applied

sciences
Article
Numerical and Experimental Analysis of Torsion
Springs Using NURBS Curves
Young Shin Kim 1 , Yu Jun Song 2 and Euy Sik Jeon 3, *
1 Industrial Technology Research Institute, Kongju National University, Cheonan-daero, Seobuk-gu,
Cheonan-si 31080, Chungcheongnam-do, Korea; people918@kongju.ac.kr
2 International Testing and Evaluation Laboratory (ITEL), 53, Osongsaengmyeong 10-ro, Osong-eup,
heungdeok-gu, Cheongju-si 28164, Chungcheongbuk-do, Korea; hpp44@naver.com
3 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Graduate School, Kongju National University, Cheonan-daero,
Seobuk-gu, Cheonan-si 31080, Chungcheongnam-do, Korea
* Correspondence: osjun@kongju.ac.kr; Tel.: +82-41-521-9284




Received: 28 March 2020; Accepted: 7 April 2020; Published: 10 April 2020


Abstract: Torsion springs, which transfer power through the twisting of their coil, provide advantages
such as module simplification and efficient use of space. The design of a torsion spring has been
formulated, but it is difficult to determine the local behaviors of torsion springs according to actual
load conditions. This study proposes a torsion-spring design method through finite element analysis
(FEA) using nonuniform-rational-basis-spline (NURBS) curves. Through experimentation, the angle
and displacement values for the actual spring load were converted into useable data. Torsion-spring
displacement values were obtained via experimentation and converted into coordinates that may
be expressed using NURBS curves. The results of these experiments were then compared to those
obtained via FEA, and the validity of this method was thereby verified.

Keywords: torsion springs; FEA; NURBS; applied load; local behaviors

1. Introduction
Torsion springs transfer power through the twisting of their coil, and provide advantages such as
module simplification, efficient use of space, and reduction of overall product weight. As such, they
have been widely used in various electronic products and industrial fields, including automobiles
and machinery.
Research on these springs began in 1963 with Wahl’s study on isotropic spiral compression and
tension, and torsion springs [1,2]. Thus far, the spring design formula proposed by Wahl is used as
a standard and has been extensively employed in industrial-machinery applications. This applied
design formula can easily calculate the rotation angle of the spring for the applied load. However, as
this formula simplifies the problem, it is difficult to determine the behavior or deformation of a torsion
spring according to the change in load conditions with different angles and directions.
Case studies considering the structural analysis of such springs using finite-element analysis
(FEA) have been proposed to solve this design problem [3–6]. This method allows the designer to
visually confirm and design these springs considering the stress and displacement that locally occur in
the spring.
As FEA expresses curves as a sum of subdivided linear elements, many elements are needed to
increase the reliability of curve-structure analysis. As springs are curved structures, the number of
elements used in these analyses must inevitably be increased to ensure accuracy, thereby lengthening
analysis time. Due to this increase in spring-design time, as well as the aforementioned design problem,

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 2629; doi:10.3390/app10072629 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 2629 2 of 10

and considering the effective product applications of these springs, a more effective torsion-spring
design method is required.
This study proposes the evaluation method of deformation behavior of torsion spring via FEA
using nonuniform-rational-basis-spline (NURBS) curves [7,8]. The NURBS curve is a model that can
accurately express a curved structure with a small amount of information and a simple calculation
formula. These curves were applied to FEA, and through experimentation, the angle and displacement
values for the actual spring load were converted into useable data. The torsion-spring displacement
values measured through experiments were converted into coordinates that could be expressed using
NURBS curves. Experiments were then conducted for comparison with the FEA results and to verify
the validity of this method.

