?
A. the well being of society C. duty E. none of the above
B. consequences of actions D hypothetical imperative
2. For Kant, the only truly good thing is .
A. Categorical imperative C. Good will E. Pleasure
B. Hypothetical imperative D. Happiness
3. Which of the following could be an alternative for Kant’s “categorical imperative”?
A. good will C. a priori knowledge E. none of the above
B. the principle of universalizibility D. a posteriori knowledge
4. As a consequence of action is to teleological theory is to deontological
theory.
A. result of action C. the nature of action E. none of the above
B. the end of action D. performance of duty
5. What is the ultimate goal of human endeavors according to the divine command theory?
A. pleasure B. wealth C. power D. all of the above E. none of the above

Part II: Define the following terms

Nonconsequentialist (deontological) theory Kantian/duty ethics A priori
Hypothetical imperative Happiness (according to Kant) Good will
Divine command theory Categorical imperative

Part III: Say true or false

1. Kantian ethics is an example of teleological ethical theories.
2. The purpose of life is found in loving and serving God, according to the religious view of human nature.
3. Good will is the highest of all goods, according to Kant.
4. Divine command theory states that we should obey God’s law because we will, thereby, promote our own
or the general good.
5. In the final analysis, man’s ultimate happiness consists in the contemplation of God, according to Thomas
Aquinas.
Part IV: Questions for reflection and comprehension
1. Why is it that Kant’s basic principle of morality called the “categorical
imperative”? How does the categorical imperative become the test for moral
action?
2. What do you think of the effort to establish morality on purely a priori foundation?
Do you believe in objective moral law?
3. The Ten Commandments are good examples are said to be good examples of the
God-established laws of morality. Can you think of other examples of similar assumption?

1.5.7 SELECTED REFERENCES

Avrum, Stroll and Popkin, Richard H. (1961) Introduction to Philosophy. (Chapter 5, Ethics/Appraisal of
Human Character, Conduct, and Aims)
Barry, Vincent (1980) Philosophy: A Text With Readings. (Chapter 3, Ethics, pp. 44-78 ; 113-124)
Miller, E. D. L.(1984) Questions That Matter: An Invitation to Philosophy . Part Four, The Question of morality,
Chapter 19 (pp 416-429)
Palmner, Donald (1996). Does the Center Hold? An Introduction to Western Philosophy . (Chapter 7, Ethics;
Chapter 8, Critique of traditional Ethical theories)
Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopeadia (Internet Explorer) Deontological Ethics
Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopeadia (Internet Explorer) Kantianism
UNIT 1.6: BRIEF HISTORY, SOURCES, GOALS, AND CITIZEN COMPETENCES OF CIVICS AND
ETHICAL EDUCATION

Contents
1.6.1 Introduction
1.6.2 Aims and objective
1.6.3 Brief history of civic and ethical education
1.6.4 Similarity and difference between civics and ethics
1.6.5 Sources of civic and ethical education
1.6.6 The rational/goals of civic and ethical education
1.6.7 Competencies/characteristics of good/responsible citizen
1.6.8 Check your progress
1.6.9 Selected references

1.6.1 INTRODUCTION

Dear learner, this unit is dedicated to the discussion of civic and ethical education issues. It deals with the
history of civic and ethical education nationally and internationally, discussion of the similarity and differences
of civic and ethics, discusses the interdisciplinary aspect of civic and ethical education, explains the rationale,
purpose or goal of civic and ethical education and points out the important or main
competences/characteristics of a good/responsible citizen.

1.6.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this unit is to familiarize you with the very nature, essence and intention of civic and ethical
education. You might have asked yourself and wonder, the reason why you learn civics and ethical
education. This unit tries to give you its historical background and the reason why you learn it.

When you finish the unit, you should be able to:

 Know brief history of civic and ethical education nationally and internationally
 explain the difference and similarities between civics and ethics
 identify and explain sources and goals of civic and ethical education
 discuss the purposes and uses of learning civic and ethical education.
 describe the interdependence between active participation of citizens and building democratic system
  identify virtues of good citizens, inculcate the civic attitudes and grasp the need to have civic
knowledge and skills.

1.6.3 BRIEF HISTORY OF CIVIC AND ETHICAL EDUCATION

As per the writings of many evolutionary and creationist theories writers, the origin and history of civic and
ethical education is trace back to the origin of nature and human being.

On the other hand, historically the question and study of ethics traces its origin from ancient times from
Greece during the 5th c B.C in times of Socrates. Here Socrates, one of the great philosophers, took the
question of ethics. Citizenship education was started by the Greece and the Romans.

During the Medieval period ethics was given along with religious education and the question of ethics was
raised in relation to Christianity and was conceived in terms of obedience to the Catholic Christian church. In
other non-western parts of the world too ethics was linked with the religious beliefs of Buddhism, Confucius,
Hinduism, and Islam.

It was only in the modern period that modern philosophers like Thomas Hobbes and John Locke, Immanuel
Kant, John Stuart Mill and others shift the question of ethics away from total fixation on religious belief into
empirical observation and logical reasoning. The explanations of modern scholars and thinker were attempts
to establish ethical code on the basis of rationalism and intellect that is based on human reasoning rather on
religion or faith. Accordingly, during the period of Renaissance, the impact of religion declined in public
education in many countries.

Some of the major milestones to the development of civic and ethical education are; the establishment of
Greek city-state, democracy and constitution, Magna Carta, Petition Right, The period of
Renaissance/Enlightenment, the Glorious Revolution, the French Revolution, The U.S. war of independence,
the League of Nation, The UN etc. contributed positively while the emergence and expansion of roman
empire, the dark age, the slave trade, colonialism, WWI and WWII have negatively influenced the subject.

