International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature

International Journal of
Applied Linguistics &

English Literature
ISSN 2200-3592 (Print)

ISSN 2200-3452 (Online)
i
International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature
All papers on which this is printed in this book meet the minimum requirements of " Australian
International Academic Centre and National Library of Australia".
All papers published in this book are accessible online.
Editors-in-Chief
Associate Professor Dr. Craig A. Warren, Penn State Erie, The Behrend College, USA
Professor Dr. Jayakaran Mukundan, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
Assistant Professor Dr. Zosia Golebiowski, Deakin University, Melbourne campus, Australia
Managing Editor
Seyed Ali Rezvani Kalajahi
Journal Information
ISSN 2200-3592 (Print)
ISSN 2200-3452 (Online)
ISBN: 978 -600-5361-84-1
Website: www.ijalel.org
E-mail: editor@ijalel.org
Publisher
Australian International Academic Centre PTY. LTD.
59/48 Eucalyptus Drive
Maidstone, VIC 3012
Australia
Phone: +61 (0)4 2681 5320
+60 12 256 60 70
Website: http://www.aiac.org.au
Hardcopy Provider
Digital Print Australia
135 Gilles Street, Adelaide
South Australia 5000
Australia
Phone: +61 (0)8 8232 3404
Website: www.digitalprintaustralia.com
Hoormazd Press Inc. also provides hardcopies of IJALEL.
2012 – 2013 © IJALEL
No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photo print, microfilm, or any
other means, without written permission from the publisher.
ii
IJALEL Editorial Team
Editors-in-Chief
Associate Professor Dr. Craig A. Warren, TESOL & Writing Professor Dr. Jayakaran Mukundan, ELT
Penn State Erie, The Behrend College, USA University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
Asst. Prof. Dr. Zosia Golebiowski, TESOL
Deakin University, Melbourne Campus, Australia
Managing Editor
Seyed Ali Rezvani Kalajahi, TESL, AIAC, Australia
Senior Associate Editors
Professor Dr. Hossein Farhadi, Assessment Professor Dr. Roger Barnard, Applied Linguistics
University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA The University of Waikato, New Zealand
Professor Dr. Ali Miremadi, Language, Linguistics Professor Dr. Cem Alptekin, Applied Linguistics
California State University, USA Bogaziçi University, Turkey
Professor Dr. Kazem Lotfipour-Saedi Associate Professor Dr. Reza Pishghadam, TEFL
Ottawa University, Canada Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran
Professor Dr. Mohammad Ziahosseini, Linguistics Associate Professor Dr. Christina Alm-Arvius, Linguistics
Allameh Tabataba’i University, Tehran, Iran Stockholm University, Sweden
Professor Dr. Farzad Sharifian, Applied Linguistics Associate Professor Dr. Mojgan Rashtchi, Applied Linguistics
Monash University, Australia IAU North Tehran Branch, Iran
Professor Dr. Biook Behnam, ELT Associate Professor Dr. Parviz Maftoon, TEFL
IAU Tabriz, Iran IAU, Science & Research Branch, Tehran, Iran
Professor Dr. Juliane House, Applied Linguistics Associate Professor Dr. María-Isabel González-Cruz, English Studies
University of Hamburg, Germany University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC), Spain
Associate Professor Dr. Huai-zhou Mao, Applied Linguistics Associate Professor Dr. John W. Schwieter, Linguistics
Changji University, China Wilfrid Laurier University, Canada
Professor Dr. Zdenka Gadusova, Foreign Language Teaching Associate Professor Dr. Moussa Ahmadfian, Literature
Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Slovakia Arak University, Arak, Iran
Professor Dr. Simin Karimi, Linguistics Associate Professor Dr. Zia Tajeddin, Applied Linguistics
University of Arizona, USA Allameh Tabataba'i University,Tehran, Iran
Professor Dr. Mats Oscarson, English Language Education Associate Professor Dr. Ali S. M. Al-Issa, Applied Linguistics
University of Gothenburg, Sweden Sultan Qaboos University, Oman
Professor Dr. Meixia Li, Linguistics Associate Professor Dr. Wan Roselezam Wan Yahya, Literature
Beijing International Studies University, China University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
Professor Dr. Ruzy Suliza Hashim, Literature Associate Professor Dr. Fatemeh Azizmohammadi, Literature
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia IAU Arak, Iran
Professor Dr. Ruth Roux, Applied Linguistics Associate Professor Dr. leyli Jamali, English Literature
El Colegio de Tamaulipas & Universidad Autonoma de Tamaulipas, Mexico IAU Tabriz, Iran
Professor Dr. Kourosh Lachini, Applied Linguistics Associate Professor Dr. Ahmad M. Al-Hassan, Applied Linguistics
University of Qatar, Qatar Petra University, Amman, Jordan
Professor Dr. Sebnem Toplu, English Literature Associate Professor Dr. Seyyed Ali Ostovar-Namaghi, TEFL
Ege University, Turkey Shahrood University of Technology, Iran
Professor Dr. Eugenio Cianflone, TEFL Associate Professor Dr. Brenda Murphy , TESOL
University of Messina, Italy Shenandoah University, USA
Professor Dr. Ashley J. Hastings, TESOL
Shenandoah University, USA
Associate Editors
Dr. Christopher Conlan, Applied Linguistics Dr. Usaporn Sucaromana, TEFL
Curtin University, Australia Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand
Assistant Professor Dr. Massimiliano Spotti, Applied Linguistics Assistant Professor Dr. Ramin Akbari, ELT
Tilburg University, Netherlands Tarbiat Modares University, Iran
Assistant Professor Dr. Anne Dragemark Oscarson, Language Assessment Assistant Professor Dr. Ahmed Gumaa Siddiek, ELT
University of Gothenburg, Sweden Shaqra University. KSA
Assistant Professor Dr. Ibrahim Abdel- Latif Shalabi, Literature Assistant Professor Dr. Franklin Thambi Jose, Applied Linguistics
Isra University Amman, Jordan Eritrea Institute of Technology, Eritrea
Assistant Professor Dr. Saeed Yazdani, Literature Dr. Vahid Nimehchisalem, TESL
IAU Bushehr, Iran University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
Assistant Professor Dr. Shaofeng Li, Applied Linguistics Assistant Professor Dr. Natasha Pourdana, TEFL
University of Auckland, New Zealand IAU Karaj, Iran
Assistant Professor Dr. Sasan Baleghizadeh, TEFL Assistant Professor Dr. Nooreen Noordin, TESL
Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
Assistant Professor Dr. Hossein Pirnajmuddin, Literature Assistant Professor Dr. Mohd Nazim, ELT
University of Isfahan, Iran Najran University, Saudi Arabia
iii
Assistant Professor Dr. Javanshir Shibliyev, Linguistics Assistant Professor Dr. Roselan Baki, TESL
Eastern Mediterranean University, Cyprus University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
Assistant Professor Dr. Masoud Zoghi, TESL Assistant Professor Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Applied Linguistics
IAU Ahar, Iran Qassim University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Assistant Professor Dr. Rachel Adams-Goertel, Composition & TESOL Assistant Professor Dr. Yousef Tahaineh, Applied Linguistics
Pennsylvania State University, USA Al-Balqa Applied University, Amman -Jordan
Assistant Professor Dr. Arshya Keyvanfar, TEFL Assistant Professor Dr. Efstathios (Stathis) Selimis, Psycholinguistics
IAU North Tehran Branch, Iran Technological Education Institute of Kalamata, Greece
Dr. Ferit Kılıçkaya, ELT Assistant Professor Dr. Abdul Qadir Khan, Applied Linguistics
Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey University of Azad Jammu & Kashmir, Pakistan
Dr. Minoo Alemi, Applied Linguistics Assistant Professor Dr. Nasrin Hadidi Tamjid, Applied Linguistics
Sharif University of Technology, Iran IAU, Tabriz, Iran
Assistant Professor Dr. Reza Kafipour, ELT Assistant Professor Dr. Karim Sadeghi, TEFL
Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran Urmia University, Iran
Assistant Professor Dr. Touran Ahour, TEFL Assistant Professor Dr. Nader Assadi Aidinlou, Applied Linguistics
IAU Tabriz, Iran IAU Ahar, Iran
Distinguished Advisors
Professor Dr. Stephen Krashen, Second Language Acquisition Professor Dr. Brian Tomlinson, Material Development
University of Southern California, USA Leeds Metropolitan University, UK
Professor Dr. Alan Maley, Creative Writing Professor Dr. Dan Douglas, Applied Linguistics
Leeds Metropolitan University, UK Iowa State University, USA
Professor Dr. Hossein Nassaji, Applied Linguistics Professor Dr. Roger Nunn, Communication
University of Victoria, Canada The Petroleum Institute, Abu Dhabi, UAE
Associate Professor Dr. Viviana Cortes, Applied Linguistics Professor Dr. Jalal Sokhanvar , English Literature
Georgia State University, USA Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran
Advisors
Dr. Ian Bruce, Discourse Analysis and Genre Studies Dr. Steve Neufeld, ELT
The university of Waikato, New Zealand Middle East Technical University, Cyprus
Dr. Kristina Smith, ELT Dr. Hassan Fartousi, English Studies
Pearson Education , Turkey University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Shadi Khojasteh rad, Applied Linguistics Dr. Atieh Rafati, ELT & literature
University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia Eastern Mediterranean University, Cyprus
Dr. Saeed Kalajahi, Literature Dr. Majid Hamdani, Educational Technology
IAU Tabriz, Iran University Technology of Malaysia, Malaysia
Dr. Meryem ÖZDEMİR, ELT Dr. Oytun Sözüdoğru, ELT
Çukurova University, Turkey University of York, UK
Reviewers
Dr. Marilyn Lewis, Language Teaching Dr. Helena I. R. Agustien, Applied Linguistics
DALSL, The University of Auckland, New Zealand Semarang State University, Indonesia
Assistant Professor Dr. Omid Akbari, TESL Assistant Professor Dr. Ali H. Al-Bulushi, Applied Linguistics
Imam Reza International University, Iran Sultan Qaboos University, Oman
Assistant Professor Dr. Hassan Soleimani, Applied Linguistics Dr. Shannon Kelly Hillman, Applied Linguistics
Payame Noor University, Tehran, Iran University of Hawaii, Hawaii
Dr. Ruzbeh Babaee, English Literature Dr. Yasemin Aksoyalp, ELT
University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia Adam Mickiewicz University, Poland
Assistant Professor Dr. Azadeh Nemati, ELT Dr. Ali KARAKAŞ, ELT
IAU, Jahrom, Iran University of Southampton, UK
Dr. İsmail Zeki Dikici, ELT Dr. Ebrahim Samani, TESL
Muğla University, Turkey University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
Dr. Mahdi Alizadeh Ziaei, Literature Dr. Melchor Tatlonghari, TESOL
The university of Edinburgh, UK The University of Santo Tomas , Manila, The Philippines
Dr. Siamak Mazloomi, ELT Dr. Bakhtiar Naghdipour, ELT
IAU Islamshahr, Tehran, Iran Eastern Mediterranean University, Cyprus
Dr. Sepideh Mirzaei Fard, ELT Dr. Bora DEMİR, ELT
National University of Malaysia, Malaysia Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey
Dr. Hossein Saadabadi, TESL Dr. Kenan DİKİLİTAŞ, ELT
University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia Gediz University, Turkey
Dr. Haleh Zargarzadeh, Literature Dr. Yassamin Pouriran, TESL
Urmia University, Iran IAU Tabriz, Iran
Dr. Orkun Janbay, ELT Dr. Taher Bahrani, Applied Linguistics
Izmir University, Turkey IAU Mahshahr, Iran
iv
Dr. Tin T. Dang, Applied Linguistics Dr. Erdem AKBAS, ELT
Vietnam National University, Vietnam University of York, UK
Dr. Sardar M. Anwaruddin, TESOL Dr. Saeed Rezaei, TEFL
University of Toronto, Canada Allameh Tabataba’i University Tehran, Iran
Dr. Inayatullah Kakepoto, ELT Dr. Jerome C. Bush, English Education
Quaid-e-University of EST(Sindh), Pakistan Yeditepe University, Turkey
Dr. Gandhimathi Subramaniam, Language & Literature Dr. Mohammad Javad Riasati, TESL
Anna University Coimbatore, India IAU Shiraz, Iran
Dr. Subhash Chandra, Corpus Linguistics Dr. Karim Hajhashemi, Applied Linguistics
Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (CDAC), India James Cook University, Australia
Dr. Yassamin Pouriran, TESL Dr. Carlous Muluh Nkwetisama, ELT
IAU Tabriz, Iran University of Maroua, Cameroon
Editorial Assistants
Dr. Ali Asghar Yousefi Azarfam, TESL, IAU Tabriz, Iran
Dr. Reza Vaseghi, TESL, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
Founding Editor
Seyed Ali Rezvani Kalajahi
v
Table of Contents
Vol. 2 No. 1; January 2013
Test Taking Strategies Instruction and Iranian EFL Learners’ Performance on International
Language Tests
Amir Mahdavi Mitra Ghabelju 1
Can Automated Writing Evaluation Programs Help Students Improve Their English Writing?
Pei-ling Wang 6
Teachers’ Perceptions of Using Technology in Teaching EFL
Fatemeh Mollaei Mohammad Javad Riasati 13
Input Processing and Processing Instruction: Definitions and Issues
Hossein Hashemnezhad Sanaz Khalili Zangalani 23
Iranian ESP Learners’ Perceptions of Autonomy in Language Learning
Razieyeh Ahmadi 28
Investigating the Effects of Word Games on Iranian EFL Learners’ Application of the Words in
Writing Paragraph Essays
Fatemeh Rezapanah Hadi Hamidi 35
An Investigation into the Speech Act of Compliment Response in Persian
Seyyed Ayatolla Razmjoo Elyas Barabadi Ali Arfa 44
The Interplay of Motivation and Demotivation: The Case of EFL Learners Majoring in English
Sultan Al-Sharief 53
Waiting for Godot is an Irish Endgame: A Postcolonial Reading of Samuel Beckett’s
Sayyed Rahim Moosavinia 60
Exploring the State of Unbalance within the Topical and Heterotopical Spaces at the Core of Story
Mahshad Jalalpourroodsari Sarah Catherine Household Ilkhani 68
Process-Product Approach to Writing: the Effect of Model Essays on EFL Learners’ Writing
Accuracy
Parastou Gholami Pasand Eshrat Bazarmaj Haghi 75
The Effect of Applying Critical Thinking Techniques on Students’ Attitudes towards Literature
Mansoor Fahim Sarvenaz Khatib 80
The Impact of Vocabulary Knowledge Level on EFL Reading Comprehension
Shima Kameli Roselan Bin Baki 85
A Comparative Study of Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales & Attar’s The Conference of the Birds
Maryam Khoshbakht Moussa Ahmadian Shahrukh Hekmat 90
From Memorized Chunks to Rule Formation: A Study of Adult Chinese Learners of English
Xia Yu 98
vi
The Role of Discourse Analysis in Translation
Mehrdad Vasheghani Farahani 112
Exploring Elision of Schwa of /ə/ in English Utterances by C & U English Majors
HUAI-ZHOU MAO HUA-YING CHEN 117
Analyzing the Advertising Discourse- A Journey from Sight to Mind

Mahrukh Baig 126
Meaning Making: Lived Experience of Elizabeth Gilbert
Angela Brown 136
Arabic in Iraq: A Diglossic Situation
Mohammad Jafar Jabbari 139
Comparing Effect of ‘Summarizing’, ‘Question-Answer Relationship’, and ‘Syntactic Structure
Identification’ on the Reading Comprehension of Iranian EFL students
Fatemeh Hemmati Safoora Bemani 151
Does Writing Self-efficacy Correlate with and Predict Writing Performance?
Rapassak Hetthong Adisa Teo 157
Student Voice on the Instructional Qualities of the Effective English Language Teacher: A
Collective Case Study
Corinne Vong Siu Phern Mohamad Jafre Zainol Abidin 168
Two Heads May Not Be Better than One in Writing to Learn Spanish as a Second Language
Ya-Chin Tsai 180
The Effect of Attitude on L2 Learners’ Choice of Compensation & Meta-cognitive Strategies
Abbas Ali Zarei Atefeh Elekaei 186
Narrative Structure in Martin Amis’s London Fields
Ahdieh Akbari Mahmood Azizi Sima Farshid 194
A Linguistic Study of Borrowings from English to Urdu
Muhammad Aslam Sipra 203
Community Teaching Practice for Greater Learning
Siao-cing Guo 208
The Use of Talisman in William Butler Yeats’s Poetry: A Signifier of the Objet Petit a
Serkan ERTİN 216
Book Review: Al-Seghayer, Khalid 2011, English Teaching in Saudi Arabia: Status, Issues, and
Challenges, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Hala Print CO. 175 pages, ISBN 978-6030079254
Ghsoon Reda 221
vii
ISSN 2200-3592 (Print), ISSN 2200-3452 (Online)
Copyright © Australian International Academic Centre, Australia
Test Taking Strategies Instruction and Iranian EFL Learners’

Performance on International Language Tests
Dr. Amir Mahdavi
Guilan University, Iran
Mitra Ghabelju (Corresponding author)

Guilan University, Iran
E-mail: mitraghabeljou@gmail.com
Received: 28-07- 2012 Accepted: 17-08- 2012 Published: 01-01- 2013

doi:10.7575/ijalel.v.2n.1p.1 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/ijalel.v.2n.1p.1
Abstract
This study examined the effects of test-taking strategies instruction on Iranian foreign language learners’ performance
on international English language tests namely IELTS and TOEFL. Based on IELTS pretest, sixty intermediate
participants of both genders from different fields of study including computer engineering, electrical engineering,
mechanical engineering, accountancy, and chemical engineering were selected for this study. Then they were randomly
divided into two groups (one control and one experimental each consisting of 30 participants). The experimental group
was taught general and specific test-taking strategies, while the control group did not receive any specific instructions
on test taking strategies. After twelve sessions of treatment for the experimental group and placebo for the control
group, both groups took part in IELTS and TOEFL posttests. While the two groups were homogeneous in terms of
their language proficiency at the beginning of the study, the results of independent samples T- test showed that the
experimental group significantly outperformed the control group on both post-tests. The findings suggest that there is a
positive relationship between test-performance and test taking strategies. The findings also suggest support for training
EFL classroom teachers to provide instruction in test-taking strategy.
Keywords: test taking strategies, international English language tests
1. Introduction
Language tests are one of the most widely used evaluation tools in language testing and provide scores that are used for
assessing test-takers’ language ability, decision making and screening purposes (Rezaee, 2006). Among the many
personal factors that affect test scores, is the way test-takers approach the examination, i.e., the strategies they use while
taking a test (Nunan, 1999). Together with individual differences as well as situational and social factors, knowledge of
test-taking strategies is one of the factors that are believed to determine the variable outcome of language learning.
Very few attempts have been made to elucidate the impact of teaching test taking strategies on the performance of
intermediate EFL learners on the Academic Reading Module of IELTS or TOEFL. Therefore, the researcher tried to
investigate the effect of test taking strategies instruction on test performance of the EFL learners.
The purpose of this investigation is to determine whether knowledge of test-taking strategies has any impact on the
performance of intermediate EFL learners on the Academic Reading Module of IELTS tests.
2. Research questions
1) Is there any significant difference between the performance of Iranian intermediate English as Foreign Language
(EFL) learners who received instruction on test-taking strategies and the performance of those who only received
conventional instructions on the Academic Reading Module of IELTS?
2) Are learners who receive instructions on test-taking strategies for the Academic Reading Module of IELTS able to
apply these strategies equally well in performing on the TOEFL?
3. Method
3.1 The Design of the Study
The design of this study was quasi-experimental and had three basic characteristics:
1) Pre- test (academic sample of IELTS).
2) Treatment (Strategy and Comprehension –based training session).
3) Post test (reading samples of IELTS and TOEFL)
IJALEL 2 (1):1-5, 2013 2
3.2 Participants
This study was conducted with a total number of 160 Iranian learners studying at Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran
(SBUT) and also 120 participants from the IELTS Center of Tehran (ICT). These students were administered an
Academic Module IELTS test and, ultimately, 60 of the original 280 test-takers were selected to participate in this
study.
3.3 Instruments and Materials
The following instruments were used for the present study:
1. Listening Module of the IELTS 2. Academic Reading Module of the IELTS 3.Writing Module of the IELTS
(Cambridge IELTS, 2008) 4. Reading Section of the TOEFL PBT (Barron’s TOEFL preparation book, 2011).
3.4 Data Collection Procedure
For data collection in this study, a sample of an Academic Module IELTS exam as the pre-test and a sample Academic
Reading Module of IELTS as the post-test were utilized. These were administered to 280 participants at ICT and SBUT
facilities. After data collection, from among 81 intermediates, 60 were deemed homogeneous in their terms of language
ability and were randomly assigned to two IELTS preparation classes. The first group (Group A: experimental group)
attended strategy-based training sessions during which they received specific test-taking strategies and general test-
taking strategies, and the second group (Group B: control group) attended comprehension-based training sessions. After
the training sessions were over, participants of the two groups were exposed to a sample Academic Reading Module of
IELTS and TOEFL as the post-tests. To determine whether there was any significant difference between the
performances of the two intermediate groups, an independent sample T-test was administered to compare the means of
the two groups in both posttests.
4. Results
4.1 Examining the normality of the distributions
Before commenting on the results of the analyses, the main assumption of independent samples T- tests namely,
normality was examined. Skewness analysis was used to examine the normality of the distributions. The results of the
skewness analysis revealed that the assumption of normality was observed in the distribution of the scores.
Figure 1. Scatter dot for the experimental and the control groups
4.2 The homogeneity of the two groups at the beginning of the study
After examining the normality of the distributions, an independent samples T-test was used to determine whether there
was any significant different between the control group and the experimental in terms of their performance on pretest
IELTS at the beginning of the study. The results of the IELTS pretest obtained by both the control and the
experimental groups before the treatment phase indicated that there was not a significant difference between the mean
scores of the two groups in IELTS pre-test at the 0.05 level (P= 0.80). The experimental group (A) with mean score of
21.13, and the control group with total mean score of 21.30, had similar performance on IELTS pretest. In other words
the two groups were homogeneous in terms of their performance on IELTS at the beginning of the study.
IJALEL 2 (1):1-5, 2013 3
Table 1. Independent Samples Test for the control and experimental groups at pretest (IELTS)
Levene's Test for
Equality of
Variances t-test for Equality of Means
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Sig. (2- Mean Std. Error Difference
F Sig. t df tailed) Difference Difference Lower Upper
IELTS Equal .005 .94 - 58 .80 -.16 .68 -1.54 1.20
pretest variances .24
assumed
Equal - 57.30 .80 -.16 .68 -1.54 1.20
variances not .24
assumed
4.3 The first research question: (Descriptive statistics for the IELTS post-test scores)
Another independent samples T –test was run to determine whether there was any significant difference between the
control and the experimental groups after the treatment phase. The experimental group (A) with total mean score of
24.53, comparing to 22.33 for the control group had a better performance on IELTS posttest.
Table 2. Independent Samples Test for the control and experimental groups at posttest
Levene's Test for
Equality of
95% Confidence
Interval of the
IELTS Equal 4.734 .034 3.05 58 .003 2.20 .71 .76 3.63
post-test variances
assumed
Equal 3.05 54.19 .003 2.20 .71 .75 3.64
variances not
assumed
The results of the independent samples T-test rejects the first null hypothesis as there is no significant difference
between the experimental group who received instruction on test taking strategies and the control group who did not
receive specific training on test taking strategies in terms of their performance on international English language tests
(IELTS).
Figure 2. The mean scores of the control and experimental groups at IELTS posttest
IJALEL 2 (1):1-5, 2013 4
4.4 The Second Research Question (Descriptive statistics for the TOEFL scores)
In order to examine the possible difference between the control and experimental groups in terms of their performance
on TOEFL test, another independent samples T- test was run to the results of the TOEFL test. The findings indicate that
the experimental group(X= 23.60) who received special instruction in terms of test taking strategies outperformed the
control group(X= 21.73) in TOEFL test.
Table 3. Independent Samples Test for the control and experimental groups at TOEFL posttest
Levene's Test for
Equality of
95% Confidence
Interval of the
TOEFEL Equal 1.87 .17 2.71 58 .009 1.86 .68 .49 3.24
reading test variances
assumed
Equal 2.71 57.19 .009 1.86 .68 .49 3.24
variances not
assumed
The data in table 3 indicates that there is a significant difference between the mean scores of the control and the
experimental groups at the .05 level at TOEFL test. This analysis shows that the subjects in the experimental group
again achieved higher scores than those in the control group. The findings further reject the second null hypothesis as
there is no significant difference between the experimental group who received instruction on test taking strategies and
the control group who did not receive specific training on test taking strategies in terms of their performance on TOEFL
test.
Figure 3. The mean scores of the control and experimental groups at TOEFL posttest
5. Discussion and Conclusion

This study supported a strong relationship between a successful performance on reading comprehension tests and
employing test taking strategies. The results of the present study support the findings of other similar studies that have
probed the impacts of test-taking strategies on test performance (e.g., Cohen, 1984; Nevo, 1989; Phakiti, 2008;
Radojevic, 2009; Rezaee, 2005). They all supported that “performance on language tests can be improved by test taking
strategies.”
It can be concluded that integrating test taking strategies in teaching curriculum could be profitable for the students. The
awareness of strategy instruction, using presentation and modeling of strategies, helps learners to benefit from test
taking strategies and employ them effectively (Alderson, 2000). English teachers should teach test-taking strategies and
take the role of motivators. Test designers may use the results of this study to develop better tests. The role of test
taking strategies should be stressed in Iranian EFL situation because it appears to be a neglected area. A repeat study
could be conducted with other levels with different background knowledge and in different fields of study, or with high
school students. This study could be carried out again allowing time for more practicing of test taking strategies. And
finally, further study could encompass the teaching of test-taking strategies for other English skills and other test
formats, such as listening tests, writing tests, matching tests, true-false tests and essay tests.
IJALEL 2 (1):1-5, 2013 5
References
Aldersron, J. C. (2000). Assessing reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Cohen, A. D. (1984). On taking language tests: What the students report. Language Testing, 1, 70-81.
Nevo, N. (1989). Test-taking strategies on multiple-choice test of reading comprehension. Language Testing, 6(2), 199-
215.
Nunan, D. (1999). Second language teaching and learning. Boston, M. A.: Heinle Heinle.
Phakiti, A. (2008). Constructed validation of Bachman and Palmer’s (1996) strategic competence model over time in
EFL reading tests. Language Testing , 25(2), pp. 237-272.
Radojevic, N. (2009). Exploring the use of effective learning strategies to increase students’ reading comprehension
and test taking skills. Unpublished Master, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario.
Rezaei, A. (2005). Test-taking strategies and performance in language achievement tests. Pazhuhesh-e Zabanha-ye
Khareji, (20), 27-50.
Rezaee, A. A. (2006). University students' test-taking strategies and their language proficiency. TELLSI, 1(1), 151-182.
Can Automated Writing Evaluation Programs Help Students Improve

Their English Writing?
Pei-ling Wang
Department of Applied Foreign Languages, National Kaohsiung University of Applied Sciences
415, Chien-Kung Road, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan
Tel: 8867-3814526-3276 E-mail: peiling@cc.kuas.edu.tw

Abstract
This study explores the effect of the automated writing evaluation (AWE) on Taiwanese students writing, and whether
student improvement and their perception of the program are related. Instruments included a questionnaire, 735 essays
analyzed in Criterion, and a pre/post essay. Two classes of 53 college students participated in the study. Descriptive
statistics, paired-samples t-tests, Pearson correlation, effect size, and regression were used to analyze the data. Results
showed that students improved significantly in terms of the length of the essay and the scores awarded by the machine
and the human raters. However, among the five essays, the first essay is the only one showing a significant level of
consistency between student improvement and student attitude, and the correlation declined dramatically after the first
essay. To conclude, this study may be of importance in confirming the usefulness of the AWE functions such as
recursive revising and instant scoring, as well as in providing teachers with a better understanding of how student
beliefs about the Criterion program might relate to their writing performance.
Keywords: AWE, Criterion, writing
1. Introduction
1.1 The Problem
While many studies have shown that students learn to write by writing (e.g. Brown, 2001; Elbow, 1973; Zamel, 1982),
the National Commission on Writing (2003) pointed out, American students practice writing much less than they need.
Similarly, Tsai (2010) claimed that the reason why many Taiwanese students’ English writing skills are so poor lies in
the fact that they seldom or never practice writing.
Actually, writing is not only a nightmare for students. Reading and correcting student’s writing is also very time-
consuming for teachers. Especially for Asian teachers who often have more than 50 students in one class, asking
students to write more means teachers have to devote extended periods of time to assessing and giving comments on
student work.
With the advent of the Internet, the topic of automated writing evaluation (AWE) has received considerable attention.
Proponents of AWE maintained that the feature of immediate feedback of AWE can make learning more efficient and
interesting (Frost, 2008; LinHuang, 2010; Moseley, 2006; Taylor, 1996); additionally, the AWE gives useful advice on
organization and also objective feedback regarding the revision (Grimes, 2008; Phillips, 2007).
On the other hand, critics of AWE argued that the validity of AWE programs is doubtful. For example, McCurry’s study
(2010) showed that the machine did not grade the broad and open writing tasks as reliably as human raters. Other
studies (Chen, 2006; LinHuang, 2010; Wang & Brown, 2007) also found that the machine tended to score higher than
human graders.
Given the fact that AWE programs are usually very costly, it is necessary to know the effectiveness of the AWE
program before schools purchase the license of a particular program. Unfortunately, there have been few studies on the
use of the AWE programs, and the results of these studies are still conflicting and inconclusive.
1.2 Importance of the Problem
At present, My Access and Criterion are the two most popular AWE programs in Taiwan. However, there has been little
research on the outcomes of these two programs in the Taiwan classroom setting. Studies examining Taiwanese student
attitudes toward the program were scant, and most of them inspected My Access (Chen & Cheng, 2008; Yang, 2004; Yu
& Yeh, 2003) instead of Criterion. Moreover, most of the previous studies (e.g. Frost, 2008; Moseley, 2006; Otoshi,
2005) only examined students’ writing improvement in one genre of essay (e.g. persuasive writing), very little attention
has been paid to other rhetorical modes such as process, cause/effect, and comparison/contrast essays. Furthermore,
IJALEL 2 (1):6-12, 2013 7
previous studies seldom adopted a pre-essay and a post-essay design for human raters to compare student writing
performance before and after the AWE treatment. In other words, the methods or designs of the previous studies could
be considered inappropriate or inadequate.
In light of these concerns, this study has three purposes: (1) to discuss the effect of the Criterion program on Taiwanese
students’ writing improvement in three rhetorical modes of essays (i.e. process, cause/effect, and comparison/contrast
essays); (2) to verify the students’ writing improvement by comparing students’ pre and post essays assessed by human
raters; and (3) to analyze the relationship between students’ writing improvement assessed by the program and students’
attitudes toward the program.
In the following, the researcher reviews the relevant literature in the effect of the AWE programs and students
perceptions of the programs, which inform the theoretical framework of this study.
1.3 Relevant Literature
Several studies (LinHuang, 2010; Flinn, 1986; Grimes & Warschauer, 2006; Warschauer & Grimes, 2008) have noted
that the AWE programs made revision easier and also facilitated students writing skills. For example, LinHuang’s study
revealed that the program helped students to revise their writings, especially in the areas of grammar and spelling.
Grimes and Warschauer also found that the AWE programs could motivate students to write more. Furthermore, some
studies (Dikli, 2006; Wang, 2011; Yang, 2004) have confirmed that the tools provided by the AWE programs such as
on-line dictionary and e-portfolio were very helpful to students. In Wang’s study, for instance, participants generally
believed that the tool of e-portfolio allowed them to examine their growth in writing, and also helped them value the
process writing curriculum.
In contrast, some studies have shown that students were dissatisfied with the functions of AWE. In Cheng’s study
(2006), many students complained that the machine feedback was too vague to understand, and around half of the
student felt My Access was slightly helpful to them. Likewise, both Yu and Yeh (2003) and Yang (2004) reported
that most students believed the feedback from My Access was repetitive and similar, which might be useful for the
primary revision.
The drawbacks of the AWE programs were also found in Chen, Chiu, and Liao’s study (2009). In this study, the
researchers examined the feedback messages provided by My Access and Criterion for 269 student essays. The results
showed that although these two programs could identify about thirty types of grammatical errors, the feedback provided
by these two programs was not entirely accurate. In fact, most of the machine feedback messages in My Access were
false alarm; on the contrary, almost all of the feedback messages provided by Criterion had 70% accuracy.
According to the previous studies, AWE programs have both merits and drawbacks. However, since most of these
studies were not conducted in an English as a foreign language (EFL) setting or did not investigate the effectiveness of
Criterion by examining students’ improvement in the different rhetorical modes of writing, this study tries to investigate
this under-researched area.
1.4 Research Question
This study asks three research questions. First, are the students’ essays for three different modes improved when the
essays are scored by the Criterion? Second, do the students’ English writing performances when assessed by human
raters improve? Third, what is the relationship between students’ writing improvement assessed by the Criterion and
students’ perceived effectiveness of the program?
2. Method
2.1 Participants
The participants of this study were two classes of sophomore students (58 students) majoring in English from a
technical university in Southern Taiwan, who were taking the English writing course with the researcher. Therefore, this
study uses a quasi-experimental and convenient sampling design (Creswell, 1994). Since this study examined students’
writing samples of five different essays, only those who had submitted all assignments were counted as the valid
participants. As a result, five students were excluded and 53 students (49 females and four males) became the
participants of the study.
2.2 Instruments
The instruments include a questionnaire, student writing samples from the e-portfolio in Criterion, and a pre-essay and
a post-essay. The questionnaire has 16 five-point Likert-scale type questions (student attitudes toward the
effectiveness/functions of Criterion), 1 multiple-choice question (the effect of Criterion on student English ability
improvements), and 12 open-ended questions (student evaluation of Criterion). The reliability of the questionnaire is
estimated by Cronbach’s α, which shows that the questionnaire is reliable (α= 0.76).
2.3 Procedure for data collection
Data were collected in the fall semester of the 2010 school year. In the first week of the class, the teacher-researcher
clearly explained how to use the program and also demonstrated various functions as well as the scoring mechanism of
the program. Each student had one computer to practice on, and the teacher circulated in the computer lab to monitor
student progress. After that, students wrote the pre-essay on paper.
IJALEL 2 (1):6-12, 2013 8
During the semester, the teacher taught three modes of English writing (i.e. process, cause/effect, and
comparison/contrast essays). After each mode was taught, the students had to write one to two topic-related essays in
Criterion. In the end, student wrote one process essay, two cause/effect essays, and two comparison/contrast essays.
Since students were requested to submit their drafts 3 times for each essay, a total of 735 writing samples were
collected.
In order to make sure students understand the various functions in Criterion, the researcher gave each student ten to
fifteen minutes tutoring in the computer lab. During the tutoring, the researcher and students reviewed the feedback
provided by the Criterion together. Whenever students had difficulties in revising their drafts according to the machine
feedback, the researcher offered some advice to assist students.
The researcher retrieved student essays from the electronic portfolios in Criterion, and recorded the total number of
words and the scores for each student’s first and last submissions. In the last week of the semester, students were asked
to complete the questionnaire and wrote the post-essay on paper. Later, two experienced English writing teachers were
invited to evaluate the subjects’ pre- and post-essays following the rubric on the Joint Common Entrance English
Writing Examination for Universities in Taiwan. The inter-rater reliability was quite high (r= 0.80, p=0.00).
3. Results
3.1 Student Writing Improvements Evaluated by the Machine and Human Raters
Regarding student writing samples in Criterion, Table 1 shows that the mean number of words in the student’s essays
increased and their scores also improved from the first essay to the fifth essay. For example, in the first paper, the mean
number of words in the first version ranged from 136 to 444. In comparison with the first paper, the words in the first
version in the fifth paper totaled between 254 and 840 words. Furthermore, in the first paper, student scores ranged
from 3 to 5. When it came to the final version of the second paper, the minimum score was advanced to 4. The same
tendency was found in the third paper. In the fourth and fifth papers, students had a performance score of at least 4 in
their first attempt on the essays. Some students had achieved the highest score (6) in Criterion since their second paper
submission; therefore, the maximum score did not change from the second paper to the fifth paper.
A paired-samples t-test was conducted to compare students’ mean number of words in their first submission and their
final submission in each essay. There was a significant difference in the words for the first submission (M=249.60,
SD=73.90) and the final submission (M=268.43, SD=76.36) in the first paper, t(52)=-3.35, p=0.001; in the words for the
first submission (M=308.02, SD=83.74) and the final submission (M=341.91, SD=74.85) in the second paper, t(52)=-
6.09, p=0.000; in the words for the first submission (M=321.47, SD=98.51) and the final submission (M=355.02,
SD=99.41) in the third paper, t(52)=-3.65, p=0.001; in the words for the first submission (M=391.79, SD=93.55) and
the final submission (M=400.30, SD=92.07) in the fourth paper, t(52)=-3.49, p=0.001; and in the words for the first
submission (M=398.64, SD=111.26) and the final submission (M=412.15, SD=101.98) in the fifth paper, t(52)=-3.21,
p=0.002. These results suggest that students’ improvements in the text length were statistically significant. Moreover, a
paired-samples t-test was conducted to compare students’ mean scores in their first submission and their final
submission in each essay. There was a significant difference in the scores for the first submission (M=4.00, SD=0.62)
and the final submission (M=4.30, SD=0.60) in the first paper, t(52)=-4.36, p=0.000; in the scores for the first
submission (M=4.62, SD=0.59) and the final submission (M=5.09, SD=0.49) in the second paper, t(52)=-6.35, p=0.000;
in the scores for the first submission (M=4.38, SD=0.59) and the final submission (M=4.74, SD=0.56) in the third
paper, t(52)=-4.41, p=0.000; in the scores for the first submission (M=5.06, SD=0.53) and the final submission
(M=5.34, SD=0.55) in the fourth paper, t(52)=-4.53, p=0.000; and in the scores for the first submission (M=4.85,
SD=0.60) and the final submission (M=5.17, SD=0.58) in the fifth paper, t(52)=-4.95, p=0.000. These results suggest
that students’ improvements in the scores were statistically significant (See Table 2).
Although significant differences in the words were found between the first version and the final version of these five
papers, the corresponding Cohen’s d effect sizes, which ranged from 0.09 to 0.43, indicated no or small-to-medium
levels of statistical power (See Table 2). More specifically, except the second paper (d= -0.43) and the third paper (d=-
0.34), whose significant differences were close to medium in statistical power, the Cohen’s d effect sizes of the other
three papers were quite small. The effects of the significant difference of the fourth paper (d=-0.09) and the fifth paper
(d=-0.13) were both below 0.2. These results seem to indicate that students had greater enthusiasm for writing in the
beginning of the semester, but as the time passed, they became less diligent in expanding their papers. Possibly, it is
because students had lots of assignments to accomplish as the semester was about to finish.
As for the significant difference in the scores between the first version and the final version of these five papers, the
Cohen’s d effect sizes underlying these significant levels ranged from -0.49 to -0.87 and demonstrated medium to large
effects (See Table 3). These results showed that students writing scores in their first draft were better than their writing
scores in their final drafts. The effect was especially evident in the second essay (d=0.87), which might be due to the
fact that the instructor had tutored individual students in relation to their first draft of this essay in the computer lab
before the students wrote their second drafts.
In order to justify whether students’ writing skills improved at the end of the semester, in addition to those writing
samples assessed by Criterion, students wrote a pre- and a post-essay on paper, which were evaluated by human raters.
Similarly, the score differences between the pre-essays and post-essays achieved a significant level (p<0.01), which
indicated that student writing skills improved. The Cohen’s d effect size showed that the significant difference was
IJALEL 2 (1):6-12, 2013 9
close to moderate level of statistical power (See Table 4).
Table 1. Words/Scores of First and Final submission

Essay N. Words of 1st Words of final Scores of 1st Scores of final
submission submission submission submission
Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max
1 53 136 444 143 444 3 5 3 5
2 53 127 528 206 532 3 6 4 6
3 53 104 565 104 567 3 6 4 6
4 53 214 700 254 700 4 6 4 6
5 53 254 840 277 763 4 6 4 6
Table 2. Improvements in the Mean Number of Words (N=53)

Essay Words of 1st Words of final t-test Cohen’s d
submission submission effect size
Mean SD Mean SD t p d
1 249.60 73.90 268.43 76.36 -3.35 0.001** -0.25

2 308.02 83.74 341.91 74.85 -6.09 0.000*** -0.43
3 321.47 98.51 355.02 99.41 -3.65 0.001** -0.34
4 391.79 93.55 400.30 92.07 -3.49 0.001** -0.09
5 398.64 111.26 412.15 101.98 -3.21 0.002** -0.13
**=p<0.01, ***=p<0.001
Note: According to Cohen (1988), guideline for the d effect size, 0.2 a small effect, around 0.5 a medium effect, and 0.8
to infinity a large effect.
Table 3. Improvements in the Mean Scores (N=53)

Essay Scores of 1st Scores of final t-test Cohen’s d
version version effect size
Mean SD Mean SD t p d
1 4.00 0.62 4.30 0.60 -4.36 0.000*** -0.49

2 4.62 0.59 5.09 0.49 -6.35 0.000*** -0.87
3 4.38 0.59 4.74 0.56 -4.41 0.000*** -0.63
4 5.06 0.53 5.34 0.55 -4.53 0.000*** -0.52
5 4.85 0.60 5.17 0.58 -4.95 0.000*** -0.54
***=p<0.001
Table 4. Student Writing Performance Evaluated by Human Raters

Pre-essay Score Post-essay Score t p Cohen’s d effect size
Mean SD. Mean SD. 3.081 0.003** -0.39
10.87 2.26 11.82 2.59
**=p<0.01
3.2 Relationship between Student Writing Improvement and Student Attitude

Among the 53 participating students, four students refused to answer the questionnaire. Therefore, only 49 students
completed the attitude survey. Table 5 showed the descriptive statistics of students’ attitudes and student improvement
in their writing samples scored by the Criterion. Moreover, according to the result of the Pearson correlation test, there
were positive correlations between student improvement in their writing samples scored by the Criterion and student
attitude toward the usefulness of the program, but the relationships were not significant (p<0.05). In detail, the
correlation tests showed student improvement in each essay’s score and their attitudes were as follows: the first essay (r
IJALEL 2 (1):6-12, 2013 10
=0.59, p=0.692), the second essay (r=0.004, p=0.981), the third essay (r=-0.031, p=0.832), the fourth essay (r=0.073,
p=0.623), and the fifth essay (r=0.151, p=0.307). The results revealed that the first essay is the only one showing a
strong correlation and the correlation decreased noticeably after the first essay. Perhaps the students did not feel the
program was very helpful.
To examine to what extent writing score improvements explain the variation in student attitude toward the Criterion
program, the researcher did a regression on these variables. The results showed that the scores only explain 3.9% of the
variance in student attitude, R2=0.039, F=0.339, p=0.886. That is, student writing score improvements do not
significantly predict student attitude,β=0.06, t=0.43, p=0.66 (first essay);β=-0.06, t=-0.37, p=0.71 (second
essay);β=-0.03, t=-0.22, p=0.82 (third essay);β=0.09, t=0.64, p=0.52 (fourth essay); andβ=0.17, t=1.09, p=0.27 (fifth
essay) (See Table 6).
Table 5. Student Writing Score Improvements and Student Attitude (N=49)

Mean SD
Improvements in the 1st essay 0.31 0.51
Improvements in the 2nd essay 0.49 0.55
Improvements in the 3rd essay 0.37 0.60
Improvements in the 4th essay 0.29 0.46
Improvements in the 5th essay 0.33 0.47
Attitude toward Criterion 3.34 0.36
Table 6. Regression for Writing Score Improvements and Student Attitude

B Standard Error Beta (β) t Sig.
of the Estimate
Latitude 3.286 0.101 32.67 0.000
st
Improvements in the 1 essay 0.050 0.114 0.069 0.437 0.665
nd
Improvements in the 2 essay -0.040 0.107 -0.060 -0.372 0.712
rd
Improvements in the 3 essay -0.021 0.093 -0.035 -0.222 0.826
th
th
2 2
R= .197 R = .039 Adjusted R = -.076 F=0.339 p=0.886
Dependent variable: students’ attitude
4. Discussion and Conclusions

This study discusses the issue of the effect of the use of the AWE program on Taiwanese college student writing skills.
Student writing improvements were assessed by both the Criterion and human raters. In addition, the present study also
tries to explore the relationship between student improvement assessed by the Criterion and student attitude toward the
program.
The first finding of the study showed that students significantly wrote longer for each essay in the Criterion, and they
also got higher machine scores. One possible explanation for this result is that editing and revising in Criterion is so
convenient that students could make changes in their writing easily. If this is the case, then this study is in accord with
the results of the previous studies (e.g. LinHuang, 2010; Warschauer & Grimes, 2008; Williamson & Pence, 1989)
which confirmed that the feature of word processing was beneficial to writing. Another possible explanation is that
writing for the machine might be like a computer game for some students. The recursive process of writing, submitting,
getting instant scores and feedback, revising, resubmitting, and getting scores again is similar to a series of actions or
instructions that the player must take or follow in order to find the hidden treasure in a computer game. Thus, students
might be motivated to continually revise their drafts based on the machine advice in the hope that they could eventually
get the prize - the highest score on a computer. The third possible explanation rests in the fact that the AWE programs
rewarded essay length, which has been widely reported by the previous studies (e.g. Chen & Cheng, 2008; Grimes,
2008). After sending their drafts several times, students might have learned that if they wanted to get a higher machine
score, they would have to write longer. Consequently, students might put more emphasis on the length of their essays in
order to get a better score.
The second finding of the study indicated that students had significant improvement in their post-essays assessed by
human raters, which confirmed that student writing skills were enhanced at the end of the semester. This finding is quite
encouraging, but it should be interpreted cautiously. Possibly, the uses of the Criterion and the frequent writing practice
may have contributed to students’ improvement. In this study, each student was requested to submit 15 drafts and the
Criterion evaluated a total of 735 submissions, which would be extremely difficult for a teacher to accomplish in one
IJALEL 2 (1):6-12, 2013 11
semester. However, since the participants of this study were English majors, they were taking other English-related
courses and probably had been working on other writing assignments while the study was conducted. Therefore, it
would be arbitrary to declare that the improvement of student writing was exclusively due to the use of Criterion.
The third finding of this study was that there was no significant relationship between the machine score and student
attitude toward the program. In fact, except the first essay showing positive correlation, the correlation among other
essays decreased considerably, which might indicate the longer students tried the Criterion program, the more they felt
the program was not useful. It is unclear, however, why students had such a negative evaluation.
The findings of this study lead to a number of implications. First, an AWE program is a good tool to motivate students
to devote to the recursive process of drafting and revising. However, since the machine might not really understand the
content of an essay, teachers had better randomly check student writing samples and provide consultation with
individual student to clarify the vague or even incorrect machine messages (if there are any). Next, considering the
machine might value a wordy but meaningless essay, teachers need to remind students about this drawback of the AWE
program. Teachers should also encourage students to regard the quality of their essay more highly than the quantity of
words or the machine scores. Furthermore, in the beginning of the class, teachers could show their own positive attitude
toward the machine and patiently demonstrate various functions of the program to increase student confidence in the
ability of the program, although it is also important to warn students not to blindly trust the machine scoring. Finally,
according to Grimes (2008), “if AWE is used persistently and indiscriminately without a competent teacher or mentor
and without authentic human audiences, then it is possible that students’ beliefs about the social nature of writing may
be distorted, as critics have feared (p.197).” Writing teachers who plan to incorporate an AWE program into the
curriculum need to consider the importance of meaningful communication between the writer and the real reader.
Future studies might display strategies for teachers to integrate the activity of peer feedback for revision with the
application of AWE programs, which will help to mediate the limitations of the use of the AWE in the classroom
setting.
Acknowledgements
Part of this paper was presented in the 2011 Symposium on Second Language Writing. National Taiwan Normal
University. June 9-11, 2011. Taipei, Taiwan. The author would like to express her gratitude to the audience for their
valuable advice.
References
Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching by Principles. Addison Wesley Longman.
Chen, C. F. E., & Cheng, W. Y. E. (2008). Beyond the design of automated writing evaluation: Pedagogical practices
and perceived learning effectiveness in EFL writing classes. Language Learning & Teaching, 12 (2), 94-112.
Chen, H. J. (2006). Examining the scoring mechanism and feedback quality of My Access. Proceedings of Tamkang
University Conference on Second Language Writing. Tamkang University, Taipei.
Chen, H. J., Chiu, T. L., & Liao, P. (2009). Analyzing the grammar feedback of two automated writing evaluation
systems: My Access and Criterion. English Teaching and Learning, 33 (2), 1-43.
Cheng, W. Y. (2006). The Use of a Web-based Writing Program in College English Writing Classes in Taiwan— A Case
Study of MyAccess. Unpublished Master’s thesis. National Kaohsiung First University of Science and Technology,
Taiwan.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum
Associates.
Creswell, J. W. (1994). Research design. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Dikli, S. (2006). An overview of automated scoring of essays. The Journal of Technology, Learning, and Assessment, 5
(1), 1-36. Retrieved from http://escholarship.bc.edu/ojs/index.php/jtla/article/view/1640
Elbow, P. (1973).Writing without Teachers. New York: Oxford University Press.
Flinn, J. (1986). The role of instruction in revising with computers: Forming a construct for good writing (ED
274963).
Frost, K. L. (2008). The effects of automated essay scoring as a high school classroom intervention. Unpublished
Doctoral dissertation. University of Nevada, Las Vegas, USA.
Grimes, D. C. (2008). Middle school use of automated writing evaluation: A multi-site case study. Unpublished
Doctoral dissertation. University of California, Irvine, USA.
Grimes, D. C., & Warschauer, M. (2006). Automated essay scoring in the classroom. American Educational Research
Association (AERA) Annual Conference, San Francisco, CA, USA.
LinHuang, S. H. (2010).The exploitation of e-writing in an EFL classroom: Potential and challenges. Unpublished
Master’s thesis. I-Shou University, Taiwan.
IJALEL 2 (1):6-12, 2013 12
McCurry, D. (2010). Can machine scoring deal with broad and open writing tests as well as human readers? Assessing
Writing, 15, 118-129. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2010.04.002
Moseley, M. H. (2006).Creating recursive writers in middle school: the effect of a writing program on student revision
practices. Unpublished Doctoral dissertation. Capella University, USA.
National Commission on Writing (2003). The Neglected “R”: The Need for a Writing Revolution. New York, NY,
College Entrance Examination Board.
Otoshi, J. (2005). An analysis of the use of Criterion in a writing classroom in Japan. The JALT CALL Journal, 1(1), 30-
38.
Phillips, S. M. (2007). Automated essay scoring: A literature review. TASA Institute, Society for the Advancement of
Excellent in Education, 1-70.
Taylor, J. (1996). Computers: Tools of oppression, tools of liberation. A paper presented at the annual meeting of the
Conference on College Composition and Communication, Milwaukee (ED 434350).
Tsai, P. Y. (2010). Students’ biggest writing problem- they never write! Retrieved from
http://mag.udn.com/mag/campus/storypage.jsp?f_MAIN_ID=13&f_SUB_ID=1259&f_ART_ID=290730
Wang, Y. J. (2011). Exploring the effect of using automated writing evaluation in Taiwanese EFL students’ writing.
Unpublished Master’s thesis. I-Shou University, Taiwan.
Wang, J., & Brown, M. S. (2007). Automated essay scoring versus human scoring: A comparative study. The Journal
of Technology, Learning, and Assessment, 6(2), 1-28.
Warschauer, M., & Grimes, D. C. (2008). Automated writing assessment in the classroom. Pedagogies, 3, 22-36.
Williamson, M. M., & Pence, P. (1989). Word processing and student writers. In B. K. Britton & S. M. Glynn (Eds.)
(1989). Computer writing environments: Theory, research, and design. (pp.93-127). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Yang, N. D. (2004). Using My Access in EFL writing. Proceedings of the 2004 International Conference and
Workshop on TEFL & Applied Linguistics (pp. 550-564). Taipei, Taiwan: Ming Chuan University.
Yu, Y. T., & Yeh, Y. L. (2003). Computerized feedback and bilingual concordance for EFL college students’
writing. Proceedings of the 2003 International Conference on English Teaching and Learning in the Republic of
China (pp. 35-48). Taipei, Taiwan: Crane.
Zamel, V. (1982).Writing: the process of discovering meaning. TESOL Quarterly, 16, 195-209.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3586792
Teachers’ Perceptions of Using Technology in Teaching EFL

Fatemeh Mollaei
Islamic Azad University, Shiraz Branch, Shiraz, Iran
Mohammad Javad Riasati

Department of Foreign Languages, Shiraz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shiraz, Iran
E-mail: mjriasati2002@yahoo.com

Abstract
No longer are students’ experiences with new languages limited to their textbooks or immediate environment. With the
pervasiveness of the internet and the increased awareness of the importance of having technology in a classroom, both
teachers and students all over the world are being provided with technological tools that will further accelerate their
ability to acquire or teach a second or foreign language. Technology integration in the classroom has become an
important aspect of successful teaching. It has triggered many researchers to investigate different aspects of such
integration. In addition, it could be an effective teaching tool when used to engage all students in the learning process.
The results of the study show that teachers have positive attitudes toward the use of technology, particularly computer.
The focal point of the project was to promote students’ communicative competence and autonomy via the
implementation of technological tools. This study aimed at investigating the perceptions of EFL teachers about the use
of technology in their classes and factors affecting technology implementation in Iranian Language Institutes.
Descriptive statistics and sample t-test were used to analyze the questionnaire data. Results obtained from both the
quantitative and qualitative data revealed teachers’ perceptions about integrating technology in their classes, incentives
for teachers who use technology, types of technology used, facilitating and inhibiting factors affecting technology
implementation, and the different attitudes of male and female teachers toward using technology. According to the
results, teachers had positive attitudes regarding the use of technology, in particular computer, in their classrooms.
Keywords: Technology, computer, EFL teachers
1. Introduction
In recent years, the rapid evolution of information and communication technology (ICT) has made great changes in
societies and education. Technology not only gives learners the opportunity to control their own learning process, but
also provides them with ready access to a vast amount of information over which the teacher has no power or control
(Lam & Lawrence, 2002).
According to Atkins and Vasu (2000), teachers’ attitudes or concerns have a significant influence on the use of
computers in the classroom. Lam (2000) also emphasizes that teachers’ personal beliefs of the advantages of using
technology for language teaching influence teachers’ decision regarding technology use. Similarly, Kim (2002) points
out that critical factors affecting successful integration of technology into the classroom are associated with teachers
themselves, such as teachers’ perceptions and attitudes. She adds that teachers’ perceptions and attitudes toward
teaching and technology can be regarded as a facilitating or inhibiting factor, giving them more confidence or a major
barrier of technology use. Redmond, Albion and Maroulis (2005) also reported that teachers’ personal backgrounds
such as personal confidence, interests in using ICT and willingness to try something different are significant factors that
might promote ICT integration in the classroom. However, Egbert, Paulus and Nakamichi (2002) assert that a positive
attitude toward computer technology does not guarantee that teachers will be able to use the technology in the
classroom. Kim (2002) found that teachers’ actual use of Web-based lessons was limited, frequently delayed, avoided
or withdrawn. They encountered some unexpected difficulties or barriers due to lack of sufficient knowledge and
computer skills, lack of experience, insufficient time, computer anxiety and lack of confidence, although all participants
in her study had positive attitudes toward the use of technology and strong intrinsic motivation such as personal
curiosity and interest. The most common reasons for not using computers included limited class hours, inconvenience
of using computer facilities and technical problems such as slow Internet connections. In addition, they had problems
related to integrating authentic materials into their textbooks. Learners are expected to be active participants in the
learning process rather than passive recipients since they control their own learning in a technology-enhanced learning
environment (Brown, 1991).
Teachers encounter new demands of those learners in integrating new technologies into the second/foreign language
classroom. They also look for better ways of providing students with linguistic skills, meaningful communication and
culture. In the technology-enhanced environment, learners could manage their own learning process by gathering
information and negotiating meaning themselves. The classroom became more learner-centered, that is, learners were
IJALEL 2 (1):13-22, 2013 14
able to make their decisions and became responsible for their work more independently. The teacher, on the other hand,
became a “facilitator, a resource person and a counselor rather than the only authority and decision-maker” (p. 305).
Bancheri (2006) asserts that teachers’ role in the new era of technology is not only to transmit new knowledge, but to
give students tools to acquire knowledge and recognize the value of what they see in books and software as well as on
the Internet. In addition, Jeong (2006) emphasizes that the role of teachers in EFL settings is more crucial than ever
before because teachers are able to motivate students and try to create language learning environments which are
nonthreatening, meaningful and affectively supportive by using Web technology. If language teachers have a variety of
positive teaching and learning experiences in using computers, they are likely to be more confident and skillful in
implementing CALL (Computer-Assisted Language Learning) in their own classrooms. Therefore, teacher development
programs should be provided for language teachers to deal with issues of using computers (Jung, 2001; Lee & Son,
2006; Son, 2002, 2004; Suh, 2004) and gain competent skills in managing computer-based tasks and activities in the
classroom (Johnson, 2002; Oh & French, 2007). As CALL can be enriched by teachers, teachers’ views on CALL
implementation are crucial. Considering that CALL activities should be integrated into the existing curriculum
according to learners’ levels of language and computer literacy, teachers need to explore the full potential of CALL
programs and utilize them creatively in the classroom.
The research questions of the present study are as the followings:
1. How do experienced teachers perceive learning through technology?
2. How do teachers view the use of technology in enhancing language teaching and learning?
3. Can computer-oriented technology contribute to students’ language learning?
4. Is there any difference in using technology by male and female teachers?
5. What is teachers’ attitude toward technology implementation in EFL classes?
2. Review of Related Studies
Research into the impact of learning technologies on the quality of students’ learning outcomes is limited and outdated
according to Honey, Culp and Carrigg (2000). A limiting factor has been the difficulty of defining and measuring
enhanced learning outcomes attributable specifically to the use of learning technologies (Mitchell & Bluer, 1997).
Recent research has avoided this difficulty and focused on investigating the requirements for successful integration of
learning technologies into classrooms. The research is beginning to show that success requires understanding the
complex interactions in classrooms between teachers, students and technology (Honey, Culp & Carrigg, 2000). This
understanding is currently incomplete. Parr (1999) studied students’ perceptions of learning contexts that incorporated
learning technologies. Students’ perceptions were found to influence the success of integration, specifically the amount
of technology use, the ways in which the technology was used, and teachers’ and students’ expectations about learning.
Teachers’ perceptions of learning technologies and influence on students’ perceptions have not been studied recently.
To further understanding, our study investigated experienced teachers’ perceptions of learning technologies. The
research also considered the likely impact of teachers’ perceptions on students’ perceptions and, consequently, on the
integration of learning technologies into classrooms.
The research into teachers' and students' perceptions of teaching and learning contexts established a series of systematic
associations linking teachers’ perceptions and approaches with students' perceptions, learning approaches and outcomes
(Biggs, 1999; Marton & Booth, 1997; Prosser & Trigwell, 1999). An explanation of these associations is important to
understand the significance of investigating teachers' perceptions of learning technologies.
Teachers conceptualize and approach teaching in a limited number of qualitatively different but related ways. Broadly,
teachers who perceive learning as the accumulation of information are more likely to view teaching as the transfer of
information. Such teachers are more likely to use a teacher-centered approach where the teacher imparts information to
students and uses assessment techniques which encourage and test rote learning. In contrast, teachers who view learning
as conceptual change are more likely to view teaching as facilitating conceptual change. Such teachers are more likely
to use a student-centered teaching approach where independence in learning is encouraged through discussion, debate
and questioning among students, and assessment which reveals conceptual change (Prosser & Trigwell, 1999).
Students' approaches to learning are related to their teachers' approaches to teaching (Trigwell, Prosser & Waterhouse,
1999). Teachers who describe using a conceptual change/student focused teaching approach are more likely to be
teaching students who report using a deep approach to learning. Deep learning approaches have an intention to seek
meaning in learning situations through linking aspects of the content. With a deep learning approach there is the
possibility of the conceptual change and deeper understanding which is assumed in this paper to constitute an enhanced
learning outcome (Cope, 2000; Marton & Booth, 1997). Indeed, in many empirical studies deep learning approaches
have been found to be strongly associated with conceptual change learning outcomes (e.g., Marton & Säljö, 1976;
Prosser & Millar, 1989). In contrast, teachers who describe using an information transfer/teacher-centered teaching
approach are more likely to be teaching students who report using surface learning approaches. Surface learning
approaches focus on memorizing aspects of the content in isolation with the intention of recalling the content in
assessment situations. There is little intention to seek meaning in the content, and little likelihood of significant
conceptual change (Ramsden, 1988).
An explanation of the association between teacher and student approaches has been proposed and supported empirically
by Prosser & Trigwell (1999). The learning context provided by a teacher is the practical implementation of the
teacher’s perceptions of learning and teaching, and approach to teaching. Students have been found to vary their
IJALEL 2 (1):13-22, 2013 15
learning approach in response to certain factors they perceive in the learning context. Students using deep learning
approaches are more likely to value independence in learning, good teaching and clear learning goals, factors consistent
with a student-centered teaching approach. Students using surface learning approaches are more likely to have different
values, and, consequently different perceptions.
So how do teachers perceive learning technologies? In the past decade, the nature of learning technologies has changed,
with text-based, locally-networked, computer-assisted instructional software being replaced by graphics-rich, globally-
networked computer environments, which makes earlier studies less helpful (Honey, Culp & Carrigg, 2000).
Professional development programs have been targeted at keeping experienced teachers’ knowledge current. Research
indicates, however, that brief-exposure programs about technology made available to experienced teachers have been
unsuccessful.
Liu, Theodore and Lavelle (2004) insist that teachers’ attitudes or concerns about technology can influence successful
technology integration. This is in line with the argument put forward by Atkins and Vasu (2000), who argued that
teachers’ technology use and knowledge are significantly related to their confidence level. Similarly, Lam (2000) notes
that teacher confidence is influential because a lack of confidence can hinder teachers’ use of technology in the
classroom. Rakes and Casey (2000) also stated that teachers must be comfortable with technology and have positive
attitudes toward technology integration to improve students’ achievement. They added that teachers’ concerns on
technology use need to be considered because they affect teachers’ behavior. This implies that teachers’ personal comfort
with technology is essential for the successful integration of technology. Several researchers (e.g., Egbert, Paulus &
Nakamichi, 2002; Lam, 2000; Oh & French, 2007; Yildirim, 2000) found that, as a result of teacher training programs,
teachers improved their capabilities with computers, gained confidence with technology and expressed the view that
teacher development programs influenced their attitudes toward technology positively. Egbert, Paulus and Nakamichi
(2002) discovered that teachers who had previous experience with technology use were more likely to use CALL
activities in the classroom. They added that peers and colleagues are the most common resource of finding out about new
CALL activities. The results of their study indicate that teachers are likely to learn best by observing fellow teachers’
class and teaching methods used in actual classrooms, trying out new techniques, getting feedback on their teaching and
talking to colleagues and fellow teachers. With similar views of teacher education, Jung (2001) claims that school-based,
workshop style technology training programs should be introduced, where well-trained colleagues help less skillful
teachers use technology in their classrooms and tutor each other on a one-on-one basis. Interestingly, a study conducted
by Bax (2003) indicates that many people have excessive beliefs on computer technology in language learning. In other
words, they tend to think that CALL should do everything and replace current teaching tools such as dictionaries and
even the teacher. This leads to a misguided assumption that the mere existence of computer technology in classes was the
only relevant factor in achieving successful implementation of CALL, while all other crucial factors such as teacher
training, pedagogical support and ways of CALL integration had been neglected. To avoid the mistaken idea, which is an
obstacle influencing the implementation of CALL (Bax, 2003), it is important to note that CALL practitioners should
take into account various elements, including teachers’ perspectives of and attitudes toward the use of technology, for
achieving the successful implementation of CALL.
A number of studies (e.g., Atkins & Vasu, 2000; Egbert, Paulus & Nakamichi, 2002; Jung, 2001; Kim, 2002; Lam,
2000; Lee & Son, 2006; Shin & Son, 2007; Suh, 2004; Yildirim, 2000) indicate that factors such as teacher training and
computer facilities, teachers’ attitudes toward computers and prior teaching experiences with ICT are strongly related to
the success or failure of CALL in the classroom. They also point out external or environmental factors (e.g., financial
problems, strict curriculum) and teacher-related factors (e.g., pedagogical, affective or other personal attitudes and
beliefs). Specifically, financial problems, insufficient materials and time, lack of technical support and inflexibility of
curriculum are mentioned as common external barriers affecting CALL practices. A report on American public
teachers’ use of technology (Smerdon, Cronen, Lanahan, Anderson, Iannotti & Angeles, 2000) also reveals that
insufficient numbers of computers and lack of time for teachers to learn how to use computers or the Internet are great
barriers to their use of computers for instruction.
Atkins and Vasu (2000) regard teachers as one of the most important factors influencing technology use and argue that
teachers’ attitudes or concerns have a significant impact on the integration of the computer into the classroom. Kim
(2002) also agrees that a teacher as an individual with complex internal variables is a key element affecting the use of
the computer in the classroom. These studies suggest that teachers who have basic computer competencies are more
confident in using computers and are more likely to integrate computers into their teaching than those who have not.
3. Methodology
3.1 Participants
A total number of 40 undergraduate and graduate EFL teachers participated in the study. All teachers were working in
English language institutes in Shiraz, Iran. Of the forty participants, 20 were male teachers and 20 were female teachers.
Their teaching experience ranged between 4 to 10 years. Furthermore, seven participants were asked to take part in the
interview.
3.2 Instrumentation
As using quantitative data collection methodology does not always give a true picture of technology integration in EFL
classrooms, we decided to use a mixed-methodology. First, a 30-item questionnaire, designed to elicit teachers’
perceptions of the use of technology in language classrooms, was distributed among the teachers. They were asked to rate
statements based on their level of agreement or disagreement to indicate their perceptions and attitudes toward technology
IJALEL 2 (1):13-22, 2013 16
implementation. Cronbach alpha was used to determine the reliability of questionnaire and it was 0.81. The questionnaire
was on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 5 (strongly agree) to 1 (strongly disagree).
Later, focus group interviews were conducted with seven teachers. Each interview lasted for around 15 minutes.
Qualitative methodology aimed at eliciting information about male and female teachers’ perspectives on technology
implementation, in particular computer in their own teaching contexts. During the interviews, the following questions
were asked:
1. What do you think of using technology in teaching of EFL?
2. What types of technologies do you prefer to use in your classroom?
3. What types of technologies you think appropriate for using in EFL classes (especially in our country)?
4. What are the benefits to teacher’s uses of technology in EFL classes?
5. What are barriers to teacher’s uses of technology in EFL classes?
6. What factors do you think affect your use of technology, especially computer?
3.3 Data Analysis
The data obtained from the questionnaires were subjected to SPSS. First, descriptive statistics were run. Then, t-test was
administered in order to determine the probable differences between male and female teachers’ responses. The interview
data were also analyzed to see how they supplement the quantitative data.
4. Results and Discussion
4.1 Data from questionnaires
The following section presents the findings emerging from the questionnaires according to the research questions.
Sample t-test was used to compare the mean between male and female teachers’ perception toward technology
integration in their classes with intervening mean (3).
To answer the first research question as “How do experienced teachers perceive learning through technology?” the
statements mentioned in Table 1 were provided to both groups of participants. Results indicated that the mean among
male and female teachers was higher than mean (3) and it was significant at the level of significance equal to 0.001
(P<0.001). Thus, teachers had higher perceptions toward technology integration in their classes. (see Table 1.1). This
meant that most teachers were willing to use technology in their classes and used it more creatively. The highest mean
scores were obtained for items related to acquiring language, students’ interactions, academic achievement and grades
improvement, making language learning interesting, students’ motivation increases, and activating learning during
language classes.
Table 1. Mean and Standard Deviation of Teachers’ Perceptions toward Technology Integration
Variables Mean SD
Using technology helps students acquire languages. 4.53 0.60
Students can interact and communicate differently with the help of technology. 4.15 0.48
Technology assists students in improving academic achievement and grades. 4.25 0.54
Technology assists in making language learning interesting and enjoyable. 4.64 0.57
Students’ motivation increases as a result of using technology in teaching. 4.22 0.73
Technology assists in activating learning during language classes. 4.15 0.62
Table 1.1. Teachers’ Perceptions toward Technology Integration