2. Torsion-Spring Design

2.1. NURBS Curve

A range of research has been conducted on curve expression according to polynomial theory.
Among the numerous curve-expression methods, NURBS is the most accurate technique used to
express complex organic shapes in two and three dimensions [9,10]. Due to its simple calculation
method, NURBS is employed in a variety of industrial fields that require curved shapes. A NURBS
curve can be expressed through a combination of parameters, including knot, control point, degree,
and weight, in basis functions with a relatively simple calculation algorithm. In NURBS curves, the
initial basis function can be expressed as in Equation (1).
n
X
N (u) = Ni,p (u), (1)
i=0

where Ni,p (u) is the B-spline basis function. The equation applied to the algorithm differs with the
number and value of the knot vectors; Equation (1) may also be expressed as either Equation (2) or
Equation (3). To define B-spline basis functions, we need one more parameter: the degree of these
basis functions, p. The i-th B-spline basis function of degree p, written as Ni,p (u), is defined recursively
as follows: (
1 i f ui ≤ u ≤ ui+1
Ni,0 (u) = (2)
0, Otherwise
u − ui ui+p+1 − u
Ni,p (u) = Ni,p−1(u) + Ni+1,p−1 (u), (3)
ui+p − ui ui+p+1 − ui+1
where i is the degree plus 1 (i = p + 1), ui is the knot, and u is the knot vector. The following basis
function expresses the curve of a geometric shape as the degree (p) increases; however, as the function
increases in complexity and decreases in accuracy, a suitable degree should be used according to the
desired curve shape. The NURBS basis function can express the NURBS curve as a combination of the
weight (wi ) and control point (Pi ), as shown in Equation (4).

n
Pn
Ni,p wi j=0 Ni,p wi Pi
X
C(u) = Pn Pi = Pk , (4)
i=0 j=0 N j,n wi j=0 Ni,p wi

where Pi is the control point and wi is the weight of control point. This equation can then be simplified
into Equation (5).
Xn
C(u) = Ri,p (u)Pi (5)
i=0
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 2629 3 of 10

The NURBS curve expressed by Equation (5) can be freely varied as the weight (wi ) increases
and the control point (Pi )shifts, demonstrating the relationship between the NURBS curve and
these parameters.

2.2. Expression of Torsion Spring Through NURBS Curves

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 10
To express the shape of a torsion spring with a constant curvature using the NURBS curve,
2.2. Expression
Equations of Torsion
(6) to (8) Spring
are used Through
for the NURBS
x, y, and Curveson the global coordinate system.
z planes
To express the shape of a torsion spring withn a constant curvature using the NURBS curve,
X
Equations (6) to (8) are used for the x, y,xand
(u) z=planes
R on(uthe
)Pxglobal coordinate system. (6)
i,p
i=0
𝑥(𝑢) = 𝑅 , (𝑢)𝑃 (6)
n
X
y(u) = Ri,p (u)P y (7)
i=0
𝑦(𝑢) = 𝑅 , (𝑢)𝑃 (7)
n
X
z(u) = Ri,p (u)Pz , (8)
𝑧(𝑢) = ∑ 𝑅 , (𝑢)𝑃 , (8)
i=0
where
where PN𝑷are
𝑵 are
thethe coordinatesofofthe
coordinates theinterpolation
interpolation point
pointgenerated
generatedthrough
through thethe
initial NURBS
initial curve,
NURBS curve,
and 𝑷 𝑵𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑 are the coordinates through a combination of the knot, control point, and weight
and PNdisp are the coordinates through a combination of the knot, control point, and weight (Equations
(6) (Equations
to (8)). The(6) to (8)).shape
spring The spring
can beshape can beon
expressed expressed on three
three planes planes
in 3D in 3D
space, space, as
as shown inshown
Figurein1.
Figure 1.

Figure Representation
1. 1.
Figure Representationofofnonuniform-rational-basis-spline (NURBS)curves
nonuniform-rational-basis-spline (NURBS) curves coupled
coupled in 3D
in 3D space.
space.