The need to have a citizenship education is undeniable. Given this fact many countries of the world have
been delivering courses aiming at creating good, active, knowledgeable and responsible citizens. This is
because education in ‘citizenship’ is ideally an education in democracy as the knowledge, skills, values and
dispositions to be imparted through civic education are expected to individualize democratic citizenship.
When we come to Ethiopia, history indicated that, civic and ethical study is traced back to the ancient history
and formation of Ethiopia and strongly attached with its politics, economy and the socio-culture activities.
Such education was mainly a reflection of religious and governance institutions and it was integrated with the
traditional form of education of the country.

During the reign of Minilik II and his effort of modernization, civic/moral education had been delivered along
with Geography, History and Language studies to support the governance system and ease the
transformation process of the country. However, the study of civic/moral education was introduced in to the
school curriculum during the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie I. During that time, more emphasis was given to
the glory of the emperor, sacredness of the Emperor, his unquestioned power, his hereditary rights and the
subject matter was overshadowed by religious conception.

The Dergu regime had also introduced its own political education into the curriculum effectively as an
instrument to indoctrinate the Marxist-Leninist ideology.

With an express policy pronouncement ‘to produce a competent, active, informed and responsible citizen’ the
current FDRE government has also introduced civic and ethical study in to the Ethiopian school curriculum
including tertiary level schools. Students as part of a community are expected to exercise plural and
contradictory issues. To ignore controversial issues is to give students an incomplete education, i.e. to let not
to think carefully and critically about their concern. Therefore, Civic education presently aims at developing
the capacity to make judgments from convictions and to act boldly on values. Civic education helps students
to develop responsible ways of thinking, believing and acting. It is based on thinking, choosing and making
decisions to act. In nutshell it helps students to connect what they learn with how they live since learning is
for living.

1.6.4 SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES OF CIVICS AND ETHICS

Dear learner, generally speaking, civics studies the political and legal aspect of the life of an individual citizen
where as ethics is focused with the study of the cultural aspect of his/her life. Although strictly speaking
civics and ethics are separate academic fields of study they however share certain commonalities. The
followings are some examples of the common features between civics (citizenship) and ethics (morality).
A. The issue of membership
Membership to a certain groupings is the very essence of both citizenship and morality. In the absence of the
concept of membership both lose their fundamental meanings and status as subject matters to be studied. In
citizenship study membership is meant that of individual citizen to a political and legal community of the
highest order(the state) whereas in morality study it largely denotes to that of a cultural community tied up
by common moral and value bonds whether there is government or not. In other words, Citizenship basically
needs two parties and their relations for its existence under minimum conditions—the state and the individual
citizen, while morality needs the relation between the individual and the larger social group as well as the
state directly and indirectly as a rule maker and protector. As such, civics tends to focus on the vertical and
artificial relation of the individual while ethics studies the horizontal and natural relations. Put differently,
citizenship needs some kind of political and legal arrangement to determine who is a member of the state and
who is not. Similarly, morality is a value arrangement that describes and prescribes the conditions for the
individual member to be accepted as a ‘good” element as judged and rated by the society itself which is the
biological and cultural breeding ground of its members. However, under both conditions member ship to a
certain grouping and community is an established common factor shared by citizenship and morality. The
reason is, as Aristotle also holds it, that humanity is destined by its exceptional nature to be a social creature
with an inherent duty to tie itself to a political company.

B. The issue of rights and obligations

Human beings are social animals under inherent trend to live together in a social gathering. But this social
gathering is not any where a haphazard and accidental aggregation of individuals without some kind of
systematized organization and common orientation. There are rather certain unavoidable rules and
procedures with lists of privileges and concomitant obligations attached to the individual person as a
condition of social attachment with the vast social surrounding. For instance, Citizenship entails a set of rights
and obligations for individual members thus the violation or respect of which results in some arrangement of
punishment or reward by the group as well as the state. Morality on its part is nothing but a list of values
standardizing bad and good behaviors and dispositions of the individual by the larger mass or group. Both
underscore the fact that the individual person is accountable to two sets of rights and obligations mostly set
and protected by social forces out of his control.

C. The issue of institutionalized protection

Both citizenship and morality are founded on institutionalized origin, development, operation, supervision and
protection within the community. An institution here signifies a sociological establishment and organization of
people formed strictly with a degree of executive right to exercise coercive power on the individual in the
name of the community. It bases itself on certain sets of rules and procedures accepted by the majority of the
people in the community and practices hierarchic structures to apply its control over the behavior of the
individual. The institution obtains and maintains its legitimacy to rule over the behaviors of the individual
member of the group from majority approval and its capacity to transcend itself across generations. With the
major differences in the authority of the institution, it is commonly responsible to protect civic and moral sets
of rights and obligations by applying formal and informal supervisory mechanisms over the individual. The
state through the government and all agencies under it regulate and administer citizenship on day-today
basis while such social institutions like the church, family, neighborhood and others inspect morality and
ethical standards more informally. This institutional protection of citizenship and morality helps to make
individual relations and actions within the community predictable and subject to proportional rewards and
punishments.

D. The issue of interactive duality

Although Citizenship differs from morality in that it is formal, official, predominantly rational, highly
authoritative and regular in its operation because it finds its strength from the legitimacy of the government
and its formalized authority, both categories of social formulations have a strong tendency to reinforce each
other in application which leads to some sort of interactive duality. In other words, the list of rights and duties
in citizenship are officially communicated, documented, and guarded by full time public institutions in the
name of the well being and peace of the state, the people and the nation. Morality on the other hand, lists
recommended prescriptions of good behavior and denounces a long list of bad actions within the community
but it lacks formality, regularity and immediacy unlike citizenship or legal rule. Despite this duality, however,
both citizenship and morality reinforce each other as the political community of citizens is at the same time
the cultural community of human beings. Most legal rules, restrictions and controls over the behaviors of the
citizen get their origin from the moral traditions and thoughts of the people over its individual member. For
instance, homicide is as seriously punishable crime by the law of citizenship as it is unacceptable and
denounced by the moral rule of cultural community. This implies that most legal-political rules are
formalizations of moral standards and derive their justifications for their authoritative application from them.
Similarly, moral rules function with a state back for formalization though not all the time. This gives them a
dual existence with a high level of positive interaction.
E. The relative nature of the fields
Both citizenship and morality bear a degree of relativity with morality tending to be even more relative due to
its nature. There following factors, among others, supply the reason for their relative nature.

