Coursework 1

Calculations and Modelling of a Condenser Microphone

Electroacoustics (TON2014)

Mark Thompson

9th November, 2018

Task 1
Describe and explain the operating principles of a constant charge condenser pressure operated
microphone. Include reference to acoustics, mechanics of moving parts, and transducer operation.

As part of your explanation, derive a formula for sensitivity of such a microphone as a function of
frequency. Include explanation of your processes and any assumptions made

The principle operation of a microphone can be described by a series of series of transductions. The
first transduction to consider is the conversion of acoustic energy to mechanical energy as sound
waves impact upon the diaphragm of the microphone. Sound is propagated (in air) via the
longitudinal displacement of air molecules, resulting in areas of increased and decreased molecule
density along the axis of propagation [Robertson, 1963: 10].

Figure 1: Particle displacement, pressure waves with respect to particle densities [Robertson, 1963: 12]

The forward and reverse oscillation of the air particles about equilibrium can be described by a
sinusoidal displacement wave (figure 1). Negative gradients on the displacement wave correlate to
an increased density of air molecules (compression) while positive gradients reflect a reduced
density of molecules (rarefaction). Pressure – being directly proportional to the particle density
[Robertson, 1963: 10] – is represented by a sinusoidal wave -90° out of phase with the displacement
wave. The relationship between particle velocity (u) and displacement (x) can be described by:

( ) ( ) [Eargle & Rayburn, 2012: 11]

The phase of the particle velocity sinusoid is ahead of the displacement wave by 90°, and in phase
with the pressure wave.

For a pressure operated microphone, the sound pressure waves described above are the only
consideration in an ideal situation. The front of the diaphragm is exposed to the impending sound
waves which oscillate in pressure amplitude about the static atmospheric pressure, while the rear of
the diaphragm is acted on solely by air at atmospheric pressure [Robertson, 1963: 17]. The forces
acting on the surface area of the front and back of the diaphragm due to atmospheric pressure

Electroacoustics (TON2014) – Microphone Coursework 2

cancel out, leaving only the force from the sound pressure waves to cause movement of the
diaphragm (figure 2).

( )

( ) (( ) )

Figure 2: Forces acting on a pressure operated

diaphragm [Vowels, 2018]

The capsule encasing the diaphragm and air at atmospheric pressure behind it requires an
equalisation vent to ensure that atmospheric pressure behind the capsule is maintained. If there is a
variation between the atmospheric pressure acting on the front and rear of the diaphragm, the
forces impacting the diaphragm due to atmospheric pressure will be unbalanced.

In an ideal scenario, the force acting on the diaphragm of a sound pressure operated microphone
will be solely dependent on the acoustic pressure, and unrelated to the frequency, or angle of
incidence of the sound wave [Robertson, 1963: 18]. During real-world application, the frequency
response of a microphone is altered as the dimensions of the microphone increase relative to the
wavelength of the incoming sound waves. At frequencies where the diaphragm diameter is
approximately one-tenth of the wavelength of incident sound waves, diffraction effects begin to
alter the microphone’s response characteristics [Ballou, 2012]. In the case of high frequencies, the
increasing potential for diffraction results in an uneven response varying with angle of incidence
[Borwick, 1990: 73].

The degree of variance in off-axis frequency response due to phase shift can be described by ka (see
below).

Increasing ka values are generally associated with an increasing directivity of the microphone
response, particularly as ka exceeds a value of 1 radian [Eargle & Rayburn, 2012: 20] (figure 3).
Where ka significantly exceeds 1 radian, shadowing will occur, where waves are unable to diffract
around the rear of the microphone, and the pressure wave does not act on the diaphragm. At high
frequencies, varying angles of incidence also result in odd frequency responses. For off-axis high
frequency sound waves, pressure is not exerted uniformly across the entire diaphragm, and the total
response is reduced due to partial phase cancellation. Where the wavelength of the sound is equal

Electroacoustics (TON2014) – Microphone Coursework 3

to the diameter of the diaphragm imposed upon by the wave, complete phase cancellation is
possible [Eargle & Rayburn, 2012: 21] (figure 4).

Figure 3: Diagram of theoretical direcivity index variation with increasing ka [Eargle & Rayburn, 2012: 19]

Reflection of the pressure wave off the diaphragm is

also possible at high frequencies, leading to
reinforcement of the incoming wave on axis and
potentially doubling the amplitude of the pressure
wave acting on the diaphragm [Borwick, 1990: 76].