3. Torsion-Spring Displacement Analysis

3. Torsion-Spring Displacement Analysis
3.1. Torsion-Spring Displacement Analysis
3.1. Torsion-Spring Displacement Analysis
ToTo
verify the correlation between the interpolation point and control point, the coordinates of
verify the correlation between the interpolation point and control point, the coordinates of
thethe
interpolation
interpolation point
pointgenerated
generatedthrough
through thethe NURBS curveare
NURBS curve areapplied
appliedtotofinite-element
finite-element analysis to
analysis
create
to create the torsion-spring shape for analysis [11–13]. Figure 2 shows the finite-element model of of the
the torsion-spring shape for analysis [11–13]. Figure 2 shows the finite-element model
torsion springspring
the torsion that was
thatused to derive
was used the displacement
to derive the displacementof the control
of the point
control pointasas
it it
shifted
shiftedaccording to
theaccording
external force
to the[14,15].
externalTable 1 showsTable
force [14,15]. the parameters
1 shows the of the model
parameters ofused for analysis.
the model used for Commercial
analysis.
software HyperWorks
Commercial softwareOptistruct
HyperWorks (Altair, United
Optistruct States)
(Altair, was used
United forwas
States) finite-element analysis, and the
used for finite-element
shifted displacement
analysis, data displacement
and the shifted were acquired dataforwere
generated
acquiredmoment Mz . Themoment
for generated 𝑀 . Thevalues shifted
displacement
displacement
after values
the generation shifted
of the after
initial the generation
coordinates, andofloads
the initial
were coordinates,
analyzed forand loads
a total ofwere analyzed (Ni ).
100 elements
for a total of 100 elements (𝑁 ).
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 2629 4 of 10
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 10

Figure2.2.Finite-element
Figure modelof
Finite-element model oftorsion
torsionspring.
spring.

Table 1. Design parameters.

Table 1. Design parameters.
Parameters Unit Dimension
Parameters Unit Dimension
Spring cross-section diameter (d) mm 3
Spring cross-section diameter (𝑑) mm 3
Spring radius (R) mm 20
Spring
Springradius
length(𝑅)
(l) mm mm 20 125.6
Spring length (𝒍)z-axis direction (Mz )
Moment in the mm Nm 125.6 1000
Elastic modulus GPa 206
Moment in the z-axis direction (𝑴𝒛 ) Nm 1000
Elastic modulus GPa 206
The displacement of the element determined through finite-element analysis (xdisp , ydisp , zdisp )
was added to the coordinates of the interpolation point generated through the NURBS curve to express
The displacement of the element determined through finite-element analysis (𝒙𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑 , 𝒚𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑 , 𝒛𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑 )
the deformed shape of the spring. This is expressed using Equations (9) to (11).
was added to the coordinates of the interpolation point generated through the NURBS curve to
express the deformed shape of the spring.
P This is expressed
(x) = P (x) + xusing Equations (9) to (11). (9)
Ndisp N disp
𝑃 (𝑥) = 𝑃 (𝑥) + 𝑥 (9)
PNdisp ( y) = PN ( y) + ydisp (10)
𝑃 (𝑦) = 𝑃 (𝑦) + 𝑦 (10)
PNdisp (z) = PN (z) + zdisp (11)
𝑃 (𝑧) = 𝑃 (𝑧) + 𝑧 (11)
where PN 𝑃are
where the
are thecoordinates
coordinatesof of the
the interpolation pointgenerated
interpolation point generated through
through thethe initial
initial NURBS
NURBS curve,
curve,
PNdisp
andand 𝑃 are the coordinates of the interpolation point of the NURBS curve
are the coordinates of the interpolation point of the NURBS curve after deformation. after deformation.
TheThe
coordinates
coordinates 𝑃 (x, (𝑥,
of PofNdisp y, z𝑦,),𝑧),
derived
derived from
fromEquations
Equations (9)(9)
to to
(11), were
(11), next
were applied
next to the
applied inverse
to the
method to determine the displacement of the control point. This process
inverse method to determine the displacement of the control point. This process is shown in is shown in Equation (12),
which was derived
Equation with
(12), which reference
was derivedto withEquations
reference(4) toand (5). Figure
Equations 3 shows
(4) and the control
(5). Figure 3 showspoint
the derived
using Equation
control point (12),
derived using Equation (12), Pn
R (u)
∑i=1 ,i,p( )
𝑃( ,) ,=) =
P(x,y,z , , (12) (12)
PNdisp ((x,, y,
, )z)

where Px ,𝑃P𝑥 ,y 𝑃and

where Pz 𝑃
and areare
thethe coordinatesofofthe
coordinates thecontrol
control point, and𝑅R, i,P(𝑢)
point, and (u)isisthe
theNURBS
NURBScurve-
curve-based
based function.
function.
In Figure 3, (x, y, z)disp represents the x, y, and z displacements of the point; PN (x, y, z) represents
the coordinates of the point before interpolation; and PNdisp (x, y, z) represents the coordinates of the
point after interpolation. The inverse method can be applied to determine the displacement and load
as KNURBS .
a[D] = a[K]−1 [F], (13)

where [D] is the displacement matrix of the control point derived from the existing stiffness matrix, a is
the stiffness-correction constant, [K]−1 is the inverse of the stiffness matrix, and [F] is the external force
matrix. Stiffness-correction constant a can be expressed as follows:

a = [ai ]T . (14)
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 2629 5 of 10

Thus, the following is obtained by applying Equation (14) to Equation (13).