1. The relative nature of existing philosophy/outlook of the government

Based on sources of legitimacy of rulers and in the context of citizenship and morality governments’ outlooks
could be generally classified as authoritarian or democratic .Given this, the conduct of governments makes
citizenship to be a relative politico-legal concept and practice. i.e some states are excessively authoritarian
thus in their politico-legal arrangements they give individuals the status of “subject” with only obligation to
respect the expectations and orders of the rulers but with no privileges. Besides, under such government
systems, the personal and group beliefs, religions, cultures, values and attitudes of rulers become equated
with national values and moral standards with a wide coverage on the media and the national education
system. At present, this outlook of governments is under pressure from global standards of behavior and
norms and hence is in transformation towards democracy though exceptions are always there. This in turn
gave rise to a relatively modern citizenship and humane moral standards of political rules. The same trend of
relativity also applies to the conceptualization and practice of morality.

2. The relative nature of levels of Civic and Moral Awareness of the citizens at large
Citizens’ level of awareness about fundamental civic and moral values also shapes the relative nature of
citizenship and morality. This gives us the relative nature of the two concepts not among different societies
but among citizens within the same society and state. In the strict sense, citizenship and morality are
meaningless without some kind of bottom up participation by citizens on state’s affairs; its policies and rule
philosophy. This participation also depends on how far civic awareness is there among the people on political
processes and ethical aspects of citizen-state relations. Civic awareness is probably the most relative issue
in the study of civics and ethics, for there are always background factors that affect it. For example, citizens’
awareness level is affected among others by the following notable factors;

Level of Income
In the analysis of why there is difference in the level of awareness among citizens regarding their politico-
legal relations with the state and moral ties with their people, it is widely believed that their level of income
really matters. i.e wealth/ income places citizens of the same state at different positions in their access and
concern about the state, government policies and the rest of the society.
Accordingly, the upper class society which consists of few citizens commanding the largest concentration of
wealth and thus are stable/ comfortable in their life styles due to their privileged economic positions in the
society tend to be conservative in their political and moral dispositions with a strong need to see only little or
no change of the statuesque in the political, moral, legal and social setting. They heavily need a great degree
of national stability and political predictability in order to maintain their unchallenged advantages. They also
tend to be remarkably nationalistic with maximum loyalty to the state and the constitution as they guarantee
them peace and protection for their property and wealth. These citizens are close to politics and government
with keen interest areas of government policy that would greatly affect their civic and moral positions within
the state. The most important issues of interest for them are policies of taxation, inflation, labor, environment
and foreign relations in general.

The Middle class society which includes section of the society that economically stand next to the upper
income group on the other hand is highly dynamic and with the best opportunity to uninterrupted rise of
income as it works hard tends to be vibrant, participatory and active social group for it consists of probably
young, professional, ambitious and liberal section of the society. It was this social group that successfully led
the bourgeois revolutions in Western Europe that transformed society in to a capitalist socio-economic and
political community. The political efficiency and determination of this group comes from its very middle
position between the richest upper income group which seeks it to effect policy changes to its advantages. It
equally tends to master the support of the lower income group which believes that this group understands
more about the life conditions across the ordinary and helpless people.

Finally, the Lower class society which constitutes those large elements of society whose annual income is
extremely low and with little opportunities to leave the group tends to be scarcely interested at what is going
on at the national and regional governments. They are hardly tuned to the media nor do they seek to access
almost all information sources though they generally tend to be law abiding citizens. The lower income group
gets alerted occasionally by particular domestic and foreign political developments and unusual events that
captivate their interest and influence their hopes for better life in the negative or the positive. Politics is too
complex, elusive, and unmanageable for them hence they want to maintain a long distance from it and
strongly feel to reject elections as meaningless to change conditions by the vote of poor people. Generally,
low income groups are grossly marginalized from the main stream of politics and moral debates worrying little
about rights and the nature of their relation with the state.
Civic Culture
Civic culture is generally defined as a trend (of behaviors, attitudes and orientations) among citizens to be
concerned about political processes and being efficacious in the political climate. Based on this definition,
residents of a given state usually demonstrate participatory, passive/subject or parochial civic culture and
each affects the level of awareness they develop.

For instance, participant citizens are those with good general knowledge and understanding about policies
and government activities and thus are assertive on civic participations. This in turn implies that in states with
a proportional size of participant citizens politics has been found to be stable, civilized and predictable though
dynamic. Besides, economic progress would be consistent/ uninterrupted and also with little or no massive
report of violent conflict.

In contrast, subjects (citizens with passive civic culture) are those with inconsistent interest in politics may be
because they feel their private conditions are too good to be concerned about politics(say join national
elections) or they have largely poor general knowledge and understanding about national politics. At any
rate, this group of citizens tends to be passive in its civic participation.

The worst case is, however, that of parochial civic culture in which we have citizens with neither the
knowledge about political developments at national level nor the interest to participate at any level and
agenda of discussion. They strongly believe that they have no power to change or affect things even at local
levels but simply observe political developments only that are local and close to them. In other words,
Parochials are largely self-marginalized from politics unusually due their day to day concern to win their daily
bread which they feel has no relations with what the radio or the television may say. They lack all the means
to divert their attentions to politics and may go to the extent of having no information about who rules the
country or wins in a hotly contested national election. They virtually have no record of visiting the polling
station at all.