The transduction of acoustic to mechanical energy

through the acoustic force applied to the diaphragm of
the microphone is not only influenced by the acoustic
properties of the incoming sound wave. There are a
series of mechanical factors to consider with respect
to the movement of the diaphragm. This motion due
to impinging sound waves is most efficiently modelled
as having a single degree of freedom (such as a mass
Figure 4: Off-axis phase cancellation of high
on a spring) [Holland, 1993]. Additional radial and frequency sound waves - [Eargle & Rayburn, 2012:
tangential motion of the diaphragm does occur, 21]

however this generally occurs at frequencies above

the operating frequency range of the microphone [Eargle & Rayburn, 2012: 25].

For a sinusoidal force driving a diaphragm with a single degree of freedom, resultant displacement,
velocity and acceleration are also sinusoidal in nature [Vowels, 2018]. The mechanical characteristics
of the capsule influence the behaviour of the diaphragm with changing frequency. A series of
restoring forces oppose the force applied to the diaphragm, all of which contribute to the overall

Electroacoustics (TON2014) – Microphone Coursework 4

mechanical impedance of the system. The mechanical impedance of the modelled system is the
frequency dependant, and defined as the “complex ratio of the force applied to the mass, and the
resulting velocity of the mass at the point where the force was applied” [Haigh, 2018].

The complex mechanical impedance can be expressed

mathematically by:

̂
̂
̂
̂

The sinusoidal force applied to the mass is opposed Figure 5: Modelling the microphone diaphragm as a
by three restoring forces (figure 5). The resistive mass on a spring [Vowels, 2018]
damping (R) force is proportional to velocity, the
inertia due to the mass (m) is proportional to acceleration, and the spring stiffness (k) exerts a force
proportional to the displacement [Vowels, 2018]. These opposing forces sum to produce a complex
mechanical impedance as shown below:

( )
̂
̂
( )
It is clear that for a constant applied force ( ̂ ), the resultant velocity is inversely proportional to the
total restoring forces [Robertson, 1963: 35]. Given this relationship between the applied force,
resultant velocity and mechanical impedance, the behaviour of the mass (the diaphragm) in our
model can be predicted.

Resonance in a microphone is generally detrimental to achieving a desirable frequency response,

though some microphone designs incorporate resonances to extend the bandwidth of the system.
The resonance of our modelled mechanical system occurs where the reactive components of the
mechanical impedance cancel, and the remaining impedance is a result of the resistive damping
[Robertson, 1963: 40].

( )

The resonance of the mechanical system can be accounted for by either resistance control, mass
control or compliance/stiffness control. Which method is used is dependent on the functional
operation of the microphone (constant-velocity or constant-amplitude, pressure operated or
pressure-gradient operated) [Robertson, 1963: 40].

The mechanical to electrical transduction of a condenser microphone is based on the electrostatic

principle. The conductive diaphragm; often constructed of a thin plastic (MylarTM) with a conductive
metal coating [Eargle & Rayburn, 2012: 24]; forms the first electrode of a variable capacitor, while a

Electroacoustics (TON2014) – Microphone Coursework 5

fixed back-plate forms the other electrode which is separated by a small air gap. A DC voltage (either
supplied by a battery or phantom power) is applied across the electrodes with a high value resistor
in series to the charged plates in order to prevent current leakage from the capacitor [Borwick,
1990: 88]. The sound pressure waves cause oscillation of the diaphragm relative to the back-plate,
subsequently producing changes in the capacitance.

Figure 6: Basic condenser microphone circuit [Rumsey & McCormick 2009: 50]

The capacitance of the system can be described by:

Movement of the diaphragm can then be equated by including the displacement and capacitance
with respect to time:

( ( ))
( )
( ) ( )

As the time constant ( ) is long relative to the period of capacitance variation (due to the
large resistor value), the charge on the capacitor plates is effectively constant; and the voltage can
be directly related to the ideal capacitance of the circuit:

( ( ))
( )

( ( ))
( ( )) ( ( ))
( )

( ( )) ( ( )) ( ) ( )

Therefore, the capacitance is inversely proportional to the voltage across the capacitor, while the
displacement of the diaphragm is directly proportional to the voltage across the capacitor. In order
for a flat frequency response with a pressure operated, constant-amplitude capacitor microphone, it
is necessary for the displacement to be constant with frequency [Borwick, 1990: 89]. This is

Electroacoustics (TON2014) – Microphone Coursework 6

accomplished by compliance (or stiffness) control – shifting the resonance to a frequency above the
operating frequency range of the microphone [Robertson, 1963: 41]. This is possible due to the low
mass of the diaphragm, a high mechanical stiffness (due to the tension of the diaphragm) and
acoustic stiffness (related to the captured air between the diaphragm and the perforated back-plate)
[Eargle & Rayburn, 2012: 24].