[ai ]T [D] = [ai ]T [K]−1 [F] (15)

Equation (15) can then be expressed as in Equation (16).

[D∈v ] = [KNRBS ]−1 [F] (16)

where [D∈v ] is the control point displacement determined using the inverse method, and [KNRBS ]−1 is
the inverse of the stiffness matrix of the control point.
Using Equation (16), the Mz load was applied to the NURBS curve-based spring structure that
was composed of a total of nine control points, and analysis was conducted.
Using this method, the graphs in Figure 4 were derived for loads Fx , F y , Fz , Mx , M y , and Mz .
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 10

Figure 3. Derivation of control point using inverse method.

Figure 3. Derivation of control point using inverse method.
3.2. Experiment-Equipment Setup
In Figure 3, (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) represents the x, y, and z displacements of the point; 𝑃 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
Experiments
represents were conducted
the coordinates of the to measure
point beforethe displacement,
interpolation; 𝑃
andload, (𝑥, 𝑦,
and 𝑧) represents
angle using a torsion-spring
the
measuring device.
coordinates Torsion-spring
of the point parameters
after interpolation. were selected
The inverse method for
can abetotal of six
applied types of specimens.
to determine the
displacement
Five experiments andwere as 𝐾
loadconducted . for each specimen, resulting in a total of 30 experiments. Table 2
shows the design parameters of the six spring 𝑎 𝐷 specimens.
=𝑎 𝐾 𝐹 The
, experiment equipment was configured (13)
to measure the torsion spring. Figure 5 shows the actual torsion spring and the device used to measure
spring 𝐷displacement,
thewhere is the displacement matrix
load, and of The
angle. the control
rotationpoint
anglederived
was setfrom
to 0◦the
, 20existing stiffness
◦ , and 40 ◦ , considering the
matrix, 𝑎 is the stiffness-correction constant, 𝐾 is the inverse of the stiffness matrix, and 𝐹 is
linear component of the load applied to the torsion spring. To determine torsion-spring displacement,
the external force matrix. Stiffness-correction constant a can be expressed as follows:
certain sections were marked, and displacement and load values were measured at 20◦ and 40◦ . Images
were taken of the front of the system to determine 𝑎 =the
𝑎 x and
. y coordinates, and the z-axis was measured(14)
throughThus,
images of the sides and Vernier calipers.
the following is obtained by applying Equation (14) to Equation (13).
𝑎
Table 𝐷 = 𝑎 𝐾types.
2. Specimen 𝐹 (15)
Equation (15) can then be expressed as in Equation (16).
Type Spring Cross-Section Diameter, d (mm) Spring Diameter, D (mm) Spring Turns, N
1 2.6 𝐷∈ = 𝐾 32.6 𝐹 1.5 (16)
2
where 2.6 is the control point displacement determined
𝐷∈𝒗 32.6 using the inverse method,2.5
and 𝐾
3 2.8 32.8 1.5
is the inverse of the stiffness matrix of the control point.
4 2.8 32.8 2.5
5 Using3.0 Equation (16), the 𝑀 load was applied to the 33.0NURBS curve-based spring1.5 structure that
was
6 composed
2.0 of a total of nine control points, and analysis
33.0 was conducted. 2.5
Using this method, the graphs in Figure 4 were derived for loads 𝐹 , 𝐹 , 𝐹 , 𝑀 , 𝑀 , and 𝑀 .
 where 𝐷∈𝒗 is the control point displacement determined using the inverse method, and 𝐾
is the inverse of the stiffness matrix of the control point.
Using Equation (16), the 𝑀 load was applied to the NURBS curve-based spring structure that
was composed of a total of nine control points, and analysis was conducted.
Appl. Sci.Using
2020, 10, 2629 the graphs in Figure 4 were derived for loads 𝐹 , 𝐹 , 𝐹 , 𝑀 , 𝑀 6, and 6 of 10
Appl. Sci. 2020, this
10, x FOR method,
PEER REVIEW of 10 𝑀 .