The general lesson to be derived from the above is thus the stability of the state and its socio-economic
developments are largely dependent on how reasonably it maintains the balance among these three
gradations of civic cultures. More ever, a society dominated by a majority of Parochials is more likely to face
even dangers of national disintegration and fragmentation.
1.6.5 SOURCES OF CIVIC AND ETHICAL EDUCATION

Dear learner, can you identify some of the sources of civic and ethical education?
Civic education is a tool for good citizenship, community service and personal responsibility. Civic education
is strongly related with other subject, that is, it is an interdisciplinary subject. As an interdisciplinary subject, it
borrows its important contents and methods from different areas of studies. It is based up on the principles,
findings and theories of different fields of studies. A theory is a statement of a leading idea for explaining
reality. It is a systematic presentation of facts. These facts may serve as guide to make observation and
discovery in order to arrive at a general explanation and a viable prediction. Generally speaking, it is possible
to categorize sources to learn civic education in to theoretical, documentary and social sources.

1. Theoretical Sources of Civic Education

I. Philosophy: - is one theoretical source of civic education. As a universal science, philosophy deals with the
ultimate causes of all things in a rational and critical manner. This emanates from the fact that human kinds
since ancient time had the desire to know and figure out the essence of nature, the meaning of life, death, the
ups and downs on earth. Because of human’s ambition to these questions, the subject philosophy loomed as
a distinct rational body of knowledge. Via this subject, human beings persistently were seeking the ‘ultimate’
answer to the questions they used to raise. The reason why it is called a universal science is related with the
fact that it studies all aspects of reality like the nature of knowledge, morality, the place of human beings in
this physical world, politics, how human being are organized, how to come to power and so forth. With in
philosophy there are many sub-branches. Among these, one is metaphysics (theory of being). Under this,
what is the ultimate source of reality is raised. As the name indicates metaphysics means those that are
beyond the physical and philosophers who are concerned with metaphysics are always in search of reality,
which they believe is permanent and immutable. Epistemology (theory of knowledge) which deals with the
origins and essences of knowledge, and with the different criteria of truth is also the other sub-branch of
philosophy. Philosophers form standards or yardsticks that truth must constitute. They endeavor to establish
the nature of the correspondence of theory and practice. Ethics is a branch of philosophy that deals with what
is good and bad, and with moral duty and obligation. In other words it is concerned with the clarification of
fundamental moral or ethical concepts, principles, and the critical discussion of positions and perspective. It
endeavors to raise fundamental moral question and to provide logical and meaningful answers to them. The
various ethical theories and explanations are based on social facts. The intention behind ethics is how to
attain good things and avoid evil things.
It is obvious that philosophers since time immemorial have been trying to give different explanations to the
different questions that may arise in human history. The answers forwarded by them have considerably
affected different people in different positions be it political scientists, educators, scientists, researchers,
governments, that is in short every walk of life. The contribution of this subject to civic education is that it will
help students to identify truth from falsehood, fact from myth, knowledge from opinion, objectivity from mere
faith. In general it will lead to a new insight about one self and the world around.

II. Political Science: - It is the academic field that takes as its sole and general task, the analysis of politics,
especially the politics of the state. It focuses primarily on governance. Political science deals with power
relations, authority and legitimacy. Furthermore, it analyses the activities of governments, the process of
political division making and the distribution of political power. The field of political science is divided in to
sub-fields. The major sub fields, among other things, are:
 Comparative politics: - It refers to any study of foreign government and politics. It is the systematic
classification of political phenomena and the investigation of uniformities, differences,
interrelationship among various political systems. The objective of comparative analysis has been
not only a more realistic understanding of alien political systems, but also the formulation of
generalization and hypotheses about universal characteristics of government.
 International politics: - The studies of politics between states-the making of common decisions for a
group of states through wars, diplomacy, and so on.
 Political theory: - The history of ideas about politics and critical discussion of political values.
 Public policy: - The analysis of the product of politics, the kinds of politics that are laid down.
 Political behavior: - The study of individuals and non-governmental organization involved in politics
and why they do what they do. Studies of public opinion, elections, interest groups, and political
parties would fall under this heading.
 Political Institutions: - The study of national government bodies, the congress, the presidency, the
bureaucracy, and in part the courts.
It is obvious that political science will help students to become more familiar with local, national, and
international issues and there by analyze public issues and participate actively in the political scenario of their
country. This will also enable citizens to influence the government and other decision-making organs. They
can also actively involve in the formulation, adoption and implementation of public policy if and only if citizen
are aware of world politics. Therefore, via civic education, political science caters for you with the knowledge
of political theories; understanding of the nature of governments; awareness of political powers and relations
at the local, national and international level; methods on how to analyze political issues; policies; laws;
governmental activities; and skills necessary for political participation.

One thing that needs to be inculcated is that human relations and interactions are so dynamic, and the study
of polities and the discipline of political science should be in a constant state of change and development to
respond to the demands of the society. More importantly, with representative and participatory democracy
becoming the fashion of the day, politics becomes even more dynamic.

III. Sociology: - As the name indicates, it is the study of society in its entirety, human groups and
organization. It is concerned with social interaction by which people influence one another through different
means like by talking, playing, teaching, helping or even fighting. The relation between sociology and civic is
that in sociology it will help as to understand the culture, norms, the traditions of different societies. Therefore,
students of civic will develop the nation of tolerance, respect in terms of differences of culture, norms, values,
tradition among societies. Students can appreciate diversities in many aspects by analyzing sociology.

IV. Economics: - As a branch of social science, it tries to harmonize the unlimited wants of human being with
available scarce resources. It is also the study of the process of production, distribution and consumption of
goods and services. By adopting different alternative options and mechanisms to the economic problems that
human beings face, it is possible to do away with those problems by studying economic activities, decisions
and policies. Human beings have faced many economic problems that are to be tackled. Some of the
problems are issues of development, improved living conditions, labor, capital, investment, monetary, inflation
and deflation and so on.

The relationship between economics and civic is that unless human being are able to address the socio-
economic problems that they face, it would be very hard to have a prevalence of the rule of law, good
governance, lasting peace and so forth. Therefore, economic and civic issues are inseparable.