N M SD t df P
40 4.32 0.37 22.43 39 0.001
Regarding the response of the second question “How do teachers view the use of technology in enhancing language
teaching and learning?”, the statements mentioned in table 2 were given to the participant. According to the results the
mean of female and male teachers’ views of using technology in enhancing EFL learning was higher than mean (3) and
it was significant at the level of significance 0.001 (P<0.001). Hence, both groups had positive attitudes toward using
technology to enhance language and teaching learning. (Table 2.1)
A similar conclusion was made by Yang & Huang (2008) who found that teachers used technology mainly to prepare
their teaching activities and did not pay much attention to the utilization of technology in promoting crucial
instructional activities. ChanLin, et al. (2006), however, argued that teachers used technology to prepare tests, activities
and handouts because they wanted their teaching to be diverse and creative. They also argued that a computer might be
employed as a self-monitoring instrument to encourage students to make more creative efforts.
IJALEL 2 (1):13-22, 2013 17
Table 2. Mean and Standard Deviation of Teachers’ Views of Using Technology in Enhancing EFL Learning
Variables Mean SD
Technology helps students improve their language skills and knowledge. 4.22 0.73
Technology helps in integrating different language activities. 4.08 0.92
Technology helps students meet different needs in the classroom. 3.78 0.80
Technology assists in abandoning the traditional approaches and developing more 4 0.99
interactive ways in teaching and learning languages.
Technology plays a great role in learning the different language skills. 4 0.85
Technology provides students with tools for using electronic pronunciation dictionaries. 4.33 0.73
Technology helps students understand academic subjects better. 3.75 0.71
Technology assists in developing electronic exams and making them in the same way. 4 0.75
Students become more independent learners as a result of technology. 3.45 1.13
Using technology in the classroom has many benefits to teachers and students alike. 4.03 1.05
Table 2.1. Teachers’ views of using technology in enhancing EFL learning

N M SD t df P
40 3.96 0.45 13.46 39 0.001
In order to answer question 3 “Can computer-oriented technology contribute to students’ language learning?”, the
statements mentioned in Table 3 were presented to the participants. Results showed that both groups agreed on using
computer-oriented technology as it contributes to students’ learning. Obviously, the mean of computer-oriented
technology contribution to language learning variable between both groups was higher than mean (3) and it was
significant at the level of significance 0.001 (P<0.001). Therefore, teachers had a positive attitude toward computer-
oriented technology in language learning. (Table 3.1.)
Computers have changed the way that many teachers approach teaching. Teachers are now able to use computers to
demonstrate dynamic processes in real time such as providing students with simulations of how gases behave at
different temperatures in science classes (Hurwitz, 1999) or showing videos and movie clips of significant historical
events, all of which allow the teacher to provoke deeper thought processes. Several older digital natives who have used
computers, both in and out of the classroom, over the past two decades would recognize, as well as welcome, the
necessity for an informal and critical approach to the use of computers in education (Loveless, 1999). Despite the
enormous headway that computer technology has made, there is still a common misconception that computers and the
Internet are the only useful technologies for the field of education (Lyle, 2009). However, education technology is
actually spread throughout a broad spectrum of different technologies including, but not limited to, those used in
“design, making, problem-solving, technological systems, resources and materials, criteria and constraints, processes,
controls, optimization and trade-offs, invention, and many other aspects dealing with human innovation” (Lyle, 2009,
35).
Table 3. Mean and Standard Deviation of Computer-Oriented Technology Contribution to Language Learning
Variables Mean SD
Computer technologies provide non-native speakers of English rich learning 4.35 0.66
environment. They can practice the activities as many times as they wish.
Teacher’s role is quite different in a computer-oriented learning environment 3.80 1.14
compared to traditional teacher-centered lesson.
Students’ attention is distracted by digitized sound and they don’t concentrate on 2.53 0.99
studying.
Students are more engaged in learning due to technology. 3.95 0.90
The interaction between students and the computer is one-sided, so the students just 2.85 0.95
watch and listen to the sounds.
Many students complain about the tiredness of their eyes and necks after using 3.45 0.93
computer.
Teachers’ excessive dependence on the computer technology may result in 2.98 1.23
insufficient preparation of teaching materials.
The computer facilities in my school are very old and not in good condition. 3.90 1.03
Insufficient facilities discourage teachers from using technology. 4.25 0.72
Parents and students expect that all teachers have to be professionals in special fields 3.40 0.98
of study and be computer specialists as well.
The textbooks are not developed for computer-assisted language learning. On the 3.63 1.03
contrary, there are many activities based on traditional learning.
All language teachers need their own language lab, which is equipped with 3.68 1.4
computers, multimedia facilities, a projection TV and a big screen.
Administrators should keep all computer facilities up-graded and maintained well. 4.60 0.63
As a teacher, we need to learn how computers can be used appropriately in our 4.58 0.55
specific EFL classrooms and how they can be integrated into the current curriculum
effectively.
IJALEL 2 (1):13-22, 2013 18
Table 3.1. Computer-Oriented Technology Contribution to Language Learning
N M SD t df P
40 3.71 0.32 13.86 39 0.001
Concerning question 4 of the study, namely “Is there any difference in using technology by male and female teachers?” all
the afore-mentioned statements were given to both male and female teachers. Based on the results in Table 4 and due to
the variable of technology implementation in EFL classes, both male and female teachers had positive and meaningful
attitudes. They thought that technology helps students to learn and integrate different language skills, develop more
interactive ways in teaching and learning languages, and understand academic subjects better. The results demonstrated
that both groups’ attitude toward technology implementation in EFL classes was higher than mean (3) and it was
significant at the level of significance 0.05 (P>0.05). (Table 4)
Table 4. Total Attitudes of Male and Female Teachers toward Technology Implementation
groups N M SD t df P
male 18 3.97 0.28 1.27 38 0.21
female 22 3.89 0.26
Teachers who reportedly value the integration of technology change their teaching in order to better incorporate
technology approaches (Cox et al., 1999). Software availability and teacher willingness to use the software can have
positive effects on the teachers’ attitudes towards the adoption of technology in the classroom (Sepehr & Harris, 1995).
Interactive venues and discussion boards can help teachers to learn with technology instead of merely using the
technology to teach (Coniam, 2002; Ducate & Arnold, 2006). Additionally, teachers who report a strong commitment to
teaching as well as their own professional development have been found to integrate technology tools more readily
(Hadley & Sheingold, 1993; Becker et al., 1999).
Table 5. Sample t-test for comparing the mean between male and female teachers’ perception toward technology
integration in language learning with intervening mean (3)
Groups N M SD t df P
Male 18 4.35 0.40 0.47 38 0.63
Female 22 4.29 0.38
Male 18 4.05 0.41 1.20 38 0.24
Female 22 3.88 0.48
Male 18 3.76 0.34 0.89 38 0.39
Female 22 3.67 0.31
Gender differences in teachers’ attitude towards using technology in language learning environment are almost absent
in the present study. Concerning gender differences in teachers’ attitude towards computer, Shapkaa & Ferrarib, (2003)
displayed some differences while others like Gressard and Loyd (1986), Woodrow (1992) did not display any
significant gender differences. However, results of other studies showed that female teachers manifested higher levels
of anxiety in their attitude towards computers more than male teachers (Sadik, 2005; Samak, 2006).
Regarding research question 5, “What is teachers’ attitude toward technology implementation in EFL classes?” the results,
as shown in Table 8, demonstrate that that both groups had a positive attitude toward technology implementation in EFL
classes and recognized the benefits of using computer in the language classroom. Technology implementation in EFL
classes was higher than mean (3) and it was significant at the level of significance 0.001 (P<0.001). (Table 8)
Table 8. Technology implementation in EFL classes

N M SD t df P
40 3.92 0.27 21.14 39 0.001
IJALEL 2 (1):13-22, 2013 19
4.2 Interview Data
Students all over the world are becoming more technologically savvy. Teachers and parents have caught on to the
students’ increased awareness and interest in technology and have turned to technology for more educational
instruction, subsequently increasing the demand for computers, video projectors, audio players, and other forms of
instructional equipment in classrooms. Teachers accepted the use of technology as an undeniable part of instruction.
Thus, integrating technology into language classrooms is inevitable. Most teachers stated that computer technologies
could positively contribute to the quality of teaching, mode of presentation, authentic contexts, learners’ motivation and
cross-cultural awareness. However, it is important to recognize that computers are not a substitute for effective
teaching. Computers are a tool - they are simply one type of supplement to the regular curriculum in teaching English
language learners as they develop their English language skills.
Both male and female teachers used different types of technology implementations in their classes including computers,
visual projectors and lab. They thought that technology facilitates learning and teaching, increases students’
participation and provides visual support for students. They described the effectiveness of technology implementation
and agreed that a learner-centered environment could be improved by using computers. They believed that computer-
oriented technology was an effective way of teaching a foreign language as it encouraged students to be active in their
learning. In a traditional teacher-centered lesson, a teacher is a source of knowledge, thus the lesson is likely to be
boring because the students just listen to their teachers. However, the teacher’s role is quite different in a computer-
oriented learning environment. He/she directs and coordinates students’ activities and help them organize and complete
tasks. Taken together, they preferred computer-assisted language learning in EFL classes. To them this type of
technology is more suitable in Iran’s EFL classes. Since the students and class will be under teacher control.
All teachers pointed out benefits of using technology, in particular computer, for language teaching process. They
believed that students provided with real and authentic language materials and resources might develop their language
skills and become more interested in learning materials. Some teachers referred to students’ induced motivation as a
benefit of computer-assisted instruction. They commented that the use of technology resulted in more interesting class
and increased students’ class participation.
The use of technology in foreign language learning also appears to influence the development of communicative skills.
In fact, computers can offer foreign language learners more than drills; “they can be a medium of real communication in
the target language, including composing and exchanging messages with other students in the classroom or around the
world” (Oxford, 1990, p. 79). They discussed that using technology may save class time, minimize teachers’ efforts,
attract students’ attention and make learning interesting.
On the other hand, teachers discussed that there were some barriers to teacher’s uses of technology in EFL classes
including inadequate teacher training; a lack of vision of technology’s potential for improving teaching and learning; a
lack of time to experiment; and inadequate technical support. Time and access are the two major factors which will
determine whether a teacher will plan for and use technology in their classroom lessons. The majority of responses,
descriptions, and information collected usually had a reference to either time or access or both. These findings are
consistent with findings from existing research which identifies time and access as critical factors in determining
whether teachers use technology in their instruction or not (Chin & Hortin, 1993; Denk, Martin & Sarangarm, 1993;
Schrum, 1995; Wang & Chan, 1995). It seemed important to me to break these issues down farther to try and
understand why these issues dominated the responses from the teachers.
Stallard (1998) states that teachers are reluctant to embrace technology because of its potential to shorten learning time
for students. Stallard contends that teachers face a number of potential interruptions during the typical hour-long class
and that, consequently, the actual time spent teaching and learning is shortened significantly. Hence, if the
implementation of computer technology involves a "potential interruption" to teaching and learning time, teachers may
avoid using the technology. Since time is short to begin with, many teachers are reluctant to "fiddle" with any type of
instructional technology if it is going to reduce learning time. Time, money, and training "were identified as key
barriers and constraints that keep faculty and staff from adopting technology as useful tools" (Diem et al., 2009).
The barriers inhibiting the practice of Computer-assisted Language Learning can be classified in the following common
categories (a) financial barriers, (b) availability of computer hardware and software, (c) technical and theoretical
knowledge, and (d) acceptance of the technology. Lidtke (cited in Madden, 1989) attribute the reluctance of teachers to
embrace computer technology to a number of factors that include: anxiety from dealing with equipment, a sense of loss
of control over the teaching situation, hardware and software availability, lack of technical support, time and effort for
training, remaining current in the field, and appropriately implementing the technology in the classroom.
Teachers’ responses indicated that different factors affect technology implementation in the classroom. They took
teachers’ lack of computer knowledge and skills as an influential factor into consideration. If a teacher does not know
how to use computer well in the classroom, he/she feels stress and uncomfortable in from of the class.
Some teachers mentioned a lack of facilities as another inhibiting factor. They complained that insufficient facilities
discourage them from using technology. Most computers are working slowly and need to be updated. Furthermore, they
mentioned that there were some other concerns about using technology such as unexpected technological problems,
instructional management problems, software and hardware out-of-date problems.
Despite the disadvantages that come with incorporating technology into ESL/EFL classrooms, it is essential to have
technology present. No longer are classrooms traditional in the sense that a student’s primary tools for success are the
IJALEL 2 (1):13-22, 2013 20
teacher, a notebook, and a pencil. Rather, classrooms are equipped or being equipped to deal with the increasing
demand of more resources from which an ESL/EFL student may acquire a second or foreign language. Given the
phenomenal leap that technology has made in terms of availability, accessibility, affordability, and abundance in the
past decade, and considering the speed in which the expansion of the English language has occurred since the nineteen
fifties, it is true to argue that the desire to learn English will not relent anytime soon. Therefore, educators and
institutions that teach English to ELLs must adapt to the changes and demands of their clients by providing a wider
variety of English language instruction and accessibility; all of which can be done through technology.
5. Conclusion
Technology in education is neither a novelty nor is it a fad. It is a part of the modern world, and is becoming more and
more ubiquitous in our lives every year. It is also a proven method for improving learning. Overall, high technology use
improves results in language classrooms. However, the teachers agree that using computers in the classroom cannot
completely ensure better quality of education. They tend to think that the quality of education depends exclusively on
the quality of teachers, not the use of technologies, and think that their positive attitude and continuous attempt to
introduce new technologies and teaching materials to the class guarantee effective language instruction. This confirms
that the roles of teachers are critical in structuring the learning process, organizing activities and evaluating materials in
the CALL classroom, as emphasized by many researchers.
Most teachers perceive that teachers’ readiness or enthusiasm for technology implementation helps students improve
language skills. They consider computer-assisted classrooms as learner-oriented learning environments where students’
self-directed and independent learning increases. In the new environments, students can be at the centre of learning -
they are responsible for their work, manage their learning by gathering information and control the pace of learning.
The teachers in this study are aware of their new roles as activity guides or facilitators, not all-powerful judges for the
learning process.
On the other hand, other teachers have a different point of view on teachers’ roles in the computer-assisted language
learning classroom. It appears that those teachers’ actual reactions to the new roles of teachers in learner-centered
environments created by the use of computers are not encouraging. They tend to believe that they should play dominant
roles and take a responsibility for controlling students’ progress and activities. It is assumed that these teachers might
not have sufficient theoretical and practical knowledge of computer-assisted language learning although they generally
accept the benefits of it. Also, the expectation that teachers should be experts in the use of computers is not fully
supported by the teachers, although they seem to be convinced that technology implementation makes language
learning interesting.
Since language is a dynamic process, the interactive environment supported by computer technology is an authentic
learning tool. Finally, this approach changes the teacher's role from the central source of authority to an informed guide
as each student takes more responsibility for problem-solving and learning. A better understanding of the process that
teachers go through to incorporate technology into their teaching will benefit not only other teachers, but also the
students who will be learning in those classrooms.
References
Almekhlafi, A. (2006). The effect of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) on United Arab Emirates EFL
school students’ achievement and attitude. Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 17(2), 121-142.
Atkins, N. E., & Vasu, E. S. (2000). Measuring knowledge of technology usage and stages of concern about computing:
A study of middle school teachers. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 8(4). 279-302.
Becker, H., Ravitz, J., & Wong, Y. (1999). Teacher and teacher-directed student use of computers and software.
Teaching, Learning, and Computing: 1998 National Survey. Report #3.
Bancheri, S. (2006). A language teacher's perspective on effective courseware. In Randall PD and Margaret AH (Eds).
Changing Language Education through CALL, (pp.31-47). New York: Routledge.
Bax, S. (2003). CALL-past, present and future. System, 31, 13-28.
Biggs, J. B. (1999). Teaching for quality learning at university: what the student does.Buckingham, UK: Open
University Press.
Brown, H. D. (1991). TESOL at twenty-five: What are the issues? TESOL Quarterly, 25, 245-260.
Carr-Chellman, A. A., & Dyer, D. (2000). The pain and the ecstasy: Pre-service teacher perceptions on changing
teacher roles and technology. Educational Technology and Society, 3(2).
ChanLin, L., Hong, J., Horng, J., Chang, S., & Chu, C. (2006). Factors influencing technology integration in teaching:
A Taiwanese perspective. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 43(1), 57–68.
Chin, S. & Hortin, J. (1993). Teachers' perceptions of instructional technology and staff development. Journal of
Educational Technology Systems, 22 (2), 83-98.
Coniam, D. (2002). Perceptions of a multimedia syllabus – making the demands of a performance test more accessible.
System, 31, 55–70.
IJALEL 2 (1):13-22, 2013 21
Cope, C. J. (2000). Educationally critical aspects of the experience of learning about the concept of an information
system. Unpublished dissertation, La Trobe Univ., Australia,
http://ironbark.bendigo.latrobe.edu.au/staff/cope/Chris.Cope.html.
Ducate, L., & Arnold, N. (2006). Calling on CALL: From theory and research to new directions in foreign language
teaching. San Marcos, TX: Computer Assisted Language Instruction Consortium.
Gobbo, C., & Girardi, M. (2001). Teachers‟ beliefs and integration of information and communications technology in
Italian schools. Journal of Information Technology for Teacher Education, 10 (1 & 2), 63–86.
Cox, M., Webb, M., Abbott, C., Blakeley, B., Beauchamp, T., & Rhodes, V. (1999). ICT and pedagogy: A review of the
literature. British Educational Communications and Technology Agency, Department for Education and Skills.
Crystal, D. (2005). English as a global language. United Kingdom: Cambridge.
Denk, J., Martin, J., & Sarangarm, S. (1993). Not yet comfortable in the classroom: A study of academic computing at
three land-grant universities. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 22 (1), 39-55.
Diem, K., Gamble, K., Hino, J., Martin, D., & Meisenbach, T. (2009). Assessing county Extension programs' readiness
to adopt technology; An OSU case study of two Oregon counties. Oregon: Author.
Egbert, J.L., Paulus, T. M., & Nakamichi, Y. (2002). The impact of CALL instruction on classroom computer use: A
foundation for rethinking technology in teacher education. Language Learning & Technology, 6, 108-126. Retrieved
May 17, 2008, from http://llt.msu.edu/vol6num3/egbert/
Gressard, C. P. & Loyd, B. H. (1986). Validation studies of a new computer attitude scale. Association for Educational
Data Systems Journal, 18(4), 295–301.
Hadley, M., & Sheingold, K. (1993). Commonalities and distinctive patterns in teachers‟ integration of computers.
American Journal of Education, 101, 261–315.
Honey, M., Culp, K. M., & Carrigg, F. (2000). Perspectives on technology and education research: lessons from the
past and present. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 23(1), 5-14.
Hurwitz, C. L. (1999). A teacher’s perspective on technology in the classroom: Computer visualization, concept maps
and learning logs. Journal of Education, 181, 123. Available from EBSCOhost.
Jeong, K.-O. (2006). Promoting communicative language teaching in EFL context: An English writing course mediated
through the Web. English Language Teaching, 18(3), 47-68.
Johnson, E. M. (2002). The role of computer-supported discussion for language teacher education: What do the students
say? CALICO Journal, 20(1), 59-79.
Jung, Y. S. (2001). Toward an effective EFL teacher development program focusing on multimedia and the Internet.
English Teaching, 56(4), 141-162.
Lam,Y. (2000). Technophiliacs, technophobia: A preliminary look at why second-language teachers do or do not use
technology in their classrooms. Canadian Modem Language Review, 56(3), 389-420.
Lam, Y., & Lawrence, G. (2002). Teacher-student role redefinition during a computer-based second language project:
Are computers catalysts for empowering change? Computer Assisted Language Learning, 15(3), 295-315.
Lee, S., & Son, J.-M. (2006). The use of ICT in Korean middle school English classrooms: Practices and challenges.
English Language Teaching, 18(1), 49-73.
Liu, Y., Theodore, P., & Lavelle, E. (2004). Experimental effects of online instruction on teachers’ concerns about
technology integration. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning, 1(1), Retrieved
October 17, 2008, from http://www.itdl.org/journal/Jan_04/article03.htm
Loveless, A. (1999). Perception versus use: Technology in education. Convergence, 5(4), 126-128. Retrieved from
http://con.sagepub.com/content/5/4/126.citation
Lyle, K. E. (2009). Teacher perceptions of their technology education curricula. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved
from http://gradworks.umi.com/33/85/3385448.html. (UMI Number: 3385448).
Kim, H. (2002). Teachers as a barrier to technology-integrated language teaching. English Teaching, 57(2), 35-64.
Marra, R. M., & Carr-Chellman, A. A. (1999). Undergraduate education students’ perspectives on classroom
technologies: A qualitative analysis. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 21(3), 282-303.
Marton, F., & Booth, S. (1997). Learning and Awareness. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Marton, F., & Säljö, R. (1976). On qualitative differences in learning. I. Outcome and process. British Journal of
Educational Psychology, 46, 4-11.
Mitchell, J., & Bluer, R. (1997). A Planning Model for Innovation: New Learning Technologies. Report of the Office
of Post Compulsory Education, Training and Employment, State Training Board, Victoria, Australia,
http://www.otfe.vic.gov.au/planning/model/
Oh, E., & French, R. (2007) Pre-service teachers’ perceptions of an introductory instructional technology course.
CALICO Journal, 24(2), 253-267.
IJALEL 2 (1):13-22, 2013 22
Parr, J. M. (1999). Going to school the technological way: Co-constructed classrooms and student perceptions of
learning with technology. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 20(4), 365-377.
Prosser, M., & Millar, R. (1989). The how and what of learning physics. European Journal of Psychology in
Education, 4, 513-528.
Prosser, M., & Trigwell, K. (1999). Understanding learning and teaching: the experience in higher education.
Philadelphia, PA: Society for Research into Higher Education & Open University Press.
Rakes, G. C., & Casey, H. B. (2000). An analysis of teacher concerns toward instructional technology. Retrieved May
17, 2008, from http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/IJET/v3n1/rakes/index.html
Ramsden, P. (1988). Studying learning: Improving teaching. In P. Ramsden (Ed.), Improvinglearning. New
Perspectives (pp. 13-31). London: Kogan Page.
Redmond, P., Albion, P. R., & Maroulis, J. (2005, March). Intentions and Reality: Pre-service teachers’ ICT
Integration during Professional Experience. Paper presented at the 16th International Conference of the Society for
Information Technology & Teacher Education (SITE 2005), Phoenix, USA.
Sadik, A. (2005). Factors influencing teachers’ attitudes towards personal use and schools use of computers: New
evidence from a developing nation. Evaluation Review, 2(1), 1-29.
Samak, Z. A. (2006). An exploration of Jordanian English language teachers’ attitudes, skills, and access as indicator
of information and communication technology integration in Jordan (Unpublished doctoral thesis). Tallahassee: Florida
State University.
Schrum, L. (1999). Technology professional development. Educational Technology Research and Development, 47(4),
83-90.
Sepehr, H., & Harris, D. (1995). Teachers‟ use of software for pupils with specific learning difficulties. Journal of
Computer Assisted Learning, 11, 64–71.
Shin, H.-J., & Son, J.-B. (2007). EFL teachers' perceptions and perspectives on Internet-assisted language teaching.
CALL-EJ Online, 8(2). Retrieved July 17, 2008, from http://www.tell.is.ritsumei.ac.jp/callejonline/journal/8-2/h-js_j-
bs.html
Shapkaa, J. and Ferrarib, M. (2003) Computer-related attitudes and actions teacher candidates. Computers in Human
Behavior, 20(3), 319-334.
Smerdon, B., Cronen, S., Lanahan, L., Anderson, J., Iannoti, N., & Angeles, J. (2000). Teachers’ Tools for the 21st
Century: A Report on teachers’ Use of Technology. National Center for Education Statistics (NCEs) Publication
#2000102). Publication retrieved May 24, 2004 from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2000102.
Son, J.-B. (2002). Computers, learners and teachers: Teamwork in the CALL classroom. English Language Teaching,
14(2), 239-252.
Stallard, C. (1998) . Factors that influence the integration of technology into the secondary curriculum. [On-line].
Available: http://ed.info.apple.com/education/techlearn/adapt/adaptfactors.html.
Suh, S. (2004). Technology training and English language teacher education in Korea. Proceedings of CLaSIC 2004,
Singapore, 1040-1048.
Trigwell, K., Prosser, M., & Waterhouse, F. (1999). Relations between teachers’ approaches to teaching and students’
approaches to learning. Higher Education, 37, 57-70.
Wang, P. & Chan, P. (1995). Advantages, disadvantages, facilitators, and inhibitors of computer-aided instruction in
Singapore's secondary schools. Computers and Education, 25 (3), 151-162.
Woodrow, J. (1992). The influence of programming training on the computer literacy and attitudes of pre-service
teachers. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 25(2), 200-218.
Yang, S., & Huang, Y. (2008). A study of high school English teachers‟ behavior, concerns and beliefs in integrating
information technology into English instruction. Computers and Human Behavior, 24(3), 1085-1103.
Yildirim, S. (2000). Effects of an educational computing course on pre-service and in-service teachers: A discussion
and analysis of attitudes and use. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 32 (4), 479-495.
Input Processing and Processing Instruction: Definitions and Issues

Hossein Hashemnezhad
Department of Foreign Languages and Literature, Tabriz Branch, Isalamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran
Tel: 98-914-361-3985 E-mail: h_hashemnezhad2000@yahoo.com
Sanaz Khalili Zangalani (Corresponding author)

Department of Foreign Languages and Literature, Tabriz Branch, Isalamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran
Tel: 98-914-303-5952 E-mail: sanaz.mp@gmail.com

Abstract
Input Processing (IP) proposed by VanPatten (1993), was innovated based on Krashen’s (1982) input hypothesis. In IP
model, principles are stated that describe how learners either miss grammatical markers in the input or how they get
them wrong (VanPatten, 2002b). Based on this model, learners process input for meaning before form. Processing
Instruction (PI), an explicit focus on form that is informed by the model of IP, is a practical solution to IP model. The
goal of PI is to help L2 learners derive richer intake from input by having them engage in structured input activities that
push them away from the strategies they normally use to make form-meaning connections (Wong, 2004). This article
intends to study the definitions of IP and PI as well the issues of IP and PI, including the principles of IP, features and
goal of PI, and input used in PI (Structured input activities), and then to introduce difference between the terms IP and
PI.
Keywords: input processing, processing instruction, Structured Input activities.
1. Introduction
1.1 SLA Process
With no doubts, Second Language Acquisition (SLA) is a complex process. VanPatten (2004a) claims its complexity
for at least two reasons; first, it involves the acquisition of a complex implicit linguistic system consisting of lexical
entries and their features and forms, an abstract syntactic system, a phonological system, and rules on pragmatic use of
language, among other components related to language; in addition, acquisition cannot be reduced to a single process,
however, SLA is best conceived of as involving multiple processes that in turn may contain sub-processes that work at
every stage of acquisition.
One of the processes which involves in SLA is IP, the initial process by which learners connect grammatical forms with
their meanings as well as how they interpret the roles of nouns in relationship to verbs (VanPatten, 2004b). IP theory
captures a series of internal strategies which learners might use in comprehending sentences and how these strategies
might affect acquisition (VanPatten, 1996, 2004a).
1.2 SLA Process in IP and PI
During the last decades explicit grammar instruction has appeared to have beneficial effects on the processes, the
ultimate level, and the rate of SLA (e.g. Long, 1991; Sharwood Smith, 1993; Ellis, 1993). Within the last few years,
investigations have been made on the effects of one type of explicit grammar instruction which focuses on the learners’
processing strategies followed by input-based practice. The instruction named PI (VanPatten, 1996), has been widely
referenced in most input processing studies (VanPatten & Cadierno, 1993). Based on the theory of PI maintained by
VanPatten and Cadierno (1993) and VanPatten (1996), SLA occurs through a series of processes. In the first process,
learners drive intake from input. In the second process, PI assists the learners in making form-meaning connections and
it aims to improve the qualities of the input to increase the amount of input that becomes intake.
2. Definition of IP and Issues
The theory upon which IP is based maintains that IP is concerned with how learners initially perceive and process
linguistic data in the language they hear or read and with those psycholinguistic strategies and mechanisms by which
learners derive intake from input (VanPatten , 1996, 2004a). According to Sanz and VanPatten (1998), IP refers to “a
research domain about how learners make form-meaning connections as well as parse incoming sentences in the L2….It
is the application of psycholinguistic inquiry to comprehension and processing of second language sentences” (p. 50). IP
attends to explain the way learners get form from input and the way they assign grammatical roles to nouns during
comprehension while their primary attention is on meaning.
IJALEL 2 (1):23-27, 2013 24
2.1 Principles of IP
VanPatten’s (1996) model of IP addresses the specific issue of how intake is derived from input and which psychological
strategies the L2 learner tends to rely upon during input processing. As VanPatten (2003) asserts, IP consists of two sub-
processes: making form-meaning connections and parsing. Making form-meaning connections means getting the
connection between, for example, -s suffix and third person singular from the input. Principle 1 (the primacy of meaning
principle), Principle 2 (the availability of resources principle), Principle 3 (the first noun principle), and Principle 4 (the
sentence location principle) are principles which guide form-meaning connections. VanPatten (2003) defines parsing as
“mapping syntactic structures on to the utterance, for example, knowing which noun is the subject and which is object
when hearing a sentence” (p.29).
These strategies have been most recently summarized and modified in VanPatten (2004b,) in the form of two basic
principles and some sub-principles:
Principle 1. The Primacy of Meaning Principle. Learners process input for meaning before they process it for form.
Five sub-principles which fall under the general matter of the primacy of meaning principle are summarized as:
Principle 1a. The Primacy of Content Words Principle. Learners process content words in the input before anything else.
Principle 1b. The Lexical Preference Principle. Learners will tend to rely on lexical items as opposed to grammatical
form to get meaning when both encode the same semantic information.
Principle 1c. The Preference for Non-redundancy Principle. Learners are more likely to process non-redundant
meaningful grammatical form before they process redundant meaningful forms.
Principle 1d. The Meaning-Before-Non-meaning Principle. Learners are more likely to process meaningful grammatical
forms before non-meaningful forms irrespective of redundancy.
Principle 1e. The Availability of Resources Principle. For learners to process either redundant meaningful grammatical
forms or non-meaningful forms, the processing of overall sentential meaning must not drain available processing
resources.
Principle 1f. The Sentence Location Principle. Learners tend to process items in sentence initial position before those in
final position and those in medial position.
Principle 2. The First Noun Principle. Learners tend to process the first noun or pronoun they encounter in a sentence as
the subject/agent.
Three sub-principles, also, go under the second basic principle as:
Principle 2a. The Lexical Semantics Principle. Learners may rely on lexical semantics, where possible, instead of word
order to interpret sentences.
Principle 2b. The Event Probabilities Principle. Learners may rely on event probabilities, where possible, instead of
word order to interpret sentences.
Principle 2c. The Contextual Constraint Principle. Learners may rely less on the First Noun Principle if preceding
context constrains the possible interpretation of a clause or sentence.
The first basic principle and its sub-principles are related to the processing of morphological form, functional categories
such as articles, prepositions, etc. in the input, as well as dealing with the location of the sentence. The second basic
principle and its sub-principles are relevant to order.
3. Definition of PI and Issues
Sanz and VanPatten (1998) define PI as “a psycholinguistically motivated focus on form that is an adjunct to
communicative language teaching and/or to comprehension-based approaches” (p.50). According to Farley (2001),” PI [as
an explicit focus on form] makes a deliberate attempt to intervene in the acquisition process by giving the learners explicit
information concerning the target item, and activities containing structured input” (p. 289). Simply, it is a type of explicit
grammar teaching which draws on the principles of IP and aims to improve the quality of input received by the learners so
that the amount of input becoming intake will increase (Karacaer, 2003).
VanPatten (2002a) developed PI as a methodological approach to second language teaching which attempts to manipulate
input to push learners away from their natural but “non-optimal processing strategies” and make better “form-meaning
connections” ( p. 764). VanPatten (1990, cited in Benati, 2001) has argued that PI which helps learners to process
information via comprehension practice might be more effective than that which requires learners to produce language too
prematurely. It is thought to be more effective as it provides a more direct route for the learner to convert input to intake.
According to Buck (2006) PI is based on a model which presents three processes involved in language acquisition. The
first involves processing of the input and creation of intake, which consists of attention to form-meaning connections. In
the second process these form-meaning pairs are incorporated into the developing linguistic system. These data can then
be accessed for output in the third process. Buck (2006) believes that VanPatten’s (1996) model focuses on the first
process: the way input is processed. The mechanisms are conceptualized as consisting of a set of processes, illustrated in
the following Figure:
IJALEL 2 (1):23-27, 2013 25
I II III
input → intake → developing system → output
I = input processing
II = accommodation and restructuring
III = access and production procedures
Figure 1. A Model of the Processes in Second Language Acquisition (VanPatten, 1996)
In this model, the first set of processes that involves conversion of input into intake entails the principles of input
processing, through which the learner actually interacts with the available language input. Intake is defined here as input
that the learners pay attention to and from which form-meaning connections have been made (VanPatten, 1996). The
subsequent processing involves either partial or complete accommodation of data (intake) into learner’s developing
system. Depending on the nature of the data, accommodation may have an effect on the developing system such that some
kind of restructuring may occur. In his earlier work, VanPatten (1992, cited in Buck, 2006) referred to this set of
processes as belonging to the branch of SLA research called Universal Grammar. Since this second process entirely
involves processes within individuals’ minds, it is much more complex and harder to define or operationalize. Finally, the
third set of processes represents a learner’s ability to access the previously incorporated data in his or her developing
language system through producing output in the form of speaking and/or writing.
Although VanPatten (2002a) recently asserted that “output may play a number of important roles in language
development” (p. 762) and that, in fact, it plays a facilitative role in acquisition (VanPatten, 2004a), he did not agree with
the claim that “using a form in one’s output is a direct path to acquisition” (VanPatten, 2004a, p. 27) and suggested
instead, on the basis of current evidence, that acquisition does not appear to be dependent on output (VanPatten, 2004a).
VanPatten (1993, 1996, 2000) proposes that PI has an effect on changing L2 learners’ underlying developing system so as
to effect changes in their output, and that this effect cannot be achieved by any type of output-based instruction.
3.1 Basic Features of PI as an approach to SLA
Wong and VanPatten (2003, p.410) suggest three basic features for PI. These are as follows:
1) Learners are given information about a linguistic structure or form.
2) Learners are informed about a particular IP strategy that may negatively affect their picking up the form/structure
during comprehension.
3) Learners are pushed to process the form/structure during activities with structured input – input that is manipulated in
particular ways so that learners become dependent on form and structure to get meaning, and/or to privilege the
form/structure in the input so that learners have a better chance of attending to it. Learners do not produce the structure or
form during structured input activities.
3.2 Goal of PI as an approach to SLA
VanPatten (1996) calims that PI approach is designed to avoid specific problems that learners have in processing input.
As it has been described earlier, learners need access to input to produce linguistic systems. However, Wong and
VanPatten (2003) believe that access to input does not guarantee correct processing. They say “If we can identify
learner strategies or processes for dealing with input, perhaps we can manipulate the input in particular ways to push
learners to process it better” (p.410) . Therefore, altering processing strategies which impede acquisition is the goal of
PI (Buck, 2006).
VanPatten (1996) describes processing strategies as processing input for meaning before processing it for form, that
includes processing content words in the input before anything else, that is, nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs (lexical
morphemes rather than grammatical morphemes), as well as processing lexical items (e.g. temporal adverbs before
grammatical items (verb morphology). VanPatten (1996) states that PI is to alter the processing strategies that learners
take to the task of comprehension and to encourage them to make better form meaning connections and thus making an
impact on the developing linguistic system by providing correct intake than they would if left to their own devices.
3.3 Structured Input activities (SI)
In PI, unlike many other forms of instruction, learners do not produce the language at first – they process input to
understand it, and activities are designed to focus their attention on getting the right meaning from the stimuli (VanPatten,
1996). One of the criticisms that VanPatten (1996) makes of many teaching materials is that learners can do many
activities without understanding the content. However, this is not acceptable within the PI model. The input used in PI is
called ‘Structured Input’ (SI). The term ‘Input’ is used because learners actively focus on processing input instead of
producing language. The term ‘Structured’ is used since the input is not spontaneous. In other words, PI consists of SI
activities which offer the opportunity to interpret the form-meaning relationship correctly without any practice in
producing the target form or structure (Van Patten, 1996).
As Farley (2001) asserts, “SI is language data (either oral or written) that has been altered in a way that encourages the L2
reader or listener to attend to the target item for meaning” (p.289). According to VanPatten (2002b), SI activities are those
in which learners see a grammatical feature in the input and must use it to process the utterance for meaning. In SI
IJALEL 2 (1):23-27, 2013 26
activities input is manipulated in such a way that learners become dependent on form or structure to get the meaning (Van
Patten, 2002a).
Ellis (2001) defines SI instruction as fitting within FOFs category because it aims to focus student attention on form and
because attention is repeatedly drawn to a preselected linguistic feature. A crucial aspect of this instructional approach is
that it involves a primary FOF. In SI instruction students are required to work with language input that focuses their
attention on a particular target structure. They are given listening or reading tasks that require them to pay attention to the
form of the target structure and to process its meaning. They are not at any stage engaged in activities requiring them to
produce this structure.
As Yazici (2007) claims, the activities used in PI frequently require the learners to express a personal opinion on a theme;
they often involve themes which are familiar even to beginning learners, and often an attempt has been made to make
them lively and humorous. Because these activities are selective in what they target, they are said to be SI activities.
To develop appropriate and effective SI activities, certain steps should be followed. VanPatten (1996) suggests the
following guidelines for developing structured input activities:
(1) Teach only one thing at a time.
VanPatten’s (1996) advice is not to burden the learner with more than one thing until the instructor is sure that the
learner’s have noticed and understood the form-meaning relation.
(2) Keep meaning in focus.
Learners must understand the stimuli to perform the activity.
(3) Learners must do something with the input. This does not mean ‘repeat’ or ‘say
out loud’ but rather ‘internally process’.
VanPatten (1996) favors activities which require learners to agree or disagree with statements or to say: “Yes, that applies
to me” or “No, it doesn’t”.
(4) Use input.
That is, research on individual learning styles suggests that some learners react quite negatively to getting only oral input;
they want to see what they are hearing. Certainly, written input can help learners to segment the stimuli into words and
perhaps also to see certain paradigmatic relations. Because the stimuli are not transitory, learners who are still quite slow
in processing can have the time they need to work out the meaning of the stimuli.
(5) Move from sentences to context.
That is to say, we parse sentences and link their meanings into larger text units at the discourse level. If we start with
sentences in activities, the learner has a limited stretch of speech or text to attend to notice relevant forms. Presumably,
long sentences will present the same difficulty to learners. In short, practice the new form-meaning connections in
discourse activities, but learn them first at the sentence level.
(6) Keep the psycholinguistic processing strategies in mind.
The psycholinguistic rationale for the SI activities is that acquisition occurs when learners attend to the new structure in
input rather than when they attempt to produce it.
There are two types of activities in PI, called Refrential Activities and Affective Activities. VanPatten (1993) distinguishes
between referential and affective activities. Referential activities are those for which there is a right or wrong answer and
for which the learner must rely on the targeted grammatical form to get meaning. Normally, as Wong and VanPatten
(2003) indicate, a sequence of SI activities would begin with two or three referential activities. Following referential
activities, learners are engaged in affective SI activities. These are activities in which learners express an opinion, belief,
or some other affective response and are engaged in processing information about the real world.
3.4 PI in Practice
Based on what has been discussed above, it is certain that PI requires a structural syllabus taught by means of SI activities.
Regarding the usage of PI in curriculum development, VanPatten (1996) raises the following questions: Can and should
PI occur outside of the classroom, say, as homework? Does it need to be brought into the classroom? Because PI is input
based, can computers deliver effective PI? Pursuing questions such as these will help teachers and curriculum developers
maximize communicative language use during the minimum amount of time that language students spend in the
classroom. PI is entirely input-based and the SI activities can be presented in both written and oral form. Farley (2004)
suggests that with the current emphasis on computer-assisted language learning, interactive multimedia materials such as
web-based workbooks and CD-ROM/DVD-ROM programs are becoming more readily available. These materials,
typically textbook supplements, are completed outside of normal classroom time. PI could be delivered easily using this
medium, providing both written SI activities and opportunities to interpret oral input recorded and played as audio files.
4. Conclusion
IP refers a theoretical model of processing of what is assumed to occur in the brain on perceiving input (VanPatten,
2002a) and PI can be seen as an approach and a practical solution to the difficulty of having learners transform their
understanding of input into output. As has been previously stated, PI, as an explicit grammar instruction, aims to enhance
the salience of the input received by learners so that richer intake is derived from the input. This is achieved by engaging
IJALEL 2 (1):23-27, 2013 27
learners in SI activities so that they process grammatical forms in the input and make proper form-meaning connections.
According to VanPatten (1996, 2002a, 2004a) PI affects the developing system via intake and developing system, in
turn, enables the learner to produce linguistic forms under certain circumstances. Through PI, the implication that
grammar instruction should be tied to input has gains importance (VanPatten, 2003).
References
Benati, A. (2001). A Comparative study of the effects of processing instruction and output- based instruction on the
acquisition of the Italian future tense. Language Teaching Research 5(2), 95-127.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/136216880100500202
Buck, M. (2006). The effects of processing instruction on the acquisition of English progressive aspect. Estudios de
Lingüística Aplicada, 24 (43), 77-95.
Ellis, R. (1993). Second language acquisition research: How does it help teachers?. ELT Journal, 47(1), 3-11.
Ellis, R. (2001). Form-focused instruction and second language learning. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Farley, A. (2001). Authentic processing instruction and the Spanish subjunctive. Hispania, 84, 289- 299.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3657760
Farley, A. (2004). The relative effects of processing instruction and meaning-based output instruction. In B. VanPatten
(Ed.), Processing instruction: Theory, research and commentary (pp. 147–172). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Karacaer, Z. (2003). The role of processing instruction: A study on English causatives. Unpublished doctorial dissertation,
Anadolu University, Eskişehir, Turkey.
Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Long, M. H. (1991). Focus on form: A design feature in language teaching methodology. In K. de Bot, R. Ginsberg, & C.
Kramsch (Eds.), Foreign language research in cross cultural perspective (39-52). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Sanz, C. & VanPatten, B. (1998). On input processing, processing instruction, and the nature of replication tasks: A
response to M. R. Salaberry. Canadian Modern Language Review, 54, 263–273.
Sharwood Smith, M. (1993). Input enhancement in instructed SLA: Theoretical bases, Studies in Second Language
Acquisition, 15, 165-179. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0272263100011943
VanPatten, B. (1993). Grammar instruction for the acquisition rich classroom. Foreign Language Annals, 26, 433-450.
VanPatten, B. (1996). Input processing and grammar instruction in second language acquisition. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
VanPatten, B. (2000). Processing instruction as form-meaning connections: Issues in theory and research. In J. Lee & A.
Valdman (Eds.), Form and meaning: Multiple perspectives (43-68). Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
VanPatten, B. (2002a). Processing instruction: An update. Language Learning, 52, 755-803.
VanPatten, B. (2002b). Processing the content of input processing and processing instruction research: A response to
DeKeyser, Salaberry, Robinson and Harrington. Language Learning, 52, 825-831. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-
9922.00203
VanPatten, B. (2003). From input to output: A teacher’s guide to second language acquisition. Boston: McGraw Hill.
VanPatten, B. (2004a). Processing instruction: Theory, research and commentary. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
VanPatten, B. (2004b). Several reflections on why there is good reason to continue researching the effects of processing
instruction. In B. VanPatten, (Ed.), Processing instruction: Theory, Research and Commentary (325-335). Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
VanPatten, B. & Cadierno, T. (1993). Input processing and second language acquisition: A role for instruction. Modern
Language Journal, 77, 45-57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1993.tb01944.x
Wong, W. & VanPatten, B. (2003). The evidence is IN: Drills are out. Foreign Language Annals, 36(3), 403-423.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-9720.2003.tb02123.x
Wong, W. (2004). Processing instruction in french: The roles of explicit information and structured input. In B. VanPatten
(Ed.), Processing instruction: Theory, research and commentary (187-205). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Yazıcı, Ç. İ. (2007). A study of the effects of processing instruction on the development of English wh- questions used by
Turkish EFL learners. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Çukurova, Adana- Turkey.
Iranian ESP Learners’ Perceptions of Autonomy in Language Learning

Razieyeh Ahmadi
University of Guilan
E-mail: raziahmadi22@yahoo.com

Abstract
Autonomy regarded challenging in EFL contexts, because of the teacher-fronted learning situation, and as literature
suggests there is a need for research in areas related to autonomy to measure students’ perceptions and evaluate their
preparation before the implementation. The purpose of this study is to investigate whether or not, this group of law
major students attending English for specific purposes course are ready to be involved in autonomous language
learning. For this reason Learner Autonomy Questionnaire designed based on Chan, Humphreys, and Spratt (2002)’s
Autonomy Questionnaire and Oxford (1990)’s Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) and distributed among
133 law major students at the Law Department of University of Guilan. The analysis of results showed that ESP
students are not ready for autonomy and they gave most of the important decisions of their learning to their teachers.
Keywords: Leaner autonomy, readiness for autonomy, ESP learner autonomy
1. Introduction
Autonomy is one of the concepts which originated from learner-centered methodology, and there has been an increasing
emphasis on the development of autonomy and autonomous second language learning in different educational settings.
The most commonly cited definition proposed by Holec (1981, p. 3) As “the ability to take charge of one’s learning”
and as “an ability or capacity that needs to acquire” rather than a process”. There are principles that are pivotal to the
concept of autonomy, one of them is the acceptance of responsibility by the students as Scharle and Szabo (2000) said
“success in learning, very much depends on learners having a responsible attitude” (p. 4). This view is consistent with
Macaro (1997) ‘s idea of autonomy. He said the philosophy behind the concept of autonomy considers the human being
as a producer in the society rather than a product of it, he also indicated that autonomy is an ability both how to make
decisions and “being allowed to make these decisions” (p. 168). Benson (2008) argued autonomy is directly related to
learning so the role of the learner and his/her contribution in the process of second language learning is very important.
The practice of autonomy in the classroom creates a whole new environment especially in those contexts in which the
educational system is teacher-fronted. Another important principle is learning strategies. As Oxford (2008, p. 52) stated
“learning strategies are signs of autonomy” she also explained “metacognitive strategies are for guiding the learning
process itself such as, plan and evaluate” (p. 52). According to Little (1991) learner autonomy is not a “particular
method, it is an educational goal that is cross-culturally valid” (p. 21), but the climate of educational setting is
influential in the development of autonomous behavior among the students because different cultures have different
values and norms that influence the educational practice
For this reason, there has been a long debate among researchers over the applicability of autonomous principles in
Eastern educational setting. Littlewood (2000) is one of those researchers who did a lot of research studies to prove that
it is just a myth that Asian students are not capable of practicing autonomy in language learning. He conducted a study
based on 12-items questionnaire in different Asian countries (India, Burma, China, and Korea) to see whether Asian
students’ dispositions and preferences are actually based on their obedience to the teacher or not. He compared the
responses of Asian students with their European counterparts and concluded that Asian students are actually want to be
active and independent, as he stated “they want to explore knowledge themselves” (p. 34) and they do not really want to
spoon feed from their teachers.
This research considered this gap in Iran and conducted a study to measure Iranian ESP learners’ perceptions towards
autonomy in terms of their responsibility perceptions and activity types inside and outside of the classroom, and the
employment of metacognitive strategies, because as Littlewood (2000) stated we have to “re-assess” perceptions of our
students in different context (p. 34).
2. Theoretical Background & Review of Literature
2.1 Theoretical Background
Benson (2006) said “autonomy refers to abilities and attitudes” (p. 2) He said that there is a difference between
autonomy and concepts like self-instruction, self-access, self-study, out-of-class learning, and distance learning. The
concept of autonomy is viewed differently by different scholars. Dickinson (1995) considered it as an attitude rather
than a methodology. Little (1991, p.4) defined autonomy as a “capacity for detachment, critical reflection, decision
IJALEL 2 (1):28-34, 2013 29
making, and independent action”, he considered autonomy as “interdependence rather than independence” (p. 5). Many
scholars like (Dickinson, 1994; Littlewood, 1996; Little, 1999) considered it as an educational goal that is applicable in
different settings, even in the Eastern educational system. The application of autonomy needs skills and abilities on the
part of learners. Dickinson (1994) defined these abilities: They are able to identify the objectives of the classroom; they
can create their own goals; they can select the appropriate kind of learning strategies; they can “monitor and evaluate
their own use of learning strategies” (p. 7).
Autonomous classroom creates a certain type of role for the teacher, Dam (2008) defined teacher role in an autonomous
classroom as a consultant and facilitator. She believed that teacher should involve students in decision making and
she/he should give them some information about the demands of the classroom. Little (2004) also argued that teacher
should be an observer, advisor, and manager in an autonomous classroom. She/he should create the learning
environment, initiates different types of communication in the class and then gives more control to students as soon as
she/he feels that they are ready to do things on their own, and finally helps students to move to the next stage.
Little (2004) stated that the lessons and learning materials should be associated with real life and that is what he called
the ultimate aim of education to bridge the gap between classroom activities and everyday life needs.
According to Littlewood (1999) there are two types of autonomy: “Proactive and reactive” (p. 75). Proactive autonomy
is a type of autonomy which is common in the Western educational system, in which students take the responsibility of
choosing objectives, methods, and evaluation. Littlewood (1999) argued, for many, proactive autonomy is the only type
of the autonomy. He also proposed another type of autonomy in which all the directions set by the teacher, and learners
use all sources “autonomously” (p. 76) to reach the goals. Littlewood (1996) in his theoretical framework, indicated
autonomy means two things: “Ability and willingness” (p. 428). He said a person might have the ability to make
independent choices but not have the willingness to do so, on the other hand, a person might have the willingness but
not capable of making choices. Other components of his framework are motivation, confidence, knowledge, skills. This
study is based on Littlewood (1996)’s theory of autonomy and the main principle is learners’ responsibility and skills in
learning language.
2.2 The review of Literature
There is a growing body of research on the development of autonomy and autonomous language learning in EFL
context. Autonomous learner should possess a range of abilities and capabilities, according to Benson (2010)
“autonomy is a complex construct” (p. 78) he also added “when we judge intuitively that students are either more or
less autonomous, what we appear to be doing is observing certain behaviors and associating them with broader
construct of autonomy” (p. 78) some of these observable behaviors or variables are strategies, especially metacognitive
strategies which show the learners’ ability of reflection, planning, and monitoring. Based on the idea of Cotterall (1995)
metacognitive strategy is one of the aspects of learners’ readiness for autonomy and as Little (1999, p. 23) said
“strategic control of language learning and language use” is one of the crucial aspects of autonomy. Oxford (2008) also
argued that learners who are more active in the language learning process are those who employed more strategies. As
literature suggests before any intervention and fostering autonomy there is a need for research on learners’ perceptions
towards autonomous language learning.
In one of the early studies Chan (2001) investigated learners’ attitudes and expectations of language learning, teacher
and learner roles, their learning preferences, perceptions of the learner autonomy, and aims and motivation of language
learning. The participants were a group of undergraduate students in Hong Kong Polytechnic University. The results of
this study showed that 20 members of this group of students had a positive attitude towards the autonomous approach,
but at the same time they preferred their teacher to guide and facilitate autonomy among them. Chan (2001) concluded
that the process of developing autonomy among students is a process that should be done slowly and patiently and
students must be informed of the benefits of this approach. Chan (2001) revealed two guiding principles for the design
of any autonomy-oriented classroom activities:
(a) The teacher should provide opportunities for more students’ involvement in the classroom activities.
(b) The teacher should also provide learning conditions in the classroom to stimulate interest and motivation.
In another major study, Chan, Humphreys, and Spratt (2002) investigated the students’ readiness for autonomy in
language learning. This study examined the students’ views towards their responsibilities, and those of their teachers’,
their confidence in their ability to operate autonomously, and their assessment of their level of motivation to learn
English. They employed questionnaire and interview and the results revealed students did not have a good
understanding of their own responsibilities and abilities and they considered these more of the teachers’ responsibility.
The follow up interviews revealed factors that influence their perceived decision-making abilities. Factors like:
Necessity or an opportunity to make decisions, prior experience of decision making, the level of confidence, and
motivation.
Chan, et al., (2002) suggested two important results:
(a) One way to encourage autonomy is to develop students’ motivation to learn. So the development of motivation
is a necessary first step.
(b) Teachers can choose the materials and syllabuses that are learner-centered or when they want to choose
classroom activities, they need to take these features into account: Learner style, learner preferences, and
language learner strategies.
IJALEL 2 (1):28-34, 2013 30
The only notable study in Iran, conducted by Kashefian-Naini (2002) in which she explored 168 male and female EFL
learners’ readiness for autonomy in University of Shiraz. She employed Cotterall (1995)’s questionnaire and used factor
analysis to show the existence of these factors among this group of Iranian EFL students: (1) learner independence, (2)
dependence on teacher, (3) learner confidence, (4) attitudes towards language learning, and (5) self-assessment. She also
considered the effect of other variables (age, sex, marital status, grade point average, year of study, their occupation,
place of birth, place of residence, and parents’ level of education).
Among these variables, only students’ academic achievement and professional status of students had an impact on their
readiness for autonomy. Students’ academic achievement had an effect on learners’ autonomy, in that those students
with averages 17 to 20 demonstrated a great deal of autonomy. Professional status had an impact on learners’ readiness
towards autonomy, in that those students with occupation obtained higher indexes of autonomy.
In another study Hashemian and Heidari Soureshjani (2011) investigated the relationship between autonomy,
motivation, and academic performance of 60 Persian L2 learners from Sharekord Payam-e-Noor University. They used
two questionnaires, one for autonomy developed by Kashefian-Naini (2002) based on Cotterall (1995)’s questionnaire
and another one for motivation developed by Vaez (2008). They analyzed the data through correlation and regression.
The results showed that there is a significant relationship between motivation and academic performance. This study did
not find any relationship between autonomy and motivation.
As Macaro (1997) pointed out “we should always analyze critically theories or principles of second language
acquisition that have sprung from studies… carried out in very different institutional learning contexts” (p. 169). He
insisted on, we should always check the applicability of these theories in our language learning context. Bhaskaran Nair
(2009) argued that autonomy needs to be interpreted in terms of learners’ past experiences related to second language
classroom and in general to their overall experience.
Autonomy is closely related to learner-centered methodology and as Ellis and Sinclair(1989) claimed it is difficult for
learner to adapt to learner-centered methodology, because they have to accept multiple roles such as decision-makers,
self-evaluators in which the unfamiliarity and students’ lack of preparation may lead to frustration.
Thus, there is a need for research in a local context to measure Iranian students’ readiness for autonomy in language
learning in terms of their responsibility acceptance and activity types in inside and outside of the classroom, and their
employment of metacognitive strategies, because these are the principles which shaped autonomous behavior.
3. Method
3.1 Participants
The sample of this study was 133 male and female law major students from the Law Department at the University of
Guilan, Rasht. They were undergraduate students between the ages of 18 and 25. The sample of the study selected based
on purposive sampling. According to Chambliss and Schutt (2003, p. 124) “purposive sample adequately represents the
settings or issues of study”. The researcher was also used a quantitative research design and employed a questionnaire
to answer these questions in an objective manner:
The research questions were: 1. How do ESP students perceive their own and their teachers’ responsibilities in learning
English? 2. To what extent do these ESP students engaged in inside and outside class activities? 3. To what extent do
these ESP students employ metacognitive strategies in learning English?
3.2 Instrument
The main instrument of this study was a questionnaire designed by the researcher based on two other questionnaires.
Two sections of Chan, et al., (2002)’s Learner Autonomy Questionnaire (responsibility and activity) and part D of
Oxford (1990)’s Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL). The autonomous learning activities described in this
questionnaire identified by Chan, et al., (2002) as a result of brainstorming sessions with a focus group of students
regarding the type of activity that might help them learn language autonomously. The researcher translated the
questionnaire from English to Persian language (Farsi) to avoid any ambiguity. The Persian version of it checked and
validated by two experts from University of Guilan and then piloted with 35 students who were excluded from final
study. The data were analyzed with SPSS version 19.0.
To ensure the reliability of the questionnaire, the researcher ran Alpha Cronbach reliability through SPSS 19.0. The
reliability coefficient was found to be .94 which is a high level of reliability.
3.3 Data Analysis
In the present study the descriptive statistics (percentages and frequencies) were calculated. The descriptive statistics
were also used to find ESP students’ engagement in inside and outside autonomous activities. In order to analyze the
data related to section three (metacognitive strategies) of the questionnaire, first of all, points (1 to 5) given by each
student to each question were totaled and then divided into the number of items, then the averages rounded off to the
nearest hundred. The average point of each student gave the frequency of that students’ employment of metacognitive
strategies. In order to find out the overall average, the averages of each student were totaled and the result was the
metacognitive strategies. Then the result divided into the number of respondents. The results showed the overall
employment of metacognitive strategies. This section evaluated based on the key averages suggested by Oxford (1990).
The key presented in Table 1 which shows what each average means in terms of students’ frequency of strategy use.
IJALEL 2 (1):28-34, 2013 31
Table 1. Key to the SILL averages

High Always or almost always used 4.5 to 5.0
Generally used 3.5 to 4.4
Medium Sometimes used 2.5 to 3.4
Generally not used 1.5 to 2.4
Low Never or almost never used 1.0 to 1.4
4. Results and Discussions

4.1 Learners’ Perceptions of their own and their teachers’ responsibility
In the first section of the questionnaire the participants were instructed to report their perceptions of their own and their
teachers’ responsibility in the language learning process. Students’ perceptions of their responsibility showed their
amount of readiness to be autonomous in the language learning process. It is a part of their personal growth and help
students to achieve the lifelong learning which is the ultimate goal of education.
Table 2 presents the percentages of responses related to each question, for the ease of interpretation “not at all” and “a
little” and “mainly” and “completely” have been combined.
First the researcher calculated the percentages of the responses of each item. The results can be classified into three
main categories: (1) students and teachers share the responsibility, (2) teachers have more responsibility than students,
and (3) students have more responsibility than their teachers.
For items 1, 3,11, and 12 students shared responsibility with their teachers, these items refer to evaluating their learning,
their course, making progress during lessons, and stimulating their interest in learning. For items 2, 4, 5, 9, and 13
students gave the responsibility to themselves, these items refer to checking their progress outside the class, identifying
their weaknesses, making work harder, deciding how long to spend on each activity, and deciding what to learn outside
the class. For items 6, 7, 8, and 10 students gave the responsibility to their teachers. These items are important and refer
to deciding the objectives of the course, deciding what to learn next, and choosing activities and materials to learn
English. These are the items that refer to methodological and planning aspects of learning and management of the
activities. The findings showed students gave important decisions of their learning process to their teachers, this is the
result of traditional educational systems in Iran in which the teacher is the knower and an authority figure in the
classroom and students take the order of their teachers, the findings of this study suggested that the type of autonomy
expressed in learners’ attitude and behavior showed that they were not ready to be involved in autonomous language
learning. One of the ways to encourage autonomy is trusting them and giving them respect as an individual in the
classroom. The most significant point is that students need to discover in their language learning process.
The participants of this study were law major students and they study English for specific purposes, so they have
enough knowledge of their subject matter and they can accept the responsibility of some aspects of language learning.
Furthermore needs analysis is one of the ways to make students more involved in selecting objectives. As Richards and
Renandya (2002) indicated needs analysis is the starting point for the development of any language learning course. In
this way students can involve in the language learning process.
Table 2. Students’ Perceptions of their own and their Teachers’ Responsibilities--- % of Respondents
Questions Students’ perceptions of their Students’ perceptions of their
own responsibilities in % teachers’ responsibilities in %
Not/ A Some Mainly Not/ Some Mainly
little Compl. little Compl.
1. Make sure you make progress 22.6 23.3 54.1 30.1 26.3 43.6
During lessons
2. Make sure you make progress 25.6 13.5 60.9 54.1 21.8 24.1
Outside class
3. Stimulate your interest in 20.3 24.1 55.6 32.3 23.3 44.4
Learning English
4. Identify your weaknesses in 23.3 15.0 61.7 41.4 18.8 39.8
English
5.Make you work harder 13.5 15.8 70.7 38.3 27.8 33.8
6. Decide the objectives of 38.3 21.8 39.8 24.1 21.8 54.1
Your English course
7. Decide what you should learn 34.6 28.6 36.8 26.3 23.3 50.4
next in your English lessons
8. Choose what activities to use 35.3 25.6 39.1 24.8 22.6 52.6
to learn English in your English
IJALEL 2 (1):28-34, 2013 32
lessons
9. Decide how long to spend on 23.3 21.8 54.9 37.6 29.3 33.1
each activity
10. Choose what materials to 44.4 16.5 39.1 28.6 18.0 53.4
use to learn English in your
English Lessons
11. Evaluate your learning 27.1 23.3 49.6 28.6 20.3 51.1
12. Evaluate your course 30.1 23.3 46.6 33.1 19.5 47.4
13. Decide what you learn 18.8 14.3 66.9 49.6 25.6 24.8
outside class
4.2 Learners’ engagement in autonomous activities

Section two of the questionnaire shows the frequency of students’ engagement in autonomous activities inside and
outside of the class. The activities proposed by Chan, et al., (2002) in their study among Hong Kong Polytechnic
University students and regarded by them as “possible manifestations of autonomous language learning behavior”
(p. 256). The descriptive statistics were employed to show the frequency of ESP students’ engagement in inside and
outside class activities.
The Table 3 shows the percentages of answers related to each question. Most of the respondents said they “never”
do most of the activities, only items 27 (noting down new words and their meanings) and 47 (noting down new
information) showed participants “often” engaged in these activities. In items 35 (listening to English songs), 40
(watching English movies), and 50 (discussing learning problems with classmates) respondents said that they
“sometimes” engage in these activities.
In terms of inside class activities (items 46, 47, 48, 49, and 50), only for item 47 (noted down new information)
respondents said they “often” do this activity.
According to Chan, et al., (2002) this refers to their traditional role as a student in the classroom, they feel their
suggestions and comments had no effect on the teachers’ decision and once their decision has been made nothing
can change it.
In general, these students have never done most of the activities. As Zohrabi (2011) indicated “the status of English
language in Iran is an EFL (English as a foreign language)” (p. 125), it is a subject matter in higher education rather
than a skill or medium for communication. Students are rarely exposed to English in real life and they said that they
are not interested to use internet in English, never practice English with their friends, and never read newspapers
and magazines in English. We can conclude that students need more opportunities for learning language inside and
outside of the class and lack of facilities and exposure are two important reasons for their disengagement in
autonomous activities.
Table 3. The Frequency of Student’s Engagement in Outside and Inside class Learning Activities
---% of Respondents
Items Never Rarely Sometimes Often
25. Read grammar books on own 29.3 40.6 21.1 9.0
26. Done non-compulsory assignments 36.1 30.1 21.1 12.8

27. Noted down new words/meanings 11.3 25.6 29.3 33.8
28. Written English letters to pen pals 60.9 22.6 13.5 3.0
29. Read English notices around you 53.4 30.1 15.0 1.5
30. Read newspapers in English 74.4 15.0 9.0 1.5
31. Sent e-mails in English 59.4 22.6 15.0 3.0
32. Read books/magazines in English 57.9 21.8 17.3 3.0
33. Watched English TV programs 24.8 34.6 22.6 18.0
34. Listened to English radio 58.6 18.8 17.3 5.3
35. Listened to English songs 23.3 24.8 26.3 25.6
36. Talked to foreigners 60.2 24.1 12.0 3.8
37. talk to my friends in English 45.1 36.8 14.3 3.8
IJALEL 2 (1):28-34, 2013 33
38. Practiced using English with friends 49.6 29.3 14.3 6.8
39. done grammar exercises 38.3 33.1 21.8 6.8
40. Watched English movies 21.1 23.3 28.6 27.1
41. Written diary in English 69.9 20.3 6.8 3.0
42. Used Internet in English 30.1 30.8 21.1 18.0
43. Done revision not required by the teacher 27.1 35.3 25.6 12.0
44. Collected texts in English 44.4 25.6 20.3 9.8
45. Gone to see your teacher about your work 39.1 29.3 23.3 8.3
4.3 Learners’ Use of metacognitive strategies