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 10

(c) (a) (d) (b)

(c) (d)
(e) (f)

Figure 4. Direction-displacement graphs for load conditions (a) 𝐹 , (b) 𝑀 , (c) 𝐹 , (d) 𝑀 , (e) 𝐹 , (f)
and 𝑀 .

3.2. Experiment-Equipment Setup

Experiments were conducted to measure the displacement, load, and angle using a torsion-
spring measuring device. Torsion-spring parameters were selected for a total of six types of
specimens. Five experiments were conducted for each specimen, resulting in a total of 30
experiments. Table 2 shows the design parameters of the six spring specimens. The experiment
equipment was configured to measure the torsion spring. Figure 5 shows the actual torsion spring
and the device (e)used to measure the spring displacement, load,(f) and angle. The rotation angle was
set to 0°, 20°, and 40°, considering the linear component of the load applied to the torsion spring. To
determineFigure 4. Direction-displacement
torsion-spring graphssections
displacement, certain for loadwere
conditions Fx ,displacement
marked,(a)and (b) Mx , (c) F yand M y , (e) Fz ,
, (d)load
(f) and
values were M
measured
z .
Figure 4. Direction-displacement graphs for load conditions (a) 𝐹 , (b) 𝑀 , (c) 𝐹 , (d) 𝑀 , (e) 𝐹the
at 20° and 40°. Images were taken of the front of the system to determine , (f)
and 𝑀 . and the z-axis was measured through images of the sides and Vernier calipers.
x and y coordinates,

3.2. Experiment-Equipment Setup

Experiments were conducted to measure the displacement, load, and angle using a torsion-
spring measuring device. Torsion-spring parameters were selected for a total of six types of
specimens. Five experiments were conducted for each specimen, resulting in a total of 30
experiments. Table 2 shows the design parameters of the six spring specimens. The experiment
equipment was configured to measure the torsion spring. Figure 5 shows the actual torsion spring
and the device used to measure the spring displacement, load, and angle. The rotation angle was
set to 0°, 20°, and (a)
40°, considering the linear component of the load (b) applied to the torsion spring. To
determine torsion-spring displacement, certain sections were marked, and displacement and load
Figure 5. Springs and5.experiment
Springs setup: (a) torsionsetup:
springs; (b) experiment setup.experiment setup.
values were Figure
measured at 20°and
andexperiment
40°. Images were(a)taken
torsion springs;
of the front(b)
of the system to determine the
x and y coordinates, and the z-axis was measured through images of the sides and Vernier calipers.
 2 2.6 32.6 2.5
3 2.8 32.8 1.5
3 2.8 32.8 1.5
4 2.8 32.8 2.5
4 2.8 32.8 2.5
5 3.0 33.0 1.5
5 3.0 33.0 1.5
6 2.0 33.0 2.5
Appl. Sci.
6 2020, 10,2.0
2629 33.0 2.5 7 of 10