V. Law: - Law is also one theoretical source to learn civic education. It is one of the social science disciplines
that deal with the system of rules and regulations that govern the relations of legal persons in a society. The
law is a collection of rules laid down by the government, binding all members of the state, including members
of the government itself. It also expresses a combination of declarations, rules, orders, directives, norms etc.
These are intended to govern the activities of the members of a society. Laws are applied in the courts and
enforced by the organs of the state.
The Law does two things: (1) it sets society’s norms and rules for behavior; for instance, it may state that one
may not steal other’s property, that one may not expose oneself indecently, or that religions practice other
than the state religion is illegal. (2) It sets the rules by which individuals in the state must relate to each other-
rules governing divorce procedure, rules for the honoring of contracts, and so on. In its regulatory nature, law
is either coercive or permissive. That is, some laws prohibit citizens from doing certain things and some
others permit to do. These coercive or permissive aspects of the law are applicable without any distinction
what so ever. When the law is applicable to all citizens of a nation regardless of their differences in sex,
language, race, ethnic background, religion etc. is said to be the prevalence of the rule of law.
Civics deals with constitutions, legal rights and duties of citizens, the rule of law and human rights. These
points relate civics to law.

VI. History: - As a discipline of social science, it deals with the past events and based on the past it interprets
the present and based on the present it is possible to predict what will happen in the future. The study of
history mainly emphasizes on the total experience of human beings organized in society. In other words, it
means that history generates a body of scientific knowledge for an understanding of the political, economic,
social, cultural, national etc… aspects of a given society. It is from history that a competent and an active
citizen can exhibit civic virtues, patriotism and national pride. They will also be very much considerate to the
rights and freedoms of others and abide by the rule of law. Competent and active citizens with virtues
become the genuine inheritors of their cultural heritage. In nut shell, studying history equips students with the:
historical knowledge of political, economic, social and cultural conditions of one’s country as well as the
world at large; ability to apply the experiences acquired from the past to new situations of the present;
continuity and causation in history; insights appreciation and understanding of how the present life has come
in to being and the capacity to forecast about the future.

VII. Geography: - It is study of the spatial distribution of natural and social phenomena with their dynamism.
Society is overtly limited in time and space. It is also a fact that with in society there are relations and
interactions, cultures, and activities, natural and man-made resources and the like all to be found in the
universe. Therefore, geography is concerned with all these things.

As far as geography is concerned, the different formidable challenges that human beings faced such as
conflicts and wars, rampant epidemic disease and population explosion, environmental hazards and
depletion of natural resources, drought, famine and so forth all have relations with it. Presently people of the
world are coming to gather or in simple terms, the world is becoming a village. Therefore, the incidents in
one country do have a considerable impact on the lives of other people of the world. Hence, in order to grasp
events and happenings around the world it will be very nice to be equipped with the knowledge of geography.

The following statement may best explain the importance of geography, that in case there arises a border
conflict or confrontation on the utilization of common natural resources, therefore, to understand these issues
we need to have the knowledge and skills of geography. Geography helps to develop knowledge of the
natural environmental as a holistic interconnected and universal system for it is concerned with various
interactions between social and natural environments. It indeed develops awareness of the universal
dependence of all life up on complex interactions with the environment. Hence, active, responsible,
competent citizens should strike a balance between utilization and preservation of resources, self-
development with international sensitivity, and maintaining the earth to be clean and safe for life.

2. Documentary sources of Civic Education

Students can also learn and become competent and responsible citizens by reading, discussing, debating on
the different documentary sources. Besides the theoretical sources, civic education has diverse documentary
sources. Constitution be it written or unwritten; international human right charters; and the charters of global
and regional organizations, decisions and enactments of legal bodies, historical sources, films, photographs
and so on are some of the documentary sources of civic education.

The international instruments as one documentary sources of civic education include, among other things,
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)- it deals with those inherent and inalienable rights that
belong to all people without any distinction what so ever. These rights are universal that is they are common
to all. The UDHR’s intended to bring lasting peace and assure the prevalence of international brotherhood
among peoples of the world. The Convention on the Right of the Child (1989) is also one international
instrument, which is related to the rights persons under the age of eighteen. Recognition and protection of the
child rights is very crucial since the future belongs to the child. The convention on the Elimination of All Forms
of Discrimination against Women (1979) is also one international instrument; Convention on Refugees and
Stateless Persons are sources to learn civic education.

3. Social sources of Civic Education

These are institutionalized and non institutionalized sources which include families, exemplinary citizens,
libraries, schools, professional associations, churches, mosques, and labor unions.
1.6.6 THE RATIONALE/GOALS OF CIVIC AND ETHICAL EDUCATION

There are several and complex real life problems that make the need to study Civics and Ethics highly
imperative and hence justifiable for its problem solving profession nature. Although the degree of their
severity vary from state/society to state/society, the following challenging societal problems can be identified
as the most crucial ones demanding an effective and constructive study of citizenship and morality to be
solved. The problem areas can be classified as legal-politico-cultural and socio-economic related ones.