̂
̂ ̂ ∫̂ ̂

̂ ̂
̂ ∫

In order for displacement to be independent of frequency, (the system is stiffness

controlled). This eliminates the frequency term from the derivation denominator.

Figure 7: Overall response of a stiffness controlled system [Eargle & Rayburn, 2012: 28]

The upper frequency limit of the microphone is dependent on the stiffness and mass, and the
response rolls off at 12dB/octave above the resonant frequency. The frequency response on axis
extends half an octave above the resonance due to the pressure doubling of the incident sound
waves [Eargle & Rayburn, 2012: 28]. At low frequencies, the capacitance varies at a slower rate and
the capacitor will be subject to leakage (and charging) currents. As a result, at low frequencies the
charge of the capacitor can no longer be considered constant, and a reduced output results [Eargle
& Rayburn, 2012: 42]. The combination of the series capacitor and resistor also culminates in high
pass filtering (with a very low cut-off frequency due to the large resistor ).

The final mechanical characteristic of the amplitude-constant, pressure operated, constant-charge

capacitor microphone to consider is the (theoretical) sensitivity. The sensitivity is a ratio of volts per
Pascal and is derived with respect to frequency below:

̂
| |
̂

Electroacoustics (TON2014) – Microphone Coursework 7

 ̂
| ( )| ( ) ̂
̂ ̂

( ) ̂
( )
̂ ( ) ̂

( )
̂ ̂

( ( )) ( )
( ( ))

Convert the angular frequencies ( ) to Hz:

( ( ) )

This derivation assumes a constant charge capacitor subject to the same high and low frequency
limitations that were discussed previously. An additional restriction at the low end of the operating
frequency range for condenser microphones is a result of the limited movement of air through the
equalisation vents [Eargle & Rayburn, 2012: 28].

It is also assumed that there is no non-linear effect due to approaching the break-down voltage of
the dielectric between electrodes (as the voltage should be far from the break-down value of
3000V/mm during normal use). The reduced air gap between the electrodes due to electrostatic
attraction between plates is also not accounted for. [Eargle & Rayburn, 2012: 26]

As illustrated in the derivation above, the sensitivity of a microphone can be attributed to a number
of design choices. The derived sensitivity is inversely proportional to frequency, mass, stiffness,
damping and displacement. Therefore the sensitivity can be increased by a reduction in mass of the
diaphragm, a reduced mechanical and acoustic stiffness, minimal damping, and a reduced air gap
between the diaphragm and back-plate. Conversely, both polarising voltage and diaphragm area are
directly proportional to the microphone sensitivity and can be increased to provide a more desirable
operation. These factors do have limitations however; diaphragm area cannot be increased without
a relative mass increase for example. Similarly, increasing the polarising voltage and reducing the air
gap increases the likelihood of approaching the breakdown voltage of the capacitor [Eargle &
Rayburn, 2012: 26].

Figure 8: Condenser microphone capsule design [Davis & Jones, 1990: 113]

Electroacoustics (TON2014) – Microphone Coursework 8

Task 2
A constant charge condenser pressure microphone has a diaphragm with an effective surface area
of 100 mm2, an effective mass of 10 mg and an effective stiffness of 100 kN/m. The mechanical
damping is 2Ns/m. The diaphragm and back-plate are separated by 20 μm and the polarisation
voltage of 200 V is applied through a 100 MΩ series resistor.

Using the formula derived in task 1, use Matlab to plot a graph of the microphone sensitivity in
V/Pa against frequency across the useful audio range.

Is the microphone under damped, critically damped or over damped? Explain your answer.

Figure 9: Plot of a constant charge, condenser microphone sensitivity against frequency

Mechanical and acoustic damping as a result of the microphone design results in the prevention of
unwanted ringing or oscillation of the diaphragm. The mechanical or structural damping is a product
of the relative motion between the mechanical components in the system, and the acoustic or fluid
damping causes mechanical energy dissipation as the components move in a fluid (air) [de Silva,
2005]. With respect to a constant charge condenser microphone, the effect of damping is crucial at
the natural resonance to obtain a flat high frequency response.

Electroacoustics (TON2014) – Microphone Coursework 9

If the system is underdamped, the diaphragms’ natural resonance will result in an extended high
frequency response, about the resonant frequency. Where the microphone is overdamped, there is
no oscillation due to resonance, however the sensitivity is reduced over the time it takes for the
system to return to equilibrium. The point of critical damping is optimal for preventing the effect of
the natural resonance of the microphone, while a reduction in sensitivity is kept to a minimum.

These damping conditions can be approximated mathematically as [Haigh, 2018]:

Using the specifications provided:

√ √

Task 3
Using the parameter values from task 2, use Matlab to produce a waterfall plot of the sensitivity
showing what happens when the amount of damping is varied from 0.5Ns/m to 4Ns/m in suitable
steps i.e. plot damping on the 3rd axis.