The last section of the questionnaire focused on ESP learners’ employment of metacognitive language learning
strategies. According to Thanasoulas (2000) metacognitive language learning strategies are one of the conditions for
developing autonomy. This study employed part D of Oxford (1990) Strategy Inventory to find ESP students
employment of metacognitive strategies. The averages were computed and evaluated based on Oxford (1990)’s key to
averages.
The average score for ESP students’ metacognitive strategies use was (3.2). It means that students “sometimes” employ
metacognitive strategies in language learning. Metacognitive strategies help students to plan and evaluate their learning.
Macaro (1997) divided autonomy into three areas: (1) autonomy of language competence, (2) autonomy of language
learning competence, and (3) autonomy of choice and action. In autonomy of language learning competence, he
emphasized on the role of metacognitive strategies and said it is one of the abilities that help students to be autonomous
in the learning process. So the teacher should help students to develop these strategies and the best way is to train them
regarding the use of metacognitive strategies.
In another study, Riazi and Rahimi (2005) found Iranian EFL learners employed a high frequency of metacognitive
strategies in language learning, although they were medium strategy users in general. The findings of this study showed
there is a need for more studies on the use of metacognitive strategy of Iranian learners in different contexts and among
different majors and age groups.
The results showed that students did not not feel ready for the autonomous learning in the most of important aspects of
learning and they believed that teaching activity should be designed by the teacher, and teacher has the responsibility of
selecting objectives. They did not do most of autonomous activities used in this study and they were medium users of
metacognitive strategies. Students need more support and help from their teacher, and they also need training in order to
employ metacognitive strategies more frequently in their learning because it is one of the abilities which help students’
autonomy in learning. There is one rewarding result in this study and that is the notion of shared responsibility in
evaluating. Students had the notion of shared responsibility in evaluating their course and their learning. Little (2011)
believed that “one aspect of the individual learner autonomy in language learning is that the learner should have a role
in evaluating the learning” (p. 26). The results of this study were in consistent with research study in Hong Kong by
Chan, et al., (2002) and showed the educational system and cultural norms and values has an effect on students’
readiness for autonomy in language learning.
5. Suggestions for further research
This study employed quantitative research design, further study can be designed and employed qualitative research
design as well. This study used questionnaire as the main instrument, regarding the instrument, to get a complete picture
of students’ views, the questionnaire can be accompanied with other instruments such as observation, diary, and
interview to achieve more reliable results.
In addition, based on the results of this study course can be designed to promote autonomy among students.
Finally, further study needs to be conducted and considered other related issues of autonomy such as learners’ role,
teachers’ role, and students’ locus of control.
Acknowledgement
Hereby, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my Professors Dr. Mahdavi and Dr. Barekat for their continuous
support, advice, and immense knowledge.
References
Benson, p. (2006). Learner autonomy: Insider perspectives on autonomy in language teaching and learning. Dublin:
Authentik.
Benson, P. (2008). Teachers’ and learners’ perspectives on autonomy. In T. Lamb & H. Reinders (Eds.), Learner and
IJALEL 2 (1):28-34, 2013 34
teacher autonomy: Concepts, realities, and responses. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Benson, P. (2010). Measuring autonomy: Should we put our ability to test? In A. Param & L. Siercu (Eds.), Testing the
untestable in language education (pp. 77-91). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Bhaskaran Nair, P. (2009). Redefining learner autonomy in the Indian ESL context. In Y. L. Patel & M. A. Vyas (Eds.),
Teaching English as a second language: A new pedagogy for a new century (pp. 212-217). New Delhi: Jay Print Pack
Limited.
Chambliss, D., & Schutt, R. K. (2003). Making sense of the social world: Methods of investigation. Thousands Oaks,
Calif: Pine Forge Press.
Chan, V. (2001). Readiness for learner autonomy: What do our learners tell us? Teaching in Higher Education, 6 (4),
505-518.
Chan, V., Humphreys, G., & Spratt, V. (2002). Autonomy and motivation: Which comes first? Language Teaching
Research, 6 (3), 245-266.
Cotterall, S. (1995). Developing a course strategy for learner autonomy. ELT Journal, 49 (3), 219-227.
Dam, L. (2008). How do we recognize an autonomous classroom?--- Revisited. In P. Benson, L. Dam L. Legenhausen
& R. Manchon (Eds.), Spain, Proceedings of TESOL symposium. Learner autonomy: What does the future hold? (pp.
13-27). Sevilla, Faculty of Languages: University of Sevilla, Spain.
Dickinson, L. (1994). Learner autonomy: What, why, and how? In V. J. Leffa (Ed), Autonomy in language learning (pp
2-12). Porto Alegre: Universidade/UFRGS.
Dickinson, L. (1995). Autonomy and motivation: A literature review. System, 23 (2), 165-174.
Ellis, G., & Sinclair, B. (1989). Learning to learn language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hashemian, M., & Heidari Soureshjani, K. (2011). The interrelationship of autonomy, motivation, and academic
performance of Persian L2 learners in distance education contexts. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 1 (4),
319-326.
Holec, H. (1981). Autonomy in foreign language learning. Oxford: Program Press.
Kashefian-Naini, S. (2002). An investigation into college EFL learners’ beliefs demonstrating their predispositions
towards learner autonomy. Unpublished masteral thesis, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran.
Little, D. (1991). Learner autonomy: Definitions, issues, and problems. Dublin: Authentik.
Little, D. (1999). The European language portfolio and self-assessment. Strasburg: Council of Europe Retrieved, June,
2011 from
http://archive.ecml.at/mtp2/Elptt/Results/DMlayout/Reference%20Materials/English/David%20Little%20self-
assessment%20E.pdf.
Little, D. (2004). Constructing a theory of learner autonomy: Some steps along the way. In K. Makinen P. Kaikkonen &
V. Kohonen (Eds.), Future perspectives in foreign language education (pp. 15-25). Oulu, Finland: Publications of the
Faculty of Education.
Little, D. (2011). The common European framework of reference for languages: A research agenda. Language Teaching,
44 (3), 381-393.
Littlewood, W. (1996). Autonomy: An anatomy and a framework. System, 24 (4), 427-435.
Littlewood, W. (1999). Defining and developing autonomy in East Asian contexts. Applied Linguistics, 20 (1), 71-94.
Littlewood, W. (2000). Do Asian students really want to listen and obey? ELT Journal, 54(1), 31-35.
Macaro, E. (1997). Target language, collaborative learning and autonomy: Modern languages in practice. Clevedon,
Philadelphia, USA: Multilingual Matters.
Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
Oxford, R. L. (2008). Hero with a thousand faces: Learner autonomy, learning strategies, and learning tactics in
independent language learning. In S. Hurd & T. Lewis (Eds.), Language learning strategies in independent settings (pp.
41-67). Toronto: Multilingual Matters.
Riazi, A., & Rahimi, M. (2005). Iranian EFL learners’ patterns of language learning strategy use. Journal of Asia TEFL,
2 (1), 103-129.
Scharle, A., & Szabo, A. (2000). Learner autonomy: A guide to developing learner responsibility. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Thanasoulas, D. (2000). What is learner autonomy and how can it be fostered? Internet TESL Journal, 6, 1-11.
Zohrabi, M. (2011). Enhancing learner autonomy through reciprocal approach to curriculum development. English
Language Teaching, 4 (3), 120-127.
Investigating the Effects of Word Games on Iranian EFL Learners’

Application of the Words in Writing Paragraph Essays
Fatemeh Rezapanah
Department of English, South Tehran Branch
Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
E-mail: fatemehrezapanah@yahoo.com
Hadi Hamidi (Corresponding author)

Department of English, Science and Research Branch
Islamic Azad University, Mazandaran, Iran
E-mail: hamidi_tefl@yahoo.com

Abstract
In Iran, learning vocabulary has been considered a boring subject for a long time and the traditional way of learning
vocabulary by mere copying and remembering has shown to be less than effective. Meanwhile, games are also seen as a
time-filling activity in most English classrooms. The current research sought to explore the effectiveness of using word
games on Iranian EFL intermediate students’ application of the words in writing one paragraph essay. It was carried out
at Jahad Sharif English Institute among 60 intermediate male and female learners with the age range of 17-30 through a
quasi-experimental research design. The researcher administered a PET test to determine the homogeneity of the
participants regarding their general English language proficiency level. Participants were randomly assigned into two
groups. After coming up with the conclusion that the two groups were homogeneous, during 16 sessions of treatment,
the experimental group was taught using different techniques of word games while the control group received no special
treatment. At the end of the treatment, both groups participated in the word game writing test of the word game
questions available in Top Notch series the post-test. A t-test was used to compare the mean scores of the two groups,
the result of which showed that the learners’ mean score in the experimental group was significantly higher than the
learners’ mean score in the control group. In conclusion, the result of this study suggests that foreign language
pedagogy, especially for young adult English learners, would benefit from applying word games in their vocabulary
instruction and writing.
Key words: Word games, Iranian EFL learners, application of words, writing paragraph essays
1. Introduction
Psychologists, linguists, and language teachers have been interested in vocabulary learning strategies for a long time.
Numerous studies have been conducted comparing the retention effects of different vocabulary presentation strategies.
Vocabulary as a major component of language learning has been the object of many studies. Vocabulary is more than a
list of words, knowing how to use it matters more. The goal of vocabulary instruction should be to make the learner
aware of word meaning and importantly word use in writing. Writing has always been regarded as an important skill in
the teaching and learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and one big problem for EFL learners is how to recall
the learned words and use them in paragraph writing.
This study will investigate one of the most important issues in EFL instruction, i.e., vocabulary development and use in
writing one paragraph essay. One of the most difficult aspects of learning a foreign language, particularly in an EFL
context, is the retention and use of vocabulary in writing. To prevail this problem teacher can teach vocabulary through
activities like word games, reinforcing the teaching points without boring the students. Traditional techniques for
teaching vocabulary to intermediate and advanced learners might not be so effective. Also word games might be good
tools for improving the ability to recall meaning and help them to learn how to use vocabularies in context. One way to
see the overall task of vocabulary learning is through the distinction between knowing a word and using a word. In
other words, the purpose of vocabulary learning should include both remembering words and the ability to use them
automatically in a wide range of language contexts when the need arises (McCarthy, 1984). One of the important things
is that this instruction can be integrated with other methods and may help students’ learning to be increased specifically
with regard to vocabulary achievement, that is using a method which not only helps the students to remember or know a
word but also use it whenever necessary.
IJALEL 2 (1):35-43, 2013 36
2. Review of the related literature
2.1 Some Definitions of Games
A single definition of the word ‘game’ is difficult to find. All available definitions seem to be descriptions of the most
common characteristics of games. It seems that as long as a certain activity is felt to be interesting, amusing, or
entertaining, it is likely to be referred to as a game. Griffiths and Clyne (1995) state that the word diversion implies that
a game is to be enjoyed. A game may be defined as an enjoyable diversion in which we test our skill, strength or
chance, according to a set of rules. Allery (2004) defined a game as “a competitive activity with a prescribed setting,
constrained by rules and procedures. The learning results from playing the game (for example, interactions and
behaviours exhibited) and not from the academic content or specialist subject matter” (p. 504).
According to Hunt and Cain (1950) a game is:
· A way of behaving in play which tends to conform to a pattern that is generally formed and shared by
several individuals;
· The game pattern is emphasized by the elements of organization which bring about a definite and often
repeated climax;
· In a game, individuals do not lose their identity, for the game itself is a situation in which the elements
of success and failure are so equally balanced that only players by their own efforts, practice, and
application of self can swing the balance to succeed (pp. 31-32).
Harvey and Bright (1985) define an instructional game by the following characteristics:
· A game involves a challenge against either a task or an opponent;
· A game is governed by a definite set of rules;
· A game is freely engaged in;
· Psychologically, a game is an arbitrary situation clearly separate from real-life;
· Socially, the events of a game situation are considered, in and of themselves, to be of minimal
importance;
· A game has a definite number of possible solutions; that is, only a finite number of things can
happen during play;
The perception of what constitutes a ‘language game’ is that it shares some common aspects with games in general, but
also has specific traits.‘Language games’ is a general term used to cover a variety of language activities. Language
games are used for practicing specific language items such as grammar, sentence structures, vocabulary, and spelling;
and for developing language skills, such as listening, speaking, writing and reading.
2.2 Conceptual Framework and Characteristics of Games
The use of games as a teaching strategy has been widely adopted in different subject areas of the curriculum, such as
mathematics (Downton, 2004; Markey, 1997), physics (Chandler, 1996), biology (Nemerow, 1996) and medicine and
nursing (Anderson, 1998; Ogershok & Cottrell, 2004).There has also been a tendency toward a greater use of games in
the language classroom. Many innovative language teaching methods, such as the Natural Approach (Terell, 1977), and
Suggestopedia (Lozanov, 1979), - make use of language games.
Much has been written on the use of language games (Hong, 2002; Macedonia, 2005; Shie, 2003). Despite the growing
interest in, and increasingly common use of games, relatively few empirical studies on the educational effectiveness of
games have been conducted. Cortez (1974) and Gardner (1987), and Shie (2003) point out that most of the literature
which discusses the value of using games in language classrooms has not been based on empirical research.
Generally, though, it can be argued that there is a gap in the research in this important area. Most of the studies on
games have come out in favour of the usefulness of games. Among the very few to find no significant differences in the
students’ performance were those by Gardner (1987) and Miller (1992). Thus, it seems beneficial to test the widely
accepted, but mainly untested, belief in the usefulness of games, also because it seems widely accepted that games
increase the level of student motivation in the language classroom.
2.3 Types of Language Games
In the field of language teaching, the word ‘game’ has been a rather vague umbrella term for all kinds of activities
considered to be fun. Research conducted by Shie (2003) confirms that it is difficult to group language games. Every
author or practitioner classifies games according to different aspects, such as functions, language skills, techniques and
organization. Littlewood (1981) and Hadfield (1996) divided language games in two main types: communicative and
pre-communicative games. Below comes a definition of each. Communication games are those where the emphasis is
on successful communication, rather than on grammatical correctness. Communication games cover such
communicative functions as greeting, invitation, request, description, and narration, where the output is open-ended, un-
prescribed, or unpredictable.
Games that stress accuracy of language use are called pre-communicative games. As this type of games emphasize
accuracy of language use, they have explicit definitions, such as “structural games” (Hadfield, 1996), or more direct
“grammar games” (Ur, 1988; Steinberg, 1992). The aim of structure-aimed games is to foster the linguistic ability for
certain syntactic patterns, some vocabulary areas and idiomatic expressions, spelling and pronunciation skills and new
vocabulary. In pre-communicative games, the participants’ output is close-ended to ensure the correctness of language
IJALEL 2 (1):35-43, 2013 37
use. A further subdivision of language games, both communicative and pre-communicative, can be made on the basis of
specific aspects such as (a) cooperation and competitiveness (b) techniques.
2.4 Learning through Games in Language Classrooms
While acknowledging the risks associated with the use of games, such as noise and lack of discipline (Kuo, 1990),
Richard-Amato (1996) advises teachers not to lose sight of the pedagogical value of games, particularly in second
language teaching. Games are effective for helping students learn. Games make practice more effective as students
become active participants in the learning process (Allery, 2004; Ruben, 1999; & Thatcher, 1990). In addition to the
improvement of learning outcomes, games are effective because they can lower students’ stress, increase students’
interest and motivation and give them the opportunity for effective communication (Allery, 2004; Ruben, 1999). These
are all very positive reasons for playing games in the language classroom. This section presents the advantages of
games, as they have been pointed out in the literature on their usefulness: active learning, improvement in retention,
interaction, flexibility, motivation and supportive atmosphere.
2.5 Games and Active Learning
Games provide unique learning opportunities to meet students’ needs while engaging in an active learning process
(Allery, 2004; Anderson, 1998; Thatcher, 1990). Thatcher (1990) promotes games as a significant form of experiential
learning. Allery (2004) also states that games “ensure all participants are winners in that all have the opportunity for
involvement and to engage with experiential learning … the role of the participant as an active processor of
information” (p. 504). During a game, the learner is actually engaged in an experience in which resolutions or decisions
must be made. Evaluation, discussion, reflection, and application all occur during playing games and all promote
learning. Ruben (1999) states that active participation is the chief advantage of games. Games “accommodated more
complex and divers approaches to the learning processes and outcomes; allowed for interactivity; … perhaps most
important, fostered active learning” (p. 500). Games allow the students to have active control of the learning process
and also promote prompt feedback from their peers (Allery, 2004). Reinforcing and augmenting prior knowledge, while
obtaining new information for basic problem solving, allows students the opportunity to use and apply newly acquired
course material (Jones, Mungai & Wong, 2002).
Also Holler (1996) explored the relation between retention and learning method. His findings agreed with the above
writers. He also found that games are a valuable tool for enhancing learning. He stated that we remember only 10% of
what we read, 20% of what we hear, 30% of what we see, 50% of what we both hear and see, 70% of what we say, but
90% of what we do. Traditionally, students have listened to explanations from their teachers and have completed
homework exercises. If Hollers’ work is taken seriously, it is possible to conclude that students cannot retain grammar
rules for a long time, and so learning outcomes will be limited. Games provide more opportunities for students to
practise in a meaningful linguistic situation. This contributes to greater retention and more satisfactory learning
outcomes.There is some evidence that games may improve the retention of what is learned (Pierfy, 1977; Jacobs &
Dempsey, 1993). Pierfy (1977) reviewed twenty-two comparative studies of simulation games. On the basis of this
work, Pierfy concluded that games encouraged greater retention over time than conventional classroom instruction, with
students reporting more interest in the game activities. In their research, Cortez (1974), Issacs (1979) and Wrucke-
Nelson (1992) also confirmed the effectiveness of the use of games on their students’ language skills.
2.6 Motivation and Games
A widely perceived advantage of language games is also their ability to improve student motivation (Deesri, 2002;
Gaudart, 1999; Nemerow, 1996;). Researchers in social psychology and education have recognized the importance of
motivation for successful L2 learning (Gardner, 1985; Gardner & Clement, 1990; Nemerow, 1996). Nemerow (1996)
points out the role of motivation by saying that “lack of motivation is probably the greatest obstacle to learning” (p. 3).
Gardner’s (1985) socio-educational model of second language acquisition focuses on language learning taking place in
the classroom and stresses that motivation is one important variable important in second language acquisition.
Language games can promote the learners' motivation not only through their changeable forms of activity and
kaleidoscopic nature of engagement, but also through their positive effect on the level of anxiety. Games can lower
learners’ anxiety in the classroom and thus improve their learning. In conventional classrooms, there is a lot of stress
put on students trying to master the target language. Schultz and Fischer (1988) argue that
Stress is a major hindrance in language learning process. This process [Learning language in
traditional way] is by its nature time consuming and stress provoking…raises the stress level to a
point at which it interferes with student attention and efficiency and undermines motivation. …
[The use of games] has been developed to make students forget that they are in class… they relax
students by engaging them in stress-reducing task. (p. 7)
2.7 Statement of the Problem
The motivation for this study derived from observations made in various EFL teaching and learning situations in which
new strategies for application of the learned words in paragraph writing need to be developed. One useful strategy for
the application of words in writing is using games. Since the practicality of the learned words in the course is open to
question, the researcher decided to do the research.
In order to achieve the end of this study, the researcher proposes the following question and null hypothesis:
IJALEL 2 (1):35-43, 2013 38
Do word games have any significant impact on Iranian EFL intermediate students' application of the words in writing
one paragraph essay?
2.9 Research Null Hypothesis
Word games do not have any significant impact on Iranian EFL intermediate students' application of the words in
writing one paragraph essay.
3. Methodology
3.1 Participants
The participants were male and female intermediate level students from Jihad Sharif Institute in Tehran. In order to
conduct the research the researcher invited 60 students to participate in this experiment. They formed 4 classes of 15
students on average, which made out for 60 learners in total. The students were at an intermediate level studying Top
Notch series, book 3 part A, by Joan Saslow & Allen Ascher (2006) which were taught in 16 sessions from Jihad Sharif
Institute in Tehran in which the researcher has been teaching for two years.
3.2 Instrumentation
To achieve the purpose of the study, the researcher utilized certain instruments to measure the participants' abilities in
terms of language proficiency, knowledge of vocabulary, and some instructional materials.
PET Test
The first testing instrument was Preliminary English Test (PET) consisting of different sections aimed at controlling the
proficiency level of the subjects. The allotted time for this test was an hour and thirty minutes. This version of PET
(2004) was used in order to select a homogeneous group of participants. The test includes skills of grammar and
structure, reading and vocabulary, and writing. PET test was administered in order to obtain the subjects' proficiency
level of writing and also the degree of homogeneity or equality existed between the two samples. Out of the test takers
two homogeneous groups of intermediate level students were selected as control and experimental groups.
Test of Vocabulary
Before exposing the subjects to treatment, a list including 60 words of those words they were going to learn, was given
to ensure they did not know the words in advance. Those rare words which were answered by one-fourth of the
participants were either omitted or replaced by some other new words. Learners were asked to write their synonyms,
antonyms or Persian equivalent of each word.
The Writing Post-test
A post-test of paragraph writing was given to compare the learners' performance in both the experimental and the
control group. The learners were asked to write five paragraphs on five topics of "Importance of Etiquette"," Kinds of
Health Care You Use", "Write a Story of a Man's Day, Based on a Complex Illustration"," Recount the Work and Life
Decisions You Have Made and Explain Any Regrets"," Describe a Holiday Tradition in Your Country" each in one
paragraph.
The Writing Rating Scale
The writings were measured based on PET rating scale from 0-5 which checked paragraphs in content, grammar and
vocabulary use. Since our focus was on the application of words in writing, the words accuracy of application was
measured based on their correct parts of speech and correct use of the collocations.
3.3 Procedure
The study followed a quasi-experimental design and the two homogeneous groups of intermediate level students were
selected by intact group design (convenient sampling). Prior to the main study is pilot study. The test was administered
to pilot group to measure item analysis. Thirty participants with the same characteristics of our participants were
selected to standardize the homogenization test (PET) and malfunctioning items that were the most difficult and easiest
items were discarded and the reliability of the test before and after discarding malfunctioning items would was
calculated. Then the Preliminary English Test was employed to homogenize participants regarding their proficiency in
English. The scores which are +1 and -1 standard deviation above and below the mean were considered as intermediate.
Those who met the criteria were divided into two equal groups: experimental and control. Before exposing the subjects
to treatment, a list of those words they were going to learn, was given to make sure they did not know the words in
advance. During the term, the teacher taught the words to both experimental and control groups. Through a regular
teaching procedure, the words of five units of Top Notch 3 were taught to control group traditionally by giving teacher's
definition of the words, synonyms and antonyms and repetition, as placebo. The experimental group received the
treatment, which was the word game. Word games were used to reinforce what had already been taught. The
experimental group received the word games at the end of each session about 30 minutes to reinforce learning. After 16
educational sessions a writing test of five single paragraph essays according to the topics of five units of Top Notch 3 as
posttest was administered in each group. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the impact of the
application of vocabulary language games on using the learned words in writing one paragraph essay.
The PET test was administered in order to homogenize the participants. The writings were measured according to PET
rating scale from 0-5 that checked paragraphs in content, grammar and vocabulary use. Then word games were offered
as treatment to experimental group, a placebo was offered to control group. Finally after 16 educational sessions a test
IJALEL 2 (1):35-43, 2013 39
of writing as posttest was administered in each group. Instructional material were a set of word games and the course
book used in this study was Top Notch, book 3 part A by Joan Saslow & Allen Ascher (2006). Out of the test takers two
homogeneous groups of intermediate level students were selected as control and experimental.
4. Results and Discussions
The statistical analyses conducted in the present study were specified based on the nature of the study, which was quasi-
experimental research. The researcher used the following data analyses.
4.1 Data Analysis for the PET (2004) as the homogeneity test
To make sure that the participants of both groups were homogenous regarding their general English language
proficiency, a PET test was administered to the participants of both groups.
The descriptive statistics for the two groups are displayed in following tables (see appendix A for further information).
Table 4.1. The Descriptive statistics of the PET test by the two groups
N Range Min Max Mean Std. Deviation Variance
Std.
Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Error Statistic Statistic
PET Cont 30 16.00 56.00 72.00 64.50 .73461 4.02364 16.190
Proficiency
PET Exp 30 18.00 55.00 73.00 64.20 .82962 4.54404 20.648
Proficiency
Table 4.2. The Descriptive statistics of the PET test by the two groups
PET Cont Proficiency PET Exp Proficiency
N Valid 30 30
Missing 0 0
Mean 64.5000 64.2000
Median 65.0000 64.5000
Mode 60.00a 65.00
Std. Deviation 4.02364 4.54404
Variance 16.190 20.648
Minimum 56.00 55.00
Maximum 72.00 73.00
Sum 1935.00 1926.00
a. Multiple modes exist. The smallest value is shown
As seen in tables 4.1 and 4.2 above, the mean scores for the PET proficiency test are 64.50 and 64.20 for the control and
experimental groups respectively, with the standard deviation of 4.02 and 4.54.
Figure 4.1. The histogram of the PET test by the control group
IJALEL 2 (1):35-43, 2013 40
Figure 4.2. The histogram of the PET test by the experimental group
4.2 Inter-rater reliability of the post-test

Two different raters rated the students’ performance on the posttest of writing in terms of its accuracy of application of
vocabulary (collocation and part of speech). The following tables show the inter-rater reliability.
There is a significant agreement between the two raters who rated the students’ performance.
Table 4.3. Post-test of writing (R = .83; P = .000 < .05)

POSTWRITINGRATER2
Pearson Correlation .838**
POSTWRITINGRATER1
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 68
As it can be seen in table 4.3 above, the probability value is .000 and the reliability is .83 which shows a good reliability
between the two raters.
4.3. Data Analysis for the game word writing section as the Post-test
Table 4.4. Descriptive statistics for the writing post-test

Std.
N Min Max Mean Deviation Variance Skewness Kurtosis
Group
Statisti Std. Std.
Statistic Statistic Statistic c Statistic Statistic Statistic Error Statistic Error
Experimental 30 73.00 84.00 79.800 3.22062 10.372 -.079 .427 -.851 .833
Control 30 61.00 78.00 71.300 4.29233 18.424 -.305 .427 -.740 .833
In order to run a t-test, the researcher had to meet the two assumptions of normal distribution of scores and homogeneity
of variances. As shown in table 4.6 above, the two groups were normally distributed because the ratios of skewness
statistic over standard error were within the range of plus and minus 1.96. So, the first assumption was met.
It should be noted that the two groups were also homogenous in terms of their variances. As displayed in Table 4.7, the
Levene F of 3.384 had a probability of .071. Since the probability associated with the Levene F was higher than the
significance level of .05, it could be concluded that the two groups enjoyed homogenous variances on the post-test of
word game writing.
IJALEL 2 (1):35-43, 2013 41
Table 4.5. Independent t-test for the experimental and control groups of word game writing
Levene's Test
for Equality of
95% Confidence
Interval of the
F Sig. t df tailed) Dif. Dif. Lower Upper
Post-test Equal variances 3.384 .071 -8.676 58 .000 -8.500 .979 -10.46116 -6.53884
Writing assumed
Equal variances -8.676 53.794 .000 -8.500 .979 -10.46443 -6.53557
not assumed
4.4 Testing the null hypothesis

The mean scores for the experimental and control groups were 79.80 and 71.30, respectively. The P value = .000 <
.05). Based on the results, it could be concluded that there was a significant difference between the mean scores of the
two groups on the posttest of word game writing test. The experimental group scored higher marks than the control
group. According to the statistics, the mean difference was significant, therefore, it can be concluded that our null
hypothesis which was “word games do not have any significant impact on Iranian EFL intermediate students'
application of the words in writing one paragraph essay” has been rejected.
5. Conclusions and Implications
As it was mentioned earlier, the motivation for this study derived from observations made in various EFL teaching and
learning situations in which new strategies for application of the learned words in paragraph writing need to be
developed. One useful strategy for the application of words in writing is using games. There are different methods used
for teaching a language as well as its vocabulary to EFL learners; one such way is using word games which may have
deficiencies in teaching grammar or communicative skills but can be really helpful in teaching vocabulary of other
subject matters to students. Therefore, this study aimed to find an answer to the following research question and null
hypothesis:
Q: Do word games have any significant impact on Iranian EFL intermediate students' application of the words in
writing one paragraph essay?
HO: Word games do not have any significant impact on Iranian EFL intermediate students' application of the words in
writing one paragraph essay.
The research results rejected the stated hypothesis meaning that there actually is a significant difference between those
students who work with word games and those who do not and unprecedentedly exceeded the researcher’ expectations.
But surprisingly the author found that not all the participants were in fact in favor of the word games. The reason might
be the students were not used to being taught under this situation. This study investigated one of the most important
issues in EFL instruction, i.e., vocabulary development and use in writing one paragraph essay. One of the most
difficult aspects of learning a foreign language, particularly in an EFL context, is the retention and use of vocabulary in
writing. To prevail this problem teacher can teach vocabulary through activities like word games, reinforcing the
teaching points without boring the students. Traditional techniques for teaching vocabulary to intermediate and
advanced learners might not be so effective.
In Iran, learning vocabulary has been considered a boring subject for a long time and the traditional way of learning
vocabulary by mere copying and remembering has shown to be less than effective. Meanwhile, games are also seen as a
time-filling activity in most English classrooms. It is believed that games are just for fun and they have very little effect
in teaching and learning. However, this research revealed that games contribute to vocabulary learning if they give
students a chance to learn, practice and to review the English language in a pleasant atmosphere. From the research, it
was found that students were demanding new ways of learning vocabulary, and they themselves are in search of new
ways of learning this subject as well.
Interpretations of the findings of this research also led to several suggestions for further research.
1. It is recommended that this study be replicated with a larger sample or number of participants from the same
background. This study considered around sixty people which is not a large sample.
2. The present study may be replicated having native speakers as the participants, so that the efficacy of using word
games would be explored on the native speakers as well.
3. It is recommended that a concept mapping or a visual map study be conducted on the effect of vocabulary learning of
Iranian EFL learners.
4. It would be interesting to compare the results across levels of proficiency.
5. It is recommended that the picture-based vocabulary teaching study be conducted in order to investigate the possible
effect of pictures on the retention of vocabularies as well.
References
IJALEL 2 (1):35-43, 2013 42
Allery, L. A. (2004). Educational games and structured experiences. Medical Teacher, 26(6), 504-505.
doi:10.1080/01421590412331285423
Anderson, K. S. (1998). Let the game begin: The gaming approach as an alternative paradigm in nursing education.
Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, North Carolina State University, North Carolina.
Chandler, T. (1996). Reflections and further questions. Retrieved from global
.umi.com/pqdweb?INT=0&SelLanguage=0&TS=1043287741&Did=000
Cortez, E. G. (1974). Games for second language learning: A comparison of two approaches for teaching English to
Puerto Rican children. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Temple University, PA.
Deesri, A. (2002). Games in the ESL and EFL class. Retrieved from http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Deesri-Games.html.
Downton, A. (2004). Games can help get reluctant learners into maths. EQ Australia, 3, 17-19.
Gardner, D. (1987). Communication games: Do we know what we’re talking about? ELT Journal, 41(1), 19-24.
doi:10.1093/elt/41.1.19
Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitudes and motivation. London:
Edward Arnold.
Gardner, R. C, & Clement, R. (1990). Social psychological perspectives on second language acquisition. In H. Giles &
R. St. Clair (Eds.), Language and Social psychology (pp. 218-243). Oxford: Blackwell Press.
Gaudart, H. (1999). Games as teaching tools for teaching English to speakers of other languages. Retrieved from
http://sag.sagepub.com/cgi/content /abstract/30/3/283.
Griffiths, R., & Clyne, M. (1995). Games: A context and a medium for learning. In J. Wakefield & L. Velardi (Eds.),
Celebrating mathematics learning (pp. 191-195). Melbourne: The Mathematical Association of Victoria.
Hadfield, J. (1996). Elementary communication games: A collection of games and activities for elementary students of
English. England: Wesley Longman.
Harvey, J. G., & Bright, G. W. (1985). Basic math games. Palo Alto, California: Dale Seymour Publications.
Holler, J. (1996). Das neue Gehirn. Padeborn: Junfermann.
Hong, L. (2002). Using games in teaching English to young learners. Retrieved from http://iteslj.org/Lessons/Lin-
UsingGames.html
Hunt, S. E., & Cain, E. (1950). Games - the world around: Four hundred folk games. New York: A. S. Barnes Com.
Isaacs, R. H. (1979). Affective and cognitive changes in using Hebrew language games with thirteen and fourteen year
old students: An exploratory study. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University Teachers College, New York,
NY.
Jacobs, J. W., & Dempsey, J. V. (1993). Simulation and gaming: Fidelity, feedback, and motivation. In J. V. Dempsey
& G. C. Sales (Eds.), Interactive instruction and feedback (pp. 197-227). Englewood Hills, NJ: Educational Technology
Publications.
Jones, D., Mungai, D., & Wong, L. (2002). Games to teach. Paper published in the proceeding of the 18th Annual
Conference on Distance Teaching and Learning, Wisconsin, UW.
Kuo, Y. (1990). Using some selected games to develop secondary school students' oral communication skills in Taiwan.
Taipei: The Grane Publishing.
Littlewood, W. (1981). Communicative language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lozanov, G. (1979). Suggestology and outlines of suggestopedy. New York: Gorden & Breach Science Pub.
Macedonia, M. (2005). Games and foreign language teaching. Support for Learning, 20(3), 135-140.
doi:10.1111/j.0268-2141.2005.00377.x
Markey, C. E. (1997). An investigation into the use of structured games to teach early fraction concepts to students who
are deaf or hard of hearing. Unpublished master’s thesis, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia.
Miller, M. C. (1992). Two experimental studies of the effectiveness of interactive game-playing in the acquisition of
Japanese by Americans. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Delaware.
Nemerow, L. G. (1996). Do classroom games improve motivation and learning? Retrieved from
http://global.umi.com/pqdweb?INT =0& Sel Language=0&TS=1043287741&Did=000000.
Ogershok, P., & Cottrell, S. (2004). The pediatric board game. Medical Teacher, 26(6), 514-517.
Pierfy, D. A. (1977). Comparative simulation game research: Stumbling blocks and stepping stones. Simulation and
Games, 8(2), 255-268.
Richard-Amto, P. A. (1996). Making it happen. New York: Addison-Wesley Publishing Group.
Ruben, B. D. (1999). Simulations, games, and experience-based learning: The quest for a new paradigm for teaching
and learning. Simulation & Gaming, 30(4), 498-506. doi:10.1177/104687819903000409
Schultz, M., & Fischer, A. (1988). Games for all reasons. New York: Addison-Wesley.
IJALEL 2 (1):35-43, 2013 43
Shie, J. S. (2003). Aspects of EFL games. Taipei: The Crance Publishing Company.
Steinberg, J. (1992). Games language people play. Ontario: Dominie Press Pippin Publishing Limited.
Terrell, T. D. (1977). A natural approach to second language acquisition and learning. The Modern Language Journal,
61, 325-336. doi:10.2307/324551
Thatcher, D. C. (1990). Promoting learning through games and simulations. Simulation & Gaming, 21, 262-273.
doi:10.1177/1046878190213005
Ur, P. (1988). Grammar practice activities: A practical guide for teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Wrucke-Nelson, A. C. (1992). An investigation into the development of oral English in concept formation through the
use of group games in the bilingual/ESL classroom. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Texas Woman's University, TX.
An Investigation into the Speech Act of Compliment Response in

Persian
Seyyed Ayatolla Razmjoo
Associate professor
Department of foreign languages, Shiraz University
E-mail: arazmjoo@rose.shirazu.ac.ir
Elyas Barabadi
E-mail: elyasbarabadi@yahoo.com
Ali Arfa
E-mail: Ali_arfa1368@yahoo.com

Abstract
The purpose of this study is to investigate the compliment responses in Persian language. Drawing on Herbert’s (1986),
Mile (1994), Rose and Kwai-Fun (2001), and also the data of the current study, 18 types of compliment responses were
identified. Based on different compliment topics [such as appearance, ability, possession and nationality], the researcher
along with 12 others as assistants who were instructed how to give compliments got engaged in conversations with
different people to compliment them. They complimented people from various professions, contexts, cities and
educational levels. The majority [67.6%] of our corpus of 756 naturally occurring compliment responses fell into the
main category of “agreement”. However, the absence of the compliment response “no-acknowledgement”, the high
rate of two or three part appreciation token along with a significant portion of “ making offer” attest to the culturally-
specific Iranian features such as modesty and Ta’arof. Additionally, no significant differences were found between
males and females in terms of compliment response types, or the degree of modesty or Ta’arof. Nonetheless, there
existed significant differences with regard to topics of compliment in a sense that most of the compliments given on
nationality (89%) were accepted while in the case of physical and mental domain, it was not that much high. Like other
studies in pragmatic area, this study also indicates that compliment response is cross-naturally varied, different, and
hence warrants more attention in instruction and material development.
Keywords: speech act, compliment, compliment response, inter-language pragmatics and Persian language
1. Inroduction
Since the emergence of Hyme's (1971) communicative competence, pragmatic features of L2 have come to the fore. In
recent years, this aspect of language has been given due attention both in different models of communicative
competence for testing purposes ( Backman, 1990; Canale and Swain, 1980) and consequently, in teaching practices in
the form of implicit or explicit instruction ( Bardovi-Harlig & Griffin, 2005; Koike & Pearson, 2005; Martinez-Flor &
Fukuya, 2005; Rose, 2005 & Soler, 2005). Kasper and Rose (2001) pointed out that interlanguage pragmatics is
concerned with the "study of how people accomplish their goals and attend to interpersonal relationships while using
language" (P. 2). They further point out that much of what learners need for development of pragmatic competence
already exists in their L1 pragmatic repertoire. In other words, positive transfer from L1 to L2 would facilitate learner's
task in acquiring the socio-pragmatic knowledge. Indeed, the key insight gained from comparative research program
which marked the inception of inter-language pragmatics (Jeon &Kaya, 2006) is that existing pragmatic knowledge
plays an important role in developing L2 pragmatics, and that learners can purposefully build on it (Bialystok, 1993). At
the same time, many researchers (Wolfson, 1982a; Rose & Kwai-fun, 200 & Yoshimi, 2001) who are concerned with
instruction of L2 pragmatic features found out that there are much variation with regard to both pragmalinguistic and
sociopragmatic aspects of L2 and L1 so that learners' attention has to be drawn to these differences.
Given the key role of the existing pragmatic knowledge both in terms of positive transfer (Bialystok, 1993) and
variation between the two languages and how this variation can be used to help students notice (Schmidt, 1993) the
IJALEL 2 (1):44-52, 2013 45
differences between two languages, this study aims at investigating the compliment responses as a speech act in Persian
language among Iranians. Although there exist some studies concerning compliments and compliment responses in
English and some other languages such as Japanese, Korean and Arabic, to our knowledge, no study has investigated
compliment responses in Persian language using naturally occurring data. This motivated us to carry out this study by
analyzing a corpus of naturally occurring conversations with compliment responses as our main concern. Our hope is
that the findings of this study can have a contribution to the interlanguage pragmatic competence of Iranian learners of
English and those who want to learn Persian as their second or foreign language.
2. Pragmatics and interlanguage pragmatics
Pragmatics which was initially proposed in Morris' (1971) semiotics is mainly concerned with the study of the
relationship between the signs and their interpreters or between the language and its users in social contexts (Schiffrin,
1994 &Yule, 1996). By the same token, interlanguage pragmatics is mainly concerned with the study of non-native
speakers' production and comprehension of the pragmatic features of the target language including implicatures,
politeness strategies, presuppositions and speech acts. Additionally, ILP is concerned with how foreign or second
language learners acquire the pragmatic competence in another language (Kasper, 1992).
In recent years, there has been a growing interest in studies dealing with interlanguage pragmatics. As mentioned
before, learners’ pragmatic knowledge of their first language and culture plays a critical role in acquiring the pragmatic
features of the target language (Kasper, 1992; Wolfson, 1982, 1990 & Dash, 2004). The aforementioned researchers
ascribed either a positive role to the pragmatic transfer of L1 by stating that the social and cultural norms between two
languages are similar, or a negative role by stating that in many cases, non-native speakers of a language cannot
communicate appropriately due to the unwarranted generalizations from their first language to the second language.
Therefore, in either case, a strong need is felt for investigating the pragmatic features of the two languages so that
learners become cognizant about the similarities and differences of two languages. In the next section, a number of
studies which have investigated the speech act of compliment in English and some other languages are presented.
3. Previous studies on speech act of compliment
According to many researchers (Wolfson, 1981; Homes & Brown, 1987), languages differ from each other in terms of
speech acts and their linguistic realizations. These differences in speech act conventions have been one of the main
causes of cross-cultural misunderstanding. Comparing American and other cultures in terms of semantic and syntactic
structure of compliment, Wolfson (1981) observed that there are differences among languages regarding how to
compliment and what is complimented. Similarly, Holmes and Brown’s (1987) study indicated that misunderstandings
in compliment exchanges may arise between people from two cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Their study which
was based on two major compliment topics of appearance and ability indicated that learners need to understand not only
topic differences related to compliments, who to compliment and when, they should also learn about the cultural values
that these differences might convey. In other words, learners should be given chance to pay due attention both to
pragmalinguistic and sociopragmatic elements about compliments.
Comparing the way American and Japanese give and receive compliments, Diakuhara (1986) also identified a number
of differences between two languages with regard to praise attributes, frequency, functions and compliment responses.
The most striking difference between them was related to compliment responses. While Japanese speakers tended to
avoid self-praise in order to create distance by showing deference, Americans were more oriented towards establishing
solidarity by accepting the compliments given to them. Likewise, Han (1992) found out that Korean female learners of
English differ in their responding to compliment responses whether they spoke English or Korea. They tended to reject
compliments in English interactions by saying “thanks” or “thank you”. Other researchers such as Falasi (2007) and
Nelson, Al Batal and El Bakary (2002) investigated the speech act compliments and their responses in English and
Arabic languages and they also found some nuance differences in the way two languages formulate this speech act.
Using discourse completion test (DCT), Yousefvand (2010) investigated and categorized the range of strategies used in
responding to compliments in Persian. 30 undergraduate students majoring in English-Persian translation from Islamic
Azad University, Khorasgan and state University of Isfahan participated in the study. Their responses to different
scenarios presented in DCT resulted in 540 compliment responses. The results of her study indicated that although
Persian speakers who participated in her study tended to respond to the compliments given them with “agreement”, they
showed their agreement with some sort of modesty which is the characteristic of Iranian culture. She also noted that
there is some variation across gender in responding to compliments in a sense that males were more likely to reject a
compliment by using a set of formulaic expressions.
Finally, it should be noted that the main insight gained from all the studies for pedagogy is that teachers and syllabus
designers ought to make pragmatic features accessible to foreign or second language learners through pedagogical
intervention (implicit or explicit instruction) or by incorporating this aspect of language into textbooks or other
materials. The rational underlying this claim is Schmidt’s noticing hypothesis that learners would turn input into intake
only when they have conscious awareness of the target elements they want to acquire.
4. Participants
The people who participated in this study came from different parts of Iran including Shiraz, Tehran, Mashhad, Arak,
Shahre Kord and Taybad. We tried to give compliments to people from different regions, occupations, levels of
educations and age levels so that the participants could be as representative of the target population ( Iranian people) as
possible. 213 of the participants were male and the rest (40 percent) were female. The sites from which participants
IJALEL 2 (1):44-52, 2013 46
were chosen were as diverse as possible as follow: parks, academic settings, family gatherings, markets, dorms and
virtual environments (online chatting). About half of them were below 30 and the rest were higher than 30. In order to
add variety to the compliment responses, 12 other people helped the researchers to gather data. In other words, they
were also asked to give compliments to different people. Of these 12 assistants, two were PhD students, four
businessmen, four teachers and the rest housekeepers. All those who were about to give compliments knew in advance
the topics of compliment e.g. ability or appearance so that a greater variety of compliment responses could be elicited.
In other words, the researchers and their assistants went about giving compliments while knowing what topics to cover.
5. Procedure
This study is mainly based on naturally occurring conversations performed by researchers and their assistants as those
who gave compliments and the various participants who provided responses to compliments. The conversations were
either audio-tapped and then transcribed or were written down immediately after the conversations so that the
conversations could be retained in a verbatim manner. In order to achieve a comprehensive entry of compliment
responses in Persian, attempt was made to give compliments on a variety of topics including mental ability, possession,
acts and nationality. Moreover, the range of syntactic formulas used for giving compliments was considered as well. We
tried to include almost all the major syntactic formulas in Persian to account for the effect of grammar on the types of
responses given to compliments. In order to obtain the full potential of compliments responses, we attempted to ensure
a fair distribution of both syntactic formulas as well as topics of compliments based on Rose and Ng Kwai-fun (2001).
Since giving compliments to somebody requires some degrees of acquaintance, we had to use the same 12 assistants
mentioned in the previous section to help us in this study. In this way, we could maintain the naturalness of the
conversations without resorting to contrived situations in which participants were informed in advance that they are
going to be given a compliment, and to prepare themselves to answer appropriately. Instead, every one of us could give
compliments to people on the other side of the conversations who were among his or her friends, siblings, professors,
colleagues or students. In case of researchers' assistants who could not or did not want to use tape-recorder, one of the
researchers accompanied them to write down the conversations while occurring or immediately after it.
6. Results
As mentioned before, the corpus of this study is comprised of 756 naturally occurring compliment responses in Iranian
context. By naturally occurring, it is meant those compliment responses obtained not through questionnaires (e.g. DCT)
which do not directly measure the social or linguistic actions. In other words, because of the artificiality of the data
obtained through discourse completion test, we tried to maintain the naturalness of the data by giving different types of
compliments to various groups of people orally in different contexts. Herbert’s (1986) taxonomy of compliment
responses was the primary framework for coding them. Furthermore, two types of complement responses from Miles
(1994), three types of compliment responses from Rose and Ng kwai-Fun (2001) and finally one type from current
study were added to Herbert’s taxonomy. Overall, the final classification of compliment responses ended up in 18 types.
The first 12 types are adopted from Herbert’s (1986), the next two (types 13 & 14) from Miles (1994), the next three
ones ( types 15, 16 & 17) from Rose and Ng kwai-Fun (2001) and the last one (type 18) from current study. Each of
them is described below and some of them are provided with an example. Although the study of compliment responses
in Iranian context has been carried out before, this study makes use of data elicited through naturally occurring
conversation instead of DCT.
1. APPRECIATION TOKEN. A verbal acceptance of a compliment, acceptance not being semantically fitted to the
specifics of that compliment,
2. COMMENT ACCEPTANCE. The addressee accepts the complimentary force by means of a response semantically
fitted to the compliment.
3. PRAISE UPGRADE. The addressee accepts the compliment and asserts that the compliment force is insufficient.
4. COMMENT HISTORY. The addressee, although agreeing with the complimentary force, does not accept the praise
personally; rather, he or she impersonalizes the complimentary force by giving (maybe irrelevant) impersonal details.
5. REASSIGNMENT. The addressee agrees with the compliment, but the complimentary force is transferred to some
third person or to the object complimented itself.
6. RETURN. The praise is shifted to the addresser/complimenter
7. SCALE DOWN. The force of the compliment is minimized or scaled down by the addressee.
8. QUESTION. The addressee might want an expansion or repetition of the original compliment or question the
sincerity of the compliment.
9. DISAGREEMENT. The addressee directly disagrees with addresser’s assertion.
10. QUALIFICATION. The addressee may choose not to accept the full complimentary force offered by qualifying that
praise, usually by employing
11. NO ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. The addressee gives no indication of having heard the compliment; that is, he or she
employs the conversational turn to do something other than responding to the compliment offered, e.g., shifts the topic.
12. REQUEST INTERPRETATION. The addressee interprets the compliment as a request rather than a simple
compliment.
IJALEL 2 (1):44-52, 2013 47
13. AGREEMENT. The addressee aligns himself with the complimenter (e.g. I like it too)
14. SELF-PRAISE AVOIDANCE. The addressee avoids being flattered (anyone can do this)
15. CONTINUED EFFORT. The addressee ascribes the point of compliment to his effort not something like a given
talent. (e.g. I will keep doing it)
16. NON-VERBAL RESPONSE (silence to show agreement)
17. ANSWER QUESTION. The addressee interprets the compliment as a question to which he provides an answer.
(e.g. I bought it last week).
18. AVOIDING EMBARRASSMENT. The addressee feels embarrassed to be complimented. (e.g. Don’t put me to
shame, I didn’t do something extraordinary).
In order to examine the potentials of different data collection procedure, the results of this study are compared to those
of Yousefvand (2010). Additionally, a comparison will be made with Herbert’s study to find out about the potential
differences across cultures. However, it should be noted that due to short of space, only the percentages of those
compliment responses that we want to compare or contrast are presented without referring to the complete list of their
compliment responses. For more information regarding their findings, readers can refer to Yousefvand (2010) and
Herbert (1986).
As shown in table 1, agreement responses in our data amount to 67.6% in the compliment exchanges. 47.6% of this
belongs to the subcategory “acceptance” and the rest (20%) makes up the subcategory “non-acceptance”. So, it is
quite evident that the most frequent type of compliment response among Iranians is “agreement” and among this main
category, the subcategory of “acceptance” roughly makes up half of all compliment responses. This strongly suggests
that Iranians are more likely to accept rather than reject a compliment. Although the main category “agreement” was
also the most frequent type of compliment response in Yousefvand (2010) study (43.49%), this value is much higher in
our study, and it makes up two-third of the total responses. This finding is similar to that of Herbert’s study on
compliment responses among American and South African college students. Agreement responses in his study
comprised 66% of all the compliment responses which is roughly equal to our study (67.6%).
Table 1. Frequency of Compliment Response Types among Persian Speaking participants

Response type number Percentage
A: Agreement
I. Acceptance
1. appreciation token 146 19/3
2. comment acceptance 46 6/1
3. praise upgrade 60 7/9
4. agreement 82 10/8
5. continued effort 11 1/4
6. non-verbal 16 2/1
7. answer question - -
Subtotal1 361 47/6
II. Non-acceptance
1. Comment history 16 2/1
2. reassignment 14 1/8
3. return 96 12/7
4. avoiding embarrassment 25 3/3
Subtotal 2 151 20
Subtotal 1 , 2 512 67/6
B: Non- agreement
1. Scale down 34 4/5
2. question 32 4/2
3. disagreement 60 7/9
4. qualification 32 4/2
5. non acknowledgment - -
6. self- praise avoidance 26 3/4
Subtotal 184 24/2
C: other interpretation 60 7/9
756 99/6
“Non-agreement”, the second main type of compliment response makes up 24.2 % of the compliment responses in our
data which is quite similar to Yousefvand’s study in which disagreement comprised 24.82% of the total responses to
compliments. Finally, the “other interpretation” which consists of “request” according to Herbert’s [making offer
according to Rose and Ng Kwai-Fun(2001) comprised 7.9% of our data. In Yousefvand’s (1990) study category “other
interpretations” which consists of requests as well as formulaic expressions, comprised 31.7% of the responses. In our
IJALEL 2 (1):44-52, 2013 48
view, “formulaic expressions” cannot be considered as a different type of compliment responses since they appear in
almost all types of compliment responses, and they have nothing to do with the semantic content and illocutionary force
of compliments. For example, the following compliment responses contain formulaic expressions: (in all the examples,
the italics are Persians and the non-italics are their English equivalents).
1) Request [making offer]
A: Che mobile ghashangi!
B: Ghorbane shoma, ghabelinadare.
A: What a beautiful cell phone!
B: I’m sacrificed for you. You are welcome.
2) Praise Upgrade:
A: Kheili khosh tip shodi!
B: lotf dari, hame ino migan
A: You are so handsome!
B: It’s very nice of you, everybody says that.
3) Agreement:
A: In sha allah yeki az behtarin khalabanhaye Iran mishi!
B: Merci, Shak nadaram.
A: God willing, you will make one of the best pilots of Iran.
B: Thanks, I have no doubt.
4) Agreement:
A: Dokhtaraye Shirazi kheili Ziba Hastan!
B: Doroste, Shak nakonid.
A: Shirazi’s girls are very beautiful!
B: You are right, don’t ever doubt it.
The main point is that formulaic expressions in contrast to Yousefvand’s study do not make up a separate category or
type in compliment responses, rather they only accompany other types of compliment responses and their roles
according to Yousefvand (2010) is to show their modesty.
Another aspect of the analysis focuses on the differential responses given by males and females. The quantitative
analysis of the participant’s responses to compliment in terms of the three main types [agreement, non-agreement and
other interpretation] revealed close similarity across genders. Table 2 shows that males and females’ compliment
responses consisted of 66.5% and 68.48% of agreement type respectively. Similarly, 24.9% of males and 23.3% of
females rejected the compliments given to them (males 8.2% while females 7.6%). Thus, it seems that there are not
significant differences between males and females in terms of compliment responses. In other words, the preference for
acceptance of the compliment applies rather equally to both genders.
Table 2. Frequency of Compliment Response Types across gender

Response Type Female Male
NO % NO %
A: agreement
I. Acceptance
1. appreciation 64 17/48 82 21
2. comment acceptance 22 6 24 6/1
3. praise upgrade 28 7/6 32 8/2
4. agreement 52 14 30 7/7
5. continued effort 7 1/9 4 1
6. non-verbal response 12 3/3 4 1
7. answer question - - - -
Subtotal-1
II. Non- acceptance
1. comment history 9 2/4 7 1/8
2. reassignment 9 2/2 6 1/5
3. return 36 9/8 60 15/4
4. avoiding 14 3/8 11 2/8
embarrassment
IJALEL 2 (1):44-52, 2013 49
Subtotal-2 67 18/2 84 21/5
Subtotal- 1,2 252 68/48 260 66/5
B: Non- agreement
1. Scale down 16 4/3 18 4/6
2. question 18 4/9 14 3/6
3. disagreement 20 4/9 42 10/7
4. qualification 20 3/8 12 3
5.non- acknowledgment - - - -
6. Self-praise avoidance 14 3/8 12 3
Subtotal 86 23/3 98 24/9
C: Other interpretation
1. request[offer] 28 7/6 32 8/2
366 99/38 390 99/6

total:756
The third way to analyze the data is to examine the frequency of different response types in terms of the topic of
compliments. For this purpose, different topics of compliment were reduced to three main topics including physical
compliments, mental compliments and compliments given on participants’ nationality [ e.g. to say something nice about
participant’s hometown, for example, the Taybadi’s are very hospitable]. As table 3 displays, the overall tendency in all
topics is toward acceptance but the interesting point is related to the frequency of the compliment responses given on
nationality. While in compliments related to topics of physical and mental, 64% and 63% of participants [about two-
third of them] respectively showed a preference towards acceptance, in case of nationality, about 90% of participants
agreed to compliments.
Table 3. Frequency of Compliment Response Types in terms of topic of compliment

Agree Agree offer
Type of N % N % N %
compliment O O O
Physical 21 % 44 % 80 %
9 64 13 23
mental 18 % 11 % - -
9 63 0 37
nationality 10 % 12 % - -
2 89 11
It is worth mentioning that of the 60 compliment responses related to “praise upgrade”, 16 praise upgrade responses
(26.6%) belong to nationality. Consider the following exchanges with a Shirazi woman:
A: Shiraziha besiyar mehman navaz hastand!
B: Hamintor ham hast, sad dar sad, bar akse esfehaniha.
A: The Shirazis are very hospitable.
B: You are 100% right, absolutely, contrary to Isfahanis.
7. Discussion.
Concerning the frequency of different response types in Persian, it can be argued that “agreement” comes at the top of
compliment responses with appreciation token with the highest frequency (19.3%). The main characteristic of this type
of compliment response is that at the same time that the complimentee accepts the illocutionary force of compliment, he
or she tries to accompany this type of response with one or two forms of what Yousefvand (2010) calls formulaic
expressions in order to avoid self-praise, or show modesty by analyzing the strategy of “shekaste nafsi” [humbling
oneself] (Sharifian, 2005). Thus, it can be inferred from our data that the response type of appreciation token which
makes up 19.3% of all responses is in line with Leech’s (1983) modesty maxim. The following examples taken from
our corpus reflect this fact:
A: ajab pirhane khoshrangi darid! (What a lovely color your shirt is!)
B: mamnoon, lotf darid. (Thanks its very nice of you.)
A: Pesaretoon kheili ba adabe. (Your son is very polite)
B: Merci, hosne zanne shomast. (Thanks it’s your kind view.)
As far as the compliment responses of “appreciation token” is concerned, the results of our study is in line with those
of Yousefvand’s (2010) study in a sense that the use of formulaic expressions such as “chakeretam”[ I am your
servant], “nazare lotfe shomast” [ its very kind of you] and “ khejalatam nade”[ do not put me to shame] give support
IJALEL 2 (1):44-52, 2013 50
to cultural scheme of “ shekaste nafsi” put forth by Sharifian (2005). However, it should be noted that appreciation
token only makes up 19.3% of the total responses subsumed under the main category of agreement. Within this main
category, other subcategories including comment acceptance (6.1%), praise upgrade (7.9%), agreement (10.8%),
continual effort (1.4%) and nonverbal response (2.1%) amount to 28.3%. In other words, in these subcategories of
“agreement”, there is no sign of modesty, and it seems that Iranians, contrary to the expectation, accept the compliment
comfortably. The following example might clarify this point:
A: Hushe Riazie ballayi darid! (You have an amazing mathematical intelligence)
B: Khoda’am! (I’m a god in mathematics).
A: Range kif va mantotoon ro kheili khoob set kardid! (The color of your bag goes very well with that of your
dress)
B: Daghighan. (Exactly)
This claim can further be supported by considering the compliment response “praise upgrade”. While Herbert and
Yousefvand’s data consists of 0.04% and 4.80% of praise upgrade response, our data is consisted of 7.9% of praise
upgrade response type. This is in stark contrast with those studies that claim that Asian people tend to reject
compliments, or lessen embarrassment and tensions between interlocutors (Chen, 1993 & Loh, 1993).
It is worth discussing the fact that a new type of compliment response emerged out of our data which we call “avoiding
embarrassment”. Although this type of compliment makes up only a tiny fraction (3.3%) of our data, it lends support to
Sharifiyan’s (2005) cultural schema of shekaste-nafsi [modesty]. Let’s take a look at the following examples:
A: che sofreye por zargho barghi darid!
B: khejalatam nade toro khoda, engar ke gav koshtam baratun.
A: What a generous table you have set!
B: Do not embarrass me please, as if I have slaughtered a cow for you.
A mention is worth to be made of compliment response of “reassignment” in our data. As can be seen in table 2,
reassignment only accounted for 2.2% of all compliment responses. Of this percentage, only a handful of compliment
responses were assigned to God.
With regard to non-acknowledgement (silence) as a non-agreement compliment response, no respondent remained silent
after receiving a compliment, however, this does not mean that the participant did not reject compliments; rather they
resorted to verbal responses such as scale down and question. This might be interesting in a way that in Iranian culture,
remaining silent as a sign of rejecting a compliment may not be considered a polite way of responding, although
remaining silent along with a facial expression such as smiling as a way of accepting the compliment is not far from
expectation (2.1% in our data). Nonetheless, this finding is in contrast to both Yousefvand’s (2010) and Herbert’s
(1990) whose data consists of 4.08% and 5.1% of non-acknowledgement response type respectively. This discrepancy
might be related to the nature of data obtained in these studies. Whereas in our study, participants got engaged in face to
face interactions, they might have felt more obliged to utter something no matter what, the participants in the
aforementioned studies only responded to imaginary situations depicted in DCT, and hence, they felt less obliged, if
any, to respond.
Another interesting finding in our data is the remarkable amount of request response [or making offer] which amounts
to 7.9% of the total compliment responses. To be more precise, making offer comprised 23% of the compliment
responses when the topic of complimenting was physical [e.g. possession such as cars, clothes…]. This finding runs
counter to the studies of Herbert’s (1990) and Yousefvand (2010) in which request [making offer] makes up only 2.9%
and 0.92% of all compliment responses. This tendency among Iranians to make offer when they are given a compliment
on their possessions can be explicated in light of the concept of “Ta’arof” in Iranian culture. According to Sahragard
(2004), Ta’arof is a part of Iranian culture which shows Adab (politeness), Tavaazo (humility), Ehteram (respect),
Rudarbaayesti ( being shy or ceremonious ), and finally MehmanNavaazi (hospitality). Looked at from this cultural
script approach taken by Sahragard, we come to this conclusion that Iranians would enact one of the above realizations
of the concept of Ta’arof when they are given a compliment on their possessions. The following examples better clarify
this point:
A: Aghaye Hoseini, kheili saate zibayi darid!
B: Pishkesh.
A: Mr. Hosseini, your watch is very beautiful!
B: It is yours
A: Kafshato taze kharidi? Kheili khoshgelan!
B: Ghabele shomaro nadare. Bi ta’arof, mikhay emtehaneshoon koni bebini too pat chetoran?!
A: Have you bought your shoes recently? They are very beautiful.
B: You’re welcome!
with no Ta’arof [sincerely] do you want to try them on to see if they are your size?!
As mentioned before in the result section, no significant differences were found between men and women with regard to
the frequency of compliment response types. Both males and females showed similar pattern of compliment responses
IJALEL 2 (1):44-52, 2013 51
in different topics of compliment. Of 18 types of compliment responses, men differed from women only in compliment
response of agreement (males 7.7%, females 14%) and disagreement (males 10.7%, females 4.9%). The stronger
preference of females for compliment response of agreement (9.8%) can be interpreted in two different ways; Women
are either more likely to accept compliments, or its better to say they like to be complimented, or they want to avoid
threatening the positive face of those people who compliment them. According to Yousefvand (2010), “the female
participations seem to regard the denial response pattern as an inappropriate option”. Thus, our study indicates that
gender is not a defining variable in the compliment responses; that is, gender disparity across compliment responses is
not significant.
With regard to the topic of compliments , all the compliment responses were classified into three main topics, namely,
physical [ appearance, clothes, possessions], mental [ intelligence, behavior, character] and nationality [ e.g. to say
something nice about somebody’s hometown]. Of the total number of compliments (756), 343 involved the physical
topic, 189 involved mental topic and the rest (102) involved nationality. While the participants’ responses to the first
two topics were similar in terms of the two major response type of agreement and non-agreement; the third topic
brought about quite different results. As displayed in table 3, agreement response accounted for 64% of physical topic,
63% of mental topic and 89% of nationality. To be more specific, only 11% of the participants who were given the
compliments on their nationality refused to accept it. This indicates that Iranians are passionately sympathetic to
patriotic causes. In other words, although the general response pattern among Iranians is more inclined towards
agreement end of the continuum of compliment response, in case of nationality topic, this inclination is much more
conspicuous. Furthermore, most of those responses related to nationality fell into the subcategories of “agreement” and
“praise upgrade”. The following example better clarify the point:
A: Shoma birjandiha adamhaye khoongarm va mehrmannavazi hastid!
B: Chizi ke ayan ast che hajat be bayan ast.
A: You Birjandis, are very friendly and hospitable!
B: That, which is clear, does not warrant saying.
8. Conclusion
The above discussion suggests that, generally speaking, the Iranians’ responses to compliments tend to lean towards
agreement and appreciation. This in turn rejects the finding of those studies (Chen, 1993; Loh, 1993 & Othman, 2011)
which imply that the Asians tend to reject compliments. This however, might come true with south-east Asians not with
south-west Asians, specifically, Iranian people. Compliment responses tend to correspond to those of American people
studied by Herbert in terms of the main categories of agreement, non-agreement and other responses. Though, this does
not mean that these two cultures do not differ from each other. Among the discrepancies between the two cultures are
the following:
In our data, the rate of “request response” [or making offer] was much higher than that of Herbert’s study; that is, 7.9 %
versus 2.9% respectively. As stated before, making offer in Iranian culture is one way through which people make
“Ta’arof”. According to Sahragard (2004), Ta’arof plays a key role in establishing good and smooth relationships in a
number of ways. Additionally, the appreciation token which comes at the top of compliment response types in our
study [19.3%] can be interpreted from a perspective which is particular to Iranian culture. The majority of these
appreciation tokens consisted of two or three parts. In other words, while accepting the illocutionary force of the
compliment, in one part of the response, they said something to show modesty which is a key component of Iranian
politeness (Yousefvand, 2010).
Two other outstanding features in our data concern the response types of non-acknowledgement and avoiding
embarrassment to the absence of the former and the presence of the latter in Iranian culture again testify to what can be
referred to as Iranian specific politeness. Moreover, as the result of the study indicated, there exist some differences
between data collected through DCT as used by Yousefvand with regard to compliment responses and the data collected
naturally in our study. However, caution must be exercised regarding this conclusion since the differences found
between the two studies are not much significant.
In sum, the findings of this study are in agreement with those of other studies concerning the fact that languages differ
from one another in terms of speech acts and their linguistic realizations (Wolfson, 1982a & Holmes and Brown, 1987).
This pragmatic variation among languages testifies to the fact that language is not an object devoid of social and
cultural elements, but it is a process which is inseparable from the rest of human social life (Haliday, 2003). The
implication for the L2 teaching is crystal clear; speech acts and other pragmatic features of L2 should be high on the
agenda. Both teachers and material developers are strongly recommended to pay more attention to this aspect of
language.
References
Al-Falasi, H. (2007). Just say 'thank you': A study of compliment responses. The linguistic journal, 2 (1). Retrieved
April 17, 2008, from www. Linguistics-journal.com.
Bachman, L. (1990). Fundamental considerations in language testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bardovi-Harlig, K. & Griffin, R. (2005). L2 pragmatic awareness: Evidence from the ESL classroom. System, 33, 401-
415.
IJALEL 2 (1):44-52, 2013 52
Behnam, B. & Amizadeh, N. (2004). A comparative study of the compliments and compliment responses between
English and Persian TV interviews. The southeast Journal of English Language Studies, 17(1), 65-78.
Bialystok, E. (1993). Symbolic representation and attentional control in pragmatic competence. In G. Kasper, & S.
Blum-Kulka (Eds.), Interlanguage Pragmatics (PP. 43-57). Oxford University Press.
Canale, M. & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and
testing. Applied linguistics, 1, 1-47.
Chen, R. (1993). Responding to compliments: A contrastive study of politeness strategies between American English
and Chinese speakers. Journal of Pragmatics, 20, 40-75.
Daikuhara, M. (1986). A study of compliments from a cross-cultural perspective: Japanese vs. American English.
Working Papers in Educational Linguistics, 2(2), 103-134.
Dash, P. (2004). “Cross-cultural pragmatic failure: A definitional analysis with implications for classroom teaching”.
Asian EFL Journal 6 (3), 1-17.
Halliday, M. A. K. (2003). On language and linguistics. New York: Continuum.
Han, C. (1992). A comparative study of compliment responses: Korean females in Korean interactions and in English
interactions. Working Papers in Educational Linguistics, 8(2), 17-31. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED
354 726).
Herbert, K. (1986). Say “thank you” or something. American Speech, 61(1), 76-88.
Holmes, J. & Brown, D. (1987). Teachers and students’ learning about compliments. TESOL Quarterly, 21, 523-546.
Hyme, D. (1971). On communicative competence. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Jeon, E. H. & Kaya, T. (2006). Effects of L2 instruction on interlanguage pragmatic development: A meta-analysis. In
J. M. Norris, & L. Ortega (Eds.), Synthesizing Research on Language Learning and Teaching (PP. 165-212).
Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Kasper, G. (1992). Pragmatic transfer. Second Language Research, 8, 203-231.
Koike, D. A. & Pearson, L. (2005). The effects of instruction and feedback in the development of pragmatic
competence. System, 33, 481-501.
Leech, G. N. (1983). Principles of pragmatics. London: Longman.
Loh, T. (1993). Responses to compliments across cultures: A comparative study of British and Hong Kong Chinese
(Research Report #30). Hong Kong department of English, city poly technique of Hong Kong.
Martinez-Flor, A. & Fukuya, Y. J. (2005). The effect of instruction on learners’ production of appropriate and accurate
suggestions. System, 33, 463-480.
Miles, P. (1994). Compliments and Gender. University of Hawai’i Occasional papers series, 26, 85-137.
Nelson, G. L., Al-Batal, M., & Echols, E. (1996). Arabic and English compliment responses: Potential for pragmatic
failure. Applied Linguistics, 17(4), 411-432.
Othman, N. (2011). Pragmatic and cultural consideration of compliment responses among Malaysian-Malay speakers.
Asiatic, 5(1), 86-103.
Rose, K. R. (2005). On the effects of instruction in second language pragmatics. System, 33, 385-399.
Rose, K. & Kasper, G. (2001). Pragmatics in language teaching. UK: Cambridge University Press.
Rose, K. R. & Kwai-fun, C. N. (2001). Inductive and deductive teaching of compliments and compliment responses. In
K. R. Rose, & G. Kasper (Eds.), Pragmatics in Language Teaching (pp. 145-170). UK: Cambridge University Press.
Sahragard, R. (2004). A cultural script analysis of a politeness feature in Persian. Proceeding of the 8 th Pall conference
in Japan, 399-423.
Schmidt, R. (1993). Consciousness, learning and interlanguage pragmatics. In G. Kasper, & S. Blum-Kulka (Eds.),
interlanguage Pragmatics (PP. 21-42), Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Sharifian, F. (2005). The Persian cultural schema of “Shekaste-nafsi”: A study of compliment responses in Persian and
Anglo-Australian speakers. Pragmatics and Cognition, 13(2), 337-362.
Schiffrin, D. (1994). Approaches to Discourse. Cambridge: Blackwell Publishing.
Soler, E. A. (2005). Does instruction work for learning pragmatics in the EFL context?. System, 33, 417-435.
Wolfson, N. (1982a). Compliments in cross-cultural perspective. TESOL Quarterly, 15, 117-124.
Yousefvand, Z. (2010). Study of compliment speech act realization patterns across gender in Persian. Arizona Working
Papers in SLA & Teaching, 17, 91-112.
Yule, G. (1996). Pragmatics. UK: Oxford University Press.
The Interplay of Motivation and Demotivation: The Case of EFL