A. Civic/political culture related problems

Although the desired civic culture is the one with a good level of civic consciousness in which citizens’ posses
a tendency to be reasonably concerned with the conduct of politics and to get actively participated. The
following are still seen prevailing as the most frequent cultural problems in many states/society today;

Large imbalance between Rights and Duties

This undesired civic culture manifests itself interalia in the following ways:
1. A good number of citizens regardless of differences of age, sex, religion, profession, etc, are usually
observed to be more concerned and conscious about their civic rights, while they tend to forget their civic
duties recognized by the constitution. An even clearer example here is that a lot of citizens demand and
guard the right to safe, peaceful and predictable life. They weight the efficiency of the state solely on its
capability to ensure a day-to-day safe life for the individual citizen. These citizens, however, tend to forget
their civic duty to co-operate with the law by often cooperating with illegal citizens, not reporting crimes
of all kind to the police or not fighting crime and initiating the society for the prevention or control of
crimes etc.
2. The other group of citizens is those standing at the opposite pole of the above. These citizens feel that
they are weak and helpless to protect their rights even when their rights are arbitrarily violated against
constitutional limits. These citizens are more sensitive to discharging duties at the price of their rights
because they regard the state as all powerful, unquestioned, unaccountable and naturally rightful to do all
its wishes upon citizens. For these citizens, complete submission to the state without an equal or parallel
concern and assertiveness about their constitutional rights benefits, advantages and official entitlements
is the most reliable guarantee for their individual safety and security. They have a strong tendency to
distant themselves from visiting public institutions, like kebel administrations, courts etc, and regard them
as sources of unexpected danger to one’s safety. This extreme imbalance in the form of sacrificing legal
rights (benefits) in excess of civic duties adversely affects positive civic culture.
3. The other group of citizens, which is said to be dominant, by researchers, in many societies particularly of
the developing world, is the one lacking a good understanding about the general list of civic rights and
civic duties. The level of their consciousness about what is going on in the society and the state is at
best, inadequate and blurred, and at worst, they are ignorant and devoid of any relevant information.
Thus, with regard to their relation with the state on the protection of their rights and discharging their civic
duties, these groups of citizens tend to do as per the instruction of others without self civic skill, in a
passive and uncritical manner. On the other hand, when they are asked why they violated the rights of
others and failed to discharge their civic duties, they innocently and intuitively say that they know little or
nothing that their action was illegal. Under civic conditions where such group of citizens is a majority,
leave alone the development in the life of the society, the existence of the state is at foreseeable danger.
These citizens negatively contribute for the growth of a civic culture that cultivates societal peace and
security.

In sum, the consequences of the above civic culture problems can be;
 Incivility, self-centeredness and bad-faith at societal level;
 Passiveness, non patriotic behavior and unresponsive citizenship which in turn negatively affects social
transformation;
 Ignorance, unprincipled citizenship and civic immobilization;
 Weak, irregular and uncritical participation in the political process etc

B. Virtue/Ethicate of socio-economic life related problems

Civic mindedness is a highly desirable quality/virtue of a citizen due to its positive contribution for the
development and transformation of society, i.e. when the mentality of civic-mindedness becomes a dominant
national spirit, citizens develop a strong tendency to be committed and be concerned daily with the well-being
of the general public. As a result, they do things often voluntarily as far as their service provides some
benefit for the good life of their people.

Moreover, civic-minded citizens have a clear understanding and awareness about the strategic importance of
public infrastructures, common natural resources and properties and thus they never hesitate to guard and
preserve such public utilities and infrastructures as roads, bridges, school buildings, hospitals, water
pipelines, electric poles and cables, etc. against any damage and misuse. Despite all theses, however, there
still are several evident problems regarding the virtue of socio-economic lives of both governments and
societies manifested mostly in the form of repeated and uninterrupted records of ‘’abuses and careless
treatment” by citizens and government of ‘common goods’. This can be seen from three recognizable angles:

 One is a virtue of Vandalism in which citizens tend to intentionally and illegally destroy public
infrastructures, utilities and properties like wild animals, forests, water, electric and communication
facilities.

 Secondly, citizens usually demonstrate a virtue of public good abuse/misuse (a behavior of using
public goods and wealth illegally and unethically for one’s computed benefits ) either via Patron-
client relations (clientalism) mechanism - a situation where a few government officials abuse their
political decision-making power to divert public resources for sectional benefit of themselves and
their supporters or through Prebendalism - a concept denoting the use of state office as an
instruments for the gains of individuals and their ethnic brethren. The point here is that such
behavior systematically undermines civic duty when citizens begin to regard it as normal,
unavoidable and at times, an established and rightful quality of being a political leader.
Prebendalism is also called ‘rent seeking’ behavior - gathering wealth, not as a reward to one’s labor
and innovation, but exploiting public resources.

 The third way citizens display their non-civic minded virtue is via engaging in Kleptocracy –a behavior
in which the entire government system, relations between citizens and the state, citizens with each
other, etc. become dominated by official and proactive attitudes of corruption.

In conclusion, the study of civics and ethics which examines and analyzes undesirable civic cultures and
virtues of social life manifested in the above discussed different features thus becomes justifiable against its
cruciality to save us from their derived negative consequences. This is so because the study of civics and
ethics enables citizens to fully understand and internalize among others the following fundamental elements
of civic and ethical virtues:

 Elements of Civic and ethical dispositions : Such as civility, duty-boundedness (both individual and
collective), self-discipline, civic-mindedness, open-mindedness, compromization, tolerance,
compassion/generosity and loyalty to the nation and its constitution; and

 Elements of civic and ethical commitments: such active and all inclusive engagements/participation
on political/ electoral processes, an overall influencing and monitoring of public policies and also
societies’ values and standards of life.
Therefore, in light of the above discussions, the aims and objectives of teaching civic and ethical study
include all the aims and objectives of education. The goal of civic and ethical study can be realized by the
active participation of citizens in a society. The extent and intensity of citizen’s active participation reflect the
realization of the goals. Civic and ethical study has the following basic goals/objectives.
 Promoting ideal citizenship- The most crucial aim of teaching civics is to create ideal citizens
acquainting with the following qualities/characters. Ideal citizen:
a. Believes in equality of opportunity for all people

b. Values, respects, and defends basic human rights and privileges guaranteed by the
country’s constitution

c. Respects and upholds the law and its various agencies

d. Understand and accepts the principle of democracy

e. Puts the general welfare above his own welfare

f. Freely exercises his political or democratic rights

g. Accepts his civic responsibilities and discharges them to the best of his capacity

h. Realizes the necessary connection of education with democracy and so forth.