Comment on how the HF response of the microphone is affected by the amount of damping, and
how this might be useful in optimising the response of this sort of microphone in a practical
context.

The sensitivity plot of this constant charge condenser microphone (figures 10, 11) demonstrates the
significant resonant peak of +6dB at approximately 16kHz with a damping of only 0.5Ns/m. With
increasing damping, the effect of the resonance is reduced up to a damping of 1.3 to 1.4Ns/m.
Beyond the point of critical damping, the high frequency response is reduced due to overdamping,
with a high frequency cut-off at approximately 4kHz for a damping of 4Ns/m.

Due to the substantial effect damping has on the high frequency response of the microphone, the
degree of damping can account for the frequency content of the sound to be recorded. For sound
sources with a reduced HF spectrum, or for example where the sound is recorded off axis and
attenuation of the high frequencies occurs, the natural resonance of an under-dampened
microphone can partially account for this. The opposite is true for picking up sound with an
increased HF content (for example where pressure doubling may occur), an overdamped system can
account for the sound waves, providing a flatter response at higher frequencies.

Electroacoustics (TON2014) – Microphone Coursework 10

 Figure 10: Waterfall plot indicating sensitivity (in dB) against frequency, damping of a condenser microphone

Figure 11: Waterfall plot indicating sensitivity (in dB) against frequency, damping of a condenser microphone

Electroacoustics (TON2014) – Microphone Coursework 11

Task 4
Using the parameter values from task 2, use Matlab or Excel to produce a waterfall plot of the
sensitivity showing what happens when the stiffness is varied from 50kNm to 175kNm in suitable
steps i.e. plot stiffness on the 3rd axis.

Explain the trade-off between bandwidth and sensitivity that becomes apparent.

The waterfall plots inserted below in figures 12 and 13 display the clear relationship between an
increasing degree of stiffness against the sensitivity of the microphone. At a stiffness of 50kNm, the
sensitivity of the microphone is greatest, while an increasing stiffness correlates to a reduction in
sensitivity. At a stiffness of 175kNm, the sensitivity is attenuated approximately 11dB at 1kHz.

At a reduced stiffness of 50kNm however, although the sensitivity is at maximum, the high
frequency cut-off point is at 7kHz – well within the audible frequency range. For a stiffness of
127kNm, although the average sensitivity is reduced to -8dB, the upper cut-off frequency occurs at
approximately 19kHz. As the stiffness increases past 127kHz, a sensitivity non-linearity occurs at high
frequencies, despite minimal increase in useable bandwidth, rendering the application of such large
stiffness meaningless.

Figure 12: Waterfall plot indicating sensitivity (in dB) against frequency, stiffness of a condenser microphone

Electroacoustics (TON2014) – Microphone Coursework 12

 Figure 13: Waterfall plot indicating sensitivity (in dB) against frequency, stiffness of a condenser microphone

Electroacoustics (TON2014) – Microphone Coursework 13

References
 Ballou, G. (2012) Electroacoustic Devices: Microphones and Loudspeakers, (London: Focal Press)
ch 1.2
 Borwick, J. (1990) Microphones: Technology and Technique, (London: Focal Press), pp 73 – 89
 Davis, G & Jones, R. (1990) Yamaha Sound Reinforcement Handbook (Hal Leonard Publishing), pp
113
 De Silva, C, W. (2005) Vibration Damping, Control and Design (CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group)
ch 1.2
 Eargle, J & Rayburn, R, A. (2012) The Microphone Book, (Taylor & Francis Group), pp 11 - 42
 Haigh, C. (2018) Condenser Microphones, Mechanics and Impedance, Pressure and Pressure
Gradient [Lecture to BMus/BSc Music and Sound Recording Year 2], TON2014: Elecroacoustics,
9th November, 2018.
 Holland, K. (1993) Transducers [Lecture to BMus/BSc Music and Sound Recording Year 2],
Elecroacoustics, 9th November, 2018.
 Robertson, A, E. (1963), Microphones: BBC Engineering Training Manual, (London: Iliffe Books
LTD), pp 10 – 41
 Rumsey, F & McCormick, T. (2009) Sound and recording – 6th Edition (Oxford, Focal Press), pp 50
 Vowels, M. (2018) Overview, One-Degree-of-Freedom Model, Dynamics, Microphones Intro
[Lecture to BMus/BSc Music and Sound Recording Year 2], TON2014: Elecroacoustics, 9th
November, 2018.

Electroacoustics (TON2014) – Microphone Coursework 14