Learners Majoring in English
Sultan Al-Sharief
Department of English, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, Saudi Arabia
PO box 13882, Makkah 21955, Saudi Arabia
Tel: 9-503-568-100 E-mail: smsharief@uqu.edu.sa

Abstract
Motivation is widely viewed as a key factor to language learning success. This study investigates motivation among
English language majors who are unexpectedly considered by most of their teachers as generally not motivated. Using
the model proposed by Deci & Ryan (1985), the study classifies a sample of English male and female majors (n=365)
into various levels of motivation. The study further examines the possible demotivational factors that may negatively
influence the subjects’ motivation. Overall, the findings suggest that the view that the studied sample lack motivation is
not accurate. However, the responses to the demotivational factors questionnaire indicate some effective demotivating
factors. This effect is particularly statistically significant in relation to the method of teaching. The study concludes by
stressing the importance of integrating motivational strategies in any method of EFL classroom teaching even if the
learners are expected to be genuinely motivated.
Keywords: Motivation, Demotivation, Language learning
1. Introduction
There is a widespread agreement among second language acquisition (SLA) researchers on the importance of
motivation to language learning success. As categorically stated by Ellis (1994), "SLA research ...views motivation as a
key factor in L2 learning" (p. 508). Like success, failure in learning a foreign language may also be attributed to lack of
motivation. McDonough (1986) stresses that “motivation of the students is one of the most important factors
influencing their success or failure in learning the language" (p. 142). Other factors equal, learners will most likely vary
in their language learning performance based on the level of motivation they demonstrate. In general, learners who are
more motivated will perform better than those who are not. Backed by these strong views of the importance of
motivation to language learning success, teachers often find justification for their students' failure by claiming that they
are simply not motivated.
More important than acknowledging that motivation represents a key factor for language learning success is the
diagnosis of the motivational status and the reasons behind it to help EFL learners become more motivated. As cleverly
put by Oxford and Shearin (1994), "without knowing where the roots of motivation lie, how can teachers water those
roots?" (p. 15). This is by no means a straightforward process, partly due to the nature of the motivation phenomenon
itself. It is, for example, necessary to adopt a definition of motivation, as agreement on a straightforward, simple
definition does not exist. As stressed by Gardner (2006), “motivation is a very complex phenomenon with many
facets…Thus, it is not possible to give a simple definition” (p. 242). To capture these "many facets" of motivation, a full
definition may be as elaborate as the following:
The dynamically changing cumulative arousal in a person that initiates, directs, coordinates,
amplifies, terminates, and evaluates the cognitive and motor processes whereby initial wishes and
desires are selected, prioritised, operationalised and (successfully or unsuccessfully) acted out.
(Dörnyei & Ottó, 1998, p. 65)
For the purposes of the present study, a more working definition of motivation may be sufficient. According to Brown
(2001), "motivation refers to the intensity of one's impetus to learn" (p. 75). In the foreign language classroom, this is
evident in how keen and enthusiastic the learner is; for many language teachers, motivated students are those who
participate in the class and continue to be active (Crookes & Schmidt 1991, p. 480). Further to this definition, full
understanding of the phenomenon of motivation requires an identification of its source. In one way or another, most
discussions associate motivation to learn a foreign language with two general types of orientation – motives or purposes
for learning. Internal or integrative motivation arises from some personal, social, or cultural stimuli and external or
instrumental motivation relates to external job or academic motives (Gardner & Lambert 1959, 1972).
This study investigates the level of motivation, the magnitude of the incentive to learn English, among a group of
English language university majors. The specific aim of the study is to verify some teachers' complaints that many
IJALEL 2 (1):53-59, 2013 54
students are not motivated. To further probe into this problem, the study extends by attempting to figure out the reasons,
if any, why students in the sample group may be unmotivated to learn English.
2. Motivation and demotivation in language learning
With the tremendous amount of research on motivation, a number of different models have been proposed (Dörnyei &
Ushioda, 2010 reviews many of these models). One useful psychological model that has not been applied in the EFL
context until quite recently (see, e.g., Noels, Pelletier, Clément, & Vallerand, 2003) is Deci and Ryan's (1985) self-
determination theory (SDT). According to this theory, a person's behavior can be autonomous, initiated from one's self
as a personal choice, or controlled, influenced by some interpersonal or external pressure. This is not exactly the same
as the well-established broader instrumental/integrative dichotomy referred to by most EFL theories of motivation (cf.
Schmidt, Boraie, & Kassabgy, 1996, p. 14). Following SDT, for example, foreign language learners who do their
homework because they perceive its importance for mastering the language are as extrinsically motivated as those who
do the same only because they have to follow their teacher's instructions. Though both behaviors are considered
extrinsically motivated, they vary in their relative autonomy.
Based on whether actions originate from the self (self-determined) or not, SDT suggests a continuum of motivational
types. The most autonomous form of motivation, labelled integrated regulation, is begotten by relatively high interest in
the activity. This results in choiceful behaviors that are congruent with the learner's needs and beliefs. Because such
behaviors are still done to achieve external outcomes, this form of motivation is considered extrinsic, though it shares
many qualities of intrinsic, authentic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Less autonomous is identified regulation which
is broadly related to how important and useful an activity is perceived. This kind of motivation is what often drives
people to aspire to perfect their knowledge and skills. Introjected regulation is relatively controlled and is mainly
related to following the rules to avoid feeling guilty or to attain a sense of self-esteem. The farthest kind of motivation
on the extrinsic end is external regulation which is the least self-determined and which originates entirely from external
sources, such as demands or rewards. It is the kind of motivation traditionally contrasted with genuine, intrinsic
motivation.
When there is complete lack of motivation, SDT uses the label amotivation – the state of realizing that there is no point
in the activity or that there is incompetency to do it. A related concept is demotivation, which "concerns various
negative influences that cancel our existing motivation" (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2010, p. 138). The difference is that
demotivation is less rooted in the self, and more related to external causes. As soon as demotives become ineffective,
people might be motivated again. More attention, especially within EFL instruction, has been given recently to
demotivation (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2010, p. 144ff). The question most studies of this phenomenon have focused on is
what factors contribute to EFL learners' demotivation. For example, using structured interviews with 50 secondary
school students indentified as demotivated, some factors reported by Dörnyei (1998, as quoted in Dörnyei & Ushioda,
2010, pp. 150–5) include: teachers, school facilities, lack of self-confidence, negative attitudes towards the L2 and its
community, the compulsory nature of L2 study, attitude of group community, and course books used in class. Falout and
Maruyama (2004) construct a questionnaire based on these demotivating factors suggested by Dörnyei concluding that
they differ between higher-proficiency and lower-proficiency learners of English. A shorter list of demotivators are
extracted through an analysis of Japanese students responses to a questionnaire (Sakai & Kikuchi, 2009). Compared to
teachers, facilities, and lack of intrinsic motivation, the two factors of learning materials and test scores are the most
demotivating. Trang and Baldauf Jr. (2007), on the other hand, find that, among four categories related to teachers, the
category of teaching methods represents the main source of Vietnamese students' demotivation to learn English.
The two related phenomena of motivation and demotivation have also been thoroughly investigated among Arab
learners of English. In a study of motivation among EFL Egyptian adults, Schmidt, Boraie & Kassabgy (1996) identify,
among other things, three motivational dimensions (Affect, Goal Orientation, and Expectancy) which they think
account for motivation for their population. Qashoa (2006) examines secondary school students’ instrumental and
integrative motivation for learning English and reveales that students have a higher degree of instrumentality than
integrativeness. The findings indicate that difficulties with English aspects such as vocabulary, structure and spelling
were considered to be the most demotivating factors. Al-Tamimi and Shuib (2009) investigate a sample of Yemeni ESP
undergraduates' motivation and attitudes towards learning English as a university requirement. Students are
unsurprisingly instrumentally motivated, but not very much integratively motivated. Dwaik and Shehadeh (2010) find
that the dominant motivation pattern is also extrinsic in nature. Ghaith and Diab (2008) study the effect of some
context-specific factors on proficiency development of a group of Saudi college students. An interesting finding of their
study is the apparent link between motivation and class participation. They also stress the need for "developmentally
appropriate practice based on interesting, motivating, and reader-friendly material" (p. 283). Keblawi (2005) asks
Palestinian learners to express in writing what factors demotivate them as they learn English. The analysis shows that
two general categories are dominant: contextual demotivating factors, mainly teachers and classmates, and subject
demotivating factors, mainly difficulties with English grammar and vocabulary. Finally, Malcolm (2003) surveys how
Arab medical students' continue improving their English language proficiency after completing the required English
courses in their medical programs. As successful language learners, it is not surprising that almost all of them felt that
English is important for their current studies and future career. It is more interesting that 80% reported some personal
reasons, like communication with friends, as making English important to them. Malcolm concludes that this group of
medical students has a strong motivation to be good at English.
IJALEL 2 (1):53-59, 2013 55
3. Purpose of the study
The study was motivated by the frequent assertive comments made by most of my colleagues at the English Department
about the apparent lack of interest demonstrated by many students. In every meeting, one or more teachers would
complain that their students are not willing to learn the language or that they do not show any sign of curiosity about
learning the English language. Though the complaint about students' lack of motivation seems to be more widespread
among teachers in Saudi schools and universities, it is less expected in such a context where learners are choosing by
their own will to major in English. Why would a student who is not motivated to learn English as a foreign language opt
to enter an English department? It would therefore be interesting to investigate this issue more formally and try to
pinpoint exactly the reasons behind this negative stereotype of English majors. To achieve this goal, two questions were
posed: (a) How motivated are students majoring in English? (b) What factors lead to the apparent non-motivation of
students majoring in English? Although the study concerns itself with this specific sample of English major students, it
is possible to generalize some of the results as will be argued in the results section below.
4. Method
As mentioned above, motivation is a complex of constructs; it is difficult to define, and it is even more difficult to
observe. Fortunately, the many models of motivation available make this task more accessible. Self-reporting through
questionnaires is the method commonly used to investigate motivation (Crookes & Schmidt, 1991, p. 502). For the
purposes of this study, the questionnaire devised by Green (1999) was used to assess the subjects' level of motivation.
Green's questionnaire is based on Deci and Ryan's SDT allowing subjects to be classified into four motivation levels:
Integrated, Identified, Introjected, and External. Green responded to his focus group's suggestion by adding a fifth level
of Avoidance/Rejection to account for instances where learning English is thought to be unimportant, that is lack of
motivation. In addition to four initial demographic questions, the questionnaire consisted of eleven statements about
language learning each followed by five choices corresponding to the different levels of motivational drives. As an
illustration, one item asks the subjects to respond to the statement "When I speak English out of class time, this is
mainly because" by selecting one of the following choices: (a) I feel guilty if I do not attempt to use my English
[Introjected], (b) my English teachers have advised me to [External], (c) I think that it will lead to improvements in my
English [Identified], (d) I enjoy trying out my English out of class time [Integrated], and (e) I never speak English out
of class time unless forced to [Avoidance/Rejection]. The questionnaire was translated into Arabic and was reviewed by
a translation specialist colleague.
To answer the second question of the study, a questionnaire was designed specifically for this study. Through a review
of the literature on demotivation (see above) and through discussions with colleagues and students, five broad
demotivating factors were investigated through this questionnaire. These factors were: (Target) Language/Culture,
Teachers, Environment, Materials, and Methods. Initially, ten to fifteen statements covering different aspects of each of
these subscale factors were presented to a focus group of thirty-two students. These were then analyzed for correlations
and five items were then selected to be included in the final draft of the Demotivational Factors Questionnaire (see
Appendix). For each statement, participants were asked to express their opinion on a five-point Likert scale ranging
from strongly agree to strongly disagree. For most items, strongly agree was coded 5 in the analysis indicating high
demotivation (e.g. items 1, 3 and 7); however, some items in each subscale were reverse scored as strongly agree meant
low rather than high demotivation effect (e.g. items 2, 4 and 5). Questionnaire reliability was calculated using the
Cronbach Alpha formula. The overall reliability coefficient was .72 reflecting an acceptable reliability of instrument
(George & Mallery, 2011).
The subjects of the study were freshman English majors studying at the English Department, Umm Al-Qura University
(Makkah, Saudi Arabia). The questionnaire was filled out by a total of 365 participants (after excluding three
questionnaires for not being properly filled out). The sample was almost evenly distributed between male and female
students: 181 participants were males (49.6%) and 185 participants were females (50.4%). Though not intended, this
almost equal distribution of male/female participants helps guard against bias to one sex or the other.
The questionnaire was administered three weeks prior to the end of the first semester. Two groups were taught by me;
for the other eight groups, teachers were asked to kindly distribute the questionnaires to their students during class time,
collect them, and then return them back to me. Each section of the questionnaire begins with brief instructions and
statement of confidentiality; cooperating teachers were encouraged to go through the instructions with the students
before they start the completion process. Filling out the two sections did not take more than twenty minutes.
5. Results
Following Green (1999), the subjects were categorized into the five types of motivation according to the most
commonly selected choices. When equal choices belong to different types of motivation, the case was not included in
the categorization. As such, it was possible to classify 289 subjects into one or the other of the different types of
motivations assumed by the questionnaire. Figure 1 illustrates the result of this analysis.
IJALEL 2 (1):53-59, 2013 56
Figure 1. Categorization of subjects according to type of motivation
With two important exceptions, this result is similar to Green's (1999) distribution. The first and most interesting
exception is that no subject falls into the External category. The second exception is that a relatively higher percentage
of subjects are categorized as Integrated. The percentage of those falling into the Identified category is interestingly
similar. Overall, this distribution shows that most of the subjects, about 90 per cent, are indeed motivated to learn
English. Only a minority of 11 per cent can be considered as genuinely lackadaisical and unmotivated.
Though the majority of the subjects display high motivation, analyzing the demotives may help explain and probably
dispel the stereotypes surrounding students' motivation. The frequencies of responses to the demotivational factors
questionnaire are shown in Table 1 below.
Table 1. Frequencies of the demotivational factors questionnaire

Language/
Teachers Environment Materials Methods
Culture
Demotivation
(1=Low; N % N % N % N % N %
5=High)
1 814 44.6 380 20.8 242 13.3 131 7.2 203 11.1
2 358 19.6 444 24.3 359 19.7 369 20.2 421 23.1
3 325 17.8 482 26.4 424 23.2 560 30.7 646 35.4
4 161 8.8 220 12.1 320 17.5 386 21.2 305 16.7
5 166 9.1 298 16.3 478 26.2 378 20.7 250 13.7
Total 1824 100.0 1824 100.0 1823 100.0 1824 100.0 1825 100.0
With many choices on the low-end, Language/Culture is the only factor that is clearly not perceived as highly
demotivating. Less decisively, Teachers comes next in being less demotivating. The picture is not as clear-cut for the
other demotivational factors.
To help investigate any association between the types of motivation and the demotivational factors, a crosstabulation is
shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Crosstabulation of motivation types and demotivational factors

Language/
Teachers Environment Materials Methods
Type of Motivation Culture
Low High Low High Low High Low High Low High
N 74 4 31 47 10 68 18 60 23 55
Integrated
% 95 5 40 60 13 87 23 77 29 71
N 108 22 64 66 22 108 27 103 50 80
Identified
% 83 17 49 51 17 83 21 79 38 62
IJALEL 2 (1):53-59, 2013 57
N 44 5 23 26 15 34 10 39 15 34
Introjected
% 90 10 47 53 31 69 20 80 31 69
Rejection/ N 19 13 12 20 5 27 4 28 4 28
Avoidance % 59 41 38 63 16 84 13 88 13 88
N 245 44 130 159 52 237 59 230 92 197
Total
% 85 15 45 55 18 82 20 80 32 68
One interesting observation is the large number of subjects in the Rejection/Avoidance category (41%) who view
Language/Culture as highly demotivating. This observation becomes more important if we take into account that this
effect of Language/Culture is perceived by only 15 per cent of the total number of the categorized subjects. Another
important observation is that, contrary to Language/Culture, the totals of Environment and Materials in particular
illustrate more demotivating effect (82% and 80% respectively). To determine which demotivational factors are
associated with the different types of motivation in a statistically significant way, a chi square test was sought. The test
showed that types of motivation differ by the demotivational factors Language/Culture, X2 (3, N = 289) = 23.40, p = .00
and Methods, X2 (3, N = 289) = 8.375, p = .04. The test result was not significant for the other three demotivational
factors.
6. Discussion
The above findings are at first look contradictory. While most of the subjects are motivated, their responses to the
demotivation questionnaire indicate high demotivating effect of some factors. This contradiction may reflect the
dilemma that has stimulated this study. The sample of the study are English language majors who should be motivated
to learn English as evidenced by their choice to willingly join an English department; unexpectedly, they are labelled
"unmotivated" by most of their teachers. Motivation is a delicate phenomonenon and it appears that motivational and
demotivational factors are in constant competition. Most of the subjects in this study have clear favorable views of the
English language and its culture and relatively positive attitude to their English teachers. This seems to compensate for
the demotivating effect of the other factors (Environment, Materials, and Methods). Such contradictions are not very
uncommon in motivation research. Peacock (1997, p. 152), for example, recommends using authentic materials though
his findings were that authentic materials are less interesting than artificial materials. Authentic materials, he stresses
are motivating, not because they are interesting, but because they increase levels of concentration and involvement.
Many other studies of motivation have attributed variations in results to cultural differences (e.g. Rueda & Chen, 2005).
Students participating in the present study are generally interested in studying English, and they seem to have teachers
who try hard to make their language learning experience enjoyable. However, those students are used to the kind of
textbook-based materials, teacher-centered classrooms, and traditional teaching methods they experience in their
specialized study as English majors. Apparently, this learning context does not help the learners express how
authentically motivated they are.
Within Deci and Ryan's SDT, motivation is viewed as dynamic; thus one would expect that over time learners'
motivation might be influenced by demotivational factors. In guarding against this, it is essential that teachers adopt
some of the advice presented by some researchers of motivation in the instructional settings. For example, Dörnyei
(2001) offers thirty five classroom strategies language teachers can use to generate and maintain their students'
motivation. Of particular relevance to the current results are the two strategies of presenting tasks properly and
promoting learner autonomy. Tasks are very significant in "shaping learners' interest and enthusiasm" (Dörnyei, 2003, p.
14), and autonomy is an important component of the psychology of motivation, especially within SDT. This is why
teaching methods are sometimes to blame by less motivated learners (e.g. Trang & Baldauf Jr., 2007). Incorporating
computers in the EFL learning process can also help create a supportive, motivating environment (e.g. Skinner &
Austin, 1999; Ushida, 2005). In addition, materials can be interesting to EFL learners in terms of both format and
content (Crookes & Schmidt, 1991, pp. 491–2).
Like most studies of motivation, the generalizability of the results are normally limited by the scale of the study and the
background of the subjects. The attempt made here to seek statistical significance for any association between the types
of motivation and the demotivational factors should therefore be put within the specific context of the present study.
The findings that there is a significant association between the types of motivation and the two demotivational factors of
attitude to language/culture and methods of teaching can probably be generalized to similar learners – Saudi or Arab
students – majoring in English. These two factors seem to be at opposite poles. At one pole, the favorable attitude to the
English language and its culture intensifies students' motivation and pushes them to deliver their very best in learning
the language. At the other pole, common poor pedagogical practices seem to push into the opposite direction of
demotivation and non-cooperation in the classroom.
7. Conclusion
The findings highlight the importance of classroom motivation and motivational pedagogies. As indicated above, there
is an interesting research body that attempts to help teachers motivate language learners. There is, however, "little
research [that] has directly investigated how pedagogy interacts with motivation in second language classrooms"
(Lightbown & Spada, 2006, p. 65). This study provides some evidence that the method of teaching, among other things,
has an important role to play in motivating learners. As a factor that has unquestionable association with success in
IJALEL 2 (1):53-59, 2013 58
language learning, positive motivation should therefore be an integral part of any method of classroom language
learning. This model that incorporates motivation into pedagogy can subsume not only motivational strategies that
teachers can apply to motivate students, but also self-motivating strategies that learners themselves can use to generate
and sustain their motivation (Dörnyei, 2003, p. 23). It is such a model that will truly translate the view held for a long
time about how "motivation is inseparable from the instructional process and the classroom environment" (Sivan, 1986,
p. 209). It is also a model that will encourage learners who are integratively motivated to demonstrate and maintain that
motivation in the classroom.
References
Al-Tamimi, A., & Shuib, M. (2009). Motivation and attitudes towards learning english: A study of petroleum
engineering undergraduates at Hadhramout University of Sciences and Technology. GEMA Online Journal of Language
Studies, 9(2), 29–55.
Crookes, G., & Schmidt, R. W. (1991). Motivation: Reopening the research agenda. Language Learning, 41(4), 469–
512.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum
Press.
Dörnyei, Z. (1998). Demotivation in foreign language learning. Presented at the TESOL ’98 Congress, Seattle, WA,
March.
Dörnyei, Z. (2001). Motivational strategies in the language classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dörnyei, Z. (2003). Attitudes, orientations, and motivations in language learning: Advances in theory, research, and
applications. Language Learning, 53(S1), 3–32.
Dörnyei, Z., & Ottó, I. (1998). Motivation in action: A process model of L2 motivation. Working Papers in Applied
Lingaistics (Thames Valley University, London), 4, 43–69.
Dörnyei, Z., & Ushioda, E. (2010). Teaching and researching motivation (2nd ed.). Harlow, England; New York:
Longman/Pearson.
Falout, J., & Maruyama, M. (2004). A comparative study of proficiency and learner demotivation. The Language
Teacher, 28(8), 3–10.
George, D., & Mallery, P. (2011). IBM SPSS Statistics 19 step by step: A simple guide and reference (12th ed.). New
Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Ghaith, G., & Diab, H. (2008). Determinants of EFL achievement among Arab college-bound learners. Education,
Business and Society Contemporary Middle Eastern Issues, 1(4), 278–286.
Green, C. F. (1999). Categorising motivational drives in second language acquisition. Language, Culture and
Curriculum, 12(3), 265–279.
Keblawi, F. (2005). Demotivation among Arab learners of English as a foreign language (pp. 49–78). Presented at the
Second International Online Conference on Second and Foreign Language Teaching and Research, United States: The
Reading Matrix Inc.
Lightbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (2006). How languages are learned (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Malcolm, D. (2003). Investigating successful English learners in Arab medical schools. Supporting independent
learning in the 21st century: Proceedings of the inaugural conference of the Independent Learning Association,
Melbourne September (pp. 13–14).
Noels, K. A., Pelletier, L. G., Clément, R., & Vallerand, R. J. (2003). Why are you learning a second language?
Motivational orientations and self-determination theory. Language Learning, 53, 33–64.
Peacock, M. (1997). The effect of authentic materials on the motivation of EFL learners. ELT Journal, 51(2), 144 –156.
Qashoa, S. H. H. (2006). Motivation among learners of English in the secondary schools in the eastern coast of UAE
(Unpublished MA dissertation). British university in Dubai, Dubai, UAE.
Rueda, R., & Chen, C. B. (2005). Assessing motivational factors in foreign language learning: Cultural variation in key
constructs. Educational Assessment, 10(3), 209–229.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social
development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78.
Sakai, H., & Kikuchi, K. (2009). An analysis of demotivators in the EFL classroom. System, 37(1), 57–69.
Schmidt, R., Boraie, D., & Kassabgy, O. (1996). Foreign language motivation: Internal structure and external
connections. In R. Oxford (Ed.), Language learning motivation: Pathways to the new century. (Technical Report #11)
(pp. 9–70). Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i, Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center.
Sivan, E. (1986). Motivation in social constructivist theory. Educational Psychologist, 21(3), 209–233.
Skinner, B., & Austin, R. (1999). Computer conferencing—does it motivate EFL students? ELT Journal, 53(4), 270 –
279.
Trang, T. T. T., & Baldauf Jr., R. B. (2007). Demotivation: Understanding resistance to English language learning - the
case of Vietnamese students. The Journal of Asia TEFL, 4(1), 79–105.
Ushida, E. (2005). The role of students? Attitudes and motivation in second language learning in online language
courses. CALICO Journal, 23(1), 49.
IJALEL 2 (1):53-59, 2013 59
Appendix: Demotivational Factors Questionnaire
Please check the appropriate box to indicate your opinion about each statement.
Strongly Strongly
Statement
Agree Disagree
1. English is a difficult language.
2. I always have a good relationship with
my English teachers.
3. I will learn English better had I learned it
in an English-speaking environment.
4. I don't find difficulty studying my
English textbooks.
5. I often get help with my language
mistakes in English classrooms.
6. Learning English is very important to
me.
7. Most teachers who taught me English are
not qualified.
8. English classrooms do not represent
suitable language learning environments.
9. English learning materials rely more on
memorization than on thinking.
10. I often enjoy the methods used in
teaching English.
11. One important use of learning English is
knowing about the Western culture.
12. I like my English teachers.
13. Teaching English is characterized by
using enjoyable technology.
14. English materials are often above the
students' level.
15. Teaching English is similar to the
teaching of most theoretical subjects.
16. Teaching English should be restricted to
save our Islamic identity and Arabic language.
17. Most English teachers do not help
students love learning the language.
18. My classmates in English classes do not
contribute in making learning the language more
enjoyable.
19. The reading texts and exercises in
English learning materials are mostly boring.
20. I find a lot of opportunity in English
classes to practice the language.
21. Learning English is a necessity these
days.
22. I would have learned English better had
my teachers been native speakers of English.
23. More time is needed in English
classrooms to learn the language better.
24. Most exercises and practices we perform
in English classrooms are not really useful in
learning the language.
25. Most teaching methods of English do not
help students apply what they have learned.
Waiting for Godot is an Irish Endgame: A Postcolonial Reading of

Samuel Beckett’s
Waiting for Godot and Endgame
Sayyed Rahim Moosavinia
Faculty of Letters & Humanities, Shahid Chamran University
Ahvaz, Khuzestan, Iran
Tel: 0098-916-632-0024 E-mail: moosavinia@scu.ac.ir
Bamshad Hekmatshoar Tabari (MA Student)

Faculty of Letters & Humanities, Shahid Chamran University
Ahvaz, Khuzestan, Iran
Tel: 0098-911-216-1376 E-mail: bami_1367@yahoo.com

Abstract
Irish National Drama is very sensitive when it comes to the issue of English Colonization, colonial forces, independence
and the matter of post-colonial. In fact, a kind of Irish consciousness is present in all the dramas of this nation and all
playwrights in this trend- even indirectly or by implication- have tried to portray these matters through their works. This
study is an attempt to prove the claim that even a playwright like Samuel Beckett, whose works have been written out
of the canon of Irish Literature because of living on exile, adopting another language or semi-taboo labels like
Absurdism, Universality and Placlessness, can be read in light postcolinalism. To this aim, two of Beckett’s plays
Waiting for Godot and End Game are chosen here as the representative and put into explication.
Keywords: Irish, postcolonialsim, absurdism, universality, placlessness, colonizer, colonized
1. Introduction
It is not much easy to speak about the art of dramaturgy on the island located in the north-west of Europe, where is
called Ireland. It has much to offer to a literary study as its history is filled with different racial, cultural, religious and
political crises. The analysis of the history of Irish Drama will take the researcher back much in time to the point where
he can meet the fusion of Irish – Gaelic as well as Celtic – tribal traditions of performance with that of New Roman
arrival based on a new religious pattern. It is interesting to speak about how Christopher Morash (2002), explicates this
long history and extracts evidences to prove the precedence of this old trend in drama: He refers to "Neal Moore, the
traditional Irish Fool" and "flid", who would compose verses in complex meters", and believes that it dates back to the
seventh century, while the manifestation of such artistic techniques of performance could yet be found in the
seventeenth century Irish drama, as well as the performance of "liturgical" plays, like Visitatio Sepuleri ,which were
popular in churches till the age of Renaissance (p.3) .The presence of seanchai - as an effective strategy for storytelling
as old as medieval spectacles can also be another proof to the matter (Gleitman, 2008,p. 42).
2. Irish Drama and Postcolonialism
But besides this rich tradition of drama and performance, there is one more recent phenomenon that has made modern
Irish Drama different in nature from any other dramas of the world. That is the way it lends itself to postcolonial
studies, or as Richards (2004), asserts," while Ireland had already enjoyed theatre as an art form and entertainment for
several centuries, drama in its late nineteenth and early twentieth-century manifestation sought to define and determine
the basis of Irish claims for political independence from Britain"( p.17). In fact, national concern plus socio-political
conflicts in Ireland's recent century's atmosphere due to the struggles for independence has made for the establishment
of a new Irish Theatre, that is "realistic", "text-driven" and "linguistics-based", aiming at the portrayal of "peasant or
working-class characters"(p.165), all conscious of "the catastrophic dimension of Irish history, the litany of poverty,
war, humiliation"(McDonald,2002,p.2), and the hegemonic forces of the English colonizers.
Of the characteristics that have been mentioned above, realism and text-dependency for the portrayal of meaning, as
well as thematic significances, is not only the characteristic of Irish drama's revolutionary spirit and has gained much
from nineteenth century European Realistic Drama, but the third feature needs some elaboration as it is significant
IJALEL 2 (1):60-67, 2013 61
enough to be linked to postcolonialism. Postcolonial critics emphasize much on the matter of language and the way a
colonized nation finally reaches a state of consciousness in the case of the adoption of a language for expressing his
own version of reality. According to Spivak, "the subaltern cannot speak," ( cited in Pearson,2001, 226), not only
because he cannot find a medium to speak through, but because it has been imposed on him that there always exists a
cultural or gender difference, a hierarchy between him and the colonizer, something that would shake him to death at
the presence of the colonizer. Based on her theory, the linguistic concerns of National Irish Drama can be defined so:
from the twelfth century onward, the presence of English colonizers in Ireland ruined the linguistic autonomy of this
nation and brought many restriction to the application of Gaelic Language – that was old and rich in reference – in
social, cultural and political affairs. So Irish people were repressed and the legitimacy and grandeur of their language
was in threat and an "english" (Ashcroft , Griffiths, & Tiffin, 2002, p.7), was imposed upon them, which would do
nothing, but stereotyping them, making them like strangers or the "other" , in Spivak's term (cited in Ashcroft , Griffiths
, & Tiffin, 1995, p. 24). Now it is clear that why one of the major concerns of National Irish Drama was solving the
issue of language. Yeats' attempts to find a solution seem to be most effective: not necessarily using Gaelic or ignoring
the authenticity of English, but looking for lingual artifacts that would revitalize the old Irish heritage and blow a new
breath to the struggles not for a physical combat, but for the "decolonization of minds" at the first instance – as it is
portrayed by implication in his poem "Easter 1916" (Hyland & Sammells, 1994, p.144):
Too long a sacrifice
Can make a stone of the heart.
O when may it suffice?
That is heaven's part, our part
To murmur name upon name,
As a mother names her child
When sleep at last has come
On limbs that had run wild.
What is it but nightfall?
No, no, not night but death.
Was it needless death after all?
For England may keep faith
For all that is done and said.
Many critics agree with each other in introducing Synge and O'Casey besides Yeats, as the heralds of Irish National
Theatre – much successful in energizing the process of decolonization by the assistance of the techniques and strategies
that were " the handmaid of Irish nationalism'' (Richards, 2004,p. 2). But there is usually much ambiguity in the issue
when this movement at its early life coincides with the first decades of Free Irish State – with all its struggles for revival
through numerous crises – and sees on waves the catastrophe of the Great Repression of the 1930's and the Second
World War. The best thing to do at this point in order to trace the metamorphosis that came to the national concerns of
Irish drama at this period – or the postcolonial zone – is to focus on a figure like Samuel Beckett whose works seem to
be the best representatives of the spirit of the age.
3. Samuel Beckett
Samuel Beckett, the Irish playwright who had been living much of his life in Paris – writing in French – is usually
written out of the Irish canon of literature. Yet it is ironic that his influence on the Irish drama of the twentieth century
has been so much that he is even sometimes titled "the ghostly founding father of Irish theatre" (McDonald, 2002,
p.157), from the half century onward. The source of influence seems to be his specific worldview, the way it was
challenged, and the way it affected his style of writing as it underwent a metamorphosis to match the demands of the
age in which he was living. In fact, on a micro level he is the Irish man and his works reflect the way the world is
changing for men of that nation. So an explication of the life and works of Samuel Beckett can assist much in tracing
the process of development and maturation of Irish National Drama and the way it can be related to postcolonial
studies.
Samuel Beckett was born in Dublin in 1906, the son of a quantity surveyor. As a child he spent a happy life in a country
house and went to Trinity College in 1923 where he studied French and Italian, receiving his B.A degree in 1927. In
1928, he went to Paris where he started teaching at Ecole Normale. This was the beginning of his life-long attachment
with Paris as he finally comes to choose Paris his new home and French the Language of his writings. He obtains his
Master of Art at the age of twenty four from London with an essay concerned with the interpretation of Proust's works.
During the war years he and Suzanne, his French wife, face many disasters and live a life of catastrophe. When the war
ends, he starts writing plays in French that bring much fame and honor to him. He wins Noble Prize for Literature
because of his plays in 1969 and dies in 1989.
The former paragraph may provide a brief biography of Samuel Beckett and give a brief review of him, but to probe the
relation that exists between him and Irish National theatre and his influence on it, one must go deeper and focus on his
life as a dramatist. Beckett's life as a man of drama can be divided into two periods: the Pre-War and the Post-War
Period. Each period would be elaborated respectively:
IJALEL 2 (1):60-67, 2013 62
3.1 Beckett’s Pre-War Period
The Pre-War Period is marked by English. This coincides with his early life at Dublin and the way he would look at the
world from that prospect. According to Esslin (2001), Beckett's "Anglo-Irish origin" that is being born in a "Protestant
Irish Middle Class Family" justifies his "preoccupation with the problem of being and self-identity" (p.29). In other
words, the feeling of being one from the religious minority and the descendant of the colonizers in a country that is
suffering from the hallmarks of colonization may bring many doubts to an educated young man finding himself a part
of a whole that is apart. It is under such a circumstance that Beckett finds it necessary to establish a stable worldview, a
way of looking at the world that matches his living reality and would not flatter him. In quest of such stability, he
confronts many crises: sometimes he comes to rely on his childhood visions about playing with stones at the beach and
his love for minerals, and would relate it to Freud's view "that human beings have a pre-birth nostalgia to return to the
mineral state"(Knowlson,2004,p. 46) sometimes much dazzled, he would go to Democritus and his view that "nothing
is more real than nothing" ( Knowlson,2004,p.320), and many times he would stop thinking about his identity and the
world when he would remember his numb feeling of facing the currents of Irish Free Sate, Northern Ireland, and the
disintegration of his country at his early days in Trinity College.
To be precise, in order to look for the dominant ideology in Beckett's Pre-War writings, one should go to James Joyce
and what fruits his acquaintance with him had for Beckett at the age of twenty three in Paris (Esslin, 2001, p. 30). Under
the direct influence of Joyce, Beckett somehow becomes able to come up with his uncertainties about his self-identity,
the source of knowledge and the reality of the Irish life and colonialization. His works written at this time are then a
criticism of what was happening in Ireland with a language that bears a kind of pessimism, bitterness, irony and direct
references to the Dublin life, as well as the Irish countries and landscapes. On the thematic level these plays also aim at
the portrayal of the mind of the puzzled Irish man in search of meaning in that specific social, economic and political
atmosphere. The best example can be All That Fall, that reflects the way Irish people revenge the postcolonial
condition in which they live by a "sardonic and dismissive distaste"(Grene, 2004, p. 319). In commemorating Joyce and
defining his debt to him in writing plays like All That Fall, Beckett says:
I realised that Joyce had gone as far as one could in the direction
of knowing more, being in control of one's material. He was always
adding to it; you only have to look at his proofs to see that. I realised
that my own way was in impoverishment, in lack of knowledge and
in talking away, in subtracting rather than adding" (Knowlson,2004,p. 319).
3.2 Beckett’s Post-War Period
The Post-War Period in Samuel Beckett's writing which is associated with French language can also be called the Phase
of French Philosophy or Post-structural Phase, in which he gets much far from his early career marked by the presence
of Joyce's ideology. To talk about the causes of this transition several issues shall be probed: the occurrence of the
Second World War, Existential Philosophy, and consequently lingual conflicts in Beckett's artistic career.
When the Second World War befell, for another time Europe was in a nightmare and the bitter memory of the previous
war darkened the minds. As an Irish expatriate living in France, Beckett was in a perfect place from which to observe
the height of German colonial power – comparing it with England's hegemonic presence in Ireland for centuries – as
Hitler invaded one country after another. This was for him a meditation on the nature of injustice and violence that
finally led him to develop anti-Nazis feelings by becoming an active member of a "Resistance Cell" (Knowlson, 2004,
p. 278), in Paris whose job was "secretarial work", translating secret letters or documents into French (Knowlson, 2004,
p. 282). In result of such activities he was finally forced to flee from Paris when it was taken by Nazis in 1940.This was
the beginning of his disasters as he and Suzanne were always in fear of Gestapo, wandering hungry from one place to
another in hope of a shelter. All that happened to Beckett during the war years acted as a stimulus and revealed him "the
concrete reality of writing"(Knowlson, 2004, p. 344): something not only in contrast with his former ideology, but also
different in nature. He abandoned the Joycean certainty and came to focus on the "poverty, failure, exile and loss", in a
world the inhabitant of which was no more anything but a non-knower and a non-can-er"( Knowlson, 2004,p. 320). One
may soon find the relation between such transition in Beckett's worldview and the emergence of Existential Philosophy
in France.
The Post-War French is marked by the emergence of the Existential Philosophy. It is the time when outstanding figures
like Jean Paul Sartre and Albert Camus try to find a solution for the exigency that was threatening the basis of
humanity: the catastrophe of the death of humanity or even death of God, as Nietzsche once had uttered. In fact the
War had brought such devastation to everything that no one – whether ordinary or intellectual – could be certain about
anything by losing his ability to judge. So it will not be surprising to hear Beckett declaring: "All my senses are trained
full on me. Dark and silent and stale, I am no prey for them" (Uhlmann, 1999, p.91). Therefore, what may come to that
certainty and solidity once present in his works; something that would always be in quest of the outside reality? Or after
all, could Beckett keep his attentions from his internal senses calling him to revolt? These questions can be answered by
relying on Knowlson (2004):
He would draw henceforward on his own inner world, for his subject outside
reality would be refracted through the filter of his own imagination; inner
IJALEL 2 (1):60-67, 2013 63
desires and needs would be allowed a much greater freedom of expression;
rational contradictions would be allowed in, and the imagination would be
allowed to create alternative worlds of those conventional reality (pp.319-320).
It seems that the most important thing mentioned in the above quotation is the matter of Subjectivity that can be read in
relation to Existential Philosophy. In fact, in this phase Samuel Beckett becomes conscious of the notion of
Subjectivity with all its philosophical complexity and the ethics of judgment after the crisis of the Second World War;
what brought philosophers like Sartre into new realms in books like Being and Nothingness (Uhlmann, 1999, pp. 91-
92). To be precise, Beckett has been aware of such a conflict between knowledge and the way the internal world of one
demands a source of power to judge when facing the chaos of the outside reality. He was then for the first time able to
relate his Irish background marked with colonialism to the present, in a struggle to give birth to a new form of writing
which would bridge the gap between the subjective and the objective ;what Deleuze and Guattari mention in What is
Philosophy?, about form: "the artist can make an artistic form, only through his ability to respond to that chaos which
shall be processed by the filter of his mind by the very act of Subjectification" (cited in Uhlmann, 1999,pp. 93). To sum
up what has been mentioned till this point, it can be said that Beckett came finally to the understanding of such a
process and was able to adapt himself with the philosophy of the new age – which was giving literature of the age
Philosophical and Post-structural dimensions without ignoring his background, the demanding of his nation, and their
aims even in an indirect way. It seems then a sheer compliment when in one of his last interviews he declares: "What is
Existentialism? Tell me! I have never thought of that in my work. I am not a Philosopher" (Kamyabi Mesak, 2002,
p.10).
The last element to talk about, in relation to the characteristics of Beckett's second phase of writing and its relation to
postcolonialism is the matter of Lingual Conflicts. In fact, the impact of War and the emergence of New Philosophies
brought Beckett to a point where he found it necessary to revise his format of writing. The first thing that was done by
him was the adoption of French as the language of his writings. This can be said to have two reasons: first to detach
himself from James Joyce, as he felt yet the traces of Joyce's hegemonic presence on his English writings that had in his
own terms somehow colonized him, the same as the English colonizers colonizing Ireland. In fact by that, he intended
to escape from the "erudite and literary allusions and what he called 'Anglo-Irish Exuberance and automatism'
"(Knowlson, 2004, p. 324). Another reason can be his belief in the fact that French would aid him in reaching that kind
of objectivity just mentioned above by creating a "linguistic oddity" in result of "deviating French syntax or
phraseology" (Knowlson, 2004, p. 327). According to McDonald this is the very strategy that assists Beckett in giving
his works a sense of universality, placelessness, or better to say an "Imaginative Geography" (2002, p. 140).
Besides that linguistic transition in Beckett, one may find other manifestations of the lingual metamorphosis in him
when relates it with what Esslin introduces as Absurdity in Post-War Theatre. According to Esslin (2002), the spirit of
the age and the dominance of "Existential philosophy" paved the ground for the emergence of a kind of nothingness or
Absurdity in works of Beckett that is portrayed in his plays on the lingual, thematic and performance levels (p.24).
What concerns this study at this point is the linguistic Absurdity of Beckett's plays. This kind of Absurdity may be
characterized by "the indeterminacy of language, and employs techniques of babbling, failed efforts of communication,
repetition, and untidy proliferation to create tension between meaning and nonmeaning"(Hodges, 2010, p. 21).The most
important thing to be mentioned at this point is the fact that the Absurdity present in Beckett's works is just a device in
service of his struggle to grasp the desired effects and form in his Post-War Period of writing and is not put there for its
own sake as Esslin have claimed.
4. Postcolonial Reading of Beckett's Waiting for Godot and Endgame
Now that the major characteristics of the Beckett's second phase of writing have been discussed fully, it seems now
quite proper to focus on the main subject of this study that is the Postcolonial Reading of Beckett's Waiting for Godot
and Endgame, as they belong to this phase. What has been done till this point from the elaboration of the history of
National Irish Theatre to Beckett's biography and artistic career was an struggle to determine the historical context in
which these works have been produced as Fredrick Jameson has emphasized on historicizing the texts under analysis.
This act of historicizing is of much significance in a postcolonial study of Becket for some reasons: first of all because
the colonizer-colonized relation which is one of the important issues to be investigated is something real and not of
imaginary existence and shall not be considered as things that have happened in void. So to apply postcolonial
approaches to these two plays of Beckett, what has been done, seems necessary. Besides, knowing about the life or
biography of a writer is very important in postcolonial studies, as these studies aim at the explication of the texts for
extracting those elements that can shed light on Power Relations – as Foucault believes –hidden in the deeper layer of
the texts. This can be done only when the investigator knows enough about the writer, his life and the way the present
power sources in it have influenced his writing: what may speak instead of the silences in the text (Brandabur, 2006).
4.1 Waiting for Godot
En attendant Godot or Waiting for Godot, which went on stage on 5, January 1953 at the Thèâtre du Babylone in Paris,
is Beckett's "real triumph"(Esslin, 2002, p.39). It soon came to be known as one great success of the Post-War Theatre
and was translated into more than twenty languages. But what are those elements that make for such an excellence in
Post-War drama of Europe? For sure, it cannot be just related to the plot of the play or being categorized later under the
title of an Absurd play by Esslin: Two tramps named Vladimir and Estragon staying together in a desert-like area
handling nonsense or absurd dialogues to kill time while they are waiting for a man named Godot to come. In fact, it is
IJALEL 2 (1):60-67, 2013 64
the existential connotations of the play and many references to the religious notion of waiting for a "savior",
(Ghanbari,2008,p.735 ) – reinforced by the apocalyptic setting of the play– that gives it much more significance in the
eyes of the war-worn European audience. The European is tired of the cruel world and is aimlessly looking for
something that may soothe him for a while. He knows that it is promised by the Holy Scriptures, but he can no more be
certain about anything and the inaction coming to him in such a situation has provided him an inevitable absurdity,
taking him nowhere.
What has been mentioned above is what one may read in an analysis of Waiting for Godot; what is done in light of
Esslin's guidelines in The Theatre of Absurd. But as it was discussed in the previous parts, in order to investigate the
significance of this play from a postcolonial perspective, one should try to place it exactly in its historical context. It
may be somehow hard to do so, because of the indirectness of a play of Beckett from the second phase and the way it
conceals its references from the outside world in result of the fusion of subjective and objective. Therefore, it is good to
start the analysis by putting Vladimir and Estragon and the notion of waiting in center and view them from the
postcolonial prospect. According to Knowlson (2004), even though Vladimir and Estragon are cosmopolitan characters
and represent man's condition in Post-War years, in the first instance they stand for Samuel and Suzzane themselves
when on their way south in fear of Gestapo had the same tramp-like life: "sleeping in ditches, waiting by the road side
and eating scraps from chicken bones” hoping for a rescue to come (p.343). In fact, it was such a condition that opened
Beckett's eyes to the reality of writing (p.344), as he became able to express the boring experience of waiting and
silences of his tramp-days by words; words that besides their haphazard appearance or the absurd reflection of men's
situation would speak for what goes on inside figures like Vladimir and Estragon and the way their dazzled mind long
for making sense of the reality of waiting hopelessly. This kind of helplessness and bamboozlement is so great that even
they sometimes forget about everything and their purpose for waiting becomes so blurred in their mind that it turns into
a routine habit. This fact is portrayed in Waiting for Godot by the frequency of the words or phrases that are related to
the notion of waiting and much reoccurrence of dialogues like what follows:
ESTRAGON : Let’s go
VLADIMIR : We can’t.
ESTRAGON : Why not?
VLADIMIR : We’re waiting for Godot ( Act I: 15).
Besides what was discussed above, there is one more issue related to the matter of waiting that can be very significant
in a postcolonial study and that is the ideological aspects of waiting. This can be analyzed by relying on the notion of
ideology in Marxism and the way a postcolonial reading can make use of it. The colonizer does whatever he can to
control the colonized – he may use military forces, political strategies or ideological devices. The notion of ideology
seems to be much related to this discussion. If the philosophy of waiting is considered to be something not real and
only an ideological device in the hand of Godot or any other source of power not known to the audience, it can be
concluded that Vladimir and Estragon are the examples of people in a colonized society who are kept away from
searching for reality and taking due actions to reach the necessary class consciousness. In other words, through the
interpolation of the ideology of waiting, they fall in a kind of numbness that they do not feel the trauma they suffer from
and go on in hope of a savior in lack of the required insights.
To trace other clues related to a postcolonial study of Waiting for Godot, the relation between Lucky and Pozzo shall be
put into analysis here. Esslin (2002) believes that "Pozzo is a sadistic master and Lucky a submissive slave"(p.46) to
him, who carries not only his luggage, but also the whip with which Pozzo beats him. In fact, Pozzo's dominance on
Lucky is to so great that, he even orders him when to think. If Pozzo is taken as "a greedy landlord", Lucky is the
example of an exploited peasant and if Pozzo the representative of "capital and corporate power", Lucky can be
considered as "a failed scholar, philosopher, and poet" whose muteness in much of the play and his sudden outburst of
schizophrenic sentences at Pozzo's order to think, stands for the way the colonizer may repress the colonized (
Brandabur, 2006,p.123). Or as Lyon puts in words in another way, Pozzo's attitude toward Lucky which can be said to
be the nonverbal language of the colonizer, "isolates Lucky as an image of a disfranchised intellectual who functions as
a type of licensed fool"(cited in Hyland & Sammells,1994, pp.193-194). This becomes much more vivid when the
audience is informed from Pozzo's words that he is going to sell Lucky at a fair even though much of what he knows
has been once taught to him by Lucky. Pozzo's attitude toward Estragon and Vladimir in the first act also reflects the
authority of such a kind in him, as it is very clear at the point where Estragon voraciously begs for the bones and the
leftovers of the chicken that Pozzo was eating. The wine which Pozzo drinks at that moment and the way he responds
to Estragon's request, his pipe and his manner of talking also portray a negative picture of him: a cruel colonizer or
landlord who has been living for long in prosperity and comfort in result of the exploitation of others.
It is also significant to talk about the matter of Pozzo's blindness and Lucky's muteness. In the first act Pozzo wears a
pair of glasses and he possesses a watch that he has inherited from his grandfather. That can be the symbol of time and
consequently the colonizer's dominance through ages. He is also too strong and can justify his attitude toward Lucky
for Vladimir and Estragon as he talks in a way that shows his knowledge of the environment – he is the owner of that
land and knows everything about it: the sunset, time and history. But in the second act he appears as a blind man on the
stage. He cannot keep his balance while being guided by Lucky, and when he falls he even begs for Estragon and
Vladimir's help with many lamentations. He cannot remember Estragon and Vladimir, whom he had met the day
before. He has lost his sense of time and cannot tell, for how much time he is on that way. What gives more
IJALEL 2 (1):60-67, 2013 65
significance to these elements is the fact that Lucky has become dumb in this act. Actually, Beckett intends to represent
the diminishing authority of Pozzo and the way his lack of insight can stand for the narrow- minded dictator, colonizer
or exploiter. This can be expanded by relying on postcolonial theories of Homi Bhabha (1990): the colonizer is always
blind to what he is doing to the colonized, as he is not aware of the ambivalence that may exist in their relation and the
way the colonized would adopt the new language of resistance. The colonizer thinks he can keep his dominance on the
colonized, but he will soon find the impossibility of that. This can be traced in the second act of the play as Vladimir
and Estragon ask for money facing Pozzo and his begging for help and Lucky's muteness and inaction during the whole
act.
By what has been discussed till this point, it can be concluded that Samuel Beckett's Waiting for Godot, besides all
other readings can be read in light of the postcolonial approach. In order to do so, a series of issues with the centrality of
two notions of Waiting and colonizer-colonized relation were studied. At this point it can be claimed that this play of
Beckett on the whole is a reflection of the structure of world powers' dominance over the community of people and the
way they control them through different strategies, the way their relation is shaped and finally what comes off this
ambivalent relation at the end.
4.2 Endgame
After focusing on Waiting for Godot, the turn goes to Fin de Partie or Endgame that is another masterpiece by Beckett
written in 1967. Like Waiting for Godot, Endgame can be read based on postcolonial theories because of the existing
similarities and connections on different levels. Beckett himself once declares: "You must realize that Hamm and Clov
are Didi and Gogo [Stragon and Vladmir] at a later date, at the end of their lives. Actually they are Suzanne and me"
(Brandabur, 2006, p.129). What elements do these two plays have in common that make Beckett speak thus? The
answer seems to be found by performing an analysis of the relation between Hamm and Clov– the two major characters
of the play – and the way they can be studied according to the postcolonial approach.
The relation between Hamm and Clov represents that of a master and slave. According to Pearson (2001), the
relationship between Hamm and Clov is that of the "co-dependency between two leftover participants from an imperial-
colonial historical situation that no longer exists"(p.216), the co-dependency that according to the Hegelian master-slave
dialectics would make for the formation of the consciousness of the two poles and their ideology: the ideology or
worldview of the thesis that is master and the anti-thesis which is the slave. But what is the reason for the co-
dependency between Ham and Clov that reflects no more a dialectics or better to say a synthesis? Maybe the following
quotation is the best response:
HAMM: Gone from me you'd be dead.
CLOV: And vice versa.
HAMM: Outside of here it's death! (Endgame 126)
In fact, this master and slave are kept together as there is no other one left and they are the last two inhabitants of the
world. Beckett's belief that they represent Estragon and Vladmir at the end of their lives can also be interpreted in light
of the above issue: after living a life of uncertainty that is associated with waiting in different senses, Estragon and
Vladimir- or Hamm and Clov–would meet their death at the isolated world of their own, built on the basis of an
ideology – a world in which everything is going to be finished. That is why, Endgame begins so: "Finished. It's finished,
nearly finished, it must be nearly finished".
Besides what was mentioned above, it can be claimed that the relation between Hamm and Clov can be considered
parallel to the relation between Pozzo and Lucky. Like Pozzo, the authority is in hand of Hamm and he possesses the
lard which Clov is eager to know its content – that may stand for what the poor colonized may feel about the belongings
of the colonizer as the source of his superiority and hegemony. Yet there is some other clues in the text of the play that
sheds light on Hamm's background as a powerful colonizer: the way he talks about Clov's father and his arrival there to
ask for some corn for his child that standing for Hamm's "authority of socio-economic status" (Hyland & Sammells,
1994, pp.192-193) at that time, his attitude toward Nell and Nagg , and his refusal to give oil to mother Pegg for her
lamp who finally dies of darkness.
Additionally, there is another similarity between Hamm and Pozzo that is blindness. As a colonizer – though diminished
in authority – Hamm always takes charge of everything and this is portrayed in the play by sitting on a chair in the
center of the scene. He controls Clov's understanding of what goes outside when he explores with a telescope outside
the window (Pearson, 2001), and tells the story of Clov's arrival there to him as a child over and over. That can stand for
the way the colonizer would manipulate reality – something which the colonized may have no memory of – and
produces his own version of it to control the colonized ideologically. By taking all of these issues into consideration it
becomes clear how ironic Hamm's blindness and his taking pills to take its pains away may be.
Clov has also the same condition as Lucky. He is bound to his master and is repressed in different aspects. The most
significant issue to talk about in this case is the matter of Clov's identity, his language and Hamm's presence as the
figure of authority in affecting them and how they can be related to postcolonial issues. The only clue from the text of
the play that can help the investigator to probe the issue of Clov's identity is the story of the arrival of Clov's father and
asking Hamm to adopt Clov as his son. Pearson here refers to the fact that during one of his narrations, Hamm mentions
"Cobh", as the exact geographical place that Clov's father had come from. He then tries to relate this to the due
historical context to give a postcolonial reading of it: "During British occupation, Spike Island, which lies in the harbor
IJALEL 2 (1):60-67, 2013 66
at Cobh, was a British military post where Irish political prisoners were kept and later trans-ported to Botany Bay, a
British penal colony in Australia"( Pearson, 2001,p.222). And he concludes that Beckett has artistically placed such
indirect Anglo-Irish references in his play to portray his anti-colonial interests for the whole play can be interpreted in
that light: Clov is an Irish descendant whose father had been kept at Cobh Harbor because of his political activities to be
sent to Australia. He then rescues himself and is successful in finding a shelter to his little son Clov in home of Hamm ,
a powerful English Landlord who possesses a great deal of corns. By relying on Pearson's idea many things become
clear about the relation between Hamm and Clov as the play will somehow find a historical basis according to which
postcolonial studies can be performed. Clov represents then the poor Irish man who is fated to be a slave to his English
master and it is internalized in him in a way that he cannot find an alternative.
The last thing to talk about here is the matter of Clov's language that is directly related to his identity. If Clov is
considered to be Hamm's Irish slave, his language must be the focus of attention in this study as he "like all oppressed
people, is a victim of the master because that foreign speech provides the structure in which he must think as well as
speak" (Hyland & Sammells, 1994, pp. 200-201). This can be again related to Spivak's notion of subaltern and his
inability to express himself – discussed early in this study. Clov is by ethnicity an Irish man, but the act of Hamm's
colonialization has forced him to use English, think like an English man and behave like English people. However,
according to Frantz Fanon (1963), the colonized may finally revolt against all these repressions as he starts moving
toward consciousness about his true living reality. These revolutionary acts first of all manifest themselves in the
language of the colonized and as Bhabha (1990) has mentioned in case of mimicry and ambivalence, the colonized will
finally express himself through the very medium that the colonizer has taught him. That is why the audience will soon
find Clov saying to Hamm: "I use the words you taught me. If they don't mean anything anymore, teach me others, or
let me be silent" (Endgame: 44). This is an allusion to the colonial contet of Caliban in The Tempest. But it is not the
only revolutionary act of Clov as at the end the last phrase of his utterance will be fulfilled when Hamm faces nothing
but silence in response to his calls at Clov's departure. In fact, by such an ending Beckett artistically reasserts what he
had once portrayed in Waiting for Godot: It is an Irish endgame that would checkmate the idea of colonialization in any
form and the futile labor of waiting without any action in hope of the change that may come by a savior of the
colonized.
5. Conclusion
It was said that Ireland’s dramatic history and its precedence has made it different from any other European tradition of
drama – what has been put into analysis by many critics and has provided the material for many studies in case of
literary criticism, dramaturgy as well as literary history. But what has given the present study a new dimension is its
attempt to look at this issue from another prospect: the postcolonial study of Irish Drama. To do so, Samuel Beckett was
taken as the representative dramatist and two of his plays Waiting for Godot and Endgame were explicated. What
seems worth mentioning at the final point is the way these two plays lend themselves to a study of such quality, and the
adaptability of the postcolonial theories to Beckett, his ideology and his worldview despite all the oddities and
contradictions that may block the way at early steps. One must have it in mind the fact that the study of this literary and
dramatic figure has become so much stock in the decades in result of the pre-assumptions based on the notions like
absurdity, placenessness and universality. This outcome may give one the following hints:
· England’s long dominance on Ireland in different prospects is very important and can be taken into
consideration as one of the main factors affecting the literary and dramatic productions of this country.
This fact may let Ireland be categorized under the title of Postcolonialism in hope of being studied based on
postcolonial theories, but it shall be mentioned that it has its own complexities and is very different from what
may be important in studying other so-called postcolonial countries like: India, Malaysia, Nigeria, etc. Any
overgeneralization or any view of Ireland, its history and its people as stock or ready to embrace other
postcolonial frames without any challenge is misleading.
· Studying Samuel Beckett and his works may assist much to the maturation or development of postcolonial
theories as the emphasis of the theories of such kind is on what is local, contextual and ethnic before any
universalizing based on general cosmopolitan ahistorical views. Focusing on what is Irish and its relation to
this dramatist’s worldview and the true historical point where he stands, gives more reliability or an authentic
weight to the logic beyond a postcolonial study.
· Postcolonialism is to meet new horizons and can be more referable if its power in literary criticism is
enhanced. This is only possible when it is innovatory and has something new to tell. It can be claimed that the
same thing happens in what has been done here in case of Beckett: Other reading of Beckett’s Waiting for
Godot and Endgame have ceased to be comprehensive enough and cannot be much illuminating in dealing
with things in detail. They just rely for example on Absurdism, Existential Philosophy, or the notion of Savior
in void and are not able to connect them with each other. But the present study has been an attempt not only to
connect them all, but also a struggle to provide a logical base for that by relying on Beckett’s personal life, his
worldview and its metamorphosis in accordance with his Irish -French transmission and the two different
phases of his life that are the Pre-War and post-war Periods.
IJALEL 2 (1):60-67, 2013 67
References
Ashcroft, B., Griffiths, G. & Tiffin, H. (2002). The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Postcolonial
Literature.2nd ed. London: Routeledge, 2002.
Ashcroft, B., Griffiths, G. & Tiffin, H. (1995). The post-colonial studies reader. London: Routledge,.
Bhabha. H. K. ( 1990). Nation and Narration. 1sted.London:Routledge.
Beckett, S. (1990). The Complete Dramatic Works of Samuel Beckett. London: Faber Faber.
Brandabur, C. (2006). "The Elephant in the Living-Room: A Postcolonial Reading of Waiting for Godot". Cross
Culture ,85, 128-151.
Esslin, M. (2001). The Theatre of Absurd.3rded. New York: Vintage.
Fanon, F. (1963). The Wretched of the Earth, New York: Grove Weidenfeld.
Ghanbari, M.R. (2008). "A Comparative Study of the Notion of Waiting for a Savior in Religion and in Waiting for
Godot". World Applied Sciences Journal 3: 733-737.
Gleitman, C. (2008). A Concise Companion to Contemporary British and Irish Drama. Oxford: John Willey &Son, Ltd.
Grene, N. (2004). The politics of Irish Drama: Plays in Context from Boucicault to Friel. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Hodges, S. (2010). The Digital Absurd. Unpublished Doctoral. Dissertation, the School of Literature, Communication
and Culture: Georgia Institute of Technology.
Hyland, P. & Sammells,N.( Ed.). ( 1994). Irish Writing: Exile and Subversion. London: Palgrave.
Kamyabi Mesak, A. ( 2002). Beckett's Last Interview. trans. Farideh Razi. Tehran: Arvij.
Knowlson, J. (2004) Damned to Fame: The Life of Samuel Beckett. New York: Grove Press.
McDonald, R. (2002) Tragedy and Irish Literature: Synge, O'Casey, Beckett. New York: Palgrave.
Morash,C. (2002). A History of Irish Theatre: 1601-2000.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Pearson, N. C. (2001) '' 'Outside of Here It's Death': Co-Dependency and the Ghost of Decolonization in Endgame''.
ELH 68, (1): 215-239.
Richards, S, (Ed.). (2004). The Cambridge Companion to Twentieth-Century Irish Drama Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. Uhlmann, A. Beckett and Poststructuralism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Exploring the State of Unbalance within the Topical and Heterotopical

Spaces at the Core of Story
Mahshad Jalalpourroodsari, PhD (Corresponding Author)
Tehran University
M. A. Honours, English Literature, Shahid Beheshti University
Mailing Address: 2nd Floor, No. 5, Sadooqi St.
P. O. Box: 1418694445 North Kargar Ave. Tehran, Iran
Tel: +9802166427793 E-mail: m.jalalpur@yahoo.com
Assistant Professor, Sarah Catherine Household Ilkhani

Department of English, Shahid Beheshti University
P. O. Box: 1983963113 Evin, Tehran, Iran
Tel: +9802129902488 E-mail: S_ilkhani@sbu.ac.ir

Abstract
This paper examines one of the ways in which narrativity as a complex concept is rooted in almost simple notions
which support it at its basic levels. The discussion here would be devoted to the concept of the minimal story (récit
minimal) which is defined as being part of the surface narrative syntax of every discourse in general and Ibsen’s
A Doll’s House in particular. It will be seen how the play’s content signs are converted via the minimal story and how
the supporting pillars of this discourse are grounded in elementary types of narrative programmes which cement the
trajectory (Note 1) of meaning at its surface stratum. The basis of this research is the semiotic theory proposed by the
French structuralist semiotician Algirdas Julien Greimas as the founder of Paris School of semiotics. It will be seen how
the story can arrange itself from its end and how the whole narrative process may possess a temporal and syntactic
orientation which forms the bare structure around which the whole story is weaved. This paper attempts to shed some
light on the inner fluctuations at the heart of Ibsen’s play accommodating an orientational schema which the
semioticians would call the nucleus of all narrative systems. Therefore, in this article, an introduction of the basic
concepts will be followed by an analysis of the turbulences affecting the main figures/actants (Note 2) inhabiting the
minimal story of Ibsen’s discourse.
Keywords: Minimal Story, Permanence, Change, Correlated Contents, Temporal/Thematic Axis, Inversed/posited
Content, Topical/Heterotopical Space
1. Introduction; Minimal Story (Récit Minimal):
An ideal story commences with a stable situation which a force comes and perturbs.
It results in a state of unbalance. Thus a force in the opposite direction is needed to
reestablish the balance. The second equilibrium is similar to the first one but the two
are never identical. (Todorov cited in Adam, 1994, p. 31) (Note 3)
In order to explore the arrangement of the constituent parts within a semiotic object, which is being analyzed based on
its mode of production, one could use the concept of the generative trajectory (Parcours Génératif), which takes one
from a profound, abstract stratum of the discourse to more concrete ones. The semio-narrative structures are positioned
at the deepest layer of this trajectory, and have syntactic and semantic components, and are in turn sub divided into two
different levels of depth. The deeper level is denominated as the deep level, containing a fundamental syntax and a
fundamental semantics, and the surface level in turn contains a surface narrative syntax and a narrative semantics
(Greimas & Courtés, 1993, p. 158-159). The minimal story which is the focus of this research is positioned in the
surface narrative syntax of discourse. (Note 4)
In the semiotics of action, in every discourse, independent of the form and the manner in which it is moulded and then
presented, there is a story which in a very general way gives one a wide perspective over the whole action, and
summarizes in a systematic, conventional way, the main fluctuation at the heart of the narrative. This “semiotic
structuration” (Bertrand, 2000, p. 178), would present one with the pattern based on which, or for which, the whole
IJALEL 2 (1):68-75, 2013 69
story has been designed. Besides, more importantly it gives the gist of the main transformation, connected to the main
figures involved in the action.
To look at the discourse from such a point of view, is to adopt a global scope towards the narrativity (Courtés, 1991, p.
36), one based on the “current opposition between the permanence and the change (changement) … it is thanks to this
fundamental distinction between what is stable and what is modified that we give meaning to all the things which
constitute our semantic universe” (p. 36). Therefore the disparity and the inconsistency at the heart of the narrative grow
into its final congruity and oneness. Sometimes permanence is referred to as static state, while the change is referred to
as dynamism. One should also not neglect the fact that permanence and change are regarded as “the two complementary
and opposed faces of the same datum, they mutually refer to one another” (p. 36), so much so that apart from their
interrelation, it would be hard to give any exact definition for them (p. 36). When it is said that they are the faces of the
same datum, it only confirms the idea recurrent in semiotics that one cannot talk about the difference unless there exists
a "resemblance … a common trait” (p. 37) and it is this resemblance that creates the harmony and the coherence of the
discourse. In other words, “if there were no relationship between the initial state and the final one, the addressor of the
discourse would be lost” (p. 37). In Maupassant; la sémiotique du texte (1976), Greimas sees the formation of the
minimal story as one of the ways in which the isotopy (Note 5) of the discourse could be felt, since “the conversion is
not situated inside one single actor, the new isotopy of the text is applied to the text” (p. 106) in its totality.
Of the two parts already mentioned, “the emphasis is put on the change as opposed to the permanence … or on the
passage as opposed to the states” (Courtés, 1991, p. 36-37), because the important thing from the perspective of the
semiotics of action is that “something happens [between] the initial unbalance and the final balance” (p. 36). To put the
stress on the mediative part in the middle, would be to give the definition of the story as “a transformation situated
between two successive and different states” (p. 37). Talking about the successional nature of the states leads one to
understand that there could be no story unless there were a relationship between a before (avant, l’amont) and an after
(après, l’aval) (p. 37). In fact, if the story is to be considered as possessing any signification or meaning, it should be
read in terms of a simple semantic structure with a temporal dimension (Greimas, 1981, p. 35). As the story goes
forward alongside its temporal axis, what happens is a “reversal of the situation which is … nothing more than the
inversion of the content signs” (p. 35-36). In terms of syntagmatic utterances, one could say that the minimal story is
made by the opposition between the "inversed content, when the subject of state is disjoined from its object of value,
and the posited content, when the subject of state is conjoined with its object of value” (Adam, 1994, p. 95). These two
contents are also called “correlated contents" (Greimas, 1981, p. 36), and this correlation is defined in terms of the
transformational relation existing between the two in that the one corresponding to the initial sequence gets reversed,
and the newly framed final sequence is posited. However, the important point to remember is that almost all the time
“the content changes but only partially” (p. 41), so that the later formed meaning has the same essence of the previous
one while at the same time being its opposite. Greimas summarizes this “framework (armature), which forms the
structural status of the discourse” (p. 35), in a diagram which gives the “presumed articulation of the content" (p. 43):
Figure 1. Structural Status of the Discourse

According to this model it can be inferred that such a definition "cuts up the story in its most basic sequences” (p. 43).
Besides, as is seen in the diagram, a "temporal opposition is correlated with a thematic opposition; before/after, inversed
content/posited content” (Bouissac, 1998, p. 442). It is seen that as the story goes forward in time, its initial inversed
content becomes the final posited one while the same texture and essence remains intact throughout the whole
discourse. In fact, the whole point of the story is determined “retrogressively [when] … the end determines what
precedes it" (p, 442) in that the story can be read from its very end when its resolved state has always been reigning the
macro and micro universes of what comes before it all the time. As is evident from this structuration, it could be stated
that the “boundaries (bornes)” (Adam, 1994, p. 207) of the discourse should be fixed if the story is to be seen as being
complete and “the narrative demonstration” (p. 207) is to be reproduced. The model presented above is, according to
Bouissac (1998) “a unifying, global model of the abstracted narrative, which illustrates only formal and invariant
properties” (p. 442), and helps one link the syntagmatic structures of the narrative with its semantic counterparts. The
diagram presented by Adam in his Le texte narratif (1994) is founded on the same laws, only the shape of his
presentation is slightly different from that of Greimas's, and it goes as follows:
IJALEL 2 (1):68-75, 2013 70
Before → Transformation → After
Inversed Content → Events → Posited Content
[S È O] → [S Ç O] . (p. 207)
Adam believes that this diagram permits one to look at the story as the "transformation of the qualifying predicates,
underlined by the subject-object relations” (p. 207). It should be useful at this point to know that Greimas in his
Maupassant; la sémiotique du texte (1976) has added to the binary temporal category of /Before/ vs. /After/, such as
presented above, in that he talks about /During/ (Pendant), and explains that “/during/ is the time in which the narrated
events are inscribed” (p. 20). So basically, the logic remains intact, only Greimas has come up with another terminology
to describe the transformative state of the minimal story, or as he himself states “a temporal framework … which
establishes an assured frontier” (p. 20-21) in the text. He even uses other terminologies, referring to the same concepts
such as “/Precedence/ vs. /Concomitance/ vs. /Posterity/” (p. 71), and he furthers his propositions in that he even names
the narrative spaces within which each of these phases takes place, he defines the “topical space (espace topique), as the
place where the transformation in question finds itself manifested syntagmatically, and the heterotopical spaces
(espaces hétérotopiques), as the places which surround the former space with either preceding or following it” (p. 99).
These spaces have nothing to do with the actual places presented in the course of the narrative, they are spaces in the
discourse, in that the unfolding of the narrative programmes (Note 6) happens in the topical space, and the two basic
utterances of state as belonging to the minimal story, happen in the heterotopical spaces.
Confirming what Bouissac had already talked about, Adam cites from Claude Chabrol who thinks that “the story
arranges itself from its end, going back to its beginning, so logically the last given unit is the first one” (cited in Adam,
1994, p. 207). This is important in understanding that all that happens within the story eventually aims to bring about
the final state, so it would be as if first there is a final state, and for its realization all the semiotics of action is put into
place. This way of organization is much more global than one might think, in that it is even found in the “mental
constructions which one elaborates” (Courtés, 1991, p. 36), thus to find it in any discourse is only natural.
Based on what has been said up to here one could also come up with the very “basic schema … with the following
orientation:
{state= [état] T=transformation}
Figure 2. Elementary Narrative Organization
which manifests the elementary narrative organization” (p. 38) in a general sense. Such a formulation of the story, gives
one the basic sequence within the discourse (Adam, 1994, p. 98). Even by a glimpse at this schema, one could see that
the two states at the beginning and the end of the discourse “logically frame” (Courtés, 1991, p. 38), the whole narrative
and that the whole process possesses a relation of "orientation” (p. 39), meaning that there is a “temporal component at
the formal basis” (p. 39) of every story.
This minimal story is the part which “establishes the general structure of the narrative phenomenon, by taking into
consideration the syntactic forms of the states” (Bertrand, 2000, p. 178); but these states would come only in their
logical skeletal frame (p. 178) which could be analogical to the form they take in the narrative programmes. The order
in which this story would appear is paradigmatic (p. 178), since one state is altered through certain developments in the
story, giving way to alternative ones, and these states are not present all at the same time within the discourse. In fact,
the “syntagmatic progress of the story” (p. 178), meaning the sequence of the narrative programmes embedded in the
canonical narrative schemas, “reveal a more profound structure on which it reposes” (p. 178), and by this profound
structure Bertrand means the minimal story. It is important to know that this paradigmatic structure comes way before
the syntagmatic one (p. 178), because it would be like the “veritable architecture of the narrative” (p. 178), the bare
structure around which the narrative is weaved.
What is implied in the concept of the minimal story, is that the “states are constituted of the state predicates (prédicats
d’état) (Note 7) of having and being (avoir et être) … while the transformation phase is reposed on the predicates of
doing (prédicats de faire)” (Bertrand, 2000, p. 178). Thus, it can be seen that it is the basic states and their way of
structuring that holds up the whole narrative structure and creates the narrativity (p. 178), not as one might think "the
presuppositions about the action” (p. 178). This is why according to semioticians the minimal story is considered to be
the “nucleus of all narrative systems” (p. 178), in that there is only talk about a story when “two utterances of state are
governed and transformed by one or more utterances of doing” (p. 178). Therefore, it is possible to "link up this
syntactic formulation, founded on the transformation of a state into another contrary state through the mediation of a
state of doing, to the more profound formulation of the elementary structure” (p. 178-179) of the narrative.
In most cases, what one perceives in this elementary form, is a progress or “the change in state which consists of a
passage to a superior degree level” (Bertrand, 2000, p. 202). This definition also happens to correspond to one of the
definitions of the narrative programme of conjunction (p. 202) when the subject reaches the object from which it has
been deprived for long. So to put it in another way, the progress is the "lexical manifestation of the elementary narrative
structure: state1- transformer doing- state2” (p. 202), in other words the bringing to surface of the profound creative
processes at work within the narrative. These processes would “play with the relation between the subject actant and the
object actant, defined reciprocally by their junction, either their dis-junctions or their con-junctions” (p. 202).
IJALEL 2 (1):68-75, 2013 71
Courtés in his Analyse sémiotique du discours (1991) provides one with a new dimension of the basis of story in that to
him the story consists of "going from state1 of /ignorance/ to the state2 of /knowledge/, and in syntactic terms one
would say that a given subject S2, first disjoined of its object /knowledge/, is then conjoined with it: (S2 È O) →
(S2 Ç O), these are the two narrative states, the initial and the final one” (p. 120). The whole argument presented above
can lead to a more thorough appreciation and a better perception of the complexly woven world of Ibsen's A Doll’s
House. It will be seen how elementary types of narrative programmes cement the trajectory of its meaning at its surface
stratum.
2. The Focal Fluctuations at the Heart of the Minima Story of Ibsen's A Doll's House:
In the beginning of the story, if one considers the primal semantic relation that exists between the two main figures of
the discourse, Nora and Torvald, it can be inferred from their hierarchical relationship, that Torvald is the agent, while
Nora occupies the patient's position, in that she is the one who is influenced by him. Nora is seen as one who is used to
getting her competence from her husband, in a stable static state, which might even have looked quite ideal from an
external angle of view, but which emptied her innate capacities from inside. Such is the heterotopical space in which
Nora and Torvald find themselves initially. This is the leading state which is characterized by a qualifying predicate of
having (predicat d'avoir) constituting her inversed content (original state). This early status of hers can equally be
defined syntagmatically. In order to present a syntagmatic representation of Nora's condition at this point, it will suffice
to see how she is displaced from her self (Nora È Sense of Self/Knowledge), along with all that qualifies a person as a
whole. She has been detached from her independence, individuality, or self-worth, in that her self was defined by an
outer force (Torvald and his beliefs). Her sense of being was ascertained in terms of submission and obedience, and not
through her own will as a person because at this point she was disjoined from the truth of the situation in which she
lived. This inaugural stage on which Nora and Torval perform is one on which she enjoys no liberty of her own which is
completely conspicuous in her state of domestic impotence in her even having to answer to and get permission from her
husband for the simplest of things like eating "macaroons" (Ibsen, 1954, p. 29). Moreover, in this enslaved subordinate
position, the wife would acquire no option but to resign to the agent's verdicts, through affirming them all the time
saying “Oh, yes Torvald” (p. 26) or trying to make him pity her through imploration as when she implores him to "let
[them] squander a little, now- just the least little bit!" (p. 26).
However, the situation does not remain the same for too long. The force perturbing the introductory balance in the story
comes through gradually. It penetrates Nora's mind from within, when she starts to challenge the force which had sent
her to such degrading corners. She goes through revelatory phases and gains comprehension of her past life, an
awareness which is evident in her words to Torvald telling him that:
Nora: No; … And you have always been so kind to me. But our house has been nothing but a
playroom. Here, I have been your doll - wife, just as at home I used to be papa's doll-child. And
the children, in their turn have been my dolls. I thought it fun when you played with me, just
as the children did when I played with them. That has been our marriage Torvald. (p. 101)
This opposing force which eventually fluctuates the roles of these two actants, is an externally stimulated yet an inner-
generated and inner-directed one, which resonates outer-directedly when Nora as the subject turns into a performative
one, and as the story goes forward temporally, she treads consistently on a path towards a for-better modification in
terms of content, in that as the main figure in the action of the story, she goes from state1 of /ignorance/ and
/subordination/ to the state2 of /knowledge/ and /independence/, and for this cardinal transformation to happen within
the heterotopical borderline spaces of this narrative, the entire action is put in the middle of these two successive
contrary but complementary situations. She is the story’s main subject of state, the one for whose change of status, into
a more euphoric one, or it would be better to say, the one for whose progressive trajectory, the story is retrogressively
unfolded, and the trajectory has got into motion, obtaining a sense compatible with that of each and every part of its
constituent parts, which in a cohesive manner state and restate the signification, distributing it throughout the whole
discourse while at the same time scaffolding the isotopy of the text.
The unfolding of the story takes place in the mediatory section of the topical space forming the “narrative
macroproposition” (Adam, 1994, p. 40), or the ensemble of all the actions inscribed in this milieu as the “base of the
[major] transformation” (p. 40) that Nora as the main actant goes through. What is of importance here is the fact that all
of the programmes and discursive events happening after Nora's conjunction with her dysphoric primal state, envisage
and facilitate the ultimate dynamic shift in the relations of the two afore mentioned actants, while at the same time
framing the global scope of the interior design of Ibsen's narrative. his narrative macroproposition is “composed of
several narrative micropropositions” (p. 40) such as Nora's secretive debt to Krogstad, her futile attempts to get out of
her debt and then to conceal her secret from a seemingly devoted and protective husband which eventually led to
unmasking Torvald's hypocritical act of love. Whatever happens at this point within the story, or at this topical space, is
considered to be the events of the story, which “come and break off the first situation” (p. 40). Such events are looked
upon as utterances of doing which succeed and govern the initial qualifying predicate of state or Nora's primary
condition. The events also bring about the inversion of the content signs, which is manifested syntagmatically as the
following ameliorated posited content: (Nora Ç Knowledge). The main mediatory program/event which breaks the calm
universe of A Doll's House, is Nora's seeing through Torvald's deceptive state. She becomes disillusioned when she
understands that Torvald would not be willing to sacrifice anything for his family. In her delusive state she had the
conviction that he would take the blame for the forgery she had committed to save his life by borrowing money from
Krogstad. Nora's credulity was in particular based on Torvald's having already declared that he “wished some danger
IJALEL 2 (1):68-75, 2013 72
might threaten [her], that [he] might risk body and soul and everything for [her] dear sake” (Ibsen, 1954, p. 95).
However, Torvald breaks her trust and she starts to get out of her immature position when she notices that he has never
had any intention of sacrificing himself when he declares his firm belief that “no man sacrifices his honour, even for the
ones he loves” (p. 105). Therefore, after receiving the revelatory letter written by Krogstad unveiling Nora's secret,
Torvald senses the threat of being humiliated due to his wife’s conduct and thus he drops the act and unveils his real
inconsiderate self in calling her “a hypocrite, a liar, worse worse a criminal” (p. 96), and puts all the blame on her for
having “ruined [his] future” (p. 96), instead of trying to bear her problem upon himself.
Therefore, Nora eventually comes to know that her primary situation, no longer suits her, and that she has to complete
the towards-not-male-dominance process that she had started. In the end she decides to “stand quite alone … and know
[herself] and [her] surroundings; [when she] cannot stay with [the husband] any longer” (Ibsen, 1954, p. 102), and
leaves his male dominance, along with her own female subordination behind. She even exteriorizes this private change
of her state by announcing that "[she] [is] going at once. … It is of no use [he] forbidding [her] anything now. She shall
take with [her] what belongs to [her]. From [him] [she] will accept nothing, either now or afterwards" (p. 102). This
time, it would be the female who has obtained the unconditional upper hand, and has given the verdict in saying that she
“no longer believes in miracles” (p. 107).
Finally, at this point the situation is reversed and the final boundary making heterotopical space is achieved. A space in
which Nora relies no more on Torvald, but on her newly-found self. A space where she inverses the content of the
discourse by surrendering no more to baseless imposed expectations of Torvald and her entourage. She frees herself
from her husband, her children, her earlier role of a doll and everything which had the potential to confine and define
her. She is released into a novel domain where she can conjoin the euphoric values of /freedom/ + /non confinement/
through her positive journey. However, the main fluctuation in the line of this discourse would have not been possible,
had it not been for her realizing the fake nature of her husband's claims. In the end Nora understands that Torvald “has
never loved [her], but only thought it amusing to be in love with [her]” (Ibsen, 1954, p. 101), and that through trusting a
person who "has never understood [her]" (p. 100), she has done an “injustice” (p. 100) to herself. She “takes off [her]
masquerade dress” (p. 99) and leaves her previous values, which have now proven to be invested with dysphoric nature
for her and moves on towards more euphoric values in a heterotopical space where she would be able to “exchange
serious word[s] about serious things” (p. 100).
Therefore, as the discourse approaches its closing lines, one sees Nora positing novel content signs, and new values
such as freedom and self-respect to which she adheres, and thus signals the final boundary of discourse which encloses
the abstract narrative demonstration as the story ends. She gets conjoined with these values from which she has been
deprived during her married life, and even before that. This is the dynamism and fluctuation of which Greimas talks in
the narrative, when the story becomes analogical to a flowing river, which is oriented towards its final phase, and that
without the presupposition of such movements in its course, there would exist no story at all. If all that the story offered
was a permanent state, with no change, then there would be no sense of time, no temporal axis, based on which one
could get a sense of beginning and closure, which is essential to have a story.
However, one should be reminded of the fact that although Nora’s situation has changed, it has only changed partially,
since she moves alongside the same axis: In fact, /ignorance/ and /awareness/ are “the two extreme poles of the same
axis” (Courtés, 1991, p. 37) of awareness, and consciousness, as its common trait. So the coherence of the discourse is
maintained. If one were to use Adam’s diagram, the minimal story of A Doll’s House would look something like this:
Before → Transformation → After
Inversed Content → Events → Posited Content
/Ignorance, Lack of Awareness/ Ensemble of /Awareness/
[Nora È Awareness, Knowledge] Events of the Story [Nora Ç Awareness,]
[Nora Ç Knowledge]
3. Conclusion
Thus, it can be seen that at the end of the story, Nora [S] finds herself conjoined [ Ç ] with her object of value [O], from
which she has been previously disjoined [ È ]. Hence, an improvement is seen in her status, which ratifies the belief that
the story usually moves towards a better state of affairs. Therefore as the minimal story testifies, Nora’s progress is the
nucleus of Ibsen's narrative system, as its major objective, and the story becomes a tableau, portraying the tracks which
have been collaboratively covered by the actants of narration in the topical space, in the form of narrative programmes,
all of which orbiting around this unifying center which retrospectively supplies them with signification. This
perspective also shows the border lines inside the discourse where a thin line can be rawn between the middle topical
space, and the framing heterotopical ones which come before the start of the main action and after it has been
completed, and motivate the entire action of the story. A good summary of what has been discussed by now, could also
be demonstrated by the schema introduced by Greimas himself:
IJALEL 2 (1):68-75, 2013 73
Figure 3. Structural Status of A Doll's House
References
Works in English and French:
Adam, J. (1994). Le texte narratif. Paris: Nathan.
Arup, J. (1966). Narrative and Symbol in Ibsen. In James Walter McFarlane (Ed.), Discussions of Henrik Ibsen (pp. 99-
103). Boston: D. C. Heath and Company.
Averill, J. (1988). About Greimas and the Nature of Meaning: Linguistics, Semiotics, and Discourse Theory by Ronald
Schleifer. Rocky Mountain Review of Language and Literature, 42 (4), 252-253.
Bentley, E. (1966). Ibsen, Pro and Con. In James Walter McFarlane. (Ed.), Discussions of Henrik Ibsen (pp. 11-18).
Boston: D. C. Heath and Company.
Bertrand, D. (2000). Précis de sémiotique littéraire. Paris: Edition Nathan HER.
Bouissac, P. (1998). Encyclopedia of Semiotics. New York: Oxford University Press.
Bressler, C. (2007). Literary Criticism: An Introduction to Theory and Practice. New Jersey: Pearson Education.
Bronwen, M, & Felicitas, R. (1998). Key Terms in Semiotics. London: British Library Press.
Champagne, R. (1977, Feb.). About Maupassant la sémiotique du texte: exercices pratiques by Greimas. The French
Review, 50 (3), 501-502.
Chandler, Daniel. (2002). Semiotics: The Basics. New York: Roultledge.
Cobley, P. (2007). The Routledge Companion to Semiotics and Linguistics. New York: Routledge.
Courtés, J. (1976). Introduction a la sémiotique narrative et discursive. Paris: Hachette.
Courtés, J. (1991). Analyse sémiotique du discours: de l’énoncé à l’énonciation. Paris: Hachette Supérieur.
Davis, R. C. (1984, Dec.). About Sémantique structurale. MLN, 99 (5), 1211-1215.
Ellis-Fermor, U. (1966). Ibsen and Shakespeare as Dramatic Artists. In James Walter McFarlane (Ed.), Discussions of
Henrik Ibsen (pp. 89-98). Boston: D. C. Heath and Company.
Graham, J. (1978, Winter). Semiotics and Semantics. Boundary, 2 (3), 591-598.
Greimas, A., & Joseph,C. (1993). Dictionnaire raisonné de la théorie du langage. Paris: Hachette Livre.
Greimas, A. J. (1971, Dec.). Narrative Grammar: Units and Levels. (Philip Bodrock, Trans.). MLN, 86 (6), 793-806.
Greimas, A. J. (1976a, Spring). The Cognitive Dimension of Narrative Discourse. (Michael Rengstorf, Trans.). New
Literary History, 7 (3), 433-447.
Greimas, A. J. (1976b). Maupassant la sémiotique du texte: exercices pratiques. Paris: Seuil Edition.
Greimas, A. J. (1977, Spring). Elements of a Narrative Grammar. (Catherine Porter, Trans.). Diacritics, 7 (1), 23-40.
Greimas, A. J. (1981). Eléments pour une théorie de l’interprétation du récit mythique. In Seuil (Ed.), Communications
8:Analyse structurale du récit (pp. 34-65). Paris: Seuil.
Greimas, A. J. (1983). Du sens II: Essais sémiotiques. Paris: Seuil.
Greimas, A. J. (1986). Sémantique structurale. Paris: Les Presses Universitaires de France.
Greimas, A. J. (1989a, Spring). The Veridiction Contract. (Frank Collins, & Paul Perron, Trans.). New Literary History,
20 (3), 651-660.
Greimas, A. J. (1989b, Spring). On Meaning. (Paul Perron, & Frank Collins, Trans.). New Literary History, 20 (3), 539
550.
IJALEL 2 (1):68-75, 2013 74
Greimas, A. J. (1989c, Spring). On Narrativity. (Paul Perron, & Paul Riceur, & Frank Collins, Trans.). New Literary
History, 20 (3), 551-562.
Haakonsen, D. (1966). Ibsen the Realist. In James Walter McFarlane (Ed.), Discussions of Henrik Ibsen (pp. 70-82).
Harris, R. (1989, Nov.). About Greimas and the Nature of Meaning: Linguistics, Semiotics, and Discourse Theory by
Ronald Schleifer. The Review of English Studies, 40 (160), 541-542.
Howells, W. D. (1906, Jul.). Henrik Ibsen. The North American Review, 183 (596), 1-14.
Ibsen, H. (1954). A Doll’s House. In William Archer (Ed.), Four Plays: A Doll’s House- The Wild Duck- Ghosts- The
Master Builder (pp. 25-107). (William Archer, Trans.). London: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd.
Lechte, J. (1994). Fifty Key Contemporary Thinkers: From Structuralism to Postmodernity. New York: Routledge.
McFarlane, J. (1966). Revaluations of Ibsen. In James Walter McFarlane (Ed.), Discussions of Henrik Ibsen (pp. 19-
27). Boston: D. C. Heath and Company.
Makaryk, I. (1993). Encyclopedia of Contemporary Literary Theory: Approaches, Scholars, Terms. Toronto:
University of Toronto.
Marker, F, & Lise-Lone Marker. (1989). Ibsen’s Lively Art: A Performance Study of the Major Plays. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Mencken, H. L. (1966). The Technical Quality of the Plays. In James Walter McFarlane (Ed.), Discussions of Henrik
Ibsen (pp. 7-10). Boston: D. C. Heath and Company.
Meyer, M. (1971). Ibsen: A Biography. London: Cox and Wyman Ltd.
Mitchell, B. (1977, Summer). About Maupassant la sémiotique du texte: exercices pratiques. World Literature Today,
51 (3), 414.
Miller, A. (1966). The Real in Ibsen’s Realism. In James Walter McFarlane (Ed.), Discussions of Henrik Ibsen (pp.
104-105). Boston: D. C. Heath and Company.
Nef, Fredric. (1977, Spring). Introduction to the Reading of Greimas: Towards a Discursive Linguistics. Diacritics,
7(1), 18-22.
Noth, W. (1990). Handbook of Semiotics. Indiana: Indiana University Press.
Peacock, R. (1966). Effects of Ibsen. In James Walter McFarlane (Ed.), Discussions of Henrik Ibsen (pp. 106-110).
Perron, P. (1989, Spring). Introduction: A. J. Greimas. New Literary History, 20 (3), 523-538.
Ricoeur, P., Collins, F., & Perron, P. (1989, Spring). Greimas’s Narrative Grammar. New Literary History, 20 (3), 581-
608.
Roe, F. (1905, Jul.). Ibsen as a Dramatist. The Sewanee Review, 13 (3), 305-318.
Ferdinand de, F. (1972). Cours de linguistique générale. Paris: Edition Critique Payot.
Schleifer, Ronald. (1987). A. J. Greimas and the Nature of Meaning: Linguistics, Semiotics, and Discourse. New South
Wales: Providence House.
Seldon, R, &Widdowson, Peter (1993). A Reader’s Guide to Contemporary Literary Theory. London: British Library
Cataloguing.
Segre, Cesare, & John Meddemmen. (1989, Spring). The Style of Greimas and its Transformation. New Literary
History, 20 (3), 679-692.
Shaw, G. (1966). Henrik Ibsen: The Lessons of the Plays. In James Walter McFarlane (Ed.), Discussions of Henrik
Ibsen (pp. 1-6). Boston: D. C. Heath and Company.
Tyson, Lois. (2006). Critical Theory Today: A User Friendly Guide. Florida: CRC Press.
Van Dijk, Teun. (1972). Aspects d’une théorie générative du texte poétique. In A. J. Greimas (Ed.), Essais de
sémiotique poétique (pp. 180-205). Paris: Larousse.
Waugh, P. (2006). Literary Theory and Criticism. New York: Oxford University Press.
Williams, R. (1966). Ibsen’s Non-Theatrical Plays. In James Walter McFarlane (Ed.), Discussions of Henrik Ibsen (pp.
35-38). Boston: D. C. Heath and Company.
Wolfreys, J. (2001). Introducing Literary Theories: A Guide and Glossary. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Works in Persian:
.‫ ﻧﺸﺮ ﻣﺮﮐﺰ‬:‫ ﺗﮭﺮان‬.ƼҚƹ ƴǉǃ Ǜҗǃ ﬞ ǛҚһǛƃ ، (١٣٨٦) .‫ ﺑﺎﺑﮏ‬،‫اﺣﻤﺪی‬
.‫ ﺳﻤﺖ‬:‫ ﺗﮭﺮان‬. ١‫ ﺟﻠﺪ‬.ƼǉǄ
ƽ ẮƃǛƾƇ Ǜƾƞƹ ẮƽǛƹ ، (١٣٨٥) .‫ ﺣﻤﯿﺪ رﺿﺎ‬،‫ﺷﻌﯿﺮی‬
IJALEL 2 (1):68-75, 2013 75
Notes
Note 1. Progression from one point to another point (Greimas & Courtés, 1993, p. 269).
Note 2. Actants are defined as being the permanent, invariant roles, which are given preeminence at the deep structure
of the narrative and are positioned and arranged in the narrative programmes (Boussiac, 1998, p. 5).
Note 3. All translations from French are my own, unless stated otherwise.
Note 4. Discourse is generally identified with the "semiotic process" (Greimas & Courtés, 1993, p. 248-249).
Note 5. The basis of the semantic isotopy is the “recurrence of the semic categories” (Greimas & Courtés, 1993, p. 197)
which have "Semic proximity" (Courtés, 1991, p. 114). The semantic isotopy guarantees the “internal coherence of the
object under scrutiny” (p. 104) and provides a uniform reading.
Note 6. The narrative programme is a [syntagmatic] function, by which a subject of doing does something so that the
subject of state finds itself disjoined of an object to which it had been conjoined, or inversely (Bertrand, 2000, p. 184).
Any PN thus contains two sorts of utterances, “utterance of doing and utterance of state” (Greimas & Courtés, 1993, p.
297), as its “basic utterances (énoncés de base)” (Bertrand, 2000, p. 183), which would come together in the following
forms, “constituting an algorithm of transformation” (p. 183):
PN = F [S1 → (S2 Ov)] PN= F [S1 → (S2 Ov)]
Note 7. (S ∩ Ov) OR (S2 ∪ Ov) ov: object of value (Greimas & Courtés, 1993, p. 297).
Process-Product Approach to Writing: the Effect of Model Essays on

EFL Learners’ Writing Accuracy
Parastou Gholami Pasand (Corresponding author)
English Department, Guilan University
Zibakenar, Rasht, Iran
Tel: 0098- 0132- 468 20 69 E-mail: Parastou_gholami@yahoo.com
Eshrat Bazarmaj Haghi

English Department, Guilan University
98 Shohada Street, Rasht, Iran
Tel: 0098-0131-883 63 80 E-mail: Eshrat_haghi@yahoo.com

Abstract
Writing is one the most important skills in learning a foreign language. The significance of being able to write in a
second or foreign language has become clearer nowadays. Accordingly, different approaches to writing such as product
approach, process approach and more recently process-product approach came into existence and they have been the
concern of SL/FL researchers. The aim of this study is to answer the question that whether the use of an incomplete
model text in process-product approach to writing and asking the learners to complete the text rather than copying it can
have a positive impact on EFL learners’ accuracy in writing. After training a number of EFL learners on using process
approach, we held a two-session writing class. In the first session students wrote in the process approach, and in the
second one they were given a model text to continue in the process-product approach. The writing performance of the
students in these two sessions was compared in term of accuracy. Based on the students’ writing performance, we came
to the conclusion that completing the model text in process-product writing can have a rather positive influence in some
aspects of their writing accuracy such as punctuation, capitalization, spelling, subject-verb agreement, tense, the use of
connectors, using correct pronouns and possessives. Also the results of the paired t-test indicate that using a model text
to continue increased students’ writing accuracy.
Keywords: EFL writing, process-product approach, model text, writing accuracy
1. Introduction
Writing is one the most important skills in learning a foreign language the nature of which has become clearer
nowadays. It involves the development of an idea, the capture of mental representations of knowledge, and of
experience with subjects.
Writing accuracy is an important concern in EFL writing classrooms. Students' writing performance is usually evaluated
based on how accurate they are in lexico-grammatical areas, spelling and punctuation. In some classes students are
asked to write after analyzing the main components of a sample text. They are actually required to copy the sample
text's organizational characteristics. This is what is done in product-based approaches. In process-product approaches,
where a model text is present, students should also prepare their piece of writing after a careful analysis of the sample
text.
The aim of this study is to engage EFL learners in a kind of process-product approach to writing in which they will be
presented with a sample text but instead of copying it they are asked to continue the text based on their own ideas. We
believed that in this way the sample will act as a guide rather than as a means to an end. Our main issue in this regard is
whether writing in this way has any effect on the students' writing accuracy or not.
The research question that we pursue is: Does using a model text in process-product approach and asking the students to
continue it affect their accuracy in writing?
We also hypothesize that using an incomplete model text in the process-product approach to writing and asking the EFL
learners to complete it on their own will have a positive effect on their writing accuracy.
2 Review of literature
Although research in process approaches to writing and also product approaches abound, there is a gap in literature
regarding process-product approaches to writing, and this gap is specifically evident in Iranian EFL context.
IJALEL 2 (1):75-79, 2013 76
2.1Product-based Approach
There are different approaches to teaching writing. One of the earliest approaches is product-based approach in which
as stated by Tangpermpoon (2008), students will start from pre-writing to composing and to correcting. In this approach
what is emphasized is raising students’ awareness, especially in grammatical structures. According to Nunan (1999), in
this approach the focus is on the final product which should be a coherent, error-free text and students will initiate, copy
and transform models provided by textbooks or by teachers.
Modeling is at the center of this approach and it has always been regarded as a beneficial source for providing feedback
to students as well as being an effective teaching tool, if appropriately integrated into the context of writing process.
(Saeidi & Sahebkheir, 2011)
Murray (1980) refers to some disadvantages of using model texts in L2 writing classes; the main disadvantage is that
model texts prevent L2 learners’ creativity. Particularly the way that model texts have been used in the product-based
approach has been criticized that is reading the text, analyzing it and then starting to write. (as cited in Saeidi &
Sahebkheir, 2011, p. 131)
Furthermore, Escholz point outs that the product-based approach encourages the learners to use the same plan in
different settings, apply the same forms, regardless of content, thereby inhibiting writers rather than empowering or
liberating them. On the other hand, Escholz emphasizes that when models are appropriately integrated into the content
of the writing process, they become useful teaching tools. Models can lead students to be aware of various aspects of
writing such as style, vocabulary, organization and structure. (as cited in Saeidi & Sahebkheir, 2011, p.)
2.2 Process-based Approach
In this approach the focus is on the steps involved in drafting and redrafting a piece of work (Nunan, 1999). Its chief
concern is to discover what writers do when they write, by focusing on different stages that the writers will go through.
Matsuda (2003) states,
The notion of writing as process was introduced to L2 studies by Vivian Zamel (1976), who argued
that advanced L2 writers are similar to L1 writers and can benefit from instruction emphasizing the
process of writing. Rather than the view of writing as a reproduction of previously learned syntactic
or discourse structures, the process-based approach emphasized the view of writing as a
process of developing organization as well as meaning. (p. 21)
As cited in Tangpermpoon (2008), O’Brian (2004) defines the concept of process approach as an activity in which
writing is regarded as the discovery of meaning and ideas.
Schmitt (2002) indicates that the process approach considers the composing act as a recursive, explanatory and
generative process. Myles (2002) also believes that, the process approach to writing is only appropriate when learners
have the opportunity to receive feedback on their written text. Therefore, process-based approach to writing, by giving
an opportunity to learners to receive feedback, allows students time to reflect and seek input as they reshape their plans,
ideas and language (Myles, 2002). In addition, the process-based approach is seen to be more effective than the product-
based approach, since it allows the student to explore and develop personal approach to writing (Sutikno, 2008).But in
spite of all its advantages, lack of a good model can be seen as a drawback in this approach. According to Torghabeh,
Hashemi and Ahmadi (2010), the model can partly eliminate the burden of devising content from the learners.
2.3 Process-Product Approach to Writing
As cited in Tangpermpoon (2008), Brookes and Grundy (1990), believe that if we teach the writing approaches
separately this will result in unbalanced L2 writing performance. Therefore, by integrating these approaches to writing,
EFL learners can transfer the skills they have gained from each approach from one mode to another and have a much
better writing performance.
Accordingly, writing teachers can start teaching EFL learners the rhetorical patterns in the product-based approach and
familiarize them with different text organizations through working on models, and combine it with feedback parts and
interaction in the process-based approach.
2.4 Accuracy in Writing
Polio (1997), pointed that the focus of current writing pedagogy on writing process and idea generation resulted in
putting less emphasis on getting students to write error-free sentences. Indeed, he mentions that process-oriented
approaches in teaching L2 writing insist that editing wait until the final drafts.
Most of the studies up to the present time have been concerned with the effect of teacher’s feedback on the accuracy of
students’ writing (Chandler, 2003; Truscott, 2004; Myles, 2002; Bitcher, Young & Cameron, 2005; Diab, 2005). Only a
few studies have considered the role of model texts on EFL learners’ writing accuracy (Saeidi & Sahebkheir, 2011;
Sahebkheir 2011).
IJALEL 2 (1):75-79, 2013 77
3. Research Method
3.1 Design
A quasi-experimental design was used in the present study, in which a group of Iranian EFL learners took part in a six-
sessions writing classes. The first four sessions were conducted in order to familiarize the learners with the processes
involved in the process- approach to writing, and the final two sessions aimed at investigating the effect of completing
an incomplete model text on their writing accuracy.
3.2 Participants
The participants of this study were twelve intermediate EFL learners, half of them were males and the other half
females, at intermediate level .They study English as a foreign language in one of the institutions in Iran, Rasht .All of
the participants were adult students between 13 to 15 years old.
3.3 Instruments and Materials
The main instrument used in this study was a checklist mostly adapted from a study by Erel and Bulut (2007) and
modified after analyzing writings’ of the participants of the present study. Also, two kinds of tasks were used in this
study which required the students to write in English. In the first task the students were asked to write according to the
process approach. The topic of writing was selected based on the students’ interest. After generating ideas by having a
classroom discussion they started to write going through different phases of drafting, revising, redrafting and editing. In
the second task which was done based on process-product approach, the students were asked to write about the same
topic after a model text was explained and discussed in terms of its organization, structure, etc. They were required to
complete the model text on their own way.
3.4 Procedure
After conducting four sessions of writing classes- each one lasting one hour- for training the participants on how to
write first in a process approach and then in a process-product approach, they were asked to participate in the first
session of our writing classrooms. In the first session, after providing some topics, the students were asked to choose
their topic of interest, and then discussed it in pairs and shared their ideas with the class. In the next phase, they started
writing their first draft in pairs, then the papers were exchanged and each pair received peer feedback on their writing.
The teacher researcher’s role was scaffolding and helping students during writing and also in the feedback part. This
procedure was repeated for writing the second draft, and at last the students wrote their final draft in pairs.
In the second session, the participants were firstly asked to read a model text which was prepared based on the topic
they wrote about in the previous session. The model text was prepared based on a short essay written about the subject
of writing with some modifications to suit it to the level of students. After reading and class discussion about its
organization, lexical items, grammatical points and so on, the students started writing their own paper continuing the
model text. They went through the same steps of the process approach to writing, that is they started writing their first
draft in pair and exchanging their writings with other pairs and receiving feedback. Finally they started writing their
final drafts, implementing revisions on their writings.
4. Analysis
To compare the accuracy of students’ writing performance, we prepared a checklist. In it we considered some of the
main writing errors based on the results of a study on error treatment in writing feedback by Erel and Bulut in 2007,
conducted in an EFL context. After a general analysis of our subjects’ writing performance we modified some of the
items in the checklist. The reliability of our checklist was checked by having two teachers working in the institutes in
which the study was conducted, review students’ written texts. The items in the checklist included punctuation,
capitalization, spelling, singular-plural form, subject-verb agreement, tense, missing words, article usage, connectors,
preposition ,pronouns, possessives, inappropriate word, wrong negation and word order. In order to have more stable
results two raters marked students’ papers. We manually counted the number of students’ errors regarding these criteria
in their papers written in both sessions. Then the mean number of errors for each category was calculated and compared
using the SPSS software version 16.
In the second round of analysis we decided to give holistic scores to students' writings in both sessions. For this
purpose, considering the above-mentioned criteria we considered the scales from 0 to 20 and subtracted .5 point for
each error type and then a total score was given to each paper. Next, the mean score and standard deviation were
calculated using the SPSS software. Finally, a paired t-test was used to compare the mean score of the writing accuracy
of students in each session.
5. Results
5.1 Inter-rater reliability
The computed Pearson correlation for the students' writing accuracy in the first session was (r= .897, p<.05) and for the
second session was (r=. 915, p<.05), which indicates a high positive relationship between the scores given by the two
raters.
Our hypothesis in this study was that using an incomplete model text in the process-product approach to writing and
asking the EFL learners to complete it on their own will have a positive effect on their writing accuracy.
IJALEL 2 (1):75-79, 2013 78
Table 1 shows the mean of each error type when the participants were required to write based on the process approach,
and when they were provided with a model text and asked to continue it on their own using process-product approach to
writing. The writing errors include: punctuation, capitalization, spelling, subject-verb agreement, tense, the use of
connectors, using correct pronouns and possessives.
Table 1. Mean number of errors in process approach and process-product approach
Error Type Process approach Process-product approach

Mean Mean
Punctuation 1 0.5
Capitalization 2 0
Spelling 0.83 0.16
Inappropriate Verb 0 0.33
Singular-Plural Form 0.5 1.33
Subject-Verb Agreement 0.16 0
Tense 1.6 0.66
Missing Words 0.16 0.5
Article Usage 0.66 0.83
Connector 1.16 0.33
Preposition 0.33 0.83
Pronouns 0.66 0.16
Possessives 0.16 0
Inappropriate Word 2 2.5
Wrong Negation 0 0.16
Word Order 0 0.33
Note: p< .05
The table as a whole does not indicate a significant decrease in the mean number of errors in the second session when
an incomplete model text was prepared and students were asked to continue it. However, it shows that there are some
error types which approximately decreased in the second session. These error types include: errors in punctuation from
the mean number of 1 error in the first session in which process approach was used to 0.5 in the second session in which
students were asked to write based on process-product approach requiring to complete a model essay, capitalization
from the mean number of 2 errors in the first session to 0 in the second session, subject-verb agreement and the use of
possessives from the mean of 0.16 in students’ first writing to 0 in their second writing.
Table 2 shows the results of the t-test. It can be seen that the mean score of students' writing performance with regard to
their accuracy in writing increased in the second session with the presence of a model text. The result of the t-test also
indicates that the difference is significant.
Table 2. Paired t-test for scores of accuracy in the first and second writing sessions
Mean SD T Sig df
Session 1 14.16 2.27 -8.80 2.57 5
Session 2 15.58 1.80 -8.80 2.57 5
Note: p< .05
6. Discussion and Conclusion

The main focus of our study was to find the effect of using a model text on students writing accuracy in an EFL writing
classrooms based on process-product approach. We have asked the subjects of our study to participate in a two-session
preparatory writing class and they were required to engage in writing at two different sessions, one based on the process
approach and the other according to a process-product approach in which a model text was also provided. Our aim was
to see whether the use of a model text in the process-product approach and asking the learners to continue the essay
rather than copying from the text will increase the writing accuracy of EFL learners. Based on the results of our study,
it is found that some of the writing errors of students including punctuation, capitalization, spelling, subject-verb
agreement, tense, the use of connectors, using correct pronouns and possessives were reduced in the second session in
which the incomplete model text was used.
Contrary to our expectations, there were some error types which increased in the second sessions. These include:
inappropriate verb usage, using wrong negation, and using prepositions, and word order. The results of the paired t-test
also indicate a significant difference in the writing performance of the students.
In light of our research question that is “Does using a model text in process-product approach and asking the students to
continue it affect their writing accuracy?” we can conclude that using a model text and asking the students to continue it
can improve the students’ writing accuracy in some aspects of their writing but not all the aspects.
IJALEL 2 (1):75-79, 2013 79
Considering our hypothesis in which we assumed that the model text will have a positive impact on students’ writing
accuracy, based on the results of the t-test, generally we can conclude that our hypothesis was confirmed, and using a
model text in process-product approach in which the students were asked to continue it, positively influence their
writing accuracy.
6.1 Limitations of the Study
This study has its own limitations the most important of them is that because of the time constraints and restrictions in
conducting our research in an institution we could not have more sessions to access more samples of students’ writing.
Therefore, further research is needed to ensure the impact of using model text in the way that was used in this study that
is by having the learner to complete the model text rather than imitating it, on their L2 writing accuracy. Also more
longitudinal studies are needed to investigate the impact of model texts on increasing the writing accuracy of EFL
learners using integrated approach to writing.
References
Bitchener, J., Young, S., & Cameron, D. (2005). The effect of different types of corrective feedback on ESL student
writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 14, 191-205.
Diab, R. L. (2005). EFL university students’ preferences for error correction and teacher feedback on writing. TESL
Reporter, 38(1), 27-51.
Erel, S. & Bulut, D. (2007). Error treatment in L2 writing: A comparative study of direct and indirect coded feedback in
Turkish EFL context. Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi Sayı , 22(1), 397-415.
Matsuda P. K. (2003). Second language writing in the twentieth century: A situated historical perspective. In Kroll
(Ed.) Exploring the dynamics of second language writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Montague, N. (1995). The process oriented approach to teaching writing to second language learners. New York State
Association for Bilingual Education Journal. 10(2), 13-24.
Myles, J. (2002). Second language writing and research: the writing process and error analysis in student texts. TESL-
EJ, 6(2).
Nunan, D. (1999). Second Language Teaching and Learning. U.S.: Heinle & Heinle
Polio, C. G. (1997). Measures of linguistic accuracy in second language writing research. Language Learning, 47(1),
101-143.
Saeidi, M., Sahebkheir, F. (2011). The effect of model essays on accuracy and complexity of EFL learners’ writing
performance. Middle- East Journal of Scientific Research, 10(1), 130- 137.
Schmitt, N. (2002). An Introduction to Applied Linguistics. (Ed.). London: Arnold & Oxford University Press.
Sutikno, M.K. (2008). Responding to students’ writing. (Teaching writing or assessing it?). Journal Pendidikan
Penabur, 10(7), 51-59.
Tangpermpoon, T. (2008). Integrated approaches to improve students’ writing skills for English major students. ABAC
Journal, 28 (2), 1-9.
Torghabeh, R.A., Hashemi, M.R., & Ahmadi, H, Sh. (2010). Writing through literature: a novel approach to EFL
writing instruction. Iranian EFL Journal, 6(4), 7-23.
The Effect of Applying Critical Thinking Techniques on Students’

Attitudes towards Literature
Mansoor Fahim
Allameh Tabataba’i University, Tehran-Iran
E-mail: dr.mfahim@yahoo.com
Sarvenaz Khatib (Corresponding author)

Allameh Tabataba’i University, Tehran-Iran
E-mail: sarvenaz_khatib@yahoo.com

Abstract
This study investigated the effect of implicit teaching of critical thinking and its practice on the attitude the participants
hold towards the subject matter being taught. For the observation of the practicality of critical thinking in altering
students’ attitudes, 25 Iranian EFL college students -16 girls and 9 boys- were selected as the participants of this study,
and the application of critical thinking techniques was operationalized during their English Literature course. A 20-item
questionnaire was devised in order to measure the participants’ attitudes towards literature prior to the beginning of the
intervention and the same questionnaire was used after the completion of the experiment in order to examine probable
differences in their attitudes towards the taught subject. Throughout the course, some promoted techniques by critical
thinking advocates including identifying arguments, detecting evidence in its support, reasoning for held stands, and
forming analyses were applied for 12 sessions. Statistical calculation of a paired samples t-test after the treatment
indicted a significance increase in the participants’ positive attitudes towards literature. The findings of this study are
believed to be useful in encouraging the inclusion of critical pedagogies in academic systems for the goal of creating
interest in students towards the subject matter.
Keywords: critical thinking, critical pedagogy, English literature, group discussion
1. Introduction
Emphasising the significance of the art of critical thinking dates back to the mid-1980s and it has since been attended to
as a flourishing and promising field in social life and particularly educational contexts (Atkinson, 1997). Most
frequently, scholars in the field of education have agreed on the focal role critical thinking can have in mental
development, problem-solving competencies and heuristic abilities of learners and have devised a multitude of tasks
and strategies for the promotion of these dispositions. Since the advent of the Communicative Language Teaching, a
transition in learner/teacher roles has been highly promoted, through which the advantages of a learner-centred
classroom and learning context would be highlighted. The role shifts advocated by the CLT was believed to occur by
placing learners in the position of active participants in communication and learning, and the teacher as solely a
facilitator, conducting learners towards the course’s planned objectives. However, in reality, the implication of such
learner-empowering practices did not take place instantaneously. In fact, to the present, still there is an out-weighing
preference on the part of learners, educators, and educational administrators for conducts in which teachers are the core
providers of information and knowledge, and learners rather passive and submissive consumers of it.
If we accept the definition of critical thinking provided by Paul and Elder (2005) as “the process of analysing and
assessing thinking with a view to improving it”, it immediately becomes transparent to us why in the above mentioned
context of learning/teaching even the rudiments of critical thinking cannot be acquired and practiced. Much of what
happens in a traditionally run classrooms severely impedes the process of nurturing learners to approach subjects,
contexts and experiences critically. Our students are comfortably habituated to take in and memorise a course’s content
as put forth by the teachers; sadly the best their score-dominated courses have succeeded to do in training students as
critical thinkers is teach them consider courses’ significant points and teachers’ interests and emphasised areas, which
are believed to be included in the exams and scorings. The truth is that in spite of all developments in the field of
critical thinking, instances of empirical and actual practices of it remain rare (Wolcott et al., 2002).
Aiming at changing the common mechanistic practices in classrooms and at paving the way for the introduction of
critical thinking in learning contexts, educators and teachers need to understand the bedrocks of critical thinking and the
beneficial role it can have in classrooms. Various scholars have attempted to provide a concrete definition of critical
IJALEL 2 (1):80-84, 2013 81
thinking and to segment its components, resulting in an array of various proposed theorisation about its nature and
underlying properties. Nevertheless, although variations in definitions of critical thinking differ slightly, virtually all of
them converge on illustrating the general picture of its essence. Based on the commonalities amongst different
approaches to it, critical thinking can refer to “the use of cognitive skills or strategies that increase the probability of a
desirable outcome… It is purposeful, reasoned, and goal-directed… It is the kind of thinking involved in solving
problems, formulating inferences, calculating likelihoods, and making decisions” (Halpern, 1999. pp. 70).
Every educational system claims to have been programmed in a way that its ultimate goal is to empower learners to
enhance their “higher-order thinking skills” (Willingham, 2007) and to help them excel beyond those deprived from the
life-long influences and peculiar experiences of such a system. However, the truth is that within the routinized teacher-
directed, score-oriented trends in our schools, school attendance and even academic success do not yield critical
thinkers necessarily. It only seems natural then, that many courses are being designed these days with the main goal of
enhancing students’ critical thinking abilities alongside other academic requirements (Noddings, 2006).
The present study aimed to examine whether implicitly educating learners to think critically could have the beneficial
by-product of changing their attitudes towards the subject they were studying. The researcher was interested in
observing if distancing learners from their habitual robotic manner of confrontation with subject matters and leading
them towards a more critical view of them can affect their views about the subject.
From the rise of cognitive psychology and the ever-increasing conformation of EFL theorist and scholars to its
premises, the dynamicity of the progression of learning through learners’ active cognitive processing has been
emphasised (Mitchell and Myles, 2004). Because of the congruence between the practices of cognitive psychology and
those of critical pedagogy, critical thinking strategies and activities have been recently warmly received by some EFL
teachers and researchers (Atkinson, 1997; Davidson, 1998). In this research too, EFL learners were chosen as the
participants in order to examine not only the practicality of the implementation of critical thinking strategies in EFL
contexts, but also to study the probable effect those practices can have on learners’ attitudes towards the course’s
subject.
A critical pedagogy is designed to encourage students to attend to more than just the surface of what is presented to
them, and to ponder over deeper realities and reasons. According to Brookfield (2012) one of the most fundamental and
dominant steps in critical thinking is what he calls “hunting assumptions” through which we need to unseal our
assumptions and then to judge their accuracy and appropriacy in specific instances and contexts. One of the fields in
which this particular property of critical thinking can be operationalized with more freedom of manoeuver is literature.
As put by Lazar (1993), one of the peculiarities of literature, making it a suitable medium for language teaching is its
special use of language. The language of literature triggers the functioning of readers’ creativity and imagination; not
only does it contain an indirect style of diction that at times needs to be deciphered, but also it reflects many ideological
and cultural aspects, needing readers to make the required inferences for shaping a schemata through which they can
approximate their understanding to the intended meaning of the creator of the text. In such a context learners can
unleash the overflow of their critical thoughts in order to speculate on the plausible argumentation which is implied,
rather than directly stated. Therefore, the progression of both reading literature and critical thinking relies on successful
cognitive processing of the text and hence reinforce one another.
Chan and Yan (2008) point out that there is a degree of relativity in the concept of logic and that as an aftermath the
systems of thinking and reasoning of people from different cultural backgrounds might differ. They believe language to
be one of the channels through which the held beliefs, logics and viewpoints of different people can be manifested.
Similarly, Oster (1989) states that our cultures, experiences and characteristics act as “lenses” through which we
observe the world, and form our systems of thought. She believes that literature, with its unique language and versatility
of tones, themes and perspectives is a great tool with which we can cultivate our students to judge, view and think from
different angles and perspectives. One of the basic skills accentuated in a critical pedagogy is the evaluation of
acceptability of claims considering their context (Hughes, 2005). Hence, this skill can well be put into practice while
tackling with the diversity of worldviews and ideologies in literature.
Moreover, as held by advocates of its use in language teaching contexts like Collie and Slater (1994), literature taps on
“fundamental human issues”. Therefore, the familiarity and authenticity residing in literary texts and notions prepares a
context in which essential elements of critical thinking, recognising arguments and assessing the credibility of
arguments can be operationalized easily (Brink-Budgen, 2000; Bowel and Kemp, 2002). Then, if the primary aim of a
critical pedagogy is to facilitate learning and higher-order thinking rather than merely providing students with
knowledge on subject matters, literature appears to be a very appropriate and sound source to do so. To this end, in this
study, the effect of performing critical thinking strategies and techniques by Iranian EFL learners in reading English
literature was observed.
2. Method
2.1. Participants
Twenty five Iranian undergraduate students - 16 girls and 9 boys- majoring in English Translation Studies provided the
participants for this study. Their ages ranged from 19 to 27 and they were all in their fifth academic semester and
constituted two intact classes. The selection of this group as the participants in this study was due to the fact that they
were proficient enough to read English literature. Moreover, they had previously experienced courses on English
literature and therefore their attitudes towards English literature had been to an extent shaped, and thus any probable
IJALEL 2 (1):80-84, 2013 82
change in the attitudes of the students could be more confidently attributed to the application of the new pedagogy and
teaching method.
2.2. Instruments
2.2.1 As students’ attitude towards English literature was to be observed, a variety of different literary texts were
presented to them not to limit their experience with literature to a single genre. This selection consisted of 21 pieces of
poem, 3 short stories, and 1 play all written by English or American authors.
2.2.2. In order to estimate students’ attitudes towards English literature and to compare their attitudes prior to and after
the completion of the experiment, an Attitude Scale consisting of 20 items in a Likert format was devised. This
questionnaire comprised of items believing to reflect the participants’ ideas, feelings and attitudes towards English
literature, to which they had to determine their level of agreement. This questionnaire was administered twice, one at
the beginning of the course and later after the completion of the experiment.
The Cronbach alpha reliability for the 20 items of the questionnaire was calculated to be .94, indicating a high reliability
index. This was hoped to provide the researcher with a truthful account of the participants’ opinions of and attitudes to
literature in general.
2.3. Procedure
At the beginning of the course, the Attitude Scale was administered in order for the researcher to have an approximate
knowledge about their attitudes towards English literature. The classroom routine was that each session the literary
pieces about to be covered in the following session were assigned, and students then had a whole week to go through
them, concentrate on the texts and write a commentary on each. They were asked not to seek any help from outside
sources and just to focus their attention on putting down in words their feelings and thoughts about the literary text at
hand.
It is noteworthy that these students’ previous literature classes were mainly teacher-centred and the ideas and analyses
taught by the teacher were to be accepted and memorised for the final evaluation of the course. Therefore, this was
about to be their first experience of a literature class in which they were implicitly asked to attend to strategies of
critical thinking and to evaluate each reasoning and argument on a multi-dimensional level before accepting it as
correct.
In the classroom, the students were first asked to voice their opinions about what they believed the author was trying to
imply in the lines of the text, and whether they had enjoyed reading it having understood the intention and content. As
put by Brookfield (2012) the first step towards a critical rendering about a text is understanding the authors’
assumption. Therefore, the class started with students’ voluntary expression of their comprehension of the text and what
they thought the author was trying to convey.
Group discussions were encouraged by the instructor as it has been emphasised in the literature that talking about views,
opinions and perspectives in groups not only gives members an opportunity to talk about and clarify their own stands,
but also to learn about others’ viewpoints (Wallace, 2003; Rasool, et al., 2002). Thus, during discussions in the class
about a particular literary text, students’ were encouraged to freely talk about their own interpretations of the text and to
provide others with reasons behind their understanding. This way, having heard about other interpretations and
speculations, students were given a chance to re-examine or modify their initial statements, if they were convinced by
other viewpoints. This collaboration in reading and interpreting texts gave learners a chance to test and evaluate their
own reasoning and formulation of arguments and to compare their own logical and argumentative system with that of
others. This is what Cottrell (2005) refers to as “critical analysis of other people’s reasoning”. Participation in these
debates also had the additional advantage of conforming to another practice of critical thinking, that of selecting among
alternatives (Lipman, 2003), as student eventually tended to agree on one explanation as the most accurate and valid.
Some students were asked to read the commentaries they had written at home and to say whether they still have the
same understanding of the text after discussions and exchanges of interpretations. Therefore the final formation of their
analyses of a text was not complete before alternative propositions had been offered, and diverse views reviewed, and
hence this was seen as taking another step towards a critical evaluation of and thinking about the text as suggested by
Thomson (2002).
In support of their ideas and claims, students were asked to back their arguments with occasional reference to specific
sections in the texts from which they had been led towards their held analysis so that their expression of ideas were not
merely based on emotional perceptions but on factual evidence as well.
The instructor had assured the participants that all their views are welcomed, and that no negative evaluative
judgements of them would be made either during the discussions, or for the final assessment of the course. This gave
learners more confidence in the unimpeded expression of ideas without the apprehension of criticisms on the part of the
instructor.
The abovementioned classroom routines based on whole-class discussions and collaborations went on for 12 sessions
and afterwards the Attitude Scale was administered again. This was to check whether as a result of being exposed to a
critical approach towards literature and personal involvement in critical thinking and arguments their previously held
attitudes had changed at all.
2.4. Statistical Analysis
In order to examine whether there were any changes in the participants’ attitude towards the subject after the
completion of the experiment, a paired-samples t-test was conducted to evaluate the impact of the intervention on
students’ attitudes.
IJALEL 2 (1):80-84, 2013 83
3. Results
As indicated by Table 1 below, there was a statistically significant increase in the mean of attitudes after the experiment
in. the mean increase in attitude scores was 5.68 with a 95% confidence interval. In order to find out the relative
magnitude of the differences between means, the eta squared statistics was calculated to be 0.25, indicating a large
effect size.
Table 1: Paired Samples Statistics

Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
Pair 1 Pre.Experiment 76.84 25 11.877 2.375
Post.Experiment 82.52 25 9.687 1.937
Table 2: Paired Samples Test

Paired Differences t df Sig. (2-
Mean Std. Std. 95% Confidence tailed)
Deviation Error Interval of the
Mean Difference
Lower Upper
Pair 1 -5.680 10.036 2.007 -9.823 - -2.830 24 .009
Pre.Experiment - 1.53
Post.Experiment 7
4. Conclusion
A diagnostic look at the reasons why our children -creative, inquisitive and imaginative by nature- turn out to become
passive receivers of knowledge only, will lead us to a closer examination of our academic system. We train our students
to become competitor individuals, seeking opportunities to outperform classmates rather than viewing them as team
members with whose help their journey towards academic and personal growth can be facilitated. As emphasised by
Rasool et al. (2002) working with others and participating in collaborative discovery and problem-solving is a vital part
of the process of learning. This fruitfulness in cooperation is what we are denying our students to gain through our
stiffly product-centred classes and competitive academic courses.
Therefore, the first step in the attempt to nurture critical and analytical-thinking students is to implant a critical
pedagogy and to prioritise personal heuristics of knowledge and information instead of teacher transmission of it. To
this aim, we need to set the long-term goal of enriching learners’ education with dispositions like critical thinking about
and analyses of matters rather than merely preparing them for an immediate score-oriented formative evaluation.
Even if our sole goal as educators is to elevate interest in our students towards the course, as an impetus for motivating
them to study and prepare more, the implementation of critical thought-provoking techniques would be advantageous.
The findings of performed statistical procedures indicated change in the participants’ attitudes towards English
literature, the subject they were exposed to, after implicitly being taught to and experiencing some critical thinking
practices and strategies.
As trialled through this study, within-group discussions and weightings of arguments had a number of benefits,
including the indirect promotion of critical thinking ability (Guiller, et. al, 2006). Moreover, exchanges of ideas
amongst classmates, equal in power and position, alerted learners that disagreements with and oppositions to one’s
ideas or interpretations were not aimed as disrespecting the beholder of the particular belief and that a descent debate
with differing viewpoints and analyses was indeed beneficial in the formation of a multi-dimensional understanding of
an issue. This practice, not only engraves in the learners the culture of discussing matters in groups, but also boosts
their capacity of tolerance in confrontation with views in opposition to theirs.
However, there are a number of factors we need to attend to when deciding to securely replace our traditionally
mechanistic classroom routines with learner-empowering critical pedagogies. We need to remember that as we are
hoping to train individuals that are disposed to think and analyse matters in life more critically, rather than only having
the restricted academically analytical power, we need to choose authentic content for our courses (Pally, 1997). This
way the students’ practices in higher-order thinking on them is not artificial and contrived; rather, they are gathering
experience and expertise in facing real problems in life more critically.
Moreover, we need to have in mind that an effective and perpetual tendency towards critical thinking cannot be
mastered in our students unless we have a long-run precisely-planned programme that demands persistence in practicing
the habit. The enhancement in critical thinking abilities comes about as an aftermath of recurrence in conforming to a
critical pedagogy and therefore, our evaluative system and summative testing of our students should be in accordance
with the implemented critical pedagogy.
IJALEL 2 (1):80-84, 2013 84
Hence, this study, yielding results in support of the applicability of critical thinking can be replicated in different classes
of varying subjects and retested with different age groups and cultural backgrounds to examine its efficacy in different
contexts and with different learners.
References
Atkinson, D. (1997). “A Critical Approach to Critical Thinking in TESOL”, TESOL QUARTERLY (31), 72-95.
Bowell, T. and Kemp, G. (2002). Critical Thinking: a concise guide. London: Routledge.
Brink-Budgen, R. (2000). Critical Thinking for Students: learn the skills of critical assessment and effective argument.
Oxford: How To Books Ltd.
Brookfield, S. D., (2012).Teaching for critical Thinking. San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Chan, H. M. and Yan, H. K. T. (2008). Is There a Geography of Thought for East-West Differences? Why or Why Not?
In Mason, M. (Ed.), Critical Thinking and Learning (pp. 44-64). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Collie, J. and Slater, S. (1994). Literature in the Language Classroom: A resource book of ideas and activities (7th ed.).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cottrell, S. (2005). Critical Thinking Skills: developing effective analysis and argument. New York: Palgrave
MACMILLAN.
Davidson, B. W. (1998).”A Case for Critical Thinking in the English Language Classroom”, TESOL QUARTERLY (32),
119-122.
Guiller, J., Durndell, A. and Ross ,A. “Peer interaction and critical thinking: Face-to-face or online discussion?”,
Learning and Instruction (18), 187-200.
Halpern, D. F., (1999). New Directions for Teaching and Learning. Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Hughes, W. (2005). Critical Thinking: an introduction to the basic skills (3rd ed.). Broadview Press.
Lazar, G. (1993). Literature and Language Teaching: a guide for teachers and trainers. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Lipman, M. (2003). Thinking in Education (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mitchell, R. and Myles, F. (2004). Second Language Learning Theories. (2nd ed.). London: Hodder Headline Group.
Noddings, N. (2006). Critical Lessons: what our schools might teach but do not. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Oster, J. (1989). Seeing with Different Eyes: Another view of literature in the ESL class, TESOL QUARTERLY (23),
85-103.
Pally, M. (1997). “Critical Thinking in ESL: an argument for sustained content”, Journal of Second Language Writing
(6), 293-311.
Paul, R. and Elder, L. (2005). Critical Thinking Competency Standards: standards, principles, performance,
indicators, and outcomes with a critical thinking master rubric. New York: Foundation for Critical Thinking.
Rasool, J., Banks, C. and McCarthy, M. J. (2002). Critical Thinking: Reading and writing in a diverse world (2nd ed.).
Boston: Thomson Wadsworth.
Thomson, A. (2002). Critical Reasoning: a practical introduction (2nd ed.). London: Routledge.
Wallace, C. (2003). Critical Reading in Language Education. New York: Palgrave MACMILLAN.
Willingham, D. T. (2007). Critical Thinking: why is it so hard to teach. American Educator (Summer 2007), 8-19.
Wolcott, S. K., Baril, C. P., Cunningham, B. M., Fordham, D. R. and Pierre, K. (2002). “Critical Thought on Critical
Thinking Pedagogy”, Journal of Accounting Education (20), 85-103.
The Impact of Vocabulary Knowledge Level on EFL Reading Comprehension

Shima Kameli (Corresponding author)
Department of Language and Humanities, Faculty of Educational Studies, University Putra Malaysia
E-mail: k.ishima@yahoo.com
Roselan Bin Baki

Department of Language and Humanities, Faculty of Educational Studies, University Putra Malaysia
E-mail: ros_baki@putra.upm.edu.my

Abstract
The present study examined the impact of vocabulary knowledge level on reading comprehension performance among
EFL language learners. The ultimate intention was to determine the association between levels of vocabulary
knowledge and to clarify the relationship among vocabulary knowledge on reading comprehension performance of EFL
Iranian students on subtest of VLT and IELTS. Quantitative data were collected from 220 EFL Iranian adult students at
the beginning of second semester of 2011 in private English language institute (BAHAR), Shiraz, Iran. The Vocabulary
Levels Test (VLT) and Reading Comprehension Test (IELTS) were performed in one session as research instruments.
The findings indicated that there were positive relationships among different levels of vocabulary test and also test
scores on vocabulary size/breadth of vocabulary knowledge, and reading comprehension.
Keywords: vocabulary level, vocabulary size/breadth, reading comprehension
1. Introduction
Vocabulary knowledge performs a prominent role in future possibilities and people’s lives (Beck, McKeown, & Kucan,
2002). Following the performance of English second/foreign language readers’ encounter with strange vocabulary;
researchers have commented on the prominent role of vocabulary as an indicator f general reading skill (Nation, 2001).
Indeed, ESL/EFL readers frequently stated lack of sufficient word understanding as one of the major barriers to content
comprehension so vocabulary load is a very important cue of text complexity. Likewise, Haynes and Baker (1993)
concluded that the most important disadvantage for L2 readers is not the lack of reading comprehension practice, but
the inadequate comprehension of English vocabulary. To a large extent, what these studies reveal is that the threshold
for reading comprehension is lexical. Lexical issues will, hence, prevent successful comprehension. Laufer (1998) and
Qian’s (1999, 2002, 2004) have revealed so, by research findings on the association among vocabulary breadth/size and
reading comprehension; which resulted in a fairly high relationship among them. So, in 1996, Meara proposed VLT the
nearest thing we have to a standard test in vocabulary knowledge.
A recent study on vocabulary size declared the prominent role of the breadth of vocabulary knowledge in reading
comprehension. Over two decades, researchers have found that breadth test of vocabulary knowledge can very well
predict success in reading, writing, general proficiency, and academic achievement (Laufer & Goldstein, 2004; Nation
& Meara, 2002). Likewise, Nation’s vocabulary levels test has been verified to be a useful and credible analytical tool
in examining L2 learners’ vocabulary size (Qian, 1999; Read, 2000; Nation, 2001; Schmitt & Clapham, 2001; Koda,
2005) and has been widely used by some researchers to estimate EFL/ESL learners’ vocabulary size (Zahar, Cobb, &
Spada, 2001; Webb, 2005; Qian, 2008).
The association among vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension is dynamic and difficult. The upsurge of the
role of vocabulary in foreign language acquisition went hand in hand with a growing interest in vocabulary testing in
second language acquisition research. Meanwhile, researchers have been able to ascertain that the breadth/size of one’s
vocabulary appears to be a determining factor for second language learning (Meara, 1996). Obtaining a sufficiently
large vocabulary familiarity seems to correlate strongly with other linguistic competences in the target language.
Therefore, much recent work on vocabulary testing has focused on estimating how many words the learners know in
their L2 (Laufer, 2003). To accomplish this goal, vocabulary breadth/size tests have been developed. These are based
on the belief that learners require a particular rates of vocabulary knowledge are able to play a prominent role in the
target language, independently (Alderson & Banerjee, 2001; Pearson, Hiebert, & Kamil, 2007).
IJALEL 2 (1):85-89, 2013 86
On the other hand, The International English Language Testing System (IELTS) is an international standardized test for
assessment of English language proficiency. IELTS was established in 1989, and is jointly administered by University
of Cambridge ESOL Examinations, the British Council, and IDP Education Pty Ltd. In 2007, IELTS was investigated
further over a million candidates in a single 12 months period for the first time ever, making it the world’s most
accepted English language test for higher immigration and education.
Moreover, interest in the association of vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension has a lengthy history in the
research of second/foreign language reading. Therefore, lexical issues have prevented successful comprehension. The
current study intended to examine the association between the breadth/size of vocabulary knowledge and EFL reading
comprehension performance using subtests of VLT and IELTS.
2. Vocabulary levels test & reading comprehension
A recent study on vocabulary size declared the prominent role of the breadth of vocabulary knowledge in performance
of reading comprehension. Over two decades, researchers have suggested that breadth test of vocabulary knowledge can
very well predict success in reading, writing, general proficiency, and academic achievement (Saville-Troike, 1984;
Nation & Meara, 2002; Laufer & Goldstein, 2004). Likewise, Nation’s vocabulary levels test has been verified to be a
useful and credible analytical tool in examining L2 learners’ vocabulary size (Qian, 1999; Read, 2000; Nation, 2001;
Schmitt & Clapham, 2001; Koda, 2005) and has been widely ued by some researchers to estimate EFL/ESL learners’
vocabulary size (Cobb, 1999; Zahar, Cobb, & Spada, 2001; Webb, 2005; Qian, 2008).
In 1993, a study by Coady, Magoto, Hubbard, Graney, and Mokhtari was conducted among 79 students studying
English in a university academic preparation program revealed that two experimental groups, which had received
special training in high frequency vocabulary, achieved better ESL reading comprehension standing at the end of the
experiments than did a control group which had not received such a type of learning treatment. The study was carried
out to verify the proposition that there is a positive association among high-frequency vocabulary knowledge and
reading proficiency. According to the findings of their study, Coady et al. (1993) argued that special training in the
2000 most frequent English vocabulary items could improve learners' reading proficiency.
Yu (1996 as cited in Chen, 2011), in his study of Chinese and Japanese university students’ use of English motion
verbs, used the vocabulary levels test to determine the initial vocabulary size of his participants. Yu reported a very high
correlation between VLT and the TOEFL/Michigan test items, thus confirming the concurrent validity of the VLT for
his study. Besides, investigating the impact of vocabulary on ESL reading, Qian (1999) found a high correlation among
the vocabulary levels test scores and scores on the reading subset of the IELTS. In a similar research, Hu and Nation
(2000) investigated the association among context coverage, that is to say, the percentage of running words in the
context displayed by the readers, and reading comprehension for non-native speakers of English, with a literature text.
They found that 98% text coverage (1 unknown word in 50) would be required for the majority of learners to achieve
adequate comprehension.
In 2006, a study by Huang was carried out which used VLT as a reliable instrument to measure ESL Chinese students’
breadth/size of vocabulary knowledge. Participants were 24 university students who were attending either McGill
University or Concordia University, the two English speaking universities in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The results
showed a high reliability (Cronbach Alpha) of VLT in this study too. Similarly, Golkar and Yamini (2007) in their
study titled “vocabulary, proficiency and reading comprehension” , used VLT to estimate vocabulary size of 76 male
and female undergraduate students majoring in literature, English language, and engineering studying at Iran, Shiraz
University.
Quite recently, Zhang and Annual (2008) explored the role of vocabulary knowledge in reading comprehension with 37
secondary students in Singapore. The researchers used VLT to gauge language learners’ vocabulary knowledge in
correlation to the various assessments planned to examine their performance of reading comprehension and summary
competencies. Findings suggested that learners’ vocabulary knowledge at the 2000 word and the 3000 word levels was
related to their reading comprehension. Important relationship produced only for the short-answer questions, but not for
the summary competencies. The researchers suppose that various task formats might have influenced reading
comprehension performance.
A similar study which was carried out by Ahmad Azman Mokhtar in 2010, the VLT was administered among 360
Malaysian diploma students at University Technology MARA, Perlis. Although the researchers were not mainly
concerned with the students’ total score on the test, they were concerned in whether the students knew an adequate
number of words with high-frequency or not. Hence, working within this context, the present researchers deemed it
indispensable to launch a study where vocabulary is paid little heed to in most reading comprehension courses.
3. Research methodology
The approach of the present study was quantitative. The purpose of it is to improve and test hypotheses in connection to
natural phenomena. Therefore, measurement is a major key in quantitative research because it depicts the relationship
between the data and observation (Cohen et al., 2004). In order to research the instrument that can be administrated to a
large number of respondents, a correlational design was selected (Babbie, 2007). In correlational research, major
interest of the researcher is to identify whether two or more variables covariate, and, in this case, to launch the
directions, magnitudes, and forms of the remarked associations.
IJALEL 2 (1):85-89, 2013 87
This study was conducted at BAHAR institute in Shiraz, Iran among 220 adult language learners with various ages are
enrolled in advanced level of English proficiency. The data of this study were collected from the main branch of
BAHAR institute which has the most EFL learners in advanced level. All of the participants had taken the same
questionnaire, the Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT) was chosen to examine the breadth/size of vocabulary knowledge, and
the reading section of IELTS were applied to examine the reading comprehension performance. The Instruments
measured both dependent and independent variables. This vocabulary test was created and revised by Nation (1983) and
the reliability of the second version in all the various levels was reported ranging from .92 to .96 by many researchers.
The VLT test consists of five word levels: 2000, 3000, 5000, 10000, and UWL (University Word List) and composed of
10 test items at each level. In the current research, in accordance with the purpose of this study, the UWL level test was
eliminated from the VLT test. So with regard to the point that all participants in this study were not in the same
academic level, the university word level list was not administered.
Moreover, the academic reading section of IELTS test was chosen to measure the learners reading comprehension
performance. This is a standardized multiple-choice reading comprehension testing system which was introduced in
1989. The academic reading module consists of three sections and 40 questions according to a series of 3 texts.
Participants had 60 minutes to complete the test.
To carry out the statistical analysis, Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), version 16.0 for Windows Vista
Home Premium, was used to run statistical analysis of the two instruments. With the intention to this research
percentage, frequency, mean, standard deviations were conducted, as well. To explore the inter-correlations among
vocabulary breadth/size test (VLT) and reading comprehension test (reading comprehension section of IELTS), two-
tailed Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficient were employed.
Ho1: There is no significant relationship between the four sections of Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT).
Ho2: There is no significant relationship between EFL learners’ vocabulary breadth/size and their reading
comprehension performance subtest of IELTS.
4. Results
For the first part of data analysis a two-tailed Pearson product moment correlation coefficient analysis was applied to
investigate the association among variables, which are depicted in Table 1. Statistic used is Pearson’s product-moment
correlation coefficient (r) is concerned with relationships between two variables and to determine the strength and
direction of the relationships and ranges between +1 and stated about the relationship direction. Guilford (1956)
provided a guide in the interpretation of the relationship strength among variables. Based on Guildford Rule of Thumb
the strength of relationship is presented from negligible (less than .2), low (.2 to .4), moderate (.4 to .7), high (.7 to .9),
and very high (.9 and more than). Two asterisks (**) revealed that there is a significant correlation at .01 level.
In order for the correlation to be considered as significant, the p-value had to be less than .01. The results revealed that
the inter-correlations among the four sections of VLT test are all both positive and statistically significant.
Table 1. Correlation between scores on four sections of VLT (n=220)

Score Score Score
VLT Section Score 10000
2000 3000 5000
Score 2000 1.000
Score 3000 .949** 1.000
Score 5000 .684** .674** 1.000
Score 10000 .655** .633** .970** 1.000
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (p<0.01)
As demonstrated in the above table, the correlation between four sections ranged from .633 to .970 which suggested a
moderate to high correlation. The findings displayed in table 4.2 revealed that the Pearson correlation coefficient (r)
among 2000 level and 3000 level was .949 and significant level or p-value was .000 in the 2-tailed test. In other words,
there is a very high relationship (r=.949, p<0.01) among the 2000 and 3000 word levels tests. The correlation
coefficient between the 5000 and 10000 word levels tests was .970, and the significance level was .000 in the 2-tailed
test (r=.970, p<.01), which means that participants’ scores on the 5000 and 10000 word levels tests were positively and
significantly correlated. Statistically, hence, the correlation between two tests was of a highly strong level according to
Guilford Rule of Thumb table (1956).
Additionally, the findings indicated that the participants’ vocabulary knowledge scores on the 2000 and 5000 word
levels were significantly correlated with a slight difference as their scores on the 3000 and 5000 word levels correlated.
In other words, the correlation coefficient scores for both sets of tests were statistically significant and positive. In
regarding to 0.01 level of significance, the p-value was equal to .000 (r=.684, p<0.01) for the correlation between 2000
and 5000, and (r=.674, p<0.01) for the correlation between 3000 and 5000. Therefore, the 5000 word level test was
significantly correlated with 2000 and 3000 word levels tests and also based on Guilford Rule of Thumb table (1956), it
was a moderate association.
IJALEL 2 (1):85-89, 2013 88
Finally, as it is shown in Table 4.2, learners’ scores on 2000 and 10000 word levels tests were positively and
significantly correlated. Besides, the scores on correlation coefficient analysis showed a moderate relationship between
these two word levels tests (r=.655, p<0.01). The correlation between 3000 and 10000 word levels tests was also
positive and significant (r=.633, p<0.01), and it was a moderate association based on Guilford Rule of Thumb table
(1956).
In conclusion, the correlation between 2000, 3000, 5000, and 10000 word levels tests were all significant and positive.
So based on the scores derived from the Pearson correlation analysis and r-value, it can be inferred that the first
hypothesis is rejected. Therefore, there is significant relationship between the four sections of Vocabulary Levels Test
(VLT). In other words, it can be concluded that if a learner obtains a high score at for example the 5000 or 10000 word
levels, s/he has definitely been proficient in lower levels as well, i.e., 2000 and 3000 word levels. Hence, it is so
obvious that vocabulary acquisition beyond the 2000 word level is needed to provide a basis for comprehension in any
English text and there is no compromise on that. The strong consistency of the scores among word levels of VLT is
evidence of their being consistent in an evaluation of their own vocabulary knowledge. The findings are important in
the design of the vocabulary component of a teaching curriculum that instructors be able to determine the state of their
learners’ vocabulary knowledge and draw on a variety of vocabulary measures to investigate the nature of vocabulary
growth.
In light of the results of the Pearson correlation analysis (Table 2.), scores on the two language tests (IELTS and VLT)
were positively correlated with each other. So the results of scores on these two tests (r=.834, p<0.05) indicates that
there is a highly significant relationship among EFL learners vocabulary breadth/size and their reading comprehension
performance subtest of IELTS, according to the Guilford Rule of Thumb table (1956), which means the second
hypothesis is also rejected.
Table 2. Correlation between Scores on the VLT and IELTS (n=220)

TESTS IELTS
Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT) .834**
**Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
This result lends support to many researchers including (Laufer, 2003; Meara, 1997; Read, 2000; Nation, 2001) and
many more who argued for the claim of significant function of breadth/size of vocabulary in reading comprehension.
The results in the current research also related to Laufer (2003) and Qian’s (1999, 2002, 2004) research on the
association among the breadth/size of vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension which indicated
comparatively high correlation between the two factors, ranging from 0.50 to 0.78. As a result, it can be concluded that
if a learners’ vocabulary breadth/size is at a high level, s/he will have the high reading comprehension as well. In other
words the higher vocabulary breadth/size level will lead to better reading comprehension performance and vice versa.
5. Conclusion
The findings illustrated that the correlation between four sections ranged from .655 to .970; in other words, if a learner
reaches the criterion at a higher level, as an example, the 5000 word level, s/he has almost certainly mastered the 2000
and 3000 levels as well (Read, 2000). The findings of Webb (2005) study consider this test as a selective, discrete,
context-independent test which is “designed to measure learners’ vocabulary size as a trait without any reference to any
particular context of use” (p.8). Findings of the National Reading (Panel, 2000, as cited in Pearson, Hiebert, & Kamil,
2007) indicated that there is a firm and strong relationship among the levels of VLT in particular texts and performance
on experimenter designed comprehension examines extracted from those same contexts. This mentioned reports are also
supported by the current research results.
The findings provided by this research have some implications for continued attention to learning, teaching, assessing,
and researching vocabulary: For one thing, the statistics generated from this research have made a strong case for the
continued adoption of vocabulary in language teaching and assessment. In terms of proficiency levels, if the
performance of the participants on vocabulary knowledge is classified into three different levels, some item types are
then more associated with vocabulary knowledge at certain levels. This is again truer about IELTS reading subtest. This
implies that some item types are better processed when EFL learners reach certain levels of vocabulary proficiency.
Given that, the indiscriminate inclusion of all vocabulary types in one lesson in course books, irrespective of the
vocabulary knowledge level of EFL learners is called into question. That is, if we come to assume that language
learners will better process a specific item type once they reach a specific level of vocabulary proficiency, then the
question is whether it is appropriate to offer any kind of reading item type to them in their course-books and in
classrooms.
References
Ahmad Azman Mokhtar. (2010). Achieving Native-like English Lexical Knowledge: The Non-native Story. Journal of
Language Teaching and Research. 1(4): 343-352.
IJALEL 2 (1):85-89, 2013 89
Alderson, J.C. & Banerjee, J. (2001) Language testing and assessment (Part 1) State of the Art Review. Language
Testing 18, 213-236.
Babbie, E. ( 2007). The basics of social research 4th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Beck, I.L., McKeown, M.G., & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction. New York:
Guildford Press.
Chen, K. Y. (2011). The Impact of EFL Students’ Vocabulary Breadth of Knowledge on Literal Reading
Comprehension. Asian EFL Journal . 51: 30-40.
Coady, J., Magoto, J., Hubbard, P., Graney, J., & Mokhtari, K. (1993). High frequency vocabulary and reading
proficiency in ESL readers. In T. Huckin, M. Haynes & J. Coady (Eds.), Second language reading and vocabulary
learning (pp. 217–228). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Cobb, T. 1999. Vocabulary sizes of some City University students. Journal of the Division of Language Studies of City
University of Hong Kong. 1: 59-68.
Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. R. B. (2004): A Guide to Teaching Practice (ﬁfth edition). London: Routledge.
Guilford, J.P. (1956). Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and Education. New York: McGraw Hill.
Golkar, M., & Yamini, M. (2007). Vocabulary, proficiency and reading comprehension. The Reading Matrix. 7 (3): 88-
112.
Haynes, M., & Baker, I. (1993). American and Chinese readers learning from lexical familiarization in English text. In
T. Huckin, M. Haynes, & J. Coady (Eds.), second language reading and vocabulary learning (pp. 130-152). Norwood,
NJ: Ablex.
Hu, M., & Nation, I. S. P. (2000) Unknown vocabulary density and reading comprehension. Reading in a Foreign
Language. 13(1): 403-430.
Huang, H. F. (2006). Breadth and depth of English vocabulary knowledge: which really matters in the academic
reading performance of Chinese university students? McGill University (Canada) Press.
Koda, K. (2005). The effects of transferred vocabulary knowledge on the development of L2 reading proficiency.
Foreign Language Annals. 22: 529-542.
Laufer, B. & Goldstein, Z. (2004). Testing vocabulary knowledge: size, strength, and computer adaptiveness. Language
Learning. 53(3): 399-436.
Laufer, B. (1998). The development of passive and active vocabulary in a second language: Same or different? Applied
Linguistics. 19(2): 255-271.
Laufer, B. (2003). Vocabulary acquisition in a second language: do learners really acquire most vocabulary by
reading? Canadian Modern Language Review. 59 (4): 565-585.
Meara, P. (1996). The dimensions of lexical competence. In G. Brown, K. Malmkjaer, & J. Williams (Eds.),
Performance and competence in second language acquisition (pp. 35-53). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Nation, I. S. P. (1983). Testing and teaching vocabulary. Guidelines. 5(1): 12-25.
Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Nation, P., & Meara, P. (2002). Vocabulary. In N. Schmitt(Ed.), An introduction to applied linguistics (pp. 35-54). New
York: Oxford University Press Inc.
Panel, L. (2000). Vocabulary knowledge. In J.T. Guthrie Comprehension and teaching: Research reviews (pp.77-117).
Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Pearson, P. D., Hiebert, E. H., & Kamil, M. L. (2007). Vocabulary assessment: What we know and what we need to
know. Reading Research Quarterly. 42(2): 282-296.
Qian, D. D. (1999). Assessing the roles of depth and breadth of vocabulary knowledge in reading comprehension.
Canadian Modern Language Review. 56: 282-307.
Qian, D. D. (2002). Investigating the relationship between vocabulary knowledge and academic reading
comprehension: an assessment perspective. Language Learning. 52: 513-536.
Qian, D. D. (2004). Establishing parameters for assessing vocabulary. Language Assessment Quarterly. 1 (1): 57-61.
Qian, D. D. (2008). From single word to passages: Contextual effects on predictive power of vocabulary measures for
assessing reading performance. Language Assessment Quartely. 5: 1-19.
Read, J. (1998). Validating a test to measure depth of vocabulary knowledge. In A. Kunnan (ed.), Validation in
language assessment (pp. 41-60). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Read, J. (2000). Assessing vocabulary. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Read, J., & Chapelle, C.A. (2001). A framework for second language vocabulary assessment. Language Testing. 18: 1-
32.
Saville-Troike, M. (1984). What really matters in second language learning for academic achievement? TESOL
Quarterly. 18 (2): 199-219.
Schmitt, N., & Clapham, C. (2001). Developing and exploring the behavior of two new versions of the Vocabulary
Levels Test. Language Testing, 18: 55-88.
Webb, S., (2005). Receptive and productive vocabulary learning: The Effects of Reading and Writing on Word
Knowledge. Studies in Second Language Acquisition. 27(1): 33-52.
Yu, L. (1996). The role of cross-linguistic lexical similarity in the use of motion verbs in English by Chinese und
lapanese leamers. Unpublished Ed.D. thesis, University of Toronto.
Zahar, R., Cobb, T. and Spada, N. (2001). Acquiring vocabulary through reading: Effects of frequency and contextual
richness. The Canadian Modern Language Review. 57 (4): 541-572.
Zhang, L. J., & Anual, S. B. (2008). The role of vocabulary in reading comprehesnion: The case of secondary school
students learning English in Singapore. RELC Journal. 39: 51-76.
A Comparative Study of Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales & Attar’s The

Conference of the Birds
Maryam Khoshbakht (Corresponding Author)
M.A in English Literature, Islamic Azad University –Arak Branch, Arak, Iran
61766-1-3164, PD Box: 61335-4694, Iran
Tel: +989366343071 E-mail:khoshbakhtmaryam@gmail.com
Moussa Ahmadian
Associate Professor, Dep. Of English Language and Literature
Faculty of Arts and Humanities, Arak
38156-8-8349, PD Box: 879, Iran
Tel: +988613135111 E-mail: m-ahmadian@arak.ac.ir
Shahrukh Hekmat
Associate Professor, Dep. Of Persian Language and Literature
Faculty of Arts and Humanities, Arak
38187-63-776, PD Box:3776, Iran
Tel: +988613670606 E-mail: sh-hekmat@iau-arak.ac.ir

Abstract
Two major works of literature, Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales and Attar’s The Conference of the Birds,
display a number of strikingly similarities, in addition to a number of prominent differences. This paper tries to shed
light on similarities and differences between these two works; therefore, the story direction, narrative techniques,
characterization techniques, and settings of both works are compared. The results shows that both authors used
figurative pilgrimage or journey as the mean for self knowledge, both works are the collections of stories that all fit in a
larger story and characters present their true personalities through their speeches and their clothes or appearances;
Meanwhile The ideas which each author attempts to impart to his readers differ greatly from each other. Chaucer’s The
Canterbury Tales shows the Roman Catholic influences in England society, while Attar’s book is influenced by Islamic
and Sufism values and principles of his period.
Keywords: Pilgrims, Birds, journey, Seven Valleys, Qaf Mountain, Canterbury Tales and Conference of Birds
1. Introduction
Comparative literature is the study of nations' literature and other cultural expressions across languages and cultural
boundaries. It offers critical analysis of texts, seeking to understand how the rhetorical and aesthetic features of those
texts—whether literary, visual, or theoretical act together to present a literary work. It also shows the effects that each
nation's literature and culture have on others. For example, the Medieval English literature is strongly influenced by
French and Latin Literary works and styles. Italian poet, Giovanni Boccaccio, had a great influence on Geoffrey
Chaucer’s work. In fact, Chaucer borrowed Boccaccio’s work “Testide” in order to write “The Knight’s Tale” in his
Canterbury Tales. (Hubbard-Brown, 2006, p.64) Persian Literature also shows traces of influences of other nations,
especially Islamic texts and Arabic literature. Attar’s The Conference of the Birds offers examples of many of such
influences. For instance, the title that Attar chooses for his work “Mantiq al Tayre” (The Conference of the Birds) is
mentioned in the Quran (Naml/16).
But sometimes, there are similarities found in various nations’ literary works resulting from men’s common way of
thinking, spiritual connections and resemblances rather than adaptation of a particular work or style. This article
attempts to portray and analyze the similarities and differences of the two great literary works in English and Persian
Literature; The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer and The Conference of the Birds by Attar Neishabouri.
Undoubtedly, none of these authors ever met or read each other’s works but after close reading of both texts, one can
find striking similarities in their writing style, mood, characterization and perspectives.
IJALEL 2 (1):90-97, 2013 91
Since these works compositions, critics have continued to find new aspects from their complex ground and started new
arguments about the texts and their interpretations. Constance Woo and William Mathews (1970), discussed the concept
of journey in The Canterbury Tales in an article entitled "The Spiritual Purpose of the Canterbury Tales"; According to
them Journey is an important motif in a wide range of medieval texts. It occurs in three principal ways, which are not
necessarily exclusive and which frequently overlap: as an image of the Christian journey through life, an actual,
physical journey to a sacred location, and an internal, spiritual experience. Christopher James Brock’s article,
"Innocence, suffering, and sensibility: The Narrative function of the pathetic in Chaucer’s Tales", (2007) reviews the
narration of The Canterbury Tales. Dr. Hossein Khosravi (2009) in his essay entitled "symbolization in The Conference
of the Birds" examines various symbols that Attar used in his work. And Dr.Mehdi Nikmanesh proposed three views
concerning The Conference of the Birds narration in paper titled " The Conference of the Birds Narrative Techniques"
(2008). Dr. Nezhat Noohi compared The Conference of the Birds with Chaucer’s Parliament of Fowls in an article
published in 2006 and Seied Mohamad Marandi (2005) compares Attar’s The Conference of the Birds with Dante’s
Divine Comedy; But there has not been enough comparative studies regarding The Canterbury Tales and The
Conference of the Birds; therefore, working on this subject can be interesting and provide us valuable information about
Chaucer and Attar’s writing.
2. Background
In order to demonstrate the similarities and differences of these two literary texts clearly, first, it is better to become
familiar with the authors and their literary works. Therefore, in this section we will discuss summary of Chaucer and
Attar’s literary life and works, particularly The Canterbury tales and The Conference of the Birds.
2.1 Geoffrey Chaucer’s Life and Artistic Career
The life of Geoffrey Chaucer (c.1343-1400) was as fascinating as the stories he told. He is called the father of English
poetry and is ranked as one of the greatest poets of the Medieval Ages. Chaucer was admired for his philosophy as well
as for his poetic talents.
He was the son of a well to do wine merchant, and probably spent his boyhood in the down to earth atmosphere of
London’s Vintry, the wine merchandising area (M.H.Abrams, 1987, p.72). As a young teenager, he was taken into an
aristocratic household. At the age of 14, he became a page in the household of Prince Lionel, one of the Edward III’s
sons. At that time, the page was provided free education, and that is probably why Geoffrey Chaucer’s father placed his
son in aristocrats household(Hubbard-Brown, 2006, p.27). He fought in Edward III's army in France and was captured,
but after the king himself paid his ransom, he was released.
In 1366, when Chaucer was in his 20s, he married Philippa Roet. According to Abrams (1987) “Chaucer’s wife,
Philippa, was a member of the household of Edward’s queen and of John of Gaunt second wife, Constance of castile,
and she was doubtless of higher birth than the poet” (p.72). This helped him develop close ties with John of Gaunt, the
Duke of Lancaster, and other nobilities. Chaucer reached the top of his public career when he became one of the two
knights for the county of Kent in 1386.
Geoffrey Chaucer’s government and political career took on added importance when he was in his 30s. Between 1372
and 1373, he went to Italy for the first time. The king had commissioned him to negotiate with the government of
Genoa over the choice of an English port for commerce. It was an extraordinary trip for Chaucer. Though it is not
known whether or not he met the famous Italian poets, Giovanni Boccaccio and Francis Petrarch, he was introduced for
the first time to the Italian language and literature, which changed his work. When he returned to England in 1374,
Chaucer was appointed Controller of Customs and Subsidy of Wools, Skins, and Hides in the port of London (Hubbard-
Brown, 2006, p.58-59). The power struggle in royal court would soon lead to a decline in Chaucer's circumstances. His
last years were spent using his court connections to secure protection from his creditors as he waited for royal pensions
to be paid. Chaucer died in London on October 25, 1400. His tomb in Westminster Abbey became the center of Poet’s
Corner.
2.2 Geoffrey Chaucer’s works

Chaucer’s work reflects a different and distinctive English tradition that emerged in the Medieval Ages. As a man of the
court, he used the prestigious dialect of the south and his poems seem far less alien to modern readers than those
recorded in the North-West Midlands dialect (Thorne, 2006, p.113).
Chaucer established English as a major literary language at the time when much court poetry was still written in Anglo
Norman or Latin, and his poetry has been loved for generations for its humanity and humor. Although inspired by
Ovid's poems, and such Italian authors as Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio, his works remained still entirely unique and
offered his personal style and techniques.
Unfortunately, few of his poems can be precisely dated and some have not been preserved. Probably, among his earliest
works was a translation of the Roman de la Rose, a thirteenth-century French poem that exercised a profound influence
on Chaucer’s work. (M.H.Abrams, 1987, p.73)
Chaucer's first major work, The Book of the Duchess (1369-70), depicts the author's attempt to soothe the grief of John
of Gaunt, whose wife, Blanch, died in 1368. Works such as Troilus and Criseyde (1372-84) and The Assembly or
Parlement of Foules (c.1384) continue to show Chaucer’s interest in courtly love, but his style becomes more
decorative and the content more moral. (Thorne, 2006, p.116)
IJALEL 2 (1):90-97, 2013 92
From his other works, we can mention: The House of Fame (1374-1382), The Legend of Good Women (1386) and The
Parliament of Fowls.
Chaucer’s great literary accomplishment of the 1390s was The Canterbury Tales. A group of about 30 pilgrims gather at
the Tabard Inn in Southwark, across the Thames from London, and agree to engage in a storytelling contest as they
travel on horseback to the shrine of Thomas à Becketn in Canterbury, Kent, and back. Harry Bailly, host of the Tabard,
serves as the master of ceremonies for the contest. The pilgrims are introduced by vivid brief sketches in the General
Prologue. Interspersed between the 24 tales told by the pilgrims are short dramatic scenes presenting lively exchanges,
called links and usually involving the host and one or more of the pilgrims. Chaucer’s death, in 1400, prevented him
from completing the full plan for his book; the return journey from Canterbury is not included, and some of the pilgrims
do not tell stories. The work is nevertheless sufficiently complete to be considered as a unified book rather than a
collection of unfinished fragments. (J.E.Luebering, 2010, p.60-61)
2.3 Attar Neishabouri Life and Artistic Career
Mohammad-Ebn Abi Bakr Ebrahim Ben Isac, much better known by his pen-name Farid al-Din Attar, is amongst the
greatest poets of Persian Literature. His dimensions as a literary genius increase with the further investigation of his
writings, which are still far from completely explored.
Attar was born at some time during the twelfth century in Neishapour in north-east Iran, and died in the same city early
in the thirteenth century. His name, Attar, is a form of the word from which we get the ‘attar’ of ‘attar of roses’ and it
indicates a perfume seller or druggist (Davis, 1984, p.2).
Information we have about Attar’s life is very little. The only information available regarding his life is that he was the
son of a prosperous chemist, receiving an excellent education in Arabic studies and medicine. He helped his father in
the store and when his father died he took over his business. According to some literary historians (Jami and Mashkoor
(1377/1998)) the incident that changed Attar's life and caused his penitence was about a poor man (theosophist) who
went to his shop one day and asked for some money but Attar was so busy that he didn't pay any attention to him, so
the man asked him "How will you die master?" Attar answered: " my death will be same as your death". Man told Attar
"Can you die like me?" Attar answered; "Sure", the man put his wooden bowl under his head and whispered "God", and
died. After this soul wrecking incident, Attar became a different man (Mashkoor, 1998, p.24). He changed his life style
and abandoned his pharmacy store and traveled widely for 39 years around the world. Attar’s travels seem to have been
undertaken more in the pursuit of knowledge than patronage; during his life, he never sought a king’s favor or wrote
anything in nobles’ praise. For that reason, it seems that he was not well known as a poet in his own lifetime, except at
his home town, and his greatness as a mystic, a poet, and a master of narrative was not discovered until the 15th
century. “Attar was back in Neishapour at the time of his death, which is variously given as having occurred between
1193 and 1235. One of the dates most favored among early writers is 1229, the year of the Mongols’ sack of
Neishapour during their devastating sweep westwards, which took them to Baghdad and beyond”. (Davis, 1984, p.3)
2.4 Attar’s Works

Attar's works reflect the whole evolution of the Sufi movement. He wrote at least 45,000 rhymed couplets and many
prose works. The collection of 1885 tales in his works indicates his high talent and ability. Mashkoor (1377/1998)
introduces Attar works in the introduction of The Conference of the Birds as follow: Elahi Name (The Book of God),
Asrar Nameh (Book of Secrets), Mosibat Nameh (Book of Tragedy), Mokhtar Nameh (the Book of Chosen), Tazkeratol
Olia (the Biography of Saints), The Collection of poems (The Bureau) and Mantiq at tair (The Conference of the Birds)
which is considered as Attar’s greatest work.
The Conference of the Birds, great Sufi poem and fable is all about the importance of committing to a spiritual journey.
It describes the pilgrimage of the world’s birds in search of their ideal king and the arduous journey they take to reach
him Birds in this poem want to find the great Simurgh, their king, but they have been told by Hoopoe that he lives far
away and the journey to him is hazardous. The poem's title relies on a clever word play between the words Simorgh
which is a mysterious bird in Iranian mythology and a symbol often found in Sufi literature "simorgh" which means
"thirty birds" in Persian.
It was in China, late one moonless night,
The Simorgh first appeared to mortal sight –
He let a feather float down through the air,
And rumours of its fame spread everywhere; (The conference of The Birds, 16)
3. Discussion
3.1. Structure and Story Direction
One of the ways of understanding the poet’s state of mind and thinking style is to study his work’s structure and frame
work. Most of the cultural, social and historical issues of the nations appear in their literary works; Chaucer's The
Canterbury Tales is reflective of the Roman Catholic influence in England during his lifetime, while Attar’s The
Conference of the Birds is based on the doctrine propounded by the mystics of Islam. During the time that The
Canterbury Tales was written, England was facing a great political and social change. After plague killed many people,
the religious traditions and the feudal system changed radically. Therefore, the Christian Church began to fall apart
IJALEL 2 (1):90-97, 2013 93
because it no longer could keep all people in line by fear of religion. The Middle class people started to question old
beliefs, moral standard and the validity of religion in their lives. Questions about what is right and wrong and best and
worst are discussed, evaluated, and often argued strongly in Chaucer's Tales. Therefore, we can say that The Canterbury
Tales is somehow critique of certain aspects of the Catholic Church in England and it implicitly condemns the corrupt
practices of many church officials. A somewhat similar criticism is seen in Attar’s work, He also questions the right and
wrong and moral standards of society in his work. Attar wrote The Conference of the Birds in a time when ancient way
was forgotten and those who were known as pious, eremite and mystics were mostly pretending. Governors took
advantage of common people's devotion to mysticism and claimed to be its defender in order to gain their support but
they changed mystic's ideas and principles whenever they saw fit for their advantage. In his work Attar used an allegory
of the spiritual path of Sufism with its demands, its hazards and its infinite rewards to present the true principles and
concepts of mysticism that according to him were neglected.
The story in The Canterbury tales and The Conference of the Birds is presented through a journey. The concept of
journey in literature always shows the mankind's explorer sense for discovering the uncertainties. Both authors came up
with this candid literary device, a technique that allowed them to bring together a diverse group of characters, to present
a wide spectrum of society. From the twelve century, the concept of journeying changed from exile to popular expression
of the spiritual quest. In both works, Passengers are enduring difficulties of spiritual journey in order to reach ultimate
knowledge, freedom and salvation; and during this time they show their flaws and strong points. Therefore, we can say
that Chaucer and Attar believed in reaching salvation through communal soul which is best expressed by examining each
book’s characters.
So pricketh them nature in their corages
Then longe folk to go on pilgrimages,
And palmers for to seeke strange strands,
To ferne hallows couth in sundry lands;
And specially, from every shire’s end
Of Engleland, to Canterbury they wend,
The holy blissful Martyr for to seek,
That them hath holpen*, when that they were sick. *helped
(The Canterbury Tales, 11-18)
Consider carefully before you start;

The journey asks of you a lion’s heart.
The road is long, the sea is deep -- one flies
First buffeted by joy and then by sighs;
If you desire this quest, give up your soul
And make our sovereign’s court your only goal. (The Conference of the Birds, 16)
In The Canterbury Tales, Chaucer's characters are the group of pilgrims consisting of both men and women who come
from different occupations and social class backgrounds, from the humble Parson to the despicable Pardoner. On the
contrary, Attar’s characters are birds that represent different types of men, as players in the social stage. Each of these
birds possesses some particular characteristics and social statuses, which are attributed to the humans who lived in
Attar’s time. For example, the Nightingale is a symbol of men who are interested in earthly unstable pleasures, the
Parrot is a symbol of selfish people, the hawk is a symbol of courtiers and the dock is a symbol of people who claim to
be pious. According to Attar, society's influences cause individuals to develop different characteristics. Based on this
view, Attar selects some of the birds each of which having particular characteristics that make them different from the
other.
3.2 Narrative techniques
“The Canterbury Tales and The Conference of the Birds are the collections of stories that all fit within one single
narrative, yet each could also stand alone. This narrative strategy is referred to as a frame narrative, meaning a larger
story serves as the framework within which a series of smaller tales fit. The earliest known frame stories can be traced
back to ancient India sometime in the first millennium BCE, when the Sanskrit epics Mahabharata and Ramayana were
written” (Witzel, 1987). The presence of one main story and several under plots is the first dramatic point regarding
narrative techniques of The Canterbury Tales and The Conference of the Birds. The main story in both works acts as a
fundamental system and basis for other stories or parts. The secondary stories in both works are presented for
explanation and emphasis of the main idea.
Chaucer's Tales had thematic diversity, using the concept of pilgrimage to gather a diverse collection of people together
for literary purposes was unique at its own time. Pilgrimage has most often been viewed in connection with frame story,
as a means of creating an envelope for the tales to follow. The structure of stories in The Canterbury Tales is largely
IJALEL 2 (1):90-97, 2013 94
linear, with one story is following another. Chaucer starts his story with the General Prologue in order to describe
characters who will tell the stories; therefore, it is clear that the structure will depend on the characters rather than a
general theme or moral. Each pilgrim was supposed to tell four tales, two on the way to Canterbury and two on the way
back. But, Chaucer only wrote twenty-four tales, his work was left incomplete when he died on October 25, 1400.
Attar, unlike Chaucer, completed his master piece, his purpose was to establish and teach the values and beliefs of
mysticism. Attar’s seven valleys, Qaf Mountain, Simorgh and each one of the birds are symbols of different types of
people in the society. The Conference of the Birds is organized around the hoopoe’s answers to different birds’
objections to the journey or questions about it. At the beginning the birds are identified by their species (and each
species clearly indicates a human type: the nightingale is the lover, the finch is the coward, etc.); they make excuses,
according to their kind, for not going on the journey. Once the journey has begun, the birds ask questions about its
course, and here the analogy is much more than that of a beginner on the spiritual path asking his sheikh about the trials
he is likely to encounter. Each section (except for the opening and closing pages) therefore begins with a bird
questioning the hoopoe (or arguing with him) and continues with the hoopoe’s answer. Each answer usually contains
with two or three stories which illustrate the particular point the hoopoe is making; the stories are linked together by
admonition and commentary (Davis, 1984). Attar divides his poem into forty five articles (parts) which can be
presented as follow: 1- introducing eleven of thirty birds which are the most important characters of the poem, 2-
Describing birds gathering and acknowledging the need to have a king, 3- Hoopoe’s speech about Simorgh and the
necessity of joining him, 4- birds excuses and objections to the journey and Hoopoe’s reply to each one, 5- Starting the
journey and seven valleys description and difficulties, 6- Reaching Qaf mountain and discovering Simorgh.
Due to their personal background and profession, both Chaucer and Attar were familiar and connected with all social
classes and probably that is why they used from common peoples oral literature and folklores in their works. They also
used from historical and literal samples that were familiar for most of readers in their works. For example, Almost all
of the narratives in The Canterbury Tales can be found in earlier sources, Chaucer borrowed the existing narrative
models and reshaped them into his own, telling it in the voice of one of his characters, for example, The Clerk’s Tale, as
the Clerk admits, was mainly borrowed from Petrarch’s version. There is very little that is different between Chaucer
and Petrarch’s handling of the narrative. In The Conference of the Birds, we can also see almost the same method. For
instance, Sheikh Sanan’s tale was originally from “Tohfatol Molok” by Imam Mohamad Ghazzali, one of the great
Iranian sophists (1058–1111), but Attar presented the story in his style of writing.
Another important narrative technique that both Attar and Chaucer used in their works was presenting the context of
their stories in a way that was understandable for not only educated readers but also uneducated and common people in
streets. Chaucer used the language that was suitable for cross-section of English society at the time, mainly the middle
class, which included wide range of social scales. In Chaucer’s time, most famous writers wrote in French or Italian but
he chose English and presented characters whose English nature was self-evident. In fact he is one of the first writers
who wrote in English (Hubbard-Brown, 2006, p.52).The Canterbury Tales opening ‘When that April with his shoures
soote’ is the first line of the English verse that is widely known.
WHEN that Aprilis, with his showers swoot,
The drought of March hath pierced to the root,
And bathed every vein in such licour,
Of which virtue engender’d is the flower; (The Canterbury Tales, 24)
“The sweet showers of April that pierce to the root the March dryness are a reverie, a celebration of spring renewal.
This opening, a welcome to April showers and to the classical god of the West Wind, is often taken as a starting point
for ‘Eng. Lit.’ It would be better to take Chaucer’s opening line as confirming that English poetry, already seven
centuries old, had successfully domesticated new European literary traditions.” (Alexander, 2000, p.43)
3.3 Characterization Techniques
Chaucer has shown himself in his characters. He presents his thoughts and ideas regarding women, social issues and
Christianity through his tales. According to Hubbard-Brown (2006) Chaucer achieved something else that had never
been done before; he created characters that were boastful, nasty, foolish, and funny. He developed the art of satire,
making fun of people in a literary way. He also developed a form of rhyming that worked so well that William
Shakespeare, among many others, adopted it hundreds of years later. (p.5) regarding The Canterbury Tales’ characters,
Fisher (2003) states that Chaucer introduces all of the pilgrims except the Canon and the Yeoman in The Canterbury
Tales’ prologue. No one can be sure of the order of the stories, but most scholars follow the order of the Ellesmere
manuscript, dating back to approximately ten years after Chaucer’s death in 1400. (Quoted in Hubbard-Brown, 2006)
Chaucer tried to reflect interactions in England at that time. Therefore, he created pilgrims that behave the way real
people do. They were not patient, and they jumped in, interrupting each other to tell their own tales. He presented a
world where a variety of people had to work toward a simple, common goal of getting somewhere. The pilgrims’
clothing, physical appearance, occupation and social status are among characterization tools that Chaucer used in his
work to reveal some aspects of his characters. For instance, his characters clothing styles are symbol of their personality
traits. The Wife of Bath's red stockings probably symbolize her lustful nature, and her large hat represents her love of
fashion and luxury. Also, we can make good assumptions about some pilgrims based only on their social status. The
Miller is from low-class; the medieval stereotype of lower-class people is that they were intensely physical and earthy,
but a little dim. Indeed, this is what we see in the Miller's portrait.
IJALEL 2 (1):90-97, 2013 95
Characters behaviors and manners are also used as one of the tools of characterization by Chaucer. The Prioress is one
of the most interesting characters in The Canterbury Tales. She wants to convince people that she is charitable to the
poor, when she sees a mouse caught in a trap, she weeps but later Chaucer writes that she has no problem feeding her
hounds flesh, so her weeping over the trapped mouse is probably, like most of her habits, a behavior that she adopts to
seem like a courtly damsel.
Stories told by pilgrims are also indication of their thoughts and personalities. For example, Knight is from high social
class of the nobility, he acts as a peacemaker among other pilgrims, speaks like a gentleman and is probably meant to
provide a point of contrast with the very different "low-born" behavior of characters like the Miller and the Reeve.
Therefore, he chooses a story that is exactly what we'd expect of a perfect knight, a tale of two friends who fight for the
same noble woman, containing battles, and courtly love.
While Chaucer applies characterization skills to present people from different classes of society, Attar’s characters are
designed in a way to indicate personality traits in human beings. Each bird has a special significance and didactic fault
in the story. They face many difficulties on the way and, one by one, they drop out of the journey, each offering an
excuse and unable to endure the way. The nightingale, for example, cannot leave his beloved; the Hawk is satisfied with
his position at court waiting on earthly kings; the finch is too afraid to start the journey and so on. The hoopoe answers
each of their excuses with anecdotes. Attar uses the collection of sayings and anecdotes connected with the lives of
saints suggesting a bookish, rather scholarly man interested in the lives of those who had gone before him. Attar’s birds
represent devotees who are seeking almighty’s greatness; therefore, we can consider that Reaching Simorgh means
attaining celestial power and knowledge.
At the beginning, Attar chooses twelve birds from the group of thirty birds, and for each one, he writes 5 lines; these
introductory lines have three elements, each section presents one bird, one prophet and one antagonist who stand against
the prophet. The bird is represented in three concepts of fowl, devotee and soul, prophet by the concepts of leader, old
man and God and antagonist by the concepts of ego, body and miscreant. This structure remains stable throughout the
entire book. Physical properties and egoistical characteristics of these birds and their mythological backgrounds are also
explained in introduction section.
The prophet acts as a guide and instructor while the antagonist tries to prevent the bird from going to the journey. In
most cases, bird and prophet are congruous. For example, Hoopoe’s introduction starts with a reference to his role in
Solomon story. According The Holy Quran (30/27) Hoopoe is the bird that delivered Solomon’s letter to Belgheisn
(Queen of Sheba), Finch comes with Musses (for their desire to meet God ), Partridge with Saleh ( for the common
setting of mountain), Peacock with Adam (due to their presence in heaven), Parrot with Khezr (for his green feathers
and its relation to eternality quest for devotees) and pheasant with Joseph (considering their relation with well). In some
cases, there is no relation between the bird and the prophet; and Attar creates its own congruency. For example, Attar
chooses francolin because it rhymes with Ascension. He writes that francolin is a bird who observed ascension.
3.4 Setting
Setting is the overall setting of a narrative or dramatic work is the general locale, historical time, and social
circumstances in which its action occurs (M.H.Abrams, A Glossary of Literary Terms, 1999, p.284). It enables the
reader to better vision how a story unfolds by connecting necessary physical details of a piece of literature. According
to Hubbard-Brown (2006), the characters in The Canterbury Tales were on a trip to Canterbury Cathedral, to the shrine
of Thomas Becket. England was full of shrines, but perhaps the most popular was the shrine of the murdered archbishop
of Canterbury (Hubbard-Brown, 2006, p.26).
Befell that, in that season on a day,
In Southwark at the Tabard as I lay,
Ready to wenden on my pilgrimage
To Canterbury with devout corage,
At night was come into that hostelry
Well nine and twenty in a company
Of sundry folk, by aventure y-fall
In fellowship, and pilgrims were they all,
That toward Canterbury woulde ride. (The Canterbury Tales, 24)
Therefore, we can say that the general setting of The Canterbury Tales is the journey of thirty travelers from a small
tavern outside London to Canterbury. It was the pilgrimage that linked the stories of the travelers together. A
Pilgrimage is a journey to a holy place or shrine undertaken as a spiritual quest to obtain supernatural help or a form of
penance for sins. In the Medieval Ages, pilgrimage was a social as well as a religious event and the only time when
people from differing social classes could come together. One of the important aspects of The Canterbury Tales setting
is that he uses a realistic setting instead of an idealistic one, in order to improve authenticity in the tales and their tellers.
Along with the main setting of The Canterbury Tales, the stories told by pilgrims also have their own setting, some of
the places used in Chaucer’s tales are Thebes, the city of Oedipus in Sophocles’s Oedipus the Rex ( the city of several
IJALEL 2 (1):90-97, 2013 96
tales, including the Knight's Tale ), Oxford (city used in the Miller's Tale, and The Wife of Bath's Tale) , Cambridge
(mentioned in Reeves' Tale) , Rome (the holy center of Christianity and the location of parts of several of the tales told
on the journey. It is the home of Constance, (the Christian heroine of the Man of Law's Tale), Northcumberland (the
shore city where Constance is shipwrecked and lives in the Man of Law's Tale), Yorkshire in England (setting of
Summoner's Tale), Saluzzo (the mountainous Italian city, which is the setting of the Clerk's Tale), and Flanders (the
setting of the Pardoner's drunken tale of avarice and of the Tale of Sir Thopas).
As it was mentioned earlier, both authors use a long journey as a tool to create their settings. The setting in The
Conference of the Birds takes us through the seven valleys, also known as seven cities of love, Attar introduces them as
the valley of quest (in which one leaves all worldly attachments), love (one becomes so absorbed by love of God that
forgets other desires), understanding (one with the help of his knowledge overcomes his faults and weaknesses),
independence and detachment (one loses his desire to possess and becomes self sufficient), unity ( one realizes that all
creatures are from one source and if one loses himself in the divine essence, they will be transcended by love,
astonishment) and finally deprivation and nothingness (When unity is achieved, one forgets all and loses oneself in the
greatness of God). We can see all these seven stages in Sufi mysticism; Sufi scholars believe that any individual must
pass these seven steps completely to realize the true nature of God. Eventually, only thirty birds remain as they finally
arrive at Qaf Mountain. Qaf Mountain (Jabal Qaf) is a mysterious mountain of ancient Islamic tradition that is
sometimes identified with North Pole, the "farthest point of the earth". "According to certain authors, the Jabal Qaf of
Muslim cosmology is a version of Rupes Nigra, a mountain whose ascent, like Dante's climbing of the Mountain of
Purgatory, represents the pilgrim's progress through spiritual states. In Iranian theosophy, the heavenly Pole, the focal
point of the spiritual ascent, acts as a magnet to draw beings to its "palaces ablaze with immaterial matter." (Scheub,
2000)
We have a king; beyond Kaf’s mountain peak
The Simorgh lives, the sovereign whom you seek,
And He is always near to us, though we
Live far from His transcendent majesty. (The Conference of the Birds, 15)
4. Conclusion
Two major works of literature, Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales and Attar’s The Conference of the Birds,
display a number of strikingly similarities, in addition to a number of prominent differences. Both depict a figurative
pilgrimage or journey, and in each case, the destination is the ultimate self-knowledge. Both works are the collections of
stories that all fit in a larger story. By studying them, one can understand that their writers believed that the road to
salvation is not an internal journey but it is a communal journey. By examining the people who have assembled for the
pilgrimage to the shrine of St. Thomas Becket in The Canterbury tales and 30 birds that finally reach Simurgh in The
Conference of the Birds, one can sense the importance of society as a whole. Both writers believed that one person
individually cannot reach salvation; path to redemption involves the interaction with and influence of other individuals.
Each of Chaucer's pilgrims reveals a series of personal flaws while presenting their tales just like Attar’s birds when
they talk about themselves and bring an excuse to avoid the journey to find Simurgh. The appearances of characters,
their speeches, and their behavior in each book also suggest another way to realize Chaucer and Attar’s characters. In
both of these stories, characters' roles, place, choice of story and even their turn in speaking is an important tool for
characterization.
Attar uses a debate and discussion for presenting his story. In The Canterbury Tales also all the events revolve around
discussion and communication between pilgrims. However, Birds in The Conference of the Birds use discussion style to
bring an excuse for not going on a journey but Pilgrims in The Canterbury Tales discuss their social, religious and
political views by participating in a game of telling tales.
The ideas which each author attempts to impart to his readers differ greatly in The Canterbury Tales and The
Conference of the Birds. Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales shows the Roman Catholic influences in England during his
lifetime, while Attar’s book is influenced by Islamic and Sufism values and principles of his period. However, both
authors were probably using their literary works in order to express their views, either purely religious or somewhat
political.
In The Conference of the Birds we can find many allusions to holy tales about prophets’ life stories. All thirty birds used
in this work have references to one of the prophets or has been mentioned in the religious stories. Unlike Attar, religious
ideas are not usually mentioned, except in terms of corruption and oppression in Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales,
although the presence of Boethius philosophy in his work gives rise to some quite metaphysical debates on freedom and
necessity.
Finally, we can conclude that Chaucer created realistic and objective events and characters and his purpose was to
present political and social disruption of his age; Attar on the other hand, although refers to social corruptions, but he
views them as obstacles that prevents men to grow spiritually. Attar’s main goal was to show the right way for men to
reach salvation.
IJALEL 2 (1):90-97, 2013 97
References
Abrams, M.H. (1999). A Glossary of Literary Terms/ Seventh Edition. Boston: Heiinle & Heinle Thomson Learning.
Abrams, M.H., Greenblatt, Stephen, David, Alfred and Lewalski, Barbara K. (1987). The Norton Anthology of English
Literature. The Major Athuors (6 ed.). London: Norton & Company Ltd.
Alexander, M. (2000). A History of English Literature. London: MACMILLAN PRESS LTD.
Attar, F. (1984). The Conference of the Birds. (translated into English by A.D. Davis) London: Penguin.
Attar, F. (1388/2009). The Conference of The Birds. (Introduction, correction and suspension by Mohamad Reza
Shafiei Kadkani), Tehran: Sokhan.
[‫ ﺳﺨﻦ‬:‫ ﺗﮭﺮان‬.‫ ﺗﺼﺤﯿﺢ وﺗﻌﻠﯿﻘﺎت ﻣﺤﻤﺪ رﺿﺎ ﺷﻔﯿﻌﯽ ﮐﺪﮐﻨﯽ‬، ‫ ﻣﻨﻄﻖ اﻟﻄﯿﺮ; ﻣﻘﺪﻣﮫ‬,(1388) .‫]ﻋﻄﺎر ﻧﯿﺸﺎﺑﻮری‬
Attar, Farid ud-din. (1377/1998). The Conference of The Birds. (Introduction by Mohamad Javad Mashkoor), Tehran:
Elham.
[‫ اﻟﮭﺎم‬:‫ ﺗﮭﺮان‬.‫ ﺗﺼﺤﯿﺢ دﮐﺘﺮ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺟﻮاد ﻣﺸﮑﻮر‬، ‫ ﻣﻨﻄﻖ اﻟﻄﯿﺮ; ﻣﻘﺪﻣﮫ‬,(1377) .‫]ﻋﻄﺎر ﻧﯿﺸﺎﺑﻮری‬
Chaucer, G. (2000). The Canterbury Tales: In Modern English. Nevill Coghill, Pengiun Classics.
Fisher, J. H. (2003). “A Language Policy for Lancastrian England,” in Geoffrey Chaucer. Philadelphia: Chelsea House
Publishers.
Forozanfar, Badi-o-Zaman. (1374/1995). The Biography, Criticism and Analysis of Attar Neishabouri's Works.
Association of Cultural Works and Scholars, Tehran, Iran.
[‫ اﻧﺠﻤﻦ آﺛﺎر و ﻣﻔﺎﺧﺮ ﻓﺮھﻨﮕﯽ‬:‫ ﺗﮭﺮان‬.‫( ﺷﺮح اﺣﻮال و ﻧﻘﺪ و ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ آﺛﺎر ﻋﻄﺎر ﻧﯿﺸﺎﺑﻮری‬1374) .‫ ﺑﺪﯾﻊ اﻟﺰﻣﺎن‬, ‫]ﻓﺮوزاﻧﻔﺮ‬
Hubbard-Brown, J. (2006). Chaucer Celebrated Poet and Author. Chelsea House Publishers.
J.E.Luebering (Ed.). (2010). The 100 Most Influential Writers of All Time. New York: Britannica Educational
Publishing.
Robertson, D.W. (1962). Preface to Chaucer. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Scheub, H. (2000). A dictionary of African mythology: the mythmaker as storyteller. London: Oxford University Press.
Shamisa, S. (1386/2007). Dictionary of Allusions (Mythological, fictional, historical, religious references in Persian
Literature), Tehran: Mitra.
[‫ ﻣﯿﺘﺮا‬: ‫ در ادﺑﯿﺎت ﻓﺎرﺳﯽ( ﺗﮭﺮان‬، ‫ ﻣﺬھﺒﯽ‬،‫ ﺗﺎرﯾﺨﯽ‬،‫ داﺳﺘﺎﻧﯽ‬، ‫( ﻓﺮھﻨﮓ ﺗﻠﻤﯿﺤﺎت )اﺷﺎرات اﺳﺎطﯿﺮی‬1386) .‫ ﺳﯿﺮوس‬,‫]ﺷﻤﯿﺴﺎ‬
Thorne, S. (2006). Mastering Poetry. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Witzel, M. E. (1987). On the origin of the literary device of the 'Frame Story' in Old Indian literature. Hinduismus und
Buddhismus. (F. H.Falk, Ed.) Festschrift fuer U. Schneider.
From Memorized Chunks to Rule Formation: A Study of Adult

Chinese Learners of English
Xia Yu
Southwest University of Political Science and Law, P. R.C
E-mail: sheilayu327@hotmail.com

This research is funded by the Scientific Research Fund for 2011 brought-in talent of Southwest University of Political
Science and Law (Approval No: 2011-XZRCXM001).
Abstract
Recent empirical research on the role of formulaic language appears to support the assumption that memorized chunks
serve as a database for learning of the grammar, a process of what Skehan (1998) call ‘syntacticization’. This paper
examines the possibility of ‘syntacticization’ without the help of explicit instruction in the case of adult classroom
learners. The study reported here investigates the extent to which Chinese tertiary-level learners of English acquire the
rule of despite + NP beyond initial memorization of chunks. This is a classroom experiment in which the data were
collected from 104 non-English majors in a Chinese university through written elicitation tests. The subjects were
randomly assigned to two memorization groups and an instruction group. The results seem to show that the participants
in the memorization groups had difficulty inducing rules successfully based on the initial memorization of unanalysed
chunks in contrast to their counterparts in the instruction group. More importantly, the study found that the learning of
rules based on initial memorization of chunks might be regulated by the complexity of linguistic context in which the
target rule is deployed. The paper concludes with pedagogical implications for the instruction of grammatical chunks.
Keywords: Memorized Chunks; Rule Formation; Chinese Learners of English; Syntacticization
1. Introduction
There has been a noticeable increase of interest in formulaic language iwithin applied linguistics and SLA research.
Recognising the important roles of formulaic language in language learning, some researchers propose that the
linguistic system is composed of two subsystems: a rule-based system and an exemplar/memory-based system (Skehan,
1998) and that language use is operating on ‘open-choice principle’ as well as ‘idiom principle’ (Sinclair, 1991). In both
dichotomies, the former consists of generative rules and the latter memorized chunks. While the rule-based system has
unlimited creative potential, the exemplar-based system clearly excels in processing speed. In view of the fact that
neither the rule system nor the exemplar system is ideal separately, a question naturally arises of ‘exploring how the two
systems might work harmoniously together’ (Skehan, 1998: 89). Debate in both L1 and L2 acquisition research, in
effect, has largely centred on whether learners’ memorized chunks (initially unanalysed utterances) contribute to their
development of an emerging grammatical competence.
SLA research has offered evidence indicating that some aspects of language learning (if not all) can be regarded as a
process of breaking down initially unanalysed chunks of language in long-term memory into smaller, more productive
units (Bialystok & Ryan, 1985; N. Ellis, 1996; Myles, Hooper, & Mitchell, 1998; Myles, Mitchell, & Hooper, 1999;
Peters, 1983). First language acquisition research (see, e.g. Berman, 1986; Lieven, Julian, & Gillian, 1997; Peters, 1983,
1985; Tomasello, 2000) has produced evidence that memorized unanalysed chunks may serve as a database for the
learning of grammar at a later stage.
In the case of second language learning, however, Skehan (1998) doubts the possibility of the process of
‘syntacticization’ devoid of appropriate instruction. He holds that (adult) second language learner will probably not
move on to ‘syntacticization’ beyond the initial stage of ‘lexicalization’ (see Skehan, 1998: 89-91 for discussion of
'sequence of exemplars of lexical items') once the critical period is past. In other words, it is argued that L2 learners will
not process beyond the accumulation of chunks without ‘continual pressure on learners to analyze the linguistic units
they are using’ (Skehan, 1998: 91).
The study reported here is an attempt to evaluate the issue through a classroom experiment. It investigates the
acquisition of grammatical rules beyond initial memorization of unanalysed chunks by low-intermediate classroom EFL
learners in China, focusing on the structure of despite + NP. The report looks into whether rote-memorization alone is
sufficient for the development of rule-based system in the case of adult learners.
IJALEL 2 (1):98-111, 2013 99
In the following section, I begin by reviewing the relevant theoretical and empirical research that serves as the
background of the study. I then report on the method of the study and results. Next follows a discussion of the findings.
The paper concludes with a brief summary of the findings and pedagogical implications.
2. Background
2.1 Chunks and adult L2 learning
Earlier studies (e.g. R. Ellis, 1984; Hakuta, 1974, 1976; Huang & Hatch, 1978; Wong-Fillmore, 1976; Yumoto, 1992)
provided evidence that the use of chunks is a very common phenomenon in the early stages of L2 acquisition, and
learners gradually analyse and generalise them into rules.
More recently, Myles, et al. (1998; 1999), in their longitudinal study of 16 child beginner classroom learners of French,
found that most of the learners not only gradually ‘unpacked’ their early chunks, but also used parts of them
productively in the generation of new utterances. These findings demonstrated that rote-learning of chunks contributes
to the development of a creative language capacity and that the learning of chunks and the construction of rules interact
and actively feed into one another.
The above mentioned studies, it should be noted, have almost exclusively employed as subjects learners who are in the
very early stages of L2 learning either in classroom or natural learning environment. That is, learners in these studies
are mostly child beginners who are cognitively immature and have not developed grammatical awareness.
Syntacticization seems to occur only during the critical period because it was programmed to do so following a
maturational schedule (Pinker, 1994).
Empirical evidence in SLA in support of this notion, though remaining sparse, is not non-existent. Tode (2003), for
instance, investigated the extent to which adult beginning Japanese EFL classroom learners learned the rule of the
copular be beyond initial memorization of chunks without explicit instruction. A total of 218 students (aged from 13 to
15) participating in the study were exposed to exemplars of the copula be through their textbook, but did not receive
explicit instruction of the formation rule. Two groups of students (111 from Grade 8 and 107 from Grade 9ii) were
included in the sample in an attempt to determine whether or not a 1-year difference in exposure to the exemplars is
sufficient to make a difference in the inductive learning of the target rule. Data gathered through a written elicitation
test showed that there was no significant difference in the progress of the two groups and that less than half the
participants learned the copular rule successfully. These findings indicated that mere exposure to linguistic data may not
be sufficient to guarantee an appropriate induction from exemplars for classroom learners and that the explicit teaching
of rules might be necessary.
As mentioned earlier, the lack of congruence in the findings of the above studies might be a consequence partly due to
maturational effects. That is to say, adult EFL learners may experience more difficulty compared with their child
counterparts in terms of implicitly acquiring rules beyond the initial memorization of unanalysed chunks. Adult learners,
however, are considered to have better meta-awareness and analytical ability than children; as a result, they can
understand a language as a formal set of rules (Wray, 2000). With no pretense of addressing the difficult issue of why
adults’ capacity to learn abstract patterns implicitly is extremely limited (as suggested by recent studies of artificial
grammar learning in experimental psychology such as Perruchet & Pacteau, 1991; Redington & Chater, 1996; Shanks
& St. John, 1994) compared to their child counterparts despite their apparent strength in analytical ability, the present
study addresses the question of to what extent and under what conditions the adult EFL learners are able to induce rules
from exemplars they are exposed to.
2.2 Implicit or explicit induction?
Some psycholinguists (see, e.g., DeKeyser, 1995; Williams, 1999) discuss learning rules from two dimensions: implicit
versus explicit, and inductive versus deductive.
Inductive learning is defined as ‘the process that goes from the specific to the general, namely first the real language use,
from which will ‘emerge’ patterns and generalisations’ (Decoo, 1996: 96). The advantage of induction, according to
Hammerly (1975), is that the knowledge acquired is couched in terms that make sense to the individual student rather
than in terms imposed by the instructor. Analysis of chunks can be considered to be inductive learning (Tode, 2003).
Moving on to the other dichotomy, implicit learning is defined as learning that ‘occurs without concurrent awareness of
what is being learned, through memorization of instances, inferencing of rules without awareness, or both’ while
explicit learning is considered as a process that ‘occurs with concurrent awareness of what is being learned’ (DeKeyser,
1995: 380).
Returning to the issue of the differential capability of inferring rules from a set of exemplars (unanalysed chunks)
between adult and child learners, a question of great relevance to the current discussion is: Can the process of induction
from chunks be implicit in the case of adult second language learning? This inquiry, in essence, begs a more general
question of whether implicit learning is possible in adult SLA. Laboratory psychological experiment with artificial
language (cf. Reber, 1967; Williams, 1999) seems to endorse the assumption that (adult) learners tend to adopt an
implicit as opposed to explicit mode of learning. There is evidence that subjects under task conditions do seem to be
able to form long-term memory representations of input material and these representations do seem to inform
subsequent grammaticality judgement on previously unseen items without the subjects’ awareness. As of yet, it cannot
be presumed that a theory derived from experiments with artificial grammars can be extended to encompass the learning
of natural languages (Schmidt, 1994). Indeed, studies that have used real or natural-like language system (see, e.g.
IJALEL 2 (1):98-111, 2013 100
DeKeyser, 1995, 2000; N. Ellis, 1993; Robinson, 1996, 1997) have not yielded similar results to that obtained from
laboratory studies. This appears to lend support to Bley-Vroman’s (1988, 1989) Fundamental Difference Hypothesis,
which states that whereas children are known to learn language almost completely through (implicit) domain-specific
mechanisms, adults have largely lost the ability to learn a language without reflecting on its structure and have to use
alternative mechanisms, drawing especially on their problem-solving capacities, that is, mechanisms for explicit
learning, to learn a second language. Therefore, (explicit) instruction is seen as a defining characteristic of adult SLA
(Bley-Vroman, 1989). Although N. Ellis believes that language learning – L2 learning included – is largely implicit
(2002) and that L2 grammar is acquired through implicit analysis of lexical sequences that are memorized by chunking
process (1996), he also admits that adult learners have sophisticated formal means of thinking and treat language as an
object of explicit learning – that is, of conscious problem-solving and deduction – to a much greater degree than can
children (N. Ellis, 1994). From a reading of this literature, it might be concluded, therefore, that adult human has a
potential for implicit generalisation through inductive learning mechanism theoretically, but this capacity seems to be
greatly constrained in practical learning situations, particularly among adult foreign language learners in classroom
context. With implicit learning mechanisms unavailable, adult learners may resort to explicit learning mechanism to
induce rules.
Although adults are far better at figuring out language structures explicitly than children because of their higher level of
general cognitive maturity, some researchers hold a relatively reserved attitude towards the possibility of explicit
induction of rules from chunks. For instance, DeKeyser (DeKeyser, 1995, 2000) does not applaud that adult learners
necessarily succeed in inducing rules explicitly from chunks. He (1995) identifies through an experiment two conditions
under which explicit induction may be working well: (1) easy rulesiii, and (2) high aptitude learners. In addition, other
researchers emphasize the amount of input necessary for inductive learning (Yamaoka, 2004; cited in Tode, 2003) or
the prime role of frequency in the ‘abstraction of regularities’ (N. Ellis, 2002).
2.3 Learning ‘despite the fact that’ as a chunk
2.3.1 An empirical study
I performed a quasi-experimental study of adult Chinese learners learning English (Yu, 2009). In order to investigate
whether two different means of learning a word sequence leads to differential outcome of the acquisition of the
imbedded grammatical structure, I targeted despite the fact that, a word sequence of grammatical importance. It was
selected simply for pedagogical reasons as its internal structure proves problematic for Chinese learners due to L1
influence (in this case, negative transfer). Chinese learners of English tend to treat despite as a conjunction rather than a
preposition due to L1 transfer (viz. the Chinese equivalent jinguan functions as a conjunction and thus is followed by a
sentence). Therefore, they more often than not produce sentence like “*He attended the class despite he was ill.”
The participants of the study were randomly divided into two groups with one group being taught the grammatical
structure despite + NP through explicit instruction and the other required to commit to memory the word string despite
the fact that through repetition or recitation deprived of explicit teaching (similar to the treatment given to groups in the
present study; see 3.4). I explained the usage of the word despite explicitly (i.e. despite + NP) to instruction group and
provided two examples: a) He went to school as usual despite the fact that he was ill. b) Despite the bad weather we
enjoyed our holiday. The memorization group was required to learn three paragraphs by heart, one of which was used in
the present study (see Appendix D), containing an instance of despite the fact that and one of despite + NP more
generally. It turns out, following the result of a written translation test iv , that the recitation group significantly
outperformed the instruction group in terms of the use of the target sequence despite the fact that.
2.3.2 Questions unanswered
The highly significant out-performance (p=0.006<.01 cf. Yu, 2009) of the recitation group over the instruction group in
the translation testv, however, does not blind me to the fact that most learners (13 out of 17, i.e. nearly 76%) in the
recitation group who scored unanimously used the sequence despite the fact that in both parts of the testing item. What
is revealed more than anything else is that despite the fact that might be memorized as an unanalysed whole, or what
Taguchi (2008) call ‘grammatical chunk’vi. More importantly, I noticed that some learners among those who did not
score produced the right structure (by using the target sequence despite the fact that) in the first half but made it wrong
in the second probably due to my accidental use of the word shishi (meaning ‘fact’ in Chinese) when constructing the
first half of the rubric following despite (but not in the second; see footnote 5). For instance, one student responded like
this: “Despite the fact that I spend so much time to recite, despite the process of reciting is very difficult.” This
inconsistency in some students’ output seems to suggest that it is too early to draw the conclusion that the learners have
learned the internal rule beyond initial memorization of chunks.
2.3.3 A hypothesis
Learning the chunk despite the fact that under the memory-task condition, or what Robinson (1995) calls the ‘implicit
condition’, might be characterised as an ‘incidental condition’ in which learning is independent of analytic ability and
awareness (Robinson, 1995). The fact that awareness did not lead to superior incidental learning is considered as ‘a
consequence of the fact that awareness was of semantic and lexical aspects of the sentences’ (Robinson, 1995: 342). An
immediate corollary of this is that learners are less likely to search for syntactic rules in this condition. True as that may
be, it should be noted that participants in the above-mentioned study had been placed in a typical test-oriented school
education environment since they formally started their English learning. Consequently, instructional practices in most
part of China are still dominated by traditional language teaching methodologies including grammar-translation method
IJALEL 2 (1):98-111, 2013 101
mainly focusing on explicit illustration of grammar rules (cf. Hu, 2005). It can be speculated that learners, in such a
learning context, are very likely to direct their attention to syntactic rules even in the incidental condition (Tode, 2003).
Thus viewed, Robinson’s argument does not seem to fit very well in the case of Chinese classroom learners in the above
mentioned studyvii. Moreover, a highly controlled written test employed in the study afforded the learners an advantage
in terms of control over use of knowledgeviii compared with an oral test. That is to say, learners who were measured in a
written test mode and therefore free from real-time communication pressure, were given enough time to manipulate
their responses, perhaps focusing on grammatical analysisix.
Examined under one of the possible conditions for inducing rules from chunks postulated by DeKeyser (2000), i.e. easy
rules, the structure of despite + NP can hardly be considered very difficult, especially when the fact is taken into
account that all the learners had at least nine years form-biased classroom instruction and had been admitted to the
universityx with scores above the required level. It is important to point out that Chinese students, from the secondary
level on, invest a great deal of time and energy in grammar for preparation of written examination (Wen & Clement,
2003) which is largely ‘discrete-point, structurally based’ (Burnaby & Sun, 1989: 228). And dominant (traditional)
approach to foreign language teaching is characterised by ‘systematic and detailed study of grammar, extensive use of
cross-linguistic comparison and translation …’ (Hu, 2002: 93; see also Hu, 2005).
If this group of learners might arguably be considered equipped with reasonably high analytic ability or the potential of
grammatical sensitivity, why is it that they seem to be unable to generalise a rule which is theoretically not difficult for
them?
A question that ensues would be: What is (are) the factor(s) inhibiting the learner’s analytic ability in this case? I would
like to attribute the learners’ inability to perform the induction, among other things, to the linguistic circumstances
under which the target rule is deployed. In simplified terms, the original sentence containing the target structure is far
too complicated or confusing linguistically for the learners to generalise the imbedded rule. Put under scrutiny the
original sentence which the recitation group was required to memorise – “Despite the fact that my friends warned me
against being taken in, despite everything I’ve learned, I find that I’m not willing, but positively eager to buy that bridge
she mentioned.” – I detected at least two elements that might pose hurdles for the learners’ analysis: (1) lack of
consistency in the way the rule is presented, by which I mean while the first part of the sentence employs despite the
fact followed by that-clause, the second part adopts the structure of despite + pron followed by a clause with the
relational pronoun being omitted; (2) the complexityxi of the that-clause immediately succeeding the target syntactic
structure despite + NP, which apparently imposes a heavy processing load on the learners, who are engaged in decoding
the message, therefore, leaving little attention to the preceded target structure.
Following this line of reasoning, I hypothesised that if the linguistic context in which the target rule is imbedded is
made simpler and straightforward, the learner would be in a better position to figure out the target rule from memorized
chunks.
3. The present study
The issues reviewed above underpin the motivation for the present study. The questions I sought to address, therefore,
are: (1) Is absolute success of (explicit) induction from memorized exemplars (chunks) possible with experienced adult
L2 classroom learners? (2) Are learners who are imposed on instances (exemplars) with a simple linguistic context more
able to analyse the rule than learners who are provided with complicated sentences under the memory-task condition?
3.1 Subjects
The subjects were freshmen from three schools of a Chinese university, all in the second semester of their first year.
They majored in law with different specialities. According to the results of English Matriculation Test, the subjects had
been assigned to low-intermediate parallel classes xii . They had learned English from the same standard textbooks
approved by the Ministry of Education for six years, taken the same entrance examination, and been recruited into the
university with scores above the required level. The subjects naturally formed three groups since they were from three
intact classes. The three classes were taught by one English teacher. More background information gathered from a
questionnaire is summarised in Table 1.
Table 1. Subjects’ background
Subjects(N) average age years of learning English speciality
Group 1(n=44) 19.41 9.25 Civil & Commercial Law
Group 2(n=44) 19.35 9.21 Criminal Law
Group 2(n=46) 19.36 9.17 Economic & Trade Law
3.2 Design and material

The study employed an experimental design (see Table 2) with three groups of participants being randomly assigned to
memorization group one (henceforth the MG1), memorization group two (henceforth the MG2) and the instruction
group (henceforth the IG). IG received direct instruction on the target grammatical item despite + NP in normal class
time while the MG1 and MG2 were given an after-class assignment of memorizing one paragraph containing the target
word sequence despite the fact that (see 3.4 for more information). MG1 was given a simpler exemplar (see Appendix C)
to memorise than the one allocated to MG2 (see Appendix D). IG served as a contrast for any effect or change observed
in memorization groups.
IJALEL 2 (1):98-111, 2013 102
Table 2. Design and procedures
Stage of sessions Date MG1 & MG2 IG
Pre-test 14/03/08 translation test
Treatment 19/03/08 memorization task classroom instruction
Recitation test 21/03/08 writing down the paragraph from memory
Post-test 26/03/08 translation test
Post-test 2/04/08 multiple choice test
Interview 2/04/08 retrospective think-aloud
A translation test (see Appendix A) was administered as a pre-test to all subjects, the aims being (1) to distinguish the
few students who were able to use the target rule correctly from those who were not and (2) to enable a comparison with
the post-test. The post-test consists of a translation test and a multiple choice test. The numbers of surviving subjects
were reduced from 44 to 38 in MG1, 44 to 39 in MG2 and from 46 to 40 in IG because (1) the students who had already
mastered the target structure were excluded from the experiment according to the result of the pre-test; (2) the students
who were absent in one of the four classes during which all tests and treatment were administered were not counted in
statistical procedures; and (3) students in MG1 and MG2 who had not learned by heart the assigned paragraph (as is
attested to in the recitation test) were not considered as subjects in the study. The recitation test was administered to all
three groups to ensure the exclusion of both those in MG1 and MG2 who had not learned by heart the paragraph as
required and those in IG who had memorized the one allotted to MG2 voluntarilyxiii.
The research tool employed were two types of written tests (translation in both pre-test and post-test and multiple
choice in post-test only; see Table 2) devised to show the learners’ use and understanding of the target structure despite
+ NP. The specifically designed tests aim to check whether the learners in three groups would respond differentially in
two types of tests.
In the present study, rule formation was operationalized as being able to make correct judgements on the use of the rule
in the form-oriented condition, as was measured by a multiple-choice testxiv (see Appendix B). In this test, the subjects
were asked to choose the right answer(s) from four choices that were four versions of English translation of a Chinese
sentence. The four translation versions differ only in the realisation of the structure of despite + NP. Of the four choices,
two of them are legitimate translations (one employing the word sequence despite the fact that and the other the general
structure despite + NP; see Appendix B ‘Multiple choice test’) and the other two defective serving as distractors. The
purpose of multiple-choice task was to re-examine whether or not the subjects have correctly analysed the memorized
word sequence, for the learners’ attention is supposed to be more on the form than on the message in this test design vis-
à-vis the translation test. The reason why I included two correct answers was mainly to test whether the participants in
two MGs had generated the rule despite + NP from the memorized exemplar despite the fact that. The translation tests
in the study were used for gauging the participants’ ability to use the target chunk in a meaning-based condition. In the
translation tests, the subjects were required to translate a sentence from Chinese to English with mandatory use of the
word despite (see Appendix A&B), which helped elicit the data expected.
Brief interviews with some students from each group (2 from IG and 3 from MG1 and MG2 respectively) were
conducted immediately after the multiple-choice test for eliciting learners’ own explanations of their choices. The
students’ retrospective think-aloud reports were recorded and later transcribed.
3.3 Procedure
Data were collected during regular class time in the subjects’ classrooms at the beginning of the second semester in the
academic year 2007-2008. To avoid test effect, target testing items were mixed with seven others testing the students’
mastery of recently taught phrases or structures, and two tests in post-test were administered one week apart. Three
groups had completed the tests on the same day during regular class time. In order to avoid invalid data, the subjects
were reminded that the words and expressions given in the brackets (e.g. ‘despite’ in the item of concern) must be used
in the translation test and that there may or may not be only one right answer in the multiple-choice test. The
participants were also informed that the results of the tests were not relevant to their grades but for research purpose
only.
3.4 Instruction and assignment
The classroom instruction for IG was carried out in one of the normal classes that involved dealing with the text section
containing the target structure. The instruction lasting around 10 minutes consisted of two parts: explicit presentation
and giving examples. The English teacher explained in both English and Chinese that the word ‘despite’, differently
from ‘although’, is a preposition which needs to be postmodified by a noun phrase rather than a sentence. In order to
make the notion more salient, the teacher wrote clearly on the blackboard the structure despite + NP. Immediately
following the explanation, the teacher provided two examples in both oral and written form: a) He went to school as
usual despite the fact that he was ill. b) Despite the bad weather we enjoyed our holiday. In addition, the teacher
reinforced the concept by drawing the students’ attention to a long sentence in the textbook in which the target structure
is employed – “Despite the fact that my friends warned me against being taken in, despite everything I’ve learned, I find
IJALEL 2 (1):98-111, 2013 103
that I’m not willing, but positively eager to buy that bridge she mentioned.” (Li, Zhang, & Wang, 2001)
The explanation of target rules, however, was deliberately eschewed in the normal classes given to MG1 and MG2.
Instead, subjects in these groups were required to learn one paragraph by heart. MG1 was assigned a paragraph (see
Appendix C) slightly adapted from the biography authored by Lucia Raatma (2006). This is follow-up task after an in-
class fast reading exercisexv using the episode about Oprah’s (a well-known American talk-show hostess) turning point
in career. MG2 was required to memorise the paragraph (see Appendix D) in the textbook containing the sentence
mentioned at the end of the last paragraph. The target rule under investigation was utilised in two of the sentences of the
two paragraphs assigned to two groups respectively. The subjects spent on average about 15 minutes xvi finishing
memorizing the paragraph given.
3.5 Scoring and analysis
I scored all the pre- and posttests. In all tests, one item was scored 1 (correct) and 0 (incorrect). In the post-test, 0.5 is
given if the subject gets half of testing point right, this is because, in the translation test, some learners only enacted the
right use in one of the two places where the target rule is required to be applied; and in the multiple choice test, some
subjects chose only one of the two appropriate versions of translation or chose two versions with one being illegitimate.
The same scoring standard was used in both tests to make sure that data elicited would be comparable across tests.
What needs to be pointed out is that there are two similar testing items in the multiple-choice test (see Appendix B) with
exactly the same testing purpose (i.e. to check whether the participants are able to make appropriate judgement on the
usage of target rule despite + NP). The repetitive design here is intended for a detector of the participants who ticked
the answer(s) at will or randomly without any consideration. It is assumed that a serious participant should respond
consistently on both items, namely, if one chooses A (and C) in the first testing item, s/he will be expected to tick D
(and B) accordinglyxvii. If one fails to do so, his/her response will be considered to be invalid and therefore excluded
from statistics. As a result, the final numbers of the participants were changed to 35 (from 38) in MG1, 33 (from 39) in
MG2 and 36 (from 40) in IG. Since the double-item design in the multiple-choice test was simply for enhancing the
reliability of the data, only one item was included in statistical processing.
The solitary standard for scoring the translation test was the target grammatical focus, i.e. whether or not the subject
produced a noun phrase or a sentence following the given word ‘despite’. Excluded from consideration were such
factors as vocabulary, spelling or other grammar points. The scoring was thus highly objective and unambiguous. All
the data collected were put into SPSS 17.0 to compute the descriptive statistics and run the analysis of variance
(ANOVA). The recall data from interviews were analysed qualitatively focusing on content and the results are to be
presented in the discussion section.
4. Results
Table 3 displays the means and standard deviation of the participants’ performance on the translation test and the
multiple-choice test.
Table 3 shows that there is a different degree and direction of variance both within and across groups. In the translation
test, the disparity of mean scores among the three groups is apparent (MG1, M= .6857; MG2, M= .5606; IG, M= .3889),
especially between memorization group and instruction group if viewed in a broader category. From translation test
(Abbr. TraT) to multiple-choice test (Abbr. MulT), MG1 showed a slight decrease (TraT, M= .6857; MulT, M= .6571)
and MG2 a higher degree of drop (TraT, M= .5606; MulT, M= .4848) while IG exhibited a remarkable growthxviii (TraT,
M= .3889; MulT, M= .6944).
Table 3. Means and standard deviations for MG1, MG2 and IG

MG1(n=35) MG2(n=33) IG(n=36)
Translation test Mean .6857 .5606 .3889
SD .40376 .44647 .46462
Multiple choice test Mean .6571 .4848 .6944
SD .39800 .40475 .41880
Table 4. Differences among MG1, MG2 and IG on the translation test and multiple choice test
Groups Sig. df F Sig.
Translation test MG1 versus MG2 .243 2 4.092 .020
MG1 versus IG .005
MG2 versus IG .108
Multiple choice test MG1 versus MG2 .084 2 2.555 .083
MG1 versus IG .701
MG2 versus IG .035
IJALEL 2 (1):98-111, 2013 104
An One-way ANOVA was used to evaluate the overall differences between groups and Post Hoc t-Tests to make
multiple comparisons in group pairs.
As shown in Table 4, there was a significant difference (p=.020 < .05) among three groups on the translation test. In
comparison, overall difference between groups on the multiple-choice test was not statistically significant
(p=.083 > .05), suggesting a shrinking disparity of performance on this type of test. The overall degree of variance
between groups on one type of test does not equally apply to multiple comparisons in pairing groups. Closer inspection
of the third column of Table 4 reveals that there is a mixed degree of differences in pairwise comparison. On the
translation test, the differences between MG1 and MG2 (p= .243 > .05), MG1 and IG (p=.108 > .05) are not significant
despite the overall significant disparity between groups. Similarly, on the multiple-choice test, there is a significant
difference between MG2 and IG (p= .035 < .05) albeit the overall statistically insignificant difference between groups.
Figure 1 provides a better visual display of the between-group differences.
Figure 1. Between-group differences

Note. TType=test type; Mean Tscore=mean scores on tests; TraT=translation test; MulT=multiple -choice test
5. Discussion
The present study differs from previous studies in two respects: First, while previous research investigated the
possibility of rule formation from unanalysed chunks with learners who had no or little experience of explicit grammar
instruction, this study examine the same issue with learners who had on average nine years classroom grammar
instruction, and hence developing a considerably higher degree of grammar awareness than learners in previous studies.
Second, while the learners in the previous studies had been exposed to a number of exemplars for an extended period of
at least one semester (e.g., Myles, et al., 1998; Taguchi, 2007; Tode, 2003), the learners in the present study were asked
to commit only two exemplars to memory in an intensive mode.
Despite the short duration of the study, the data collected over a period of two weeks generated results triggering a
number of questions that warrant explication. The next section presents and discusses these questions based on both
quantitative and qualitative data.
5.1 Quantitative analysis
First and foremost is the question of whether or not the appropriate use of a word sequence means successful induction
of the imbedded rule beyond initial memorization. In Widdowson’s (1989: 131) words, ‘[C]an we have … an ability to
use language appropriately, without grammatical knowledge or the ability to compose or decompose sentences with
reference to it?’ Back to the test results, does the performance of memorization groups in the translation test remain
more or less the same in the multiple-choice test? To estimate the degree of variance across tests of individual group, I
employed a paired-sample t-test, the result of which is displayed in Table 5. The fact that the learners in the MG1
performed as well in multiple-choice test as in translation test (p= .160 > .05; see Table 5), and that MG1 displayed even
no significant difference from IG in multiple-choice test (p= .701> .05; see Table 4) seems to suggest that learners in
this group have learned the rule from the memorized exemplars. The performance of MG2 on the multiple-choice test,
however, deteriorate significantly compared with that of translation test (TraT, M= .5606; MulT, M= .4848; p= .023
< .05; see Table 5). Why do the two memorization groups display a differential degree of variance from translation test
to multiple-choice test? To answer this question, I re-examined the data from an alternative perspective, namely, the
IJALEL 2 (1):98-111, 2013 105
scoring distribution of the two tests across the three groups. Table 6 gives a detailed tally in this regard. As indicated in
Table 6, the change of percentage of those who scored 1 and 0.5 may contribute to the variance across two types of tests
since the number of participants who scored 0 remains unchanged in both groups. The percentage of participants in
MG2 who scored 1 (n=15) dropped drastically from translation test (45%) to multiple choice test (30%; n=10) (and
accordingly, the percentage of those who scored 0.5 increased radically from 21% to 36%). Change on the same
direction also occurs in MG1, but, relative to MG2, the extent of variance is much smaller, i.e. from 57% (n=20) to 51%
(n=18) for 1 point gainer (and 23% to 29% for 0.5 gainer). Translated into simple terms, 90% (18 out of 20) of those in
MG1 who scored 1 point on translation test also fully scored on multiple-choice test while the percentage in MG2
comes only 67%. In other words, a higher percentage of participants in MG1 seemed to have successfully induced rules
from memorized exemplars. The result thus confirms my hypothesis that rules realised in simpler linguistic context
might be easier for induction. Returning to the question set out at the beginning of the paragraph, namely, whether the
appropriate use of a ‘grammatical chunk’ (as was discussed in 2.3.2) equates the successful induction of the rule
contained the chunk, the answer would seem to be ‘no’. Indeed, L2 learners may ‘learn’ without metalinguistic
understanding of the grammatical points in question (VandeBerg, 1999) even in the case of experienced learners who
tend to impose a grammatical analysis on input. Thus, the result of the study appears to be consistent to DeKeyser’s
(DeKeyser, 2000) assertion that adult learners may not necessarily succeed in explicit induction of rules from chunks
because their explicit induction mechanism does not work well except in the case of easy rules and high aptitude
learners (DeKeyser, 1995).
Interestingly, the overwhelming majority of those who scored 0.5 in the multiple-choice test in both groups chose the
version beginning with despite the fact that with only 2 exceptions (1 in each group). What has been suggested here
more than anything else is that the learners seemed to have treated despite the fact that as a whole as a result of previous
memorization task, which provides additional evidence for the study (Yu, 2009) based on which the current study
followed up.
Table 5. Paired-samples t-test of translation test and multiple-choice test by MG1, MG2 and IG
Translation test Multiple choice test Sig. (2-tailed)
MG1 .6857 .6571 .160
MG2 .5606 .4848 .023
IG .3889 .6944 .000
Table 6. Scoring distribution of MG1, MG2 and IG on translation test and multiple-choice test
Scores MG1(N=35) MG2(N=33) IG(N=36)
n % n % n %
Translation 1 20 57 15 45 12 33
test 0.5 8 23 7 21 4 11
0 7 20 11 33 20 56
Multiple 1 18 51 10 30 22 61
choice test 0.5 10 29 12 36 6 17
0 7 20 11 33 8 22
Note. N=the total number of individual group; n=the number of people who get corresponding scores in the second
column
Another interesting phenomenon I noticed in passing is that a considerable number of those who scored 0.5 or 0 in MG1
and MG2 chose the item starting with it is a fact that. Instead of deeming it a neglectable coincidence, I prefer to view it
as a side effect of the memorization of the sequence despite the fact that. Rather than dismantling the chunk correctly,
this strand of participants seemed to have misinterpreted the information conveyed by the memorized exemplar, viz.
they appeared to have developed a conception unconsciously that ‘despite’ has to be connected with ‘fact’ in one way or
another. While it may serve as a supporting argument for the view of despite the fact that being treated as a chunk by
the learners (though there is a distortion of memory), the alarming number of participants choosing it is a fact that also
indicates their inability to induce the target rule from the exemplar.
Here comes the second question: Is the form-focused judgement in the multiple-choice test a reliable source of evidence
concerning the current issue in question? To put it alternatively, does correct choice in the multiple-choice test safely
mean the genuine command of the target rule? To investigate this, I interviewed some participants who made the
complete and correct choice in order to seek an emic-perspective explanation for their perfect judgement. My analysis
of data in this facet is presented in the next section.
5.2 Qualitative analysis
The recall data from interviews revealed rather different approaches to making choices in the multiple-choice test across
three groups. For the students from IG, as expected, their answers were quite straightforward. One of them stated:
IJALEL 2 (1):98-111, 2013 106
The teacher explained the usage of this word [despite] in the class. I cannot remember its exact part of speech.
What I only know is that ‘despite’ is different from ‘jinguan’ [despite] in Chinese … it must be followed by a noun
rather than a sentence. (Wang)
As for students from the MG2, however, their explanation seemed to be obscure or dubious. The following comment
was typical:
The second part of multiple-choice [test] is quite easy for me because I seem to have recited something very
similar, especially answer D [everything I’ve learned]. As for answer B [the fact that I’ve learned everything], I
saw the usage of ‘despite the fact that’ somewhere. But for the first part, answer A [my friend’s warning against
being taken in] did make me hesitate for a while. I don’t know why. …I probably chose it at a guess or by
intuition. (Chen)
Students from MG1 explained their reasoning more or less like this:
We were asked to learn by heart a paragraph about Oprah previously. I cannot remember the exact sentences now,
but I’m certain there is an expression like ‘despite the fact that’. So I chose C [the fact that my friend warned me
against being taken in]. And I can also recall that there is a sentence starting with ‘despite her worries’. I guess
‘despite’ can be followed by a noun phrase or something like that. So I chose A [my friend’s warning against
being taken in] as well. (Li)
One salient point emerging from the retrospective protocol appears to be that students from the memorization groups
tend to refer to the memorized exemplars for the source of their rule creation. There seemed a conscious effort to learn
generalisation by retrieving instances of previous input on the part of learners in memorization groups. As of yet, the
students in MG2 failed to induce the rule beyond wild guess while those in MG1 seemed to be able to go further to the
point very close to the target rule. One may even argue that those in MG1 have succeeded in producing the rule for, they
have explicitly stated the rule of despite + NP (see participant Li’s account above in bold). I would not go that far to
indorse this notion because learners in MG1 seemed to view despite + NP and despite the fact that as two separate
usage of the word ‘despite’, namely, they failed to realise that despite the fact that is simply a realisation of the general
rule despite + NP. Thus viewed, the rule improvised under pressing need for analysis based on memorized exemplars
may not be considered as complete as that learned through explicit explanation.
Another point worth noting is that students in MG2 seemed unable to reach what has been achieved by students in MG1.
That is to say, they had difficulty generalising the rule based on exemplars committed to memory. My attention was
naturally directed to the difference of the exemplars memorized by MG1 and MG2. Why is it that the rule could be
forged by students in MG1 (albeit imperfect) from ‘despite her worries’ but not by those from MG2 based on ‘despite
everything I’ve learned’? Interestingly enough, when asked what usage can be induced from the exemplar, students in
MG2 provided three types of answers: (1) ‘despite’ is followed by a pronoun; (2) ‘despite’ is postmodified by a clause;
and (2) ‘despite’ is followed by a pronoun or noun phrase. It is apparent that students in MG2 are confronted with more
than one possibility while inducing the rule from the given exemplar, which is obviously constrained by such factors as
grammatical knowledge and language proficiency. The difficulty of rule formation posed on MG2 may well be
attributed to the uncertainty or confusion rendered by the tangled linguistic elements displayed in the very exemplar
given the learners’ limited processing capacity. Thus, there does seem to be some modest support for the hypothesis
discussed earlier in the paper that the linguistic context in which the target rule is incarnated may play a role in deriving
rules from memorized chunks. Additional evidence in favour of the notion can be found in the result produced by
quantitative data presented earlier. As shown in Table 3, the mean scores of MG1 and MG2 in multiple-choice test
were .6571 and .4848 respectively, and no significant difference was not found between two groups (p= .084 >.05; see
table 4). However, the lack of statistically significant difference does not mean an absence of visible difference or
marginal significant difference. In fact, the two groups did show difference of small magnitude on the scores in
multiple-choice test (see Figure 1). Given that the performance of MG1 and MG2 in translation test was substantially
insignificant (p= .243 >.05), the amplification of gap between the two groups on the performance of the multiple-choice
test was obvious. There are two explanations for the disparity. First, since participants in both MGs were devoid of
explicit instruction on structure, the burden of discovering the rule is completely on the learner (Skehan, 1998). The fact
that MG1 outperformed MG2 may be due to a higher percentage of participants in MG1 with high analytic ability than
in MG2. Second, the different exemplars that the participants in two MGs were asked to commit to memory may exert
an effect on their induction of the target rule. That is to say, other conditions being equal, a simpler exemplar xix (as the
one assigned to MG1), either in the sense of the length of the sentence or grammatical elements involved, is likely to
help the learners ease the burden of extracting the target rule. Given the very similar background of the participants in
the two groups (see 3.1), I consider the second possibility a more powerful explanation. Thus, there does seem to be
some support for the hypothesis I set out (see 2.3.3) before this experiment study.
In sum, the answers to the research questions – based on quantitative and qualitative data – seem to be that (1) adult L2
learners can experience difficulties in inducing rules merely from memorized exemplars/chunks and (2) learners who
have memorized exemplars with a simple linguistic context are more capable of successful induction than those who
have committed to memory complicated instances under the memory-based condition.
6. Conclusion
The study shows that Chinese adult classroom learners have difficulties in making successful induction from
memorized exemplars, which confirms the finding produced by previous research (cf. Tode, 2003). The study also
IJALEL 2 (1):98-111, 2013 107
suggests that the analysis of memorized chunks into rules may depend on the interplay of a number of factors:
processing capacity, the grammar sensitivity or analytic ability on the part of the learner, and, last but not least, the
easiness of the rule to be analysed. More importantly, it was found that the easiness cannot simply be defined as the
complexity of the rule on its own, rather, it is more or less constrained by the linguistic context in which the rule is
realised. The implication of the study for language teaching could, therefore, be that providing the students with
exemplars placed in simple linguistic contexts under memorization-task condition may promote form-based processing
– in this case – generating rules from chunks.
Albeit tentative, due to the limited measures invoked, the present study produced findings that appear to lend some
support to the claim of Widdowson (1989) on the relationship between use and usage. Widdowson (1989: 131) notes
that ‘…the learners might acquire a repertoire of phrases with contextual associations, chunks, so to speak, which have
not been analysed into grammatical knowledge.’ (see also VandeBerg, 1999 for a similar argument). Since grammatical
rule is not necessarily inferred from use of chunks, guidance for structural analyses of individual chunks needs to be
introduced. As Skehan (1998: 91) put it, ‘if meaning primacy and communicational pressure make for exemplar-based
learning, it is important that there should be continual pressure on learners to analyse the linguistic units they are using.’
It would be most desirable that the provision of explicit instruction be introduced at a point where efforts of induction
have already been made on the part of learners in response to pressure enacted on them to analyse the chunks they are
using through pedagogical intervention. In this way, explicit instruction maybe more meaningful to the learner in the
sense that initial effort of analysis which comes from within might well facilitate their understanding of the rule taught.
Given the advantage of the combination of both rules and instances (examples) (cf. N. Ellis, 1993)xx, explicit instruction
of the internal structure of the memorized chunks – which proves difficult for learners to generalise – followed by
extensive practice of these chunks would seem to be a no-lose proposition in EFL learning environment. I would
suggest that moderate explanation focusing on form serve as a postscript of the memorization task of language use
whenever necessary, and a prelude to ‘meaning-oriented activities and tasks, which give immediate opportunities for
practice and use’ (Mitchell, 2000: 297) of target rules.
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the students who participated in this research. I, too, want to thank my alma mater, University of
Southampton, for generous provision of resources and facilities without which it would be impossible for me to
complete the paper.
References
Berman, R. A. (1986). A step-by-step model of language acquisition. In I. Levin (Ed.), Stage and Structure: Reopening
the Debate (pp. 191–219). Norwood, NJ Ablex.
Bialystok, E., & Ryan, E. (1985). A metacognitive framework for the development of second language skills. In D. L.
Forrest-Pressley, G. MacKinnon & T. Waller (Eds.), Metacognition, cognition, and human performance (pp. 207-252).
New York: Academic Press.
Bley-Vroman, R. (1988). The Fundamental character of foreign language learning. In W. Rutherford & M. Sharwood
Smith (Eds.), Grammar and Second Language Teaching: A Book of Reading (pp. 19-30). Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
Bley-Vroman, R. (1989). What is the logical problem of foreign language learning? In S. Gass & J. Schachter (Eds.),
Linguistic Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition (pp. 41-68). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Burnaby, B., & Sun, Y.-L. (1989). Chinese teachers' views of western language teaching: Context informs paradigms.
TESOL Quarterly, 23(2), 219-238.
Decoo, W. (1996). The induction-deduction opposition: Ambiguities and complexities of the didactic reality. IRAL, 34,
95-118.
DeKeyser, R. M. (1995). Learning second language grammar rules: An experiment with a miniature linguistic system.
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 17, 379-410.
DeKeyser, R. M. (2000). The robustness of critical period effects in second language acquisition. Studies in Second
Language Acquisition, 22, 499-533.
Ding, Y.-R. (1987). Foreign language teaching in China: Problems and perspectives. Canadian and International
Education, 16(1), 48-61.
Ellis, N. (1993). Rules and instances in foreign language learning: Interactions of explicit and implicit knowledge.
European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 5, 289-318.
Ellis, N. (1996). Sequencing in SLA: Phonological memory, chunking, and points of order. Studies in Second Language
Acquisition, 18, 91-126.
Ellis, N. (2002). Frequency effects in language processing: A review with implications for theories of implicit and
explicit language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 24, 143-188.
Ellis, N. (2003). Constructions, Chunking, and Connectionism: The emergence of second language structure. In C.
IJALEL 2 (1):98-111, 2013 108
Doughty & M. Long (Eds.), Handbook in SLA (pp. 143-188). Oxford: Blackwell.
Ellis, N. (Ed.). (1994). Implicit and explicit learning of languages. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Ellis, R. (1984). Formulaic speech in early classroom second language development. TESOL ’83.
Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hakuta, K. (1974). Prefabricated patterns and the emergence of structure in second language acquisition. Langauge
Learning, 24, 287-297.
Hakuta, K. (1976). A case study of a Japanese child learning English as a second language. Langauge Learning, 26,
321-351.
Hammerly, H. (1975). The deduction/induction controversy. Modern Language Journal, 75, 15-18.
Hu, G.-W. (2002). Potential cultural resistance to pedagogical imports: The case of communicative language teaching in
China. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 15(2), 93-105.
Hu, G.-W. (2005). Contextual influences on instructional practices: A Chinese case for an ecological approach to ELT.
TESOL Quarterly, 39(4), 635-660.
Huang, J., & Hatch, E. M. (1978). A Chinese child's acquisition of English. In E. Hatch. (Ed.), Second Language
Acquisition: A Book of Reading. Rowley, Mass: Newbury House.
Johnson, K. (1996). Language Teaching and Skill Learning. Oxford: Blackwell.
Lewis, M. (1993). The Lexical Approach: The State of ELT and a Way Forward. Hove, UK: Language Teaching
Publication.
Li, Y.-H., Zhang, P.-R., & Wang, H.-X. (Eds.). (2001). College English-Integrated Course, Book 1-4. Shanghai:
Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
Lieven, E. V. M., Julian, M. P., & Gillian, B. (1997). Lexically-based learning and early grammatical development.
Journal of Child Language, 24, 187–219.
Lightbown, P. M. (2008). Transfer appropriate processing as a model for class second language acquisition. In Z.-H.
Han (Ed.), Understanding second language process. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Mitchell, R. (2000). Applied linguistics and evidence-based classroom practice: The case of foreign language grammar
pedagogy. Applied Linguistics, 21(3), 281-303.
Myles, F., Hooper, J., & Mitchell, R. (1998). Rote or rule? Exploring the role of formulaic language in classroom
foreign language learning. Language leaning, 48, 323-363.
Myles, F., Mitchell, R., & Hooper, J. (1999). Interrogative chunks in French L2: a basis for creative construction?
Studies in Second language Acquisition, 21, 49-80.
Nattinger, J. R., & DeCarrico, J. S. (1992). Lexical Phrases and Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Pawley, A., & Syder, F. H. (1983). Two puzzles for linguistic theory: nativelike selection and nativelike fluency. In J. C.
Richards & R. Schmidt (Eds.), Language and Communication. London: Longman.
Perruchet, P., & Pacteau, C. (1991). Implicit acquisition of abstract knowledge about artificial grammar: Some
methodological and conceptional issues. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 120, 112-116.
Peters, A. (1983). The units of language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Peters, A. (1985). Language segmentation: Operating principles for the perception and analysis of language. In D. I.
SlobinD (Ed.), The cross-linguistic study of language acquisition (Vol. 2, pp. 1029-1067). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum.
Pinker, S. (1994). The Language Instinct. Allen Lane: The Penguin Press.
Raatma, L. (2006). Oprah Winfrey. Beijing: China Shuji Publishing House.
Reber, A. S. (1967). Implicit learning of artificial grammars. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 77, 317-
327.
Redington, M., & Chater, N. (1996). Transfer in artificial grammar learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
General, 125, 123-138.
Robinson, P. (1995). Aptitude, awareness, and the fundamental similarity of implicit and explicit second language
learning. In R. Schmidt (Ed.), Attention and Awareness in Foreign Language Learning. Honolulu, HI: University of
Hawaii.
Robinson, P. (1996). Learning simple and complex second language rules under implicit, incidental, rule-search, and
instructed conditions. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 18(1), 27-68.
Robinson, P. (1997). Generalizability and automaticity of second language learning under implicit, incidental, enhanced,
and instructed conditions. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 223-247.
Schmidt, R. (1994). Implicit learning and the cognitive unconscious: Of artificial grammmars and SLA. In N. Ellis (Ed.),
Implicit and Explicit Learning of Languages. London: Academic Press.
IJALEL 2 (1):98-111, 2013 109
Schmitt, N. (2000a). Lexical chunks. ELT Journal, 54(4), 400-401.
Schmitt, N. (2000b). Vocabulary in language teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Scott, V. (1989). An empirical study of explicit and implicit teaching strategies in foreign language education. Modern
Language Journal, 71, 14-22.
Shanks, D. R., & St. John, M. F. (1994). Characteristics of dissociable human learning systems. Behavioural and Brain
Sciences, 17, 367-395.
Sinclair, J. M. (1991). Corpus, Concordance, Collocation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Skehan, P. (1998). A Cognitive approach to Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Taguchi, N. (2007). Chunk learning and the development of spoken discourse in a Japanese as a foreign language
classroom. Language Teaching Research, 11(4), 433-457.
Taguchi, N. (2008). Building Language Blocks in L2 Japanese: Chunk Learning and the Development of Complexity
and Fluency in Spoken Production. Foreign Language Annals, 41(1), 132 - 156.
Tode, T. (2003). From unanalyzed chunks to rules: The learning of the English copula be by beginning Japanese
learners of English. IRAL, 41, 23-53.
Tomasello, M. (2000). The item-based nature of children's early syntactic development. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4,
156–163.
VandeBerg, C. K. (1999). Metalinguistic coompetence of beginning French students. French Review, 72, 644-657.
Wen, W. P., & Clement, R. (2003). A Chinese conceptualisation of willingness to communicate in ESL. Language,
Culture and Curriculum, 16(1), 18-38.
White, L. (1991). Adverb placement in second language acquisition: Some effects of positive and negative evidence in
the classroom. Second Language Research, 7, 133-161.
Widdowson, H. (1989). Knowledge of language and ability for use. Applied Linguistics, 10, 128-137.
Williams, J. N. (1999). Memory, Attention, and Inductive Learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 21(1), 1-48.
Wong-Fillmore, L. (1976). The second time around: Cognitive and social strategies in second language acquisition.
Unpublished PhD thesis, Stanford University.
Wray, A. (2000). Formulaic sequences in second language teaching: Principles and practice. Applied Linguistics, 21,
463-489.
Wray, A. (2002). Formulaic Language and the Lexicon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Yu, X. (2009). A formal criterion for identifying lexical phrases: Implication from a classroom experiment. System,
37(4), 689-699.
Yumoto, K. (1992). From formulaic speech to creative speech (Research/technical report (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service) No. ED 404869).
Appendix A:
Pre-test
Please translate the following sentences using words and expressions given in the brackets.
Jinguan(despite) ta shiye hen chenggong, ta de geren shenhuo
despite she career very successful she Mod personal life
renran jian’nan.
still difficult
Appendix B:
Post-test
Translation test
Please translate the following sentences using words and expressions given in the brackets.
jinguan(despite) ta zai banshang zui chongming shi shishi, jinguan(despite)
despite she in class best smart is fact despite
ta xueye chenggong, meiyou ren yinwei chongming biaoyong ta.
she academic work successful no people because smart praise her
IJALEL 2 (1):98-111, 2013 110
Multiple-choice test
Please choose the right version(s) of translation for the following sentence :
Jinguan pengyou tixing wo buyao shangdang, jinguan wo ye zhang le
despite friend warn me not take in despite I also learn pfv
bushao jianshi, wo faxian ziji haishi bujin yuanyi, erqie zhengde
much knowledge I find myself also not only willing but also truly
kewang maixia ta shuo de neizuo qiao.
eager buy she mention Mod that bridge
Despite ____________________________________________________________________,
A. my friend’s warning against being taken in
B. my friend warned me against being taken in
C. the fact that my friend warned me against being taken in
D. it is a fact that my friend warned me against being taken in
Despite ____________________________________________________________________,
A. it is a fact that I’ve learned everything
B. the fact that I’ve learned everything
C. I’ve learned everything
D. everything I’ve learned
I find that I’m not only willing, but positively eager to buy that bridge she mentioned.
Appendix C:
When Oprah first thought about moving to Chicago, she was worried. Despite her worries, Oprah loved Chicago. She
remembers, “I set foot in this city and just walking down the street, it was like roots, like the motherland. I knew I
belonged here.” The Chicago audience immediately loved Oprah too. A.M. Chicago was a big hit, and it beat Donahue
in the ratings. At the same time, she was often scared that the show would fail despite the fact that Oprah was good at
her job. (85 words; emphasis added)
Appendix D:
Yet superwomen tales continue to charm me. Despite the fact that my friend warned me against being taken in, despite
everything I’ve learned, I find that I’m not willing, but positively eager to buy that bridge she mentioned. Why? I
suppose it has something to do with the appeal of an optimistic approach to life -- and the fact that extraordinary deeds
have been accomplished by determined individuals who refused to believe that “you can’t” was the final word on their
dreams. (82 words; emphasis added)
Notes
i
Formulaic language has also been discussed under terms of formulas (R. Ellis, 1994), formulaic speech (Wong-
Fillmore, 1976), lexicalised sentence stems (Pawley & Syder, 1983), holophrastic expression (Peters, 1983) and lexical
patterns and collocational knowledge (Lewis, 1993; Schmitt, 2000b). The most commonly used labels are lexical
chunks and lexical phrases (Schmitt, 2000a), but Wray (2002: 9) suggests using formulaic sequences .
ii
English teaching in Japan begins as an academic subject in the seventh grade (the 1 st year of junior high school).
iii
The result of a controlled experiment (Robinson, 1996) showed that simple rules were indeed learnt more easily than
complex rules under all (i.e. implicit, incidental, rule-search and instructed) conditions.
iv
It was assumed that a timed translation test has more potential to show the subjects’ performance on the procedural
level (i.e. using knowledge under real operating conditions) than on the declarative level (i.e. explicitly stating the
grammatical knowledge).
v
The original testing item is as follows:
Despite
(huo le daliang de yeyu shijian beisong shi shishi
spend ASP much Mod spare time learning by heart is fact ),_______________________
despite
(beisong de guocheng xiangdang jiannan
learning by heart Mod process rather difficult ) ____________, I managed to stick to doing this.
vi
Different from purely formulaic expressions (e.g. How do you do?), this type of chunks have ‘slots’ which can take
different words according to the situation. Take despite the fact that for example, ‘fact’ can be replaced by ‘idea’,
‘danger’ and so on. Other terms for these sequences include ‘productive speech formula’ (Nattinger & DeCarrico, 1992),
‘slot-and-frame pattern’ (N. Ellis, 2003), ‘semi-fixed grammatical pattern’ (Taguchi, 2007).
vii
It seems that Robinson’s ‘incidental condition’ theory may not hold true for all learners due to ignoring local factors. I
IJALEL 2 (1):98-111, 2013 111
would argue for the need to discriminate between learners immersed in drastically different learning contexts.
viii
According to Johnson (1996), L2 development is simultaneously a knowledge-building process and a process
whereby L2 learners learn to develop control over use of knowledge under various real operation conditions.
ix
A recognised tendency among Chinese students is ‘the enthusiasm for grammar’(Wen & Clement, 2003: 23). To
Chinese learners of English, as a Chinese scholar put it, ‘every phenomenon in language must come to grammar for its
final judgement. A great satisfaction is felt in sentences that can be logically explained and justified by grammar’ (Ding,
1987: 54).
x
The university was a national key university, the minimum required score for admission was higher than ordinary
universities.
xi
There are two aspects of complexity: vocabulary and syntax. For example, ‘take in’ was a new phrase for the
participants in the study. Syntactically, the passive voice of gerund following ‘warned me against’ can be a challenge
for Chinese students due to contrastive differences of syntax between Chinese and English.
xii
The freshmen registering in 2007 at the university were divided into two levels: while only one tenth of the students
in each school were singled out to be placed in a low-advanced class, the remaining ones were grouped into low-
intermediate classes.
xiii
The paragraph assigned to MG2 was one of the three paragraphs which were suggested for learning by heart in a
regular after-class task, set out in each unit of the course book. From my teaching experience, a small number of
students might memorise those paragraphs as a way to prepare the final examination as it is a tradition in this university
that there is a section testing students’ memorization of those paragraphs required in the course book in the written test
of the final examination.
xiv
One might argue that the single-item test seems risky as well as the chance results from the multiple-choice. I hasten
to point out, however, the potential risk is offset to some extent by the reasonably big number of the participants (104)
and the supplement of qualitative data elicited from subsequent interviews.
xv
The fast reading exercise was also performed with the other two groups in regular class time as a planed activity of
the teacher. I intervened in the regular activity only in terms of providing the reading material for research purpose.
xvi
According to a questionnaire attached to the recitation test, the overwhelming majority in the memorization groups
spent about 15 minutes finishing the assignment, the longest time spent being 20 minutes and the shortest ten minutes.
An anonymous reviewer commented that the learning-by-heart method is likely to involve much less time on the
specific target form. I argue that the actual time period the participants invested on the memorization assignments might
be longer than that reported in order to pass the recitation test (i.e. write down the paragraph verbatim from memory).
Moreover, many of them were observed to be still working on the task immediately before the recitation test (the score
of which was believed to have impact on their grades on daily performance).
xvii
While the answers starting with the fact that and it is a fact that are rather straightforward to apply the rule, an
anonymous reviewer questioned the applicability to other two answers as it is possible that the learners may fail to infer
that Despite everything I’ve learned is an instance of the same grammatical structure as Despite my friend’s warning
against being taken in or that Despite I’ve learned everything is wrong in the same way that Despite my friend warned
me against being taken in is. Although I agree with the reviewer here, my analysis showed no case of inconsistent
choices on these two items.
xviii
The reason why IG outperformed MGs in the multiple-choice test but did worse in the translation test can be that the
grammar points presented in a decontextualized manner (e.g. explicit grammar explanation) may be remembered in
similar contexts, such as a discrete-point grammar test (in this case, multiple-choice test), but difficult to retrieve in a
communicative context (in this case, translation test, which may demand more attention on meanings than forms)
(Lightbown, 2008). Although the performance of IG is not the focus of current study, only serving as a contrast for any
effect or change observed in memorization groups (as was already stated in 3.2), it needs to be pointed out that the
remarkable increase of the performance of the IG on the multiple-choice test confirms the findings of previous studies
indicating that form-focused instruction can improve post-instruction awareness of morphology or syntax in L2. For
instance, one study (Scott, 1989) produced evidence that explicit teaching results in improved recall and production on
tests targeted to the grammar points in question and another (White, 1991) provided documentation that teaching
particular points can result in statistically measurable improvement in the short run. It also replicates the finding
produced by the first-stage study (Yu, 2009) of the research.
xix
Compare the exemplar enforced upon MG1 (i.e. Despite her worries, … despite the fact that Oprah was good at her
job.) with that memorised by MG2 (i.e. Despite the fact that my friend warned me against being taken in, despite
everything I’ve learned, .....)
xx
In investigating the effect of explicit instruction for subjects learning Welsh morphology, Ellis found that the subjects
who have both ‘rules and instances’ outperformed the ‘random’ learners given only examples and the ‘rule’ learners
given only rules.
The Role of Discourse Analysis in Translation

Mehrdad Vasheghani Farahani
M.A Student of Translation Studies, Azad University, Science and Research Branch, Tehran, Iran
E-mail: mehrdadfarahani1365@gmail.com

Abstract
Discourse Analysis (D.A) is a discipline which concerns the study of the relationship between language and the context
in which it is used. In other words, Discourse Analysis is a branch of applied linguistics which investigates the study of
language in use .As McCarty explains (1978: p 5) “This field of study grew out of work in different disciplines in 1960s
and 1970s, including linguistics, semiotics, psychology, anthropology and sociology”. One of the most interesting fields
of study which has been recently affected by Discourse Analysis is a newly –born trend called Translation studies. This
new area of research which is going from strength to strength delves into the systematic study of translation. It is
assumed that D.A and Translation studies have much in common .Some of the areas of research which have been
affected by D.A are Halliday’s systematic functional grammar, Julian House model of translation quality assessment
and Katherine Reisis text typology in translation. This papers aims at analyzing these concepts and terms in relation
with translation studies.
Keywords: Discourse Analysis, Translation Studies, Systematic-Functional grammar, Context, House model of
translation quality assessment.
1. Introduction
Discourse Analysis (D.A) is a field of study which tries to investigate the relationship between language and the context
in which it is used .D.A is very connected to such disciplines as semiotics, the study of the signs of a language,
psychology, the study of mind, anthropology, the study of human race, its culture and society and sociology, the study
of society .As McCarty explains (1978:p 8)“ at a time when linguistics was already concerned with the analyze of single
sentences, Zelling Harris published a paper with the title ‘Discourse Analysis’.” Harris was interested in the
distribution of linguistic elements in extended text and the links between the text and its social situation”. A very
interesting area of research which has recently been the engagement of many scholars is the Translation Studies_ the
systematic study of translation. What roles does D.A play in Translation Studies? Is there any, if yes, relationship
between D.A and Translation studies? This paper tries to shed lights on these notions at length and details, explaining
the applications of D.A in translation studies.
2. Translating text in the context
Text is defined as “any passage, spoken or written, of any length that forms a unified form”.
Context is defined as “aspects of extra-linguistic reality that are taken to be relevant to the communication”.
Based on these two definitions, context, from one hand, shapes the text and, from the other hand, is shaped by the text.
Fowler describes the relationship as follows:
There is a dialectical interrelationship between language and social structure: the variables of linguistic usage are both
products of socio-economics forces and institutions _reflexes of such factors as power relations, occupational roles,
social stratifications, etc.-and practices which are instrumental in forming and legitimating the same social forces and
institutions (fowler, 1981:p 121).
So, as can be seen, context plays the major role in shaping the text and at the same time is highly affected by the text.
This interaction is set in motion by what is called “textualization”, a process which impinges on both the product and
reception of texts and which at one hand and the same time involves a set of procedures and diverge range of products
generally known as text (Hatim, 1990: p 45).
3. Cohesion and Coherence
Cohesion and Coherence are very important elements of textualization. Without these two, the understanding of a piece
of text would be the major hurdle of the writer. Cohesion refers to the relations of meaning that exist within the text and
that define it as text. Coherence is the interpretation of the text on the behalf of the receiver of the message. A text
might have coherence but lacks cohesion. Look at the following example:
“Every student must learn English. English has seven words. I don’t like the word book. My book is on the table. Eating
on the table is very interesting.”
IJALEL 2 (1):112-116, 2013 113
As can be seen, this text has cohesion, but it is not coherent. Cohesion and coherence are culture-specific elements
which might differ from one language to another one. It is incumbent on translator to, first, identify these culture-
specific elements in the source text and, second, transfer them in the target language in a way that the message seems
clear and understandable; otherwise the translation would seem absurd and vague.
4. Systematic functional grammar
Hallida’s model of D.A largely depends on what he calls “systematic functional grammar’. This model views language
as communication event, seeing language and its functions in the socio-cultural environment. In this model, there is a
strong correlation between surface level of realizations of the linguistic function and the socio-cultural framework
(Munday , 2008: p 90).
Why is it systematic and functional? It is systematic because it follows very rigid rules of grammar and functional due
to the fact that it has function, goal and purpose in any socio-cultural environment and it is designed in a way that it
explains the language use.
It is traditionally believed that in translation, vocabulary is the major hurdle of translators. But it should be mentioned
that grammar, also, plays a very important role in doing so .Indeed, Systematic functional grammar prefers to talk about
lexio-grammar which includes both the vocabulary and the grammar of any language (Halliday, 1978: p 39). Regarding
the important role of grammar in translation, C. Taylor Torsello believes that:
Grammar should be part of the education of a translators and in particular functional grammar since it is concerned with
language in texts and with the role grammar plays, in combination with lexicon, in carrying out specific functions and
realizing specific types of meaning (Torsello, 1996: p 88).
The model of Hlliday's systematic functional grammar can be seen in figure 1.
Socio-cultural environment
Genre
Register
(Field, tenor, and mode)
Discourse semantics
(Ideational, interpersonal and textual)
Lexiogrammar
(Transivity, modality, theme-rhyme/cohesion)
Figure 1. Hlliday's systematic functional grammar
The genre (a style that involves a particular set of characteristics) is conditioned by the socio-cultural environment.
Genre itself conditions register which is the style of language, grammar and words used for particular situations.
Register compromises three elements:
A: Field: What is being written about, e.g. linguistics;
B: Tenor: Who is talking with whom, e.g. teacher and student interaction;
C: Mode: The form and model of communication, e.g. spoken.
These three variables of context of situation affect our language choices which are linked to three main functions of
language. Halliday calls these three functions as Ideational, Interpersonal and textual.
The field of a text is associated with ideational meaning which is realized through transivity pattern (verb types, active
/passive structures, participants in process).
The tenor of a text is associated with interpersonal meaning which is realized through patterns of modality (model verbs
and adverbs such as hopefully, should, possibly and any evaluative lexis such as beautiful dreadful)
The mode of a text is associated with textual meaning which is realized through thematic and information
structure(mainly the order and structuring of elements in a clause) and cohesion(the way the text hangs together
lexically, including the use of pronouns ellipsis, collocations, repetitions and etc.) (Munday, 2008: 90).
IJALEL 2 (1):112-116, 2013 114
As mentioned, the context plays the major role in shaping the situation. But, it is also worth mentioning that context is
of two kinds, namely as context of situation and context of culture. "Text always occurs at two contexts, one within the
other" (But et al., 2000: p 3). These two contexts are context of situation and context of culture.
In systematic-functional grammar, context of situation is related to three variables of field, tenor and mode. If a
translator figures out these variables correctly, he will be able to produce a text which is functionally adequate.
Context of culture is a wider scope which subsumes context of situation in it. It means that situation is highly affected
by the socio-cultural environment in which it is used. In other words, any text is an expression of specific situation and
of a wider social, historical, political, and ideological, etc. Culture can be defined as “a set of interrelated semiotics
system” (Miller, 2005: 2). This classification is drawn in figure 2.
Figure 2. Text in context (adapted from Butt et al, 2004: 4)
Another implication of discourse analysis in relation with systematic-functional grammar is Julian House model of
translation quality assessment.
Having inspired from Halliday’s systematic-functional grammar, Julian House model of translation quality assessment
has been designated as one of the most valuable tools for evaluating translations. According to Munday(2008, p:56) “
although there are some common grounds between these two models, house herself rejects the more target-audience
notion of translation appropriateness as misleading and so base her model on comparative ST_ TT analysis leading to
the assessment of quality of the translation”. “ Text and context of situation are indeed separate, but two interact with
each other through an inextricable connection between the social environment and the functional organization of
language. When we analyze an original text, compare it with its translation and establish the equivalence frame work
guiding the translation, both texts must refer to particular situation surrounding” (House, 2009: 34).
The framework of House model of translation quality assessment can be seen in figure 3.
Figure 3. Scheme for analyzing and comparing original and translation texts ( House, 1997:108)
IJALEL 2 (1):112-116, 2013 115
Based on Munday, the model acts as follow:
1: A profile is product of ST register.
2: To this is added a description of the ST genre realized by register.
3: Together, this allows a ‘statement of function’ to be made for ST, including the ideational and interpersonal
component of the function.
4: The same description process is then carried out for the TT.
5: The TT profile is compared to the ST profile and a statement of ‘mismatches’ or error is produced, categorized
according to genre and to the situational dimensions of the register and genre.
6: A statement of quality is then made of the translation.
7: Finally, the translation can be categorized into one of the two types: covert translation and overt translation.
Overt translation is a kind of translation which enjoys, as much as possible, the statues of the original in the target text.
Covert translation which is a kind of function as the second original
Based on House typology, equivalence in terms of overt translation can be achieved at the level of language, text
register and genre, while in terms of covert translation the equivalence is sought to at the level of genre and the
individual text function( Munday, 2008: 93).
Interestingly, House claims that equivalence, in terms of overt translation, can be achieved at the above-mentioned
levels, but not at the level of function. In other words, overt translation is only a second –level of functional equivalence
(House, 1997: p 112).
An original text and its overt translation are to be equivalent at the level of language/text and register (with its various
dimensions) as well as genre. At the level of individual textual function, functional equivalence is still possible, but it is
of different nature: it can be described as enabling access to the function the original text has in its discourse world or
frame. As this access is realized in the target linguculture via the translation text, a switch in the discourse world and the
frame becomes necessary, i.e. the translation is differently framed, it operates in its own frame and discourse at best
what I have called “ second level functional equivalence” (House, 1997: 112).
Another application of discourse analysis is Katharina Reisis different types of text. Having inspired from the notion of
text types and typology, Reisis was one the first scholars who tried systematically analyses text types.
Reiss’s work in 1970s builds on the concept of equivalence, but vies text rather than the word or sentence, as the level
at which the communication is achieved and at which equivalence must be sought to (Reiss 1997/89: 113-14).Her
functional approach aims initially at systematizing the assessment of translation. It borrows Karl Buhler’s three-way
categorization of the functions of language. Reiss links the three functions to their corresponding language ‘dimension’
and to the text types or communicative situations in which they are used (Reiss, 1997/89: 108-0).
Reiss’s text typology (Reiss 1977/89 p: 171) and categorization is shown as below:
A: The communication of the content_ informative text type.
B: The communication of artistically organized content –expressive type.
C: The communication of content with a persuasive character_ operative.
As can be seen, Reiss’s work is highly affected by Buhler’s text typology (informative, vocative and expressive). After
categorizing text, Reiss provides some principles and methodologies based on the type of the text. If the text is
informative, the method proposed by Reiss is full referential or conceptual content of the ST. If the text is expressive,
the translator should transfer the aesthetic or realistic form of the ST and if the text is an operative on, the translator’s
duty is to produce the desired respond in the TT.
An example of informative text is reporting books. An example of expressive text is biography and an example of
operative text is a piece of advertisement.
Apart from text typology, Reiss has stipulated some criteria for quality assessment of translation.
These rules and criteria are “extra-linguistic and intra-linguistic”. Extra-linguistic criteria are situation, subject, field,
time, place, receiver, sender and affective implications. Intra-linguistic criteria are semantic, lexical, grammatical, and
stylistic features.
According to Reissis (1971: p 69), although interrelated, the importance of these criteria varies according to text type.
For example, the translation of any content-focused text should first aim at preserving semantic equivalence. For a TT
that is a new item, second place might probably be occupied by grammatical criteria, whereas a popular science book
might pay more attention to the individual style of ST.
5. Conclusion
Translation is more than the mere replacement of the ST materials into the TT. There are so many different factors in
doing so. As mentioned, discourse analysis has, to a great extent, contributed to the notion of translation. Many scholars
have made use of D.A in their studies and researches. Researchers, who have looked at translation from discourse
analysis point of view, believe discourse as a socio-cultural environment in which communication is taken place. Based
on this notion, it is the job of the translator to identify the socio-cultural environment of the ST and transfer the message
IJALEL 2 (1):112-116, 2013 116
of it to TT in such a way that looks fluent and accurate in terms of socio-cultural environment; otherwise, the translation
would seem nonsense, blurred and vague, so that the production shifts from its initial socio-cultural environment into a
completely different world of socio-cultural context.
No text can remain in such a state of relative isolation from the facts of socio-cultural life. To be closer to the life of
world of language user and to communicate anything meaning full regarding social, cultural or political issues text must
involve more than organization and mapping procedures or simply the need to uphold conventionality. (Hatim 1990:
47).
References
Bassnet, S. (2002). Translation studies.London: Routledge Publications, (Chapter 3).
Brown, G., & Yule, G. (1983). Discourse analysis.London: Cambridge Publications, (pp. 23-34).
House, J. (2009). Translation.Oxford: Oxford Publications, (Chapter 3).
Johnston, B. (2008). Discourse analysis.Oxford:Blackwell Publications , ( pp.16-26).
McCarty, M. (1991). Discourse analysis for language teachers.Tehran: Rahnama Publications,( Chapter 7).
Millar,D. (2000). Translating text and context:Translation studies and systematic functional linguistics. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press,( pp.33-105)
Munday, J. (2008). Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. London: Routledge Publications.
Shuttleworth, M. (1997). Dictionary of translation studies.Tehran: Yalda ghalam Publication, (pp, 88).
Solhjou, A. (2007). Discourse and translation(4th edition).Tehran: Rahnama Publications, (pp. 33-67).
Venuti, A. (2004). The translation studies reader.London: Routledge Publications, (pp.55-78).
Widdowsen, H.G. (2007). Discourse analysis. Oxford: Oxford Publications, (Chapter4).
Exploring Elision of Schwa of /ə/ in English Utterances by C & U

English Majors
HUAI-ZHOU MAO (Corresponding Author)
Foreign Languages Department, Changji University, Chang-ji City, Xin-jiang, 831100, China
PO box 77, Chang-ji City, Bei-jing North Road, Xin-jiang, China
Tel: 86-994-2506907; E-mail: mhzmed @ vip. sina.com
HUA-YING CHEN
Colleges of Foreign Languages, Xin-jiang Normal University, Urumqi City, Xin-jiang, 830054, China
PO box 102, Urumqi City, Xin-yi Road, Sha-yi-ba-ke District, Xin-jiang, China
Tel: 86-991-4319943; E-mail: chenhuaying@163.net

Abstract
An acoustic study on the elision of schwa [ʃwɑ:] of /ə/ in English utterances produced by a native speaker of English, a
Han Chinese learner of English major, [C] and a Uyghur learner of English majors [U] presented in this paper. With
Praat software, three acoustic parameters-fundamental frequencies [F0], the first formant [F1] and the second formant
[F2]-are measured with two tiers (syllables and words). The results show that the Uyghur learner of English major
produces the elision (omission) of schwa in the same way as the native speaker of English does, while the Han Chinese
learner of English major produces schwa of /ə/ in English poorly. The paper indicates that the Elision of Schwa in
English produced by learners is influenced by the transfer of their mother tongues. Thus, it enlightens that the second
[L2] or third language [L3] speech acquisition is restricted by phonological system of their mother languages, and the
contrastive study of the phonological system of the native tongue and the second or third language will give us
scaffolding in our phonetic instruction, especially in the teaching of Schwa /ə/ and others in English utterances of
Chinese and Uyghur English majors.
Keywords: Elision, Schwa, First formant, Second formant
1. Introduction
It is known that schwa /ə/ is regarded as the essence of English elision. For phoneticians, the most striking characteristic
of the vowels is the frequency of first formant (F1) and second formant (F2). The proximate ranges of F1 and F2 of the
schwa /ə/ in English produced by native speakers are 400Hz-500Hz, and 1200Hz-1600Hz.
Information about the characteristics of English, Uyghur and Chinese both in sound-changes and pronunciation can be
found in previous studies. (Z.Y. Xiao, 1997; Wang, L, 2003; B. Yi, 2006; Pearman, A., 2004) English words of a sense-
group appear in the following syllable structures: CVC, VC, CCV, CV (V–vowel, C–consonant). Therefore, the
phenomena of liaison between consonants and vowels happen frequently. It is notified that English possesses evident
division between stressed syllables and unstressed syllables, which is not only shown in a word but also between words.
This means stressed syllables convey key information while unstressed syllables had better be read lightly or missing.
So the elision of schwa of /ə/ in connected speech in English is a commonplace.
Schwa is a weak, unstressed sound and it occurs in many words. It is often the sound in grammar words such as articles
and prepositions. Getting the schwa sound correct is a good way of making your pronunciation more accurate and
natural. The phonemic symbol for this sound is /ə/.
In unstressed syllables, any vowel letter can be pronounced as schwa and the pronunciation of a vowel letter can change
depending on whether the syllable in which it occurs is stressed or not. Look at these two words: In the word “man” the
letter “a” has its full sound - represented by the symbol /æ/. In “postman” the syllable 'man' is not stressed and the
letter “a” is pronounced as schwa, represented by the symbol /ə/.
The sound schwa does not only represent a single letter. In some words it is the sound of several letters or even a whole
syllable. This is often, but not only, seen in words which have a syllable made up of a vowel letter followed by the letter
“r”. Remember the schwa sound is only used if the syllable which it is in is not stressed.
IJALEL 2 (1):117-125, 2013 118
Look at these below examples, the parts marked italics are all the schwa sounds:
(1). This present is for my brother.
(2). It's a book about a boy wizard.
(3). To survive the cold weather you have to make thorough preparations.
Thus, we can safely say that any English vowel letter can be pronounced with the schwa of /ə/, like the following figure
shows us as follows,
The Qualitative and quantitative researches were done at home and abroad. Some reviewed the usage, the specifications
and the general features of the International Phonetic Alphabet (The International Phonetic Association, 1999; Peter
Ladefoged, 1976, 1988; Ladefoged, P., 1985; C.K. Gui, 1985; Lin, T., & Wang, L. J, 1992), the speech perception and
language experiences, the non-native consonant in perceptual assimilation (Best, C., 1995; Best, C., McRoberts, G., &
Goodell, E., 2001; Flege, J. E., Bohn, O. S., & Jang, S., 1997), the acoustic study of English and Spanish vowels
(Bradlow, A., 1995; Fox, R, A., Flege, J. E., & Munro, M.J., 1995), the perception of English vowels by Spanish
speakers: spectral and temporal effects in the perception of the /i/-/I/ and perceiving vowels, (Escudero, P. R, 2000;
2004; Flege, J. E., & Mackay, I., 2004; Hayes, R., 2002; Morrison, G. S., 2002; Hao-ming, Wang, 2008; Yu-hong, Sun,
2006), the perception of vowel quality (Butler, A., 1976), the experimental Phonetics (K. Hayward, 2000), the Vowel
length variation as a function of the voicing of consonant environment (Chen, M, 1970), the Influence of initial and
final consonants on vowel duration in CVC syllables (Naeser, M.A, 1970), the Categorization of American English
vowels by Japanese speakers. (Fox, M., & Maeda, K, 1999)
Other researchers shifted the insight of phonetics from the physiological interpretation of monosyllabic vowels in
Chinese Mandarin (H.Q. Bao, 1984), Chinese phonetics (Wang, L, 2003), Vowel Pattern of Modern Uyghur (B. Yi,
2006), sound change in the learner: The perception of connected speech (Pearman, A., 2004), and even the study of
Language and Culture in Xinjiang (Z.Y. Xiao, 1997) and so on.
We find that although research studies of the phonetics are enormous, few studies were carried out in exploring elision
of schwa of /ə/ in English utterances by C-U English majors except for Vowel Pattern of Modern Uyghur, phonetics
from the physiological interpretation of monosyllabic vowels in Chinese Mandarin, and Chinese phonetics, thus, it is
necessary for us to develop this area in order to reinforce the importance of the comparative study of the elision of
schwa in C-U English majors to promote the teaching phonetics in China, and the data collected will benefit to all that
is going for this area in the world.
2. Distinctive features of Uyghur and Chinese monosyllabic words
In UYGHUR, there are six forms of syllable: V, like [u] (它)，CV, like [bu] (这-This)VC, like [ɑt] (马-Horse)，CVC,
[gyl](花-Flower) ，VCC, [ɑst] （下面-under），and CVCC. [pɛrq] （地区-region）（Bin, Yi, 2006:141-144）The
acoustic fidelity is influenced by near consonants when the moment vowels and consonants are combining. The major
traits of modern Uyghur are melodious vowels and weakening of vowels. Apart from that, elision in Uyghur not only
happens to consonants but to vowels. So it can be seen that Uyghur share some similar syllable structures with English;
what is more, the elision of unstressed vowels exist in both Uyghur and English utterances.
However, there are no multiple consonants in syllable in Chinese, and the Chinese syllables have clear boundary as well
as neat structure of CV. Moreover, vowels play a decisive role in expressing meaning in Chinese words. Since
monosyllabic word is the basic form of Chinese phonemes, it is impossible that liaison (sound connection) appear
between Chinese characters.
The Chinese monosyllabic word doesn’t have the separation of stressed syllables and unstressed syllables. Because
Chinese monosyllabic word doesn’t have to be spelled, and that it can be read directly, but the biosyllabic of Chinese
word must be spelled, thus it can be read by the readers. A good example is that monosyllabic word is more fixed than
that of Chinese biosyllabic in form and in expressing its meaning, and hence there is a tendency that Chinese words are
IJALEL 2 (1):117-125, 2013 119
developing towards biosyllabic formation. Such as “yī” (壹(one)， “er”(贰)（two），”xiě”“血” (blood), in Chinese it
is a monosyllabic word which is spelled “xiě”, and 细胞血小板 (xì baō xiě xióo bān）(Small plate of cells in blood) is
a biolyllabic word, thus they consist a certain kind of meaning altogether. The following figures are English phonetic
alphabet, Uyghur phonetic alphabet and Mandarin Chinese phonetic alphabet as follows,
Table 1. English Phonetics Alphabet
Table 2. Mandarin Chinese Phonetics Alphabet
Attention must be paid that Chinese monosyllabic words such as 暗 (a) (dark) , 夜 (yè) (night), 小 (xiǎo) (small),
大，(dà) (big) , 你 (ní) (you), 我 (wǒ) (I), 他 (tā) (He/She) , and biosyllabc words such as 天使 (Tiánshǐ) (angel), 魔
鬼 (mógúi) (Evil), 汉语 (hànyǔ) (Chinese), 音节 (yínjǐe) (syllable), and 回答 (húidā) (answer) all express its
meanings in certain contexts, and all express the smallest unit consciously when speaking, and the extension of our
muscle counts how many times we produce the syllable in Chinese. But all the monosyllabic Chinese words can be
changed into biosyllabic words like 眼(yán) (eye), 眼睛(yánjīn) (eyes), 学(xúe) (learn), 学习 (xúexí) (learn), 久 (jiǔ)
(long), 永久 (yǒngjiú) (for ever) and etc.. It is safely to say that such phenomena as assimilation, weakening and elision
may not exist in Chinese utterances, but not in Uyghur Language as follows,
Table 3. Uyghur Phonetics Alphabet
IJALEL 2 (1):117-125, 2013 120
Form the above figures, we find that although they are three different internal languages, they have similar
pronunciations and more or less similar spellings.
Hence, we can make assumptions that (1) the Uyghur learners of English produce the elision of schwa /ə/ in English
major utterances in the same way as the native speakers of English do; by contrast, (2) the Han Chinese learners of
English major produce English schwa /ə/ obviously in connected speech without elision.
The implications for this are that when the Uyghur and Chinese English majors are taught phonetics of English
language, the teacher should pay much attention to the manner of speech and place of tongue in pronouncing English
Schwa /ə/ and the liaison spelled by Uyghur and Chinese English majors to overcome the difficulties they meet in their
English study, and thus fulfill successful communication among them in their daily life. In that case, the positive
transfer of the mother tongue is overcome in their English learning.
2. Experimental Design
2.1 Sampling Subjects
One female speaker of English, one female Han Chinese speaker, and one female Uyghur speaker served as the three
subjects. The native speaker of English from the United States aged 40 and was working as an English teacher at the
college with the first researcher at the time when the experiment was carried out. The two local learners of English, one
being Han Chinese speaker and one being Uyghur speaker, were students of English majors at the same college with the
first researcher, and both of the two local learners of English in China were 22 years old. They were treated as
intermediate-level learners of English majors.
2.2 Stimuli experiment
The stimuli experiments consist of two sentences and one phrase with three types of elision of the schwa /ə/: (1) elision
in liaison, (2) elision in quick speech and (3) elision influenced by weak form.
Elision is the omission of a sound or sounds, either within the body of a word or at a junction of words. There are two
different kinds of elisions; they are historical and contextual elisions.
(1). Historical elisions are sounds which exist in an earlier form of a word are omitted in a later form. These kinds of
elisions of unstressed vowels, especially /ә/ and /i/, are very common in English. Such as history /'histəri/→/'histri/,
every /'evəri/→/'evri/, university /ju: ni 'vəsiti/→/ju: ni'vәsti/, family /'fæmili/→/'fæmli/, and easily /'i: zili/→/'i: zli/.
(2). Contextual elisions are sounds which exist in a word said by itself are omitted in a compound or in a connected
phrase utterance. In rapid speaking, (elision in quick speech) a group of consonants may be dropped out, especially /t/
and /d/ such as just now /'ʤΛst 'nau/ or /'ʤΛs 'nau/ , I want to /ai 'w ɔ nt tu/ or /ai 'w ɔ n tu/ , blind man /'blaind 'mæn/
or /'blain 'mæn/, and stand guard /'stænd 'ga:d/or/'stænd 'ga:d/.
Liaison, (sound connection) in English, is that one word is not separated from another by pausing or hesitating; the end
of one word flows straight on to the beginning of the next. Such as first of all /'fә: st◡әv◡' ɔ: l/ and some of us /'sΛm◡әv
◡әs/. The linking of words in connected speech may be divided into the following four types:
(1) When the final sound of the word before is a consonant, you must link the final consonant to the initial vowel
sound of the next word. It will help if you treat the final consonant as if it were transferred to the next words. Such
as put it on /'puti'tɔn/; look at it /'lukәtit/; think of it /'θiŋkәvit /.
(2) When the final sound of the word before is a vowel you must link the vowel sound to the initial vowel should of
the next word. Here a short and gentle /j/ or /w/ is used.
a) After /i: /, /i/ and the diphthongs /ei, ai, ɔi/, which end in /i/, we can use a very gentle /j/ as the link. Such as the
other /ði◡j◡'Λðә/; he is my uncle. /hi: ◡j◡ iz mai◡j◡'Λŋkl/; she ate some. / ʃi: ◡j◡әt sәm/. However, we do distinguish
between “my ears” and “my years”, etc. “years”/jiәz/ has a longer and stronger /j/ than the shorter and gentle link /j/
before “ears”.
b) After /u: /, /u/ and the diphthongs /әu, au/, which end in /u/, we can use a gentle /w/ as the link. Such as two
others /'tu: ◡w◡'Λðәz/; do it /'du: ◡w◡it/; how old /'hau◡w◡'әuld/. Again we distinguish between “two-eyed” and
“too wide” /'tu: ◡w◡'aid/ and /'tu: 'waid/.
(3) When a word ending with “r” or “re” goes before a word beginning with a vowel sound /r/ is usually
pronounced as a link. Such as for ages /fәr 'eiʤiz/; her own /hә: r 'әun/; share out /'ʃεә r 'aut/; far away /'fa: rә 'wei/
However, there are special circumstances in which a final “r” is silent even when the following word begins with a
vowel.
a) When there is a /r/ in the same syllable, such as a roar of laughter /ә 'r ɔ: әv 'la: ftә/; a rare animal /ә ‘rεә ‘æniml/;
nearer and nearer /'niәrә әn 'niәrә/.
b) When a pause is permissible between the two words (even if no pause is actually made) such as He opened the
door and walked in. /hi: ‘әupnd ðә 'd ɔ: әnd 'w ɔ: kt in/.
(4) some English people link a final /ә/ or even /a:/ and / ɔ:/ to an initial vowel in the same group by inserting a /r/
sound even if there is no letter r in the spelling. The /r/ sound added in this way is called “intrusive r”. Its existence
IJALEL 2 (1):117-125, 2013 121
should be known but not imitated. Such as China and Japan /'ʧainәr әn(d) ʤә'pæn /; drama and music /'dra:mәr
әn(d) 'mju:zik/; law and order /'l ɔ: r әn (d) ' ɔ:dә / and I saw a man / ai 's ɔ: r ә 'mæn /.
2.2.1 Stimuli experiment one by the first sentence
The first sentence “Please get another one” is first read by one native speaker of English, and then by the Uyghur and
Han student of English majors separately. They have 5 minutes to prepare for the perception of the experimental
materials. In the sentence “Please get another one”, the word “another” pronounced as [ə’nʌðə] has their screening
characteristic in its pronunciation with “get”, thus the elision in liaison of Schwa /ə/ in English utterances appeared
when the subject perceive this phonetics.
2.2.2 Stimuli experiment two by the second sentence
The second sentence “Tell me about it” is a typical elision in quick speech between the two words of “me” and
“about” that the elision in liaison often happens when they meet together, thus /ə/ in “about” is the representative of
schwa of /ə/ in elision in quick speech. The sentence like this often exists in English sentences. When the experimental
stimuli starts, the subjects are not told to read which kind of sentence they are going to read to avoid experimental
interference.
2.2.3 Stimuli experiment three by the phrasal utterance
The phrasal utterance of “My favorite fruit” is also manipulated which is very different from the former two sentences
because we assumed that the subjects must weaken the elision schwa / ə /, thus to prove the significant differences
among the three subjects coming from different language experiences. The researcher should focus on /ə/ in [‘feivərit]
produced by the word “favorite” when the subjects pronounce the phrasal utterance.
2.3 Experimental procedures and acoustic measurements in the experimental study
Every speaker was presented with the sheet with the sentences and phrase on it, and asked to produce each one
naturally. Recordings were handled with a computer in a quiet classroom. After that, all the experimental materials were
analyzed at the aid of Praat speech analyzing software [PRAAT 4.0] in order to get the similarities and differences of
the elision of schwa of /ə/ and the data of F0, F1 and F2.among three different subjects.
The recordings were analyzed using the Praat speech analyzing software (http://www.praat.org). The traditional
conclusions by auditory studies for elision of the schwa /ə/ were referenced by the present experiment. F0 (the
fundamental frequency), F1 (the first format) and F2 (the second format) were measured to mark the existence of /ə/ in
the uttered English sentences and phrase by the three subjects, that is the native speaker of English, the Han Chinese
students [C] and Uyghur English majors. [U]
3. Data collection, Analysis and Results of the experimental study
Data collection, analysis and results includes phonological analysis produced by the first sentence of “Please get
another one”, the second sentence of “Tell me about it” , and the phrasal utterance of “My favorite fruit”, produced by
the native speaker of Englihs , the Uyghur student and the Han student respectively. We pay much attention to whether
the three different subjects omitted the schwa of /ə/ influenced by her own mother language, and thus to justify our
hypotheses mentioned in the distinctive features of Uyghur and Chinese monosyllabic words.
3.1 Data collection and analysis produced by the first sentence
Pleas e g et ano th er o ne
pli:z et n w n
0 1.13937
Time (s )
Fig. 2. The first sentence produced by the native speaker of English

IJALEL 2 (1):117-125, 2013 122
Please get another one Please get another one
pli:z et n w n pli:z et n w n
0 1.4795 0 1.4795
Time (s) Time (s)
Fig. 3. The first sentence produced by the Uyghur student Fig. 4. The first sentence produced by the Han student
In Figures 2 and 3, the spectrograms the sentence “Please get another one” produced by native speaker of English and
the Uyghur student show that the schwa /ə/ between consonant /t/ and nasal /n/ is missing. The schwa /ə/ is reduced both
by the native speaker of English and the Uyghur student under the condition of liaison. However, Figure 4 shows that
there is a mid-central /ə/ in the front of the word “another” /ə'nʌðə/ produced by the Han student of English major,
(F0=273Hz, F1=336Hz, F2=1632Hz) which is very different from those of the native speaker of English /'nʌðə/ and the
Uyghur learner of English major /'nʌðə/, thus we say that it is possible that the Han student of English major,
influenced by her mother language-mandarin Chinese, performed stronger in pronouncing one of the three types of
elision of the schwa /ə/ executing by elision in liaison on the grounds that the Chinese monosyllabic word doesn’t have
the separation of stressed syllables and unstressed syllables and Chinese monosyllabic word doesn’t have to be spelled,
and that it can be read directly.
3.2 Data collection and analysis produced by the second sentence
Tell me about it
t l mi: baut it
0 0.817506
Time (s )
Fig.5. The second sentence produced by the native speaker of English

IJALEL 2 (1):117-125, 2013 123
Tell me about it Tell me about it
t l mi: baut it t l mi: baut it
0 0.859819 0 1.31202
Time (s) Time (s)
Fig. 6. The second sentence produced by the Uyghur student Fig. 7. The second sentence produced by the Han student
The spectrograms of Figures 5 and 6 shows that the schwa /ə/ of the word “about” in “Tell me about it” produced by
native speaker of English and the Uyghur student of English major is missing, spelled /'baut/ in the sentences
produced by both the native speakers of English and the Uyghur student. However, Figure 7 shows that the schwa /ə/ in
“about” is pronounced /ə'baut/ without saving effort elision schwa /ə/ in quick speech by the Han student of English
major as it is certainly influenced by the Chinese phonology. (F0=246Hz, F1 =677Hz, F2=1290Hz) Therefore, we say
that although the sentence of “Tell me about it” aims to tap the subjects’ elision of schwa / ə / in quick speech, we
Chinese teachers of English should pay much attention of this phenomenon.
3.3 Data collection and analysis produced by the phrasal uterrances
My favorate fruit
mai feivrit frut
0 0.994467
Time (s )
Fig. 8. The phrase produced by the native speaker of English

IJALEL 2 (1):117-125, 2013 124
My favorate fruit
My favorate fruit
mai feivrit fru:t

mai feiv rit fru:t
0 1.09147
Time (s) 0 1.75542
Time (s)
Fig. 9. The phrase produced by the Uyghur student Fig. 10. The phrase produced by the Han student
Figures 8, 9 and 10 show that the vowel /ə/ in the word “favorite” is omitted by both the native speaker of English and
the Uyghur student of English major, but the Han student of English major produces the phrase without losing any
sound, (F0=191Hz, F1=558Hz, F2=1385Hz) which can be explained by the influence of the Chinese syllable structure.
Since in Chinese syllable structure, the vowels including /ə/, which are the centers of syllables, play an important role,
the Chinese students stress such phonemes in Chinese so as to present the meaning which the syllable stands for.
4. Conclusion and limitations
From the three stimuli experiments above, it can be concluded that the way that the schwa /ə/ produced by the Han
Chinese learner of English major is obviously different from that of both the native speakers of English and the Uyghur
learners of English major. The Han Chinese learner of English major produces English utterances syllable by syllable
without the elision of schwa /ə/. The Uyghur learners of English major produce the elision of schwa /ə/ in the same way
as the native speaker of English does.
The differences are due to the interference of their respective first language phonology. As to the elision of schwa /ə/,
the Uyghur learners of English major are positively influenced by the transfer of their mother tongue, while the Han
Chinese learner of English major are negatively influenced by the transfer of her mother tongue.
The present study only touched upon the elision of schwa of /ə/ in the central vowels, the other two central vowels in
English , that is /ʌ/ and /ə:/ didn’t explore in our present study, among which /ʌ/ is a short, half-open, unrounded
central vowel. It is a lax one; (such as /ʌ/ u: sun hungry ; o: son, another; ou: enough, couple, double, young ) /ə:/ is a
long, half-close and half-open, unrounded, tense central vowel. (such as/ə:/er: term , certainly ; ir: first, third; ur: turn,
Thursday ; or: work, word; ear: learn, early)
It is hoped that the results will have implications for English teaching and learning in Xinjiang, even in China. However,
we have long way to go because we may meet with lots of difficulties and problems. But if we take measures in the
teaching of English phonetics, especially in comparing and contrasting the similarities and differences between the
mother languages and the target language, and attention must be paid when the Han students of English major
pronounce the elision of schwa of / ə /, they can produce good English pronunciation of vowel in their study, and
getting the schwa sound correct is a good way of making your pronunciation more accurate and natural.
References
Best, C. (1995). A direct realist view of cross-language perception. In W. Strange (Ed), Speech perception and
linguistic experience. Timonium, MD: York Press.
Best, C., McRoberts, G., & Goodell, E. (2001). Discrimination of non-native consonant contrasts varying in perceptual
assimilation to the listener’s native phonological system [J]. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 109, 775-
794.
Bradlow, A. (1995). A comparative acoustic study of English and Spanish vowels. Journal of Acoustical Society of
America, 97(3).
IJALEL 2 (1):117-125, 2013 125
Butler, A. (1976). The Influence of the Native Language on the Perception of Vowel Quality. Arbeitsberichte Institute
fur Phonetik, Univ. Kiel, 6.
B. Yi, (2006). Vowel Pa ttern of M odern Uyghur, Journal of Xinjiang University, Vol1/20: 141-144.
Chen, M. (1970). Vowel length variation as a function of the voicing of consonant environment. Phonetica, 22, 129-
159.
C.K. Gui. (1985). Applied Linguistics in American Enlgish. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language andTeaching Press.
8. Escudero, P. R. (2000). The perception of English vowels by Spanish speakers: Spectral and temporal effects in the
perception of the /i/-/I/. Contrast, 2000.
Escudero, P., & Boersma, P. (2004). Bridging the gap between L2 speech perception research and phonological theory.
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 26, 551–585.
Flege, J. E., Bohn, O.-S., & Jang, S. (1997). Effects of experience on non-Native speakers’ production and perception of
English vowels [J]. Journal of Phonetics, 25, 437 – 470.
Flege, J. E., & Mackay, I. (2004). Perceiving vowels in a second language. Studies of Second Language Acquisition.
26:1-34. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Fox, M., & Maeda, K. (1999). Categorization of American English vowels by Japanese speakers. ICPhS99. 1437 -1440.
San Francisco.
Fox, R, A., Flege, J. E., & Munro, M.J. (1995). The perception of English and Spanish vowels by native English and
Spanish listeners: A multidimensional scaling analysis. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 97, 2540-51.
Hao-ming, Wang. (2008), An experimental study of recognition of the lax and tense vowel of /i/ & /I/by Uyghur English
majors, Urumuqi: Xinjiang Normal University.
H.Q. Bao. (1984). Physiological Interpretation of Monosyllabic Vowels in Chinses Mandarin.China Chinese, 2.
Hayes, R. (2002). The perception of novel phoneme contrast in a second language: A developmental study of native
speakers of English learning Japanese singleton and geminate consonant contrast. Language in Cognitive Science.
Coyyote Papers 12, 28-41.
K. Hayward. (2000) Experimental Phonetics. U.K: Pearson Education Limited, Britain.
Lin, T., & Wang, L. J. (1992). A Course to Phonetics. Beijing: Beijing University Press.
Ladefoged, P. (1985). A Course in Phonetics. NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc..
Morrison, G. S. (2002). Perception of English /i/ and /I/ by Japanese and Spanish Listeners: Longitudinal Results. In
Morrison, G. S., & Zsoldos, L. (Ed.) (2002). Proceedings of the North West Linguistics Conference 2002. Burnaby, BC,
Canada: Simon Fraser University Linguistics Graduate Student Association.
Naeser, M.A. (1970). Influence of initial and final consonants on vowel duration in CVC syllables. Technical Report
No. 130. Wisconsin Research and Development Center for Cognitive learning, The University of Wisconsin.
Pearman, A. (2004). Sound change in the learner: The perception of connected speech, Proceedings at the 9th
Conference on Laboratory Phonology.
Peter Ladefoged. (1976). The Phonetic specification of the language of the world. UCLA Working paper in Phonetics.
Peter Ladefoged, Morris Halle. (1988). Some Major Features of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Language. 1988.
The International Phonetic Association. (1999). Handbook of the International Phonetic Association-a guide to the use
of the International Phonetic Alphabet.
Wang, L. (2003).Chinese Phonetics. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company.
Yu-hong, Sun. (2006), Effects of Language Training on Mandarin Learners’ Perception of American English Tense /i/
and Lax /I/, Urumuqi: Xinjiang Normal University, 48.
Z.Y. Xiao, (1997). Language and Culture in Xinjiang, Urumuqi: Xinjiang People’s Press.
Acknowledgment
This initial achievement is assisted by scientific research fund of Chang-ji University. The
established number is 2012YJYB010, the title of which is "On the construction of Minority
Students' corpora of English Phonetics in Xinjing".
Analyzing the Advertising Discourse- A Journey from Sight to Mind

Mahrukh Baig
M. Phil Applied Linguistics
University of Management and Technology
Center for English Language (CEL), UMT, C II Johar Town Lahore, Pakistan
E-mail: mahrukh.baig@gmail.com

Abstract
This research paper sets out to project an in-depth study of the advertising discourse by applying methodological
approaches of Discourse Analysis and Critical Discourse Analysis to the chosen “advertisements”. It aims at examining
the ‘power relations and struggles’ among product-producers and product-consumers, to gauge the level of
psychological dominance exercised through the advertising discourse. The study, fundamentally, presents a counter-
analysis of ‘advertising strategies’, as to how far they influence the consumers’ attitudes and to what extent the
consumers direct their ‘discourse’. In other words, this research attempts to answer the question: ‘who turns out to be
more powerful by controlling the other’s mind, in advertiser-consumer relationship?’, whether it is the consumer who
shapes the discourse of advertisements through their demands, or the advertiser who affects the consumers’ beliefs
through their ‘discourse’! Thus, the current paper presents a comprehensive review of the relevant literature leading
towards a theoretical framework of preferred DA and CDA approaches to be further applied on the discourse of
advertisements. And towards the end, it states the final remarks concluding the entire discussion and reflecting upon the
effectiveness of Critical Discourse Analysis in its application on the advertising phenomena.
Keywords: Discourse analysis, Advertising discourse, Producer-consumer power relations, Critical discourse analysis
of chosen advertisements
1. Introduction
A disciplined, goal-oriented field that tries to deliver the right message to the right person at the right time, advertising,
makes ideas creative with the help of three characteristics which are socially-governed: relevance, originality and
impact. (Wills, Burnett & Moriarty 1995:422)
To ask “what is an advertisement?” is parallel to hit a question on the working of a society or the process of life itself,
for the phenomena of advertising is highly familiar to the modern man that a question about its nature sounds to be out
of question in today’s world. However, in spite of its being all around us, or perhaps because it is all around us, we do
not take time out to think about its function as a form of discourse and as a system of language use. In fact, a huge
number of readers and viewers are implicitly involved in a distant communication with the advertisers, on daily basis.
When it comes to visual discourse, the term “text” gets a multidimensional use including images, colors, artifacts and
verbal behaviour. “At the root of the word ‘advertisement’ is the Latin word ‘advertere’, meaning ‘to turn towards’”,
says Goddard (1998:6). However, everything we turn towards can not be called an advertisement. That’s why, assigning
classifications to the texts in advertising is even more complex in nature, for it depends upon the role they play in a
particular context with a specific intention—why they appear and where they are used.
Central to our idea of an advert appears to be the factor of conscious intention behind the text, with the aim of
benefiting the originator materially or through some other less tangible gain, such as enhancement of status or
image. (Goddard 1998:7)
Texts do not neatly fall into categories according to the purpose or intention behind them. For instance, the texts of
advertisements can not simply be termed ‘informative’ or ‘persuasive’ as there are multiple factors functioning in
variant combinations behind it. So, in order to analyze the multidimensional discourse of advertisements, an eclectic
approach such as Critical discourse Analysis can be applied for the achievement of well-integrated results.
2. Objectives
The major objectives of this research are to:
1. Investigate the intentions, techniques and discursive strategies of the advertisers (Producers).
2. Trace out the influence of the advertising discourse on the consumers’ mind (Receivers).
3. Analyze the process of production and reception of an advertising discourse in a particular context and society
(Social Practices).
IJALEL 2 (1):126-135, 2013 127
3. Literature Review
This section of the research paper reviews pertinent literature on the field of advertising as well as general principles of
CDA, outlining the research approaches of Fairclough and Wodak (1997). Moreover, it presents a critique of the CDA
approach in order to further establish a theoretical framework to be applied on discourse of advertisements.
3.1 Critical Discourse Analysis
A discipline that views discourse as constituting social practice and at the same time being constituted by it (Wodak
1999:7)
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is a rapidly developing area of Applied Linguistics. It regards discourse as ‘a form
of social practice’ (Fairclough & Wodak, 1997, p.258), and considers the context of language use to be crucial to
discourse (Wodak, 2001). It attempts at tracing out the relationship between language and power. CDA may be
described as an approach claiming that “social practices”, cultural and economic dimensions are significant in the
creation and maintenance of power relations in discourse. The key figures in this area include Fairclough, Halliday,
Foucault, Van Dijk and Wodak. It is generally agreed that CDA cannot be classified as a single method but is rather
viewed as an approach consisting of different perspectives and various methods for studying the relationship between
the use of language and social context as to how discursive power can be exercised in order to control the ‘mind’. As
Fairclough (1989) calls it “…a particular form of social practice, in the center of which power and ideology mutually
influence and interact with one another”. (p. 42)
3.2 Discourse of TV, Print and Web advertisements
Conventional advertising, mainly TV-commercials and print ads, still dominates today’s advertising market. However, a
variety of new advertising formats is emerging. A modern trend in the advertising scenario is the discourse of Web
advertisements. Internet is the latest developed electronic mass medium of the 20th century. With its globally operating
network and multimedia functions, this new communication tool is gradually capturing the discourse of advertisers and
becoming one of the largest advertising medium. Some of the researchers, such as Leong (1998), believe it to be a
“threat” to the other mediums.
The phenomenal growth of consumers and businesses connected to the Internet indicate a viable audience for
advertising and promotional messages for many companies, being a threat for other mediums of
advertisement. (Leong, 1998:47)
3.3 Analysis of Advertising Discourse
Discourse analysis emphasizes language as a tool that constructs texts and talk. It does not only analyze the text itself
but also the processes that govern its production and reception, from producers to the target audience. Rather than using
language to imply the presence of underlying psychological constructs, it focuses on how people use language to
express their inner-self and state of mind. The discourse analysts are more concerned with studying what people are
doing while talking than what they are saying in their talk.
By using discourse analysis as a means of examining the social processes that create ads, advertising techniques and
discursive strategies, an in-depth analysis of the advertising discourse can be conducted. The study of social processes
of a discourse is dealt under a contemporary approach of Discourse Analysis (DA) which is called Critical Discourse
Analysis (CDA).
3.4 Principles of Critical Discourse Analysis
Many theorists in CDA present its general principles in their own terms. Some of them represent the common ground of
all CDA approaches, while some take a separate route for each approach. The most widely cited view is Fairclough and
Wodak’s (1997) principles of CDA which are listed below:
1. Social Problems: “CDA follows a critical approach to social problems in its endeavours to make explicit power
relationships which are frequently hidden.”
2. “Power relations are discursive”, that CDA explains how social relations of power are exercised and negotiated
in and through discourse.
3. “Discourse constitutes society and culture.”
4. “Discourse causes ideological change”, that ideologies are often produced or changed through discourse.
5. “Discourse is history”, that discourses can only be understood with reference to their historical context.
6. “The link between text and society is mediated.”
7. “CDA goes beyond textual analysis. It is not only interpretative, but also explanatory in intent.”
Discourse from the point of view of CDA, then, is a form of social action. The principal aim of CDA is to
uncover opaqueness and power relationships. CDA is a socially committed scientific paradigm. It attempts to
bring about change in communicative and socio-political practices. (Fairclough & Wodak, 1997:265).
3.5 Criticism on the CDA Paradigm
Discourse is “in vogue and vague”. (Widdowson, 1995:158)
IJALEL 2 (1):126-135, 2013 128
Critical Discourse Analysis, being a relatively new theory in the science of language, seems to lack some clear
conceptual outlines of its approach, which generates a lot of criticism on CDA paradigm.
Schegloff in his article entitled, ‘Whose text? Whose context?’ (Schegloff, 1997) argues that CDA is often lacks in
detailed, systematic analysis of text or talk, for instance as it is carried out in conversation analysis. He writes:
I understand that critical discourse analysts have a different project, and are addressed to different
issues, and not to the local co-construction of interaction. If, however, they mean the issues of power,
domination, and the like to connect up with discursive material, it should be a serious rendering of
that material…Otherwise the critical analysis will not ‘bind’ to the data, and risks ending up merely
ideological. (Schegloff, 1997:20)
Widdowson (1995) advocates, in his debate on critical discourse analysis, that CDA is contradictory in itself as at one
hand it uses the term “critical” for the process of analysis which involves subjectivity whereas, on the other hand,
propagates objective interpretation of the discourse. That’s why; he states that the term ‘discourse’ as it is used in CDA
is as vague as it is in vogue. “Discourse is something everybody is talking about but without knowing with any certainty
just what it is: in vogue and vague”. (Widdowson, 1995:158)
4. Theoretical Framework
4.1 Selected Theories and Approaches to ‘Discourse Analysis (DA)’
This section aims at sketching an overview of the theories and approaches that are selected for their application on the
chosen pieces of advertising discourse. These approaches have been extracted from both DA and CDA disciplines of
Applied Linguistics.
4.1.1 Speech Act Theory
“Actions performed via utterances are generally called speech acts”. (Yule 1996:47)
4.1.1.1 Background:
The Speech Act Theory was first presented by a prominent linguist and philosopher John Austin in his book entitled
“How to Do Things with Words” which was published in 1962. Austin’s theory held that language can be used not just
for describing the thoughts and beliefs, but also for performing different acts and the acts that we perform through
language are called “Speech acts”. The theory was further developed and organized by another philosopher, John
Searle, in 1975.
4.1.1.2 Three-fold nature of a Speech Act
The Speech act theory suggests that any speech act can be divided into three layers which are the three major
components of speech acts.
Locutionary Act: The act of saying. (A meaningful utterance)
Illocutionary Act: What one does in saying it. (Speaker’s intention)
Perlocutionary Act: What one does by saying it. (Effect upon the listener)
4.1.1.3 Types of Speech Acts
Austin and Searle presented different classifications of the speech acts yet being the same in nature. According to
Austin’s approach, speech acts can be divided into two broad classes:
· Constatives: These are the utterances that include assertions or statements which may be true or false. All the
utterances which are not performatives/ declarations are called constatives.
· Performatives/Declarations: These utterances do not report or describe, are not true or false, and they
perform an action which changes the state of affairs in the World. For instance:
• I sentence you to death
• I pronounce that they may be Man and Wife.
According to Searle’s approach, speech acts can be classified into five categories:
• Directives: speech acts that cause the hearer to take a particular action, e.g. requests, commands and advice
• Assertives/ Representatives: speech acts that represent the speaker’s belief about the truth of a proposition.,
e.g. assertion, claim, conclusion
• Commissives: speech acts that commit a speaker to some future action, e.g. promises and oaths, offers
• Expressives: speech acts that express the speaker's attitudes and emotions towards the proposition, e.g.
congratulations, apology and thanks
• Declarations: speech acts that change the reality according to the proposition of the declaration, e.g. baptisms,
court-decisions, pronouncing someone guilty or pronouncing someone husband and wife
4.1.1.4 Structural Classification of Speech Acts
Structurally speech acts can be divided into:
IJALEL 2 (1):126-135, 2013 129
· Direct Speech Acts:
In direct speech acts there is a direct relationship between structure and function of the sentence.
· Indirect Speech Acts:
In indirect speech acts there is an indirect relationship between structure and function of the sentence.
4.2 Selected Theories and Approaches to ‘Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)’
4.2.1 Fairclough’s Three-Dimensional Model
One of the most renowned critical discourse analysts, Norman Fairclough, presented a three-dimensional model of CDA
in his work “Language and Power” which was published in 1989. This model is supposed to be an interdisciplinary
approach to the study of discourse, for it views ‘language as a form of social practice’ (Fairclough 1989: 20) and
focuses on the ways social and political dominance is exercised in discourse by ‘text and talk’. Moreover, the three-
dimensional model highlights processes of the production and reception of a ‘discourse fragment’ in a particular
context.
Text.. Text analysis/

Situational Description
.
Context
Processing analysis/
Discursive Practices Interpretation
Social Practices Social analysis/

Intertextual Explanation
Context
Figure 1: Fairclough’s three dimensions to discourse
According to his three-dimensional model, Fairclough identifies three dimensions to Critical Discourse Analysis. The
first dimension represents the discourse fragment, a “Text” that could be any object of analysis, including verbal, visual
or verbal and visual texts. The second dimension of ‘discursive practices’ can be described in terms production and
reception of a ‘text’ in a particular ‘context’. The context is ‘situational as well as intertextual’. Situational context
deals with the time and place of text production whereas intertextual context is related to the producers and receivers of
the discourse. The third dimension of discourse could be described as ‘power behind discourse’ or as ‘social practices’
functioning behind the entire process and governing the power relations in discourse.
Among the three dimensions of Fairclough’s model, each dimension requires a different type of analysis: for the first
dimension ‘text analysis’ or description, for the second dimension ‘processing analysis’ or interpretation, and for the
third dimension it is the ‘social analysis’ or explanation. All dimensions are inter-dependent and therefore it does not
matter with which kind of analysis one begins with as they are “mutually explanatory” (Janks 1997: 27).
4.2.2 Power and Discourse
To explain the relation between power and discourse Fairclough presented another approach in “Language and Power”
(1989:43-76), where he distinguishes between ‘power in discourse’ and ‘power behind discourse’. Power in discourse as
a form of social practice is exercised through language in various ways, for example in face-to-face encounters or in the
discourse of the mass media. Whereas power behind discourse describes the formation of power relations as to which
social bodies, organizations and institutions form the power relationships behind discourse. “Power is never definitively
held by any one person, or social grouping, because power can be won and exercised only in and through social
struggles in which it may also be lost”, states Fairclough (1989, p. 43).
4.2.3 Three Agents of Discourse
In order to further exemplify his concept of power in and behind discourse, Fairclough states that any discursive
practice involves three agents in its production:
i. Situational Agent
ii. Institutional Agent
iii. Societal Agent
He suggests that “any given piece of discourse may simultaneously be a part of a situational struggle, an institutional
IJALEL 2 (1):126-135, 2013 130
struggle, and a societal struggle” (Fairclough 1989: 70). In relations to power and discourse this means that struggle at
the situational level could be seen as making efforts to gain ‘power in discourse’ whereas the institutional and the
societal struggles could be described as ‘power behind discourse’.
We might say that, in terms of ‘power in discourse’, discourse is the site of power struggles, and, in terms of
‘power behind discourse’, it is the stake in power struggles, for control over orders of discourse is a powerful
mechanism for sustaining power. (Fairclough 1989: 74).
5. Analysis
5.1 Application of (above discussed) ‘DA’ Approaches to the chosen advertisements
This section of the research paper is developed on practical grounds of theoretical application. The pieces of discourse
under analysis are all television commercials (electronic advertisements) taken from different cultures and TV channels.
These advertisements would be critically analyzed applying the selected approaches to discourse which are outlined in
the preceding section.
5.1.1 Application of Speech Act Theory
“Here for Good”

Standard Chartered Advertisement
(Transcript attached in appendix I)
5.1.2 Profile of the advertisement:
This advertisement has been taken from Geo TV Pakistan. The commercial was released on January 3 rd, 2010. An
analysis of the chosen discourse under Speech Act theory is as follows:
5.1.3 Three Major Components of a Speech Act:
Tracing out the three components of Speech Act is this particular piece of discourse:
· Locution involves all the linguistic elements used in this advertisement. These linguistic items are the
utterances that contain a meaningful effect in their production.
· Illocution, in the discourse under discussion, is the communicative intent of the advertiser that is to persuade
the consumers in such a way that they would make Standard Chartered their choice.
· Perlocution is the degree of influence that the advertiser could have upon the viewers. If the meaningful
utterances (locutionary act) in the advertisement generate a strong effect upon the listeners/viewers controlling
their minds and actions, then the perlocutionary aim of the advertiser is achieved.
(These elements have been given an illustrative treatment under 5.1.4 and 5.1.5)
As speech act is a “thing” to be done through “words”, so the speech act being performed in this piece of discourse is
that of the speaker’s/advertiser’s communicative intent, the illocutionary act, which is persuasion.
5.1.4 Types of Speech Acts
5.1.4.1 Austin’s Approach:
As mentioned earlier, Constatives, according to Austin’s approach, are the utterances that include assertions or
statements which might be true or false, that’s why, the utterances produced in this advert would be placed under the
category of constatives, for they can be judged for ‘truth value’.
5.1.4.2 Searle’s Approach:
According to Searle’s classification of speech acts, this discourse would falls under the class of commissives. As
commissives are the utterances which commit the speaker to some future action, so the claims made in the
advertisement are a kind of commissive speech act being performed by the advertiser. Such as claiming:
To be here for People
Here for Progress
Here for the Long Run
Here for Good!
5.1.5 Structural Classification of Speech Acts:
Classifying the speech act performed in the chosen discourse in terms of structure, it could be called an indirect speech
act which exhibits an indirect relationship between the linguistic form and the function of the utterance.
5.1.5.1 Linguistic Form:
The structure or the linguistic form of this advertisement is that of interrogative utterances. As demonstrated below:
Can a Bank really stand for something?
Can it balance its ambition with its Conscience to do what it must not what it can?
IJALEL 2 (1):126-135, 2013 131
Can it not only look at the profit it makes but that how it makes it makes that profit and stand beside people not above
them?
Where every solution depends on each person, simply by doing good, can a bank in fact be great?
5.1.5.2 Communicative Function:
The communicative function being performed by “text and talk” in the advert is that of persuasion, as the advertiser
aims at influencing the opinions and ideologies of the consumers.
5.1.5.3 Form-Function Mismatch:
Thus, the linguistic structure and communicative function do not coincide in the chosen discourse, for the interrogation
does not require a response from the viewers, rather it aims at questioning the nature and performance of a ‘bank’ in
general.
5.2 Application of (above discussed) ‘CDA’ Approaches to the chosen advertisements
5.2.1 Fairclough’s Three Dimensional Model
“Real Women, Real Beauty”

Dove Advertisement
(Transcript attached in appendix II)
5.2.1.2 Profile of the advertisement:

The Dove accessories advertisement was designed and released by Indian advertising media in June 2005. The beauty
products being advertised through this discourse were launched in March 2005 by Unilever Group of Industries. This
piece of advertising discourse has been chosen to be analyzed under Fairclough’s three-dimensional model of critical
discourse analysis.
5.2.1.3 First Dimension: Text Analysis – Description:
The first dimension of Fairclough’s model refers to the description of discourse fragment, a “text”. When it comes to a
TV commercial, the term “text” does not only point towards an analysis of ‘linguistic units’, but the entire audio-visual
discourse including moving images, sounds, color, signs, characters and the social roles or role models being
represented in the advertisement.
· Real Women
The video clip (appendix V) shows only female characters that are called “real women”, for they do not look like
typical models in beauty advertisements (thin, young with haircuts and loud make-up). Belonging to different
backgrounds and age groups, they all have got diverse physical features and outlooks.
· Social Roles
The women appearing in the advertisement are all performing different roles in society, which they are fully happy and
contented with. They seem to embrace life and accept their honorable social role with pride whether it is the role of a
“Grandma, ma, sister, soul sister, class mate, room mate, teacher or mentor”. A move from “grandma” to “ma” and
“sister” indicates generation gap highlighting a sense of timelessness in their beauty that no matter how old they grow
“dove keeps them beautiful”.
· Purity
Projecting clear and plain images of simply “real women”, the advertisement denotes the element of purity in the
natural and realistic appearance of these role models. As it says “meet the real celebrities”, advocating that a natural and
real look always ensures greater beauty and purity.
· Balance between Modernity and Simplicity
The message in this discourse draws a balance between modernity and simplicity of these women. They appear to be
simple and traditional women being, simultaneously, modern and progressive in their style and attitude. Coming down
to a “class mate” and “room mate” from “grandma” and “ma”, the visual signifies a shift from simplicity to modernity
yet sharing the same level of confidence.
· Gender Discourse
This piece of discourse could be called gender biased as well, for it presents all the female characters, associating
“beauty” with “women” only. Moreover, the reaction and reinforcement of the product is required from the female
community only; men are not needed to support the product or admire the advertisement.
· The Advertising Technique
The advertising technique to make this commercial more effective is its relatively unorthodox way to advertise the
product, in contrast to most of the current beauty advertisements it does neither show professional models nor gives any
IJALEL 2 (1):126-135, 2013 132
information about the benefits customers could gain from the use of the Dove accessories. On the contrary, the message
of the discourse could be summarized saying ‘stay as beautiful as you already are’.
Moreover, its natural and real setting aims at appealing a wide range of female viewers as they can relate themselves to
at least one of these role models.
5.2.1.4 Second Dimension: Processing Analysis — Interpretation:
The second dimension of Fairclough’s model would place emphasis on the process of production and reception of this
advertising discourse in a particular context. The two types of contexts under this dimension are discussed below with
regard to the chosen discourse.
(A) Situational Context:
This context deals with time and place of the “text” production. That’s why, there are three elements involved when the
text is a visual discourse fragment: agent, scripter and actors/characters.
· Agent is the entity whose intent the message represents, the producer of the product, who in this discourse is
the “Unilever Group of Industries”.
· Scripter is the entity who designs the form or content of the message. With reference to the discourse under
discussion, scripter would be the designer of the advertisement that is Indian ads agency.
· Actor is the entity who physically delivers the message, such as the “Real Women” in this TV commercial.
As far as the time of production is concerned, the product was launched and advertised in 2005.
(B) Intertextual Context:
Intertextual context underlines the relationship between “text”/discourse and its producers as well as receivers.
· Product-Producer Relationship
Tracing out the product-producer relationship in this advertisement, one needs to throw some light on Silvia
Lagnado, the director Dove brand. She has been leading a “Campaign for Real Beauty” since 1991. The
objective of the campaign was to fight unrealistic ideals of beauty. As they express their goal stating “Beyond
Stereotypes: Rebuilding the Foundation of Beauty Beliefs”. Talking about change in ideology of preference for
“unrealistic beauty” and rebuilding a new belief in “real beauty”, underscores the power which is being
exercised through discourse of advertisement.
· Product-Consumer Relationship
Since the consumers or target audience here is the female community, their relation to the product can be described
in terms of their purpose of using it. The purpose behind its use is not only to look good but to strengthen their
self-esteem and generate confidence.
5.2.1.5 Third dimension: Social analysis – Explanation
As mentioned in the theoretical framework, third dimension of the Fairclough model refers to the societal bodies,
institutions, organizations and cultural norms that govern the process of “text” production.
In the advert under analysis these “social practices” or factors behind discourse can be enlisted as:
· Beauty Product Industry–Unilever Group
· The Brand– Dove
· Indian Media– Ads Agencies
· The feminist “Campaign for Real Beauty”
· The socio-cultural roles being occupied by the “real women”
Thus, after an in-depth analysis of a discourse under Fairclough’s three-dimensional model, this could be agreed on that
all the three dimensions are inter-dependent as any one of them can not possibly be segregated from the other two for an
individual analysis. This interconnection of social and discursive factors stems from Fairclough’s interdisciplinary
approach towards research. He tends to draw a connection between various disciplines and the theme of research
because to him “language is a form of social practice” (Fairclough 1989: 20).
In the interconnections of three dimensions the analyst finds interesting patterns and disjunctions
that need to be described, interpreted and explained mutually. (Janks 1997: 26)
5.2.2 Power and Discourse--Three agents involved:
Two advertising discourses would be analyzed under this approach.
5.2.2.1 Analysis (a):
“That’s the power of human expression”
Airtel Express Yourself Advertisement
(Transcript attached in appendix III)
IJALEL 2 (1):126-135, 2013 133
5.2.2.1.1 Profile of the advertisement:
This discourse is designed to advertise India’s most popular broadband company “AIRTEL”. The advert was released in
2007 by the Indian ads agencies on various television channels of the country and across the boundaries. An analysis of
the discourse under Fairclough’s CDA approach of “Power and Discourse” is conducted below:
As discussed earlier, this approach views two dimensions of any discursive character of power:
5.2.2.1.2 Power in Discourse:
Power in discourse is being exercised through the use of rhetoric and sentimental utterances in the advertisement. For
example:
A whisper can inspire hope.
A touch can instill faith.
Because “That’s the power of human expression”, these utterances are meant to communicate a message of unity and
companionship which can be achieved through “human expression”, dissolving all kinds of boundaries, hurdles and
chaos only if you could speak. Just as “two words” have the power to “bring down an empire”.
5.2.2.1.3 Situational Agent (Power in Discourse)
Fairclough states that situational agent involved in any discursive practice refers to ‘power in discourse’, because it
deals with the present context or situation in which the discourse works. So, in the chosen advert, this situational agent
includes all those different scenarios which are visualized, such as a “setting of war-times”, “the world of music/art”, “a
sports platform” and a “spiritual and domestic set-up”.
5.2.2.1.4 Power behind Discourse:
Talking about ‘power behind discourse’, one needs to deal with the social bodies functioning behind the scene in order
to form and control the power relations in discourse. Fairclough calls these social bodies ‘institutional and societal
agents’ which make a piece of discourse work in society.
5.2.2.1.5 Institutional and Societal Agents (Power behind Discourse)
Institutional and societal agents work as ‘power behind discourse’, activating the process of “text” production and
reception. These agents involve all the social organizations and institutions, standards and norms that govern the
function of power behind discourse fragment.
In this advertisement, power behind discourse is being applied by the following networks:
· Airtel Broadband
· Media
· Advertising Industry
· The renowned personalities shown in the video
· Culture (“music”), Politics (“war”, “empire”, “dream”, “Revolution”) and Religion (“a whisper can inspire
hope”)
5.2.2.2 Analysis (b):
Obama’08
BarackObama.com
Advertisement
(Transcript attached in appendix IV)
5.2.2.2.1 Profile of the advertisement:
This advertisement comprises of different voices, yet all voicing the same personality: Barack Obama, the current U.S.
President. This discourse was compiled and released in January 2008 to publicize Obama’s biographical information
and to advertise his website (BarackObama.com) for the elections that were going to follow in February. The
advertisement has been selected for analysis under Fairclough’s “Power and Discourse”.
5.2.2.2.2 Power in Discourse:
Power in the chosen discourse is being worked out through the evidence of a set of high-ranked personalities, verifying
the extraordinary standing of Barack Obama:
"It was inspiring, absolutely inspiring to see someone as brilliant as Barack Obama take all of the talent and devote it
to making people's lives better." (Lawrence Tribe Professor Harvard University Law School)
"Senator Obama worked on some of the deepest issues we had, and he was successful in a bipartisan way." (Senator
Kirk Dillard REPUBLICAN)
"It was hard to get that ethics bill passed. This is a man who knows how to get things done. He understands that we've
got to move forward with a different kind of politics." (U.S. Senator Clair McCaskill (D-Missouri))
IJALEL 2 (1):126-135, 2013 134
Moreover, the promises and assertions that Obama puts himself, in order to assure a better nation in the near future by
becoming one with the people and strengthening the bond between past and present, do also work as power in
discourse.
I’m Barack Obama and I approve this message, "We are one people, all of us pledging allegiance to the stars
and stripes…There is not a liberal America and a conservative America; there is the United States of
America. (Barack Obama)
5.2.2.2.3 Situational Agent (Power in Discourse)
The situational agent, here, is not only the American society but also a pure political context in which the discourse
takes place. All the situations and settings viewed in the video (appendix V) lie under the role of situational agents.
5.2.2.2.4 Power behind Discourse--Institutional and Societal Agents
The power behind discourse, in this advertisement, is being exercised through societal and institutional agents such as:
· The American Politics
· Status of the people speaking in the advert
· The web link (BarackObama.com)
· Media and Internet
· And most importantly, Obama’s outstanding reputation and position in the history of Harvard and Senate of the
United States, is the driving force and power behind the discourse.
6. Conclusion
It (CDA) seeks to discern connections between language and other elements in social life which are often opaque.
(Fairclough 1989:29)
The advertising discourse is an apt choice for a healthy analysis of opaque power relations. Being a distant form of
communication, where participants are separated in place and time, advertisements do not allow the discursive
constraints to apply on them. This is mainly due to a sense of “one-sidedness” and estrangement yet engagement with
the consumers. The advertisers generalize their discourse by using an ideal content and drawing an ideal relationship
with the ideal target audience, in order to control the discourse as powerfully as possible. That’s why, in order to analyze
the power relations and struggles that function behind the discourse, this is crucial to investigate who has more access to
discourse and whose access is constrained through societal mechanisms.
References
Chang, Y. and Thorson, E. (2004). Television and web advertising synergies. Journal of Advertising, 33(2), pp. 75-84.
Fairclough, N. (1989). Language and Power. London: Longman Publishers.
Fairclough, N & Wodak, R. (1997). Critical discourse analysis. In T. Van Dijk (ed): Discourse Studies: A
Multidisciplinary Introduction. Vol. (2): London: Routledge.
Fairclough, N. (2003). Analysing discourse: Textual analysis for social research. London: Routledge.
Goddard, A. (1998). The Language of Advertising. London: Routledge Publishers.
Janks, H. (1997). Critical Discourse Analysis as a Research Tool. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of
Education, Volume 18 (3)
Leong, E. K. F. (1998). Comparing the effectiveness of the web site with traditional media. Journal f Advertising
Research, 38(5), pp.44-49.
Schegloff, E.A. (1997). Whose text? Whose context? Discourse & Society, Vol. 8. Pearson Education Press.
Wells, W. Burnett, J. & Moriarty, S. (1995). Advertising: Principles and Practice. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Publishers.
Widdowson, H.G. (1995). Discourse analysis - a critical view. Language and Literature. London: Oxford University
Press.
Wodak, R. (1999). The Discursive Construction of National Identity. Edinburgh.
Yule, G. (1996). Pragmatics. New York: Oxford University Press.
IJALEL 2 (1):126-135, 2013 135
APPENDIX I
“Here for Good”
Standard Chartered Advertisement
Transcript:
Can a Bank really stand for something?
Can it balance its ambition with its Conscience to do what it must not what it can?
As not everything in life that counts can be counted, can it not only look at the profit it makes but that how it makes it
makes that profit and stand beside people not above them?
Where every solution depends on each person, simply by doing good, can a bank in fact be great?
In many places we call home, our purpose remains the same.
To be here for People
Here for Progress
Here for the Long Run
Here for Good!
APPENDIX II
“Real Women, Real Beauty”
Dove Advertisement
Transcript:
Meet the real celebrities
grandma
ma,
sister
soul sister
class mate
room mate
teacher
mentor
Real women, Real beauty
Dove keeps them beautiful!
APPENDIX III
“Express Yourself”
Airtel Advertisement
Transcript:
Two words can bring down an empire.
One dream can change the world.
One raised finger can break a billion hearts; two can win a world war.
A whisper can inspire hope.
A touch can instill faith.
Some voices can move a nation; some can dissolve boundaries.
An act of defiance can spark a revolution.
One hundred thousand candles can end a war.
“That’s the power of human expression.”
APPENDIX IV
Obama’08
BarackObama.com
Transcript:
Obama: "I'm Barack Obama and I approve this message."
Obama at the 2004 Democratic National Convention:
"We are one people, all of us pledging allegiance to the stars and stripes."
Anonymous Voice: "After college and law school, Barack Obama could have cashed in. Instead he fought for change.
Working to rebuild an area torn apart by plant closings."
Harvard Law professor Laurence Tribe: "It was inspiring, absolutely inspiring to see someone as brilliant as Barack
Obama take all of the talent and devote it to making people's lives better."
Anonymous Voice: "In Illinois he brought Republicans and Democrats together. Cutting taxes for workers and winning
health care for children."
Republican Illinois State Senator Kirk Dillard: "Senator Obama worked on some of the deepest issues we had, and
he was successful in a bipartisan way."
Anonymous Voice: "And in the U.S. Senate, he's led on issues from arms control to landmark ethics reform."
U.S. Sen. Claire McCaskill, (D-Missouri): "It was hard to get that ethics bill passed. This is a man who knows how to
get things done. He understands that we've got to move forward with a different kind of politics."
"There is not a liberal America and a conservative America; there is the United States of America."
(Obama in convention speech)
Meaning Making
Lived Experience of Elizabeth Gilbert
Angela Brown
College of Southern Nevada, USA
E-mail: browa13@unlv.nevada.edu

Abstract
This essay is about Elizabeth Gilbert’s pursuit to find a connection to something greater than herself, for happiness and
balance after a life changing event in her life. It is based on her book “Eat and pray Love” is a biography of her
encounters, as she searches for herself. It is a brief overview as she embarks on a mission for solitude, truth, harmony,
unity and meaning in life through Italy, India, and Indonesia.
Keywords: Education, Analysis, Literature
In our darkest moments, following many paths and adversities, we all attempt to make some sense of the world around
us and our involvement in it. Through lived experience, explains from Elizabeth Gilbert’s memoir’s show her personal
search for conviction and meaning and her hunt to make sense of her life, after a dark moment that left her questioning
purpose. I have been there, as I believe have we all, where we are left questioning the purpose of, or reasoning behind,
an occurrence resulting in an attempt to find an answer to or relationship with ourselves while, possibly, connecting us
to something greater than oneself.
Elizabeth Gilbert wrote many books, articles, diaries and journals that narrate her life journey and pursuits to find
wholeness and an entity greater than one. She is best known, however, for her 2006 memoir “Eat Pray Love: One
Woman’s Search for Everything across Italy, India, and Indonesia” which recaptures her journey around the world,
looking for consolation after a difficult divorce. Her books were often international bestsellers, and Eat, Pray, Love is a
wonderful work of art that was made into a marvelous romantic movie and why I selected it for my essay choice. In her
book, based on her worldview and lived reality, she adventured on an excursion, and the central theme of Eat Pray
Love, as well as most of her work, is the search for understanding, worth and her significance of life. On our pathway
toward self-actualization, one directive, as it was for Gilbert, maybe to bridge and balance our moral, social and
physical self in relation to meaning, and/or our spiritual self.
Elizabeth Gilbert, at one point, thought she had a complete and perfect modern dream life with a husband, country
house in New York, topped off by a successful career. Her life takes a turn and she becomes depressed and confused as
well as conflicted with what is/was important to her. It can be said that “a Spiritual journey entails an inevitable
confrontation between the real self and the ideal self, with the self sometimes being seen [as a] spiritual disappointment
of failure (Gould, 2009).” A sad and heartbreaking event made her enquire her purpose and ponder her significance. She
set out in search for peace, guidance, experience and solitude, as she traveled across the world to experience different
cultures.
Gilbert breaks out of her comfort zone to embark on a quest of self-discovery, as illustrated in her book. Left in the
shadows of a painful and unbearable divorce, Gilbert fell into depression. Eventually, she set off on a yearlong pursuit
to discover more about whom she is and to fill the void in her life, and find balance between her mind, body and soul.
This chase, which takes her through Italy, India and the Indonesian island of Bali, was only the beginning of her
spiritual quest, but meaningful enough to stir transformation from within. She was tired of living how others say she
“should” live and do what others expected of her to do and therefore felt time to live for her and challenged herself to
be open for change.
The central theme of her work in Eat Pray Love was to find balance and meaning in the presence of spirituality, which
is shown in her desire to take apart in daily ritual and prayer, learn the way of the people in Bali, go into silence to
prove her devotion and live in harmony amongst the people of the villages. The book, as well as the movie replicates
her yearlong journey, after her separation. During which, she struggled along the way to find faith, confidence and her
inner essence, as she searched for healing and a relationship with an entity or higher power greater than herself. A
spiritual connection provides a sense of control over ones environment, as spirituality is said to stimulate hope and a
sense of optimism, provide purpose and answers to what life is about, offer support at desperate times of need and
question, as well as promote living a better physically and mentally healthy lifestyle (Gould, 2009).
IJALEL 2 (1):136-138, 2013 137
At the beginning of her voyage or quest to becoming spiritual, Gilbert arrived in Rome with her mind set on self-repair
and healing, by immersing herself in her own philosophy of pleasure. In which, for her, was to let her own needs to be
at the forefront of her luxuriating trip. Initially, she thought this would be her cure-all only to discover that it was not
enough. And, that she wanted far more and yearned for something bigger than her, to help become grounded and whole.
She talked a lot about a sense of wholeness that unified not only her inner self but a connection to a divine part in order
to be complete. This was no easy task, for Gilbert, as it is not for many, because an entity or inner spirit is not
something we can see, hear or measure with science, but come to our own terms that there is something bigger than
humankind and accept that it may not be tangible.
Shortly after, in India, Gilbert learns the healing power of meditation as a medicine or remedy for the soul. Until the use
of silence she did not appreciate it, but Gilbert continued to remain open for new discovery, which encouraged her to
learn new things about herself and others. You can see her struggle in her search, as she fell asleep during mediation,
and worse, silent prayer. She eventually learns to appreciate this type of treatment as part of cleansing. Amongst all
those she encounters, she meets a man who, like her, was running from realities in his own world that left him in much
sorrow, which he went to India to fill a painful void through a spiritual uplifting and rehabilitation. He tells her to clear
out all the space in her mind and the universe will rush in, which is what she discovered she had to do, given her racing
thoughts, all her fears and self-condemnation. Her encounters only help to validate that she was on the right path toward
psychological well-being through spirituality.
Eventually, arriving in Indonesia, Gilbert surpassed the heartache, turmoil and grief of her divorce, only to come to
realization the she has the strength from within to control her reactions to events in her life. She learns to enjoy the
simple pleasures in life as she spends endless days with a Yoda looking medicine man that she learns much wisdom
from, a healer who gives her great insight and a man who she eventually falls in love with. Gilbert found amity through
encounters with these individuals and many others, and, she also spent much time trying out Hindu spirituality in India
in search for balance and peace, bicycling around Bali and much introspection with meditation. It was in Bali that her
inner healing process began and she truly found herself, as she learned commitment to living a balanced life with
pleasure, dedication and most importantly by not giving up thy self.
During Gilbert’s escape plan from pain: “to explore the art of pleasure in Italy, the art of devotion in India, and, in
Indonesia, the art of balancing the two” (Gilbert 2006) she becomes restored. Gilbert, as the title suggests, takes
enjoyment in the simple desires of eating, endless prayer, and once again learns to love, which, initially after her
divorce she felt she would not let happen again, as she said it would disrupt her “balance”. Nevertheless she found that
all of these simple pleasures moved her spirit (soul) and, therefore, I say, aid in her process to developing spiritual
meaning, in which connecting her real self with her ideal self. Personal meaning must be created from within, as Victor
Frankl explains, “humans possess an innate will to generate meaning” (Gould, 2006), Where a in individual must
discover their own path of personal fulfillment, just as Elizabeth Gilbert did on her road to discovery.
Along Gilbert’s journey, the medicine man plays an important role in her healing and discovery, which he hands her a
prophecy and tells her to follow it and she will find what she is looking for. “Spirituality, in its ultimate sense, must
involve going beyond ordinary or personal limits. Transcendence demands surpassing or exceeding what has been
clarified farther reaches of human development. Within this discovery, the spiritual self must become comfortable with
the unknown, but proceed nevertheless in the face of uncertainty” (Gould, 2006).This task tested Gilbert’s faith, as well
as challenged her to exceed the mysterious and tread in unknown territory. While doing so; she found peace and balance
within herself. Through knowledge and endless encounters with the medicine man, Gilbert learned that balance requires
not too much spirituality and not too much self, but a bit of both, and that loving someone does not mean she has to give
up balance, but is a part of the sharing and giving to be balanced.
Going briefly back to the life changing events of her divorce, in 2010, Gilbert printed and published an addition to Eat
Pray Love titled Comment which was a memoir exploring her ambivalent feelings about marriage and the institution for
which it is founded upon. Committed (2010) continues to depict Gilbert’s confusion with life and purpose, as she writes
about her trials and tribulations through her process of creating meaning and finding steadiness prior to falling into the
institution of marriage, as well as after a hard divorce. In Committed, you can witness her controversy and fear of
marriage as she deeply explored what marriage is all about historically. She questioned the aspects of fidelity,
traditions, divorce, and responsibility and most importantly the social expectations of matrimony. Granted the
expectations regarding the “traditional” way of living it was only natural for Gilbert to feel lost or convicted after a
divorce.
Following her divorce, Gilbert swore never to remarry, but she did indeed find love again, fairly quicker than she
expected. While in Indonesia, as illustrated in Eat Pray Love, Gilbert fell in love with a man named Felipe. While both
being survivors of previous divorces they vowed to never remarry, but stay committed, hence the title of her book,
which is, an extension of Eat Pray Love. Gilbert talked about marriage being a forced stimulation on love, even though
this force is greater than she projected. For, as fate takes its course, Filipe, being a non-citizen, was stopped at the
American border, so needless to say and despite her previous feelings and vow Gilbert and Filipe, forcefully, tied the
knot. Life is what it is, but Gilbert found her faith in a spiritual world and discovered that she has the power to create
change, as well as has the ability to control her reactions to those changes.
As there is no, one, definition of spirituality, there are many who attempt over the years to define it as; Maslow in 1971
states the ultimate level of human spirituality encompasses the appreciation for “beauty, truth, unity, and the sacred”,
while, Benner says in 1991 that spirituality is a function of one’s “awareness of, and striving for, transcendence,
IJALEL 2 (1):136-138, 2013 138
surrender, integration, and identity,” meanwhile, Cervantes and Ramirez in 1992 described spirituality as “the quest for
meaning and mission in life, the search for harmony and wholeness in the universe, and a belief in an all-loving
presence” (in Gould, 2009). With this being said, there is no question that Gilbert’s mission was a transcending
experience toward creating meaning and balance within her, regardless of, whether she searched for the presence of a
higher being. Taking a leap of faith, Gilbert’s journey toward discovery, peace and balance is what we all search for
with spirituality or lack thereof, only to find whatever it is we are in search for, is, usually thyself, or for better words
the real self and the ideal self in totality.
To step outside your own being can shine the light on, or guide an individual toward a direction one has not taken
before, in which could lead to finding oneself or answer an unsolved question. As Gilbert explains in her diaries,
through debates, conversations, and involvement in the rituals and devotion that others hold she benefitted through a
wakefulness, which lead to her becoming well-centered and have faith, as well as love again. In similarity, egarding
C.S.Lewis in his struggle to find God he created or found a relationship with a divine power through endless
conversations and debates (the guides) that raised attention (the light) which altered his perspectives. All of this to show
that through experience we can alter our perception about life, in which many individuals may need to feel valued,
centered and whole.
Gilbert’s entire trip, fueled by an ugly separation, which could have ended her faith to go on, lead her to love, wealth
and fame, where she now continues to write memoirs, and stays in the spot lite. She spoke a lot about finding balance
between herself and a higher power in her biographies. Gilbert did a great job explaining her quest for balance in the
spiritual life, as illustrated in her work, specifically Eat Pray Love. As Gilbert did, I have gone on a vacation outside the
reality of responsibilities and current situations, although only for a week, to experience life for something opposed to
how I lived, to be able to, open up and see life from Others’ lenses or philosophies. They say life is as we know it. At
times, if possible, it is a great remedy to witness others’ deas, values and beliefs in order to be mindful, have empathy
and be truly aware, as Gilbert explains she set out to accomplish. Divorce, as other life changing events, has a way of
making people question life, believe that they are doing something wrong, failed at some point or unworthy of love, in
which it was obvious in Gilbert’s struggle.
When I first read Eat Pray Love I did not understand her quest or the reason behind her wanting to stay in an old temple
or village, away from modern technology, but then, years later, I watched the movie once, twice and a third time while
it all started to come together, nonetheless, make sense. Her quest to finding or creating meaning and belief in a higher
entity has been similar to my lifelong pursuit to finding love, happiness, acceptance and wholeness in an ever-changing
atmosphere. I do not think I ever put as much thought in to Eat Pray Love until this essay and my ability to become
more open-minded and accepting of others worldviews and beliefs, as well as expeditions to get there. I commend
Elizabeth Gilbert for her brave journey, as well as sharing her view with the world, for those in despair need to find
ones inner self and balance between the mind, body soul and possibly an entity bigger than one’s self.
Upon re-viewing Eat, Pray, Love and analyzing it, specifically, for Elizabeth Gilbert’s worldview and quest to discover
her and create meaning in her personal life I learned to identify the role of spirituality as a means to healing, as well as
create meaning in human development. It not only made me self-reflect on my own voyage and spiritual growth but
also helped facilitate my personal growth, individually and professionally. Though, I am continuously searching for
meaning in relation to spirituality or lack thereof. Our class, Spirituality and Meaning-Making and Gilbert’s journey
through spiritual growth has already helped me to appreciate the diversity of individual’s experiences toward meaning –
making, the process of diverse plights and the role spirituality and religion plays in this development of the self.
References
Gilbert, E. (2006). Eat Pray Love: One Woman’s Search for Everything Across Italy, India and Indonesia. New York:
Vicking.
Gilbert, E. (2010). Committed: A Love Story. New York: Viking.
Gould, J. (2009). Counseling and Spirituality: Integrating Spirituality and Clinical Orientation. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Merrill-Pearson.
Gilbert, Elizabeth official website: http://www.elizabethgilbert.com/
Huber, R. (2009). Eat Pray Love: Philadelphia Magazine. http://www.phillymag.com/articles/eat_pray_live/page3,
posted on February 2009.
Arabic in Iraq
A Diglossic Situation
Mohammad Jafar Jabbari
Faculty of Literature & Humanities, Yasouj University, Yasouj, Iran
Tel: 0989171411227 E-mails: mjjabbari@mail.yu.ac.ir, mjjabbari@yahoo.com

Abstract
In some speech communities two distinct varieties of one language are used side by side, each of which serving a
different range of social functions. One variety, called High, is used only under formal and public circumstances, while
the other one, referred to as Low is used in normal daily-life events. Phonological, semantic and syntactic differences
between the two varieties are so drastic that the two varieties are mutually incomprehensible. This sociolinguistic
phenomenon is termed "diglossia". It is very common especially in Arabic-speaking countries. One good example is the
diglossic situation, held between the Modern Standard Arabic and the Iraqi Colloquial Arabic. The present article aims
to illustrate the differences between the two varieties at different linguistics levels, to account for this mutual
unintelligibility. To achieve this objective, appropriate data were collected from the two varieties. The linguistic
differences were spotted, and categorized according to the Surface Strategy Taxonomy. The data were analyzed and
supported by respective explanations, where necessary.
Keywords: Diglossia, Modern Standard Arabic, Iraqi Arabic, High Variety, Low Variety etc.
1. Introduction
Diglossia is a language situation in which two distinct varieties of one language are used within a speech community.
One variety, referred to as the High variety (H), is used only on formal and public occasions, while the other one,
referred to as the Low variety (L), is used under normal, everyday circumstances. Varieties of the Arabic language
shape a continuous spectrum of variation, with the dialects spoken in the Arab-speaking world being mutually
incomprehensible. One good example of Arabic diglossia is held between the Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) and the
Iraqi Colloquial Arabic (ICA). This article aims to compare MSA and ICA at different linguistic levels, to find out what
factors have made the two verities mutually incomprehensible. To do so, a good number of data belonging to the two
varieties were collected. The differences were scrutinized, and categorized according to the Surface Strategy
Taxonomy. The data were analyzed and supported by respective explanations, where necessary. The alterations
between the two varieties proved so drastic in nature which can justify the aforesaid mutual unintelligibility. The
findings are especially revealing for the Arabic Language curriculum planners. As a step forward, suggestions for
further research are addressed.
2. Background
Trudgil (2009) defines diglossia as:
A particular kind of language standardization where two distinct varieties of a language exist side by side throughout
the speech community (not just in the case of a particular group of speakers, such as Scots or Blacks) and where each of
the two varieties is assigned a definite social function. (p.113)
The term 'Diglossia' was first introduced into the literature by Charles Ferguson (1959) as follows:
Diglossia is a relatively stable language situation in which, in addition to the dialects of the language (which may
include a standard or regional standards), there is a very divergent, highly coded (often grammatically more
complex) superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and respected body of written literature, either of an earlier
period or in another speech community, which is learned largely by formal education and is used for most written
and formal spoken purposes but is not used by any sector of the community for ordinary conversation. (p. 336)
Some scholars, however, maintain that diglossia holds between two languages rather than two varieties of one language.
According to Meyerhoff (2006), "One language may be used for some social functions or in a specific social context,
while another language is served for other" (p.103). Fishman (1971) refers to Paraguay as an example of a diglossic
community, in which the two varieties do not belong to one language, but are Spanish and Guarani.
IJALEL 2 (1):139-150, 2013 140
A key point in diglossia is that the two varieties are kept apart functionally. One variety, referred to as Low (L), is used
at home or in other informal situations, however, if someone needs to give a lecture at a university or in any formal
circumstance, (s)he is expected to use the other variety, referred to as High (H).
According to Wardhaugh (2006, p. 90), “The two varieties cannot be interchangeably used.]…[You do not use an H
variety in circumstances calling for an L variety, e.g. for addressing a servant; nor does one use an L variety when an H
variety is called for, e.g., for writing a serious work of literature".
In a diglossic situation, the two varieties have co-existed for a long time, sometimes, as in Arabic-speaking
communities, for many centuries. Wardhaugh (2006: 89) asserts that "the phenomenon of diglossia is not ephemeral in
nature: in fact, the opposite is true: it appears to be a persistent social and linguistic phenomenon".
Ferguson identifies four situations which show the major characteristics of this diglossic phenomenon: Arabic, Swiss
German, Haitian (French and Creole), and Greek.
Arabic diglossic situation is of special interest for some sociolinguistics. Watson (2002) asserts that "Dialects of Arabic
form a roughly continuous spectrum of variation, with the dialects spoken in the eastern and western extremes of the
Arab-speaking world being mutually unintelligible" (p.8).
In an Arabic-speaking diglossic community, the two varieties are, on the one hand, Standard Arabic (H) and, on the
other, the various regional colloquial Arabic dialects (L). For example, this "diglossic situation may also be found in
Egypt, where both classical Arabic and colloquial Arabic is used"(Finch, 2005, p. 214).
Children, in the Arabic diglossic society, acquire the low variety at home. Some may simultaneously learn the high
variety, usually at school, but many do not learn it at all. There has been this view that the spoken varieties of Arabic
are corruptions of MSA (Modern Standard Arabic) or CA (Classical Arabic) as found in the Quran and are, therefore,
less prestigious varieties of Arabic. According to Wardhaugh (2006):
The H variety is the prestige variety; the L variety lacks prestige. In fact, there can be so little prestige attached to the L
variety that people may even deny that they know it although they may be observed to use it far more frequently than
the H variety]…[This feeling about the superiority of the H variety is reinforced by the fact that a body of literature
exists in that variety and almost none in the L variety. That literature may reflect essential values about the culture.
Speakers of Arabic in particular gain prestige from being able to allude to classical sources. The folk literature
associated with the L variety will have none of the same prestige. (p. 90)
In a recent study, Jabbari (2012) has compared the Modern Standard Arabic and the Egyptian Colloquial Arabic. The
article has introduced the drastic phonological, semantic, and morphosyntactic differences between the two varieties
which have resulted in a mutual incomprehensibility.
3. Data of the Study
The data of the study are collated from an Iraqi Arabic language guide, titled Hamrah-e-Shoma dar Araq (literary
meaning: with you in Iraq), by Amerii and Zeighamiii (2007). The book is meant to be used by Iranian pilgrims to Iraq.
It includes a good number of words, phrases, expressions and sentences in both Standard Arabic and Iraqi colloquial
Arabic, with their translations into Persian. By Standard Arabic is meant the variety based on the speech and writing of
educated native speakers of Arabic, e.g. the variety used by the Arab media.
4. Methodology
To illustrate the linguistic differences between Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), and Iraqi Colloquial Arabic (ICA), the
Surface Strategy Taxonomy has been utilized. This perspective, "highlights the ways surface structures are altered"
(Dulay, Burt and Krashen, 1982, p. 150). Categorizing linguistic items within the framework of the Surface Strategy
Taxonomy helps researchers analyze linguistic alterations, in more details. To achieve this, (1) the collected data were
transcribed phonemicallyiii, (2) the meanings were given in English, (3) when needed, a rough literal (morpheme-based)
back translation of the (Arabic) examples into English was added, to help the non-Arab reader follow the discussions,
and (4) necessary explanations were provided.
4.1. Pronunciation Key
Arabic shares a good number of phonemes with other languages. Yet, there are a few phonemes, only found in Arabic
and some sister languages. The Arabic phonemes are presented in tables (1) to (4).
Table 1. Consonants Specific to Arabic
Consonant Arabic Arabic Example Meaning Phonetic Features

Letter
/ sˤ/ ‫ص‬ ‫ﺻﺒﺎح‬ /sˤaba:h/ morning (Emphatic) Voiceless alveolar fricative
/ dˤ/ ‫ض‬ ‫ﺿﯿﻒ‬ / dˤajf/ guest (Emphatic) Voiced alveolar fricative
/tˤ/ ‫ط‬ ‫طﺎﻟﺐ‬ /tˤa:lib/ student (Emphatic) Voiceless dental-alveolar stop
/ ðˤ/ ‫ظ‬ ‫ظﺮف‬ / ðˤarf/