4. Results and Discussion

4. Results and Discussion
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Experiment-Data Analysis
4.1. Experiment-Data Analysis
4.1. Experiment-Data
The force accordingAnalysis
to the rotation angle was measured using a load cell and rotary encoder.
Figure 6The force
shows according
images of thetox-theand rotation angle was
y-coordinate measured using
measurements a load cell and torotaryangle
encoder.
The force according to the rotation angle was measured obtained
using according
a load cell andthe rotary of
encoder.
the torsion spring, and Figure 7 shows a load graph according to the rotation angle. This graph was of
Figure 6 shows images of the x- and y-coordinate measurements obtained according to the angle
Figurethe6torsion
showsspring,
imagesand of the
Figurex- and y-coordinate
7 shows a load measurements obtained according to graph
the angle
was of
drawn using the average data from the results of graph accordingAnalytical
five replicates. to the rotation
resultsangle. This
indicated that the
the torsion spring,
drawn usingload and
the was Figure
average 7 shows
data from a load
the resultsgraph according
of five replicates. to the rotation
Analytical angle. This graph was
torsion-spring generated nonlinearly according to the rotation angle. results indicated that the
The regression
drawn using the average
torsion-spring wasdata
loadusing from nonlinearly
generated the results according
of five replicates. Analytical
to the rotation results
angle. polynomial
The indicated that
regression
equation was derived the measured data and was expressed as a quadratic in the
the torsion-spring
equation
graph. R-square load
was values was
derivedofusing generated
the measured
the regression nonlinearly
data and
equations according
werewas98% to
expressed the
or more. as rotation
a quadratic
This angle. The
regressionpolynomial
equation regression
in the
had
equation
graph.
a high was derived
R-square
adjustment. using
values
In of the
addition, theit measured
regression data
was foundequations andload
that the was
were expressed as as
98% or more.
increased theaThis
quadratic
regression
cross-sectionalpolynomial
equation had
diameter in the
graph.
(d) of the torsion spring increased, and that the load decreased as the number of spring turns (𝑁) had a
a R-square
high values
adjustment. of
In the regression
addition, it was equations
found that were
the 98%
load or more.
increased asThis
the regression
cross-sectional equation
diameter
high d) of the torsion
(adjustment.
increased. spring increased,
In addition, it was foundand that
thatthe
theload
loaddecreased
increasedasasthethenumber of springdiameter
cross-sectional turns (𝑁)(d) of
increased.
the torsion spring increased, and that the load decreased as the number of spring turns (N) increased.

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 6. Measurement of x- and y-coordinates of torsion springs: (a) 0°; (b) 20°; (c) 40°.
Figure
Figure 6. Measurement
6. Measurement of and
of x- x- and y-coordinatesofoftorsion
y-coordinates torsionsprings:
springs: (a) ◦ ; (b)
(a) 00°; 20◦ ;(c)
(b) 20°; 40◦ .
(c)40°.

Forcevs.
Figure7.7.Force
Figure vs.degree
degree graph
graph of of torsion
torsion springs.
springs.
Figure 7. Force vs. degree graph of torsion springs.
4.2. Comparative Analysis of Analytical Results and Experiment Values
We performed comparative analysis of the deformed shape of the torsion spring, measured
through the experiments, and the analytical results obtained using Equation (16). Figure 8 shows
graphs of the analytically and experimentally obtained data. We then performed comparative analysis
of the deformed shape of the torsion spring at 20◦ and 40◦ , measured through the experiments and
Equation (16). Under the same load conditions, the displacement determined by the proposed equation
exceeded that of the torsion spring measured through the experiments. However, by modifying the
load parameters, similar behaviors and displacements were observed, thereby verifying the use of the
proposed equation. The maximal error rate ranged from 5% to 6%, which could be attributed to the
error that can occur during experiment measurements.
 analysis of the deformed shape of the torsion spring at 20° and 40°, measured through the
experiments and Equation (16). Under the same load conditions, the displacement determined by
the proposed equation exceeded that of the torsion spring measured through the experiments.
However, by modifying the load parameters, similar behaviors and displacements were observed,
Appl.thereby
Sci. 2020,verifying
10, 2629 the use of the proposed equation. The maximal error rate ranged from 5% to 6%,
8 of 10
which could be attributed to the error that can occur during experiment measurements.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

(g) (h)

Figure 8. Cont.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 2629 9 of 10

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 10

(i) (j)