 National character and patriotism- For a country to progress effectively its citizens must be soaked in
the spirit of patriotism. Citizens should be prepared to sacrifice everything for their country. They
should also be proud of their country. They should also be proud of their identity, cultural heritage
and uphold the values of the society. These things can be implanted in to the minds of students at
their impressionable age, in a psychological and scientific manner. The teacher should try to develop
national character in students and base it on the virtues of co-operation, love, sympathy etc.
 Development of democratic outlook and strengthening Democracy: Democratic outlook should be
inculcated in to the minds of the young generation. This can be realized by teaching students
democratic values, principles and cultivate them in such a way that they could shoulder the
responsibility of their country.
 Providing citizens with the knowledge and Intellectual skills- which are very important to monitor and
influence government rules, decisions and actions that greatly affect individual rights and without
which the good of the society cannot be materialized.
 Strengthening National and International Integration: - Teaching civic and ethical study can help
students to create a sound base for the continued oneness and unity of country. Presently the world
is becoming a village and as a result a man can be a real citizen of his/her country only when he/she
 possesses in international outlook. This outlook greatly helps to have the attitude of cooperation and
peaceful way of living.

In general civic and ethical study entails the following pertinent issues:

 Teaches citizens their rights and duties.

 Promotes cooperation and co-existence in society, mutual understanding and peaceful way of
resolving conflicts.
 Develops a national and international outlook (because it is the age of internationalism or
globalizations).
 Produce good and responsible citizens
 Promotes the culture of tolerance, coexistence with the existence of different faiths, language,
culture etc…
 Avoids social evils such as regionalism, corruption, chauvinism etc.

1.6.7 COMPETENCIES/CHARACTERS OF GOOD/RESPONSIBLE CITIZENS

Dear learner, how do we acquire the knowledge and skill that enable us identify our
rights and duties as individual citizens? Where is the source of power that helps to ensure
our rights? How would you describe a “good citizen”?
Knowledge and skills can be gained through learning and experience while the power to master our rights
might be generated when we are organized and make institutions that safeguard our interests.

Active or effective participation of citizens in the multifaceted problems of the society is an imperative. Any
kind of participation may not be successful and bring change in the society. What is required is informed
decision and action. For that citizens need to have competences which include civic knowledge, civic skills
and civic attitudes. This lesson describes the competences required from good citizens, including civic
knowledge, civic skills and civic disposition.

Dear learner, what are the competences that are expected from a good

As we have indicated above, mere membership to a certain state or political society does not qualify a person
to be good citizen. Good citizenship needs qualifications beyond mere membership to a country.
As the roles of good citizens are multifaceted and many, there are minimum competences that are required
from them. These are civic Knowledge, civic skills and civic attitudes.
 a. Civic Knowledge

Civic knowledge implies general information and awareness about the social, cultural, political,
environmental, historical and economic conditions and realities of the past and the present and also the
challenges and prospects ahead of the country. Citizens need to know their country, its peopling, history,
culture, resources and the like. To that end, knowledge of history, politics (democracy, constitutions, state
and government), sociology, globalization, environment, philosophy, and economics is very valuable.

Dear learner, the sources of information is not limited to formal education where you learn through reading
books and other documents. Informally you can also get information, through media, internet, attending
meetings, and so on.

b. Civic Skills

Civic skills are the third elements which are required from good citizens. These involve skills of decision
making, communication, conflict resolution, compromise, persuasion, creativity and the like. Civic skills are
very important to put the civic knowledge into a good effect. Such skills are vital for describing, analyzing or
systematizing a certain phenomenon and also very important for problem solving. The following can be listed
in this regard:
 To take part in political discussions; consciousness of current political issues; to be able to evaluate a
position or decision, to take a position or defend it
 To resolve conflicts in a peaceful way
 To interpret the media messages (interests and value systems that are involved etc.)
 To have media skills to look, choose, and ‘use the buttons’
 To have language competence, reading and writing;
 To be capable in critical handling of information and information technology;
 To possess communication skills
 To know how to vote; to monitor and influence policies and decisions
 To use the media in an active way (not as consumer, but as producer of media content)
 To participate in voluntary organizations;
 To build coalitions; to co-operate; to interact
 To be capable to handle multiculturalism etc.
 c. Civic Attitudes
Another component, which is required from citizens, is what we call civic attitudes. Civic attitudes involve
those character traits, or dispositions which are engrained in the mind of citizens. Civic attitudes or
orientations will develop once citizens acquired civic knowledge. In order to discharge ones responsibility, for
example, community service, citizens need to develop positive outlook and concern for the community.
Altruistic qualities are required to help the poor and vulnerable ones in the community.

Dear learner, can you mention some of the civic attitudes required from good citizens?

Some of the competences/characteristics of Good/responsible citizens are:

Tolerance: the first and primary disposition that is required from good citizen is tolerance. Political tolerance
and cultural tolerance is critical to build up a democratic system in our country. In democracy, peoples are
allowed to hold and express their own political view. As result of such freedom, different view are circulated
and reflected in the society. That is the beauty of democracy. Citizens will have options to choose in such
political markets. In order to ensure the freedom of expression and an assembly, the culture of tolerance is a
pillar. So, tolerance could be understood as a citizens’ readiness and desire to accommodate of differences
of religion, political views, ethnicity, etc. At societal level, tolerance would mean, for instance, a peaceful co-
existence of different cultural, linguistic and religious communities. In Ethiopia where you have more than 80
linguistic communities, tolerance is a critical virtue expected from each and every citizen. It would include,
then, accepting or recognizing, valuing or appreciating and respecting diversity. Diversity is natural and
normal; exists independently of the preferences of individual citizen and citizens of a democratic nation are
expected to recognize, appreciate and respect it.

 Accepting diversity: it refers to recognizing the fact that Ethiopia is a diverse

and plural society having different cultural, linguistic, religious and social
structures.
Valuing diversity: implies that citizens need to appreciate diversity. Diversity
is natural and hence need to be valued positively. It provides options for
citizens, too.

Open-mindedness and civic-mindedness: another vital disposition of good citizen is open-mindedness. It

implies citizens’ readiness to enter into a dialogue, listen others view and change positions consequently. In
dialogue the stronger idea wins! A related, but different disposition is what we call it civic-mindedness. This
implies citizens’ readiness to sacrifice their individual interests and values for the sake of promoting the
collective inters or the common good. It involves the altruistic qualities of citizens. So, good citizens always
stand for the public interest and die for it!
Loyalty: it is another element of civic dispositions. Loyalty involves things like keeping promises or keeping
ones words, keeping relationship, being faithful or trustworthy. Loyalty is required at different capacity of
citizen. For example, an office holder or official is expected to be loyal to the people that voted for him.
Similarly, the civil servant is expected to serve the public loyally. In doing so, a public servant or employee is
expected to respect the rules and regulations of the employer.

Dear learner, assume that you are ordered to hire the wife of your boss in certain organization without a

In addition, good citizens are expected to govern their own behaviors without fear of external actors. As the
saying goes virtuous citizens’ act virtuously! Aristotelian notion of virtue implies the ability to do the right
thing at the right time in the right way for the right purpose . Citizens are expected to act virtuously at any
circumstance of life. We know that a robber would act rightly in the presence of police. But we know that he
might do his business -robbery after the police leave the place.
Dear learner, identify other dispositions and get to know the meanings of

Legality: virtuous citizens freely adhere to the fundamental rules required for the maintenance of a system of
constitutional government without requiring the imposition of external authority. In all situations, there are
some rules and regulations to be observed. This means individuals should be prepared to follow rules and
regulations without violating their personal freedoms.

Patriotism: Is love, devotion and commitment to one’s country. It was said that a true patriot should respect
and adore his country’s symbols.

Responsibility: Citizens have various obligations in their society. These can be of moral, ethical, and legal
origins. Good citizens maintain the moral and ethical values of their society. They have also the duty to
uphold the constitutional principles and values and observe other laws. Every member of the society has the
duty to respect individual rights and freedoms. Citizens are expected to actively participate in civic
associations established for various purposes. Another way by which responsibilities shall be discharged is
through paying fair tax and protecting public property from embezzlement and misappropriation. Moreover,
citizens have the responsibility to protect and preserve natural resources, environment, and historical
heritage. The other issue in which citizens are strongly expected to feel responsible is the threat posed by
HIV/AIDS. Fighting this killing disease, which threatens the existence of human race, is the major
responsibility of each and every citizen.
Industriousness: work, being necessary for the survival of the human race and civilization, is the main
concern of human beings. Ethical work conduct thus enables workers to possess proper behavior and so as
to develop proper relationship with other workers and help them create good industrial environment.

Self-reliance: is a remarkable level of dependency on one’s power, resources and judgment. It is an attribute
shared by both individuals and communities. Individuals or communities that lack a self –reliant character are
dependent on others to satisfy their needs.

Active community participation: Community participation means active involvement of citizens in the socio-
economic and political spheres. The participation may take place at different levels having different forms. It
might take place at school, at community, regional, national or international levels. It might also have different
forms based on the purpose of the participation.
Community participation may include: political participation & civic participation.

Generally as it is mentioned above the goals of teaching civics and ethics at any level of educational
institutions it to produce or create competent and responsible citizens that can ask and use their rights and
fulfill their responsibilities or obligations in accordance with the laws of their respective country. In addition
teaching civics and ethics can make citizen to fill responsible at any works they are engaged in and within the
community they are living in.

1.6.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Part I: Choose the best answer from the alternatives given to each question
1. Which of the following is not among the source of civic and ethical education knowledge?
A. Law B. History C. Geography D. Political Science E. None of the above
2. Which one of the following is not among the competencies of good/responsible citizen?
A. Self-reliance B. Narrow mindedness C. Patriotism E. Industriousness
3. The main goal of civic and ethical education is to gain:
A. Civic knowledge B. Civic skill C. Civic disposition E. All of the above

Part II: Define/Explain the following terms

Industriousness Responsibility Self-reliance Industriousness
Civic mindedness Tolerance
Part III: Say true or false
1. History of civic and ethical education is traced back to origin of nature/human being.
2. Pictures and monuments could be considered as social source of civic knowledge.
3. Only knowing and claiming your right will guarantee a stable and harmonious society.
4. Magna Carta played a positive role in the development of civic and ethical education.

Part IV: Questions for reflection and comprehension

1. List and discuss historical incidences that contribute to or/and were a challenge to the development of civic
and ethical knowledge?
2. Why civic and ethical education is termed as an interdisciplinary subject?
3. Discuss the development of civic and ethical education in Ethiopia.

1.6.9 SELECTED REFERENCES

Alavudeen, A and… etal( 2008) Professional Ethics and Human Values. New Delhi: Laxmi Publications(P)
Limited.
Avrum, Stroll and Popkin, Richard H. (1961) Introduction to Philosophy. (Chapter 5, Ethics/Appraisal of
Human Character, Conduct, and Aims)
Barry, Vincent (1980) Philosophy: A Text With Readings. (Chapter 3, Ethics, pp. 44-78 ; 113-124)

Boss, J.(1998) Perspectives On Ethics. London: Mayfield Publishing Company.

Hospers, J.(1961) Human Conduct: An Introduction to the Problems of Ethics

Kegley, Ch. And .etal ( 1995) The Global Agenda: Issues and Perspectives. New York: McGraw-Hill

Miller, E. D. L.(1984) Questions That Matter: An Invitation to Philosophy. Part Four, The Question of morality,
Chapter 19 (pp 416-429)
Palmner, Donald (1996). Does the Center Hold? An Introduction to Western Philosophy. (Chapter 7, Ethics;
Chapter 8, Critique of traditional Ethical theories)

UNDP( 2003) Making Global Trade Work For Peoples. London: Earthscan Publications.