(k) (l)
Figure 8. Comparative analysis of torsion springs: (a) d = 2.6 mm, D = 32.6 mm, n = 1.5 (20°); (b) d =
Figure 8. Comparative analysis of torsion springs: (a) d = 2.6 mm, D = 32.6 mm, n = 1.5 (20◦ );
2.6 mm, D = 32.6 mm, n = 1.5 (40°); (c) d = 2.6 mm, D = 32.6 mm, n = 2.5 (20°); (d) d = 2.6 mm, D = 32.6
(b) d = 2.6 mm, D = 32.6 mm, n = 1.5 (40◦ ); (c) d = 2.6 mm, D = 32.6 mm, n = 2.5 (20◦ ); (d) d = 2.6 mm,
mm, n = 2.5 (40°); (e) d ◦= 2.8 mm, D = 32.8 mm, n = 1.5 (20°); (f) d = 2.8 ◦mm, D = 32.8 mm, n = 1.5
D = 32.6 mm, n = 2.5 (40 ); (e) d = 2.8 mm, D = 32.8 mm, n = 1.5 (20 ); (f) d = 2.8 mm, D = 32.8 mm,
(40°); (g) d = 2.8 mm, D = 32.8 mm, n = 2.5 (20°); (h) d = 2.8 mm, D = 32.8 mm, n = 2.5 (40°); (i) d=3.0
n = 1.5 (40◦ ); (g) d = 2.8 mm, D = 32.8 mm, n = 2.5 (20◦ ); (h) d = 2.8 mm, D = 32.8 mm, n = 2.5 (40◦ );
mm, D = 33.0 mm, n = 1.5 (20°); (j) d = 3.0 mm, D = 33.0 mm, n = 1.5 (40°); (k) d=3.0 mm, D = 33.0 mm,
(i) d = 3.0 mm, D = 33.0 mm, n = 1.5 (20◦ ); (j) d = 3.0 mm, D = 33.0 mm, n = 1.5 (40◦ ); (k) d = 3.0 mm,
n = 2.5 (20°); (l) d = 3.0 ◦mm, D = 33.0 mm, n = 2.5 (40°).
D = 33.0 mm, n = 2.5 (20 ); (l) d = 3.0 mm, D = 33.0 mm, n = 2.5 (40◦ ).
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
This study applied nonuniform-rational-basis-spline (NURBS) curves for the design of torsion
This study applied nonuniform-rational-basis-spline (NURBS) curves for the design of torsion
springs, analyzed the displacements of these springs using finite-element analysis, and verified the
springs, analyzed the displacements of these springs using finite-element analysis, and verified the
design of these springs through experimentation.
design of these springs through experimentation.
(1) A method was proposed for deriving the coordinates of a control point for shifted elements
(1) A method
by applying the was proposed
inverse methodfor
onderiving
the basisthe coordinates
of data of a control
derived through point for shifted
finite-element elements
analysis. In by
applying the inverse method on the basis of data derived through finite-element analysis.
addition, the relationship between the movement of the control point and stiffness matrix was In addition,
theidentified
relationship
andbetween
formulatedtheby
movement
varying theoftorsion-spring
the control point and stiffness matrix was identified and
parameters.
formulated
(2) Aby varying
method wasthe torsion-spring
proposed parameters.
for deriving the torsion-spring shape by converting the torsion-
(2) A displacement
spring method was proposed
measuredfor deriving
through the torsion-spring
experiments shape by
into coordinates thatconverting the torsion-spring
could be expressed using
displacement
NURBS curves. measured through experiments into coordinates that could be expressed using
NURBS(3) Comparative analyses between the results of the proposed analytical method and the
curves.
experiment measurements
(3) Comparative analysesdemonstrated that the
between the results ofproposed method
the proposed is validmethod
analytical within and
a satisfactory
the experiment
range of error.
measurements demonstrated that the proposed method is valid within a satisfactory range of error.

Author
Author Contributions:Y.S.K.,
Contributions: Y.S.K.,Y.J.S.,
S.Y.J., and
and E.S.J.
E.S.J.conceived
conceived and designed
and designedthe experiments; Y.S.K.,Y.S.K.,
the experiments; S.Y.J., and
Y.J.S., and
E.S.J. performed
E.S.J. thethe
performed experiments;
experiments;Y.S.K.,
Y.S.K.,Y.J.S.,
S.Y.J.,and
andE.S.J.
E.S.J. analyzed
analyzed the thedata;
data;Y.S.K.,
Y.S.K.,S.Y.J.,
Y.J.S.,and
andE.S.J.
E.S.J. contributed
reagents/materials/analysis tools; and Y.S.K.,
contributed reagents/materials/analysis Y.J.S.,
tools; andand E.S.J.S.Y.J.,
Y.S.K., wrote theE.S.J.
and paper. Allthe
wrote authors
paper.have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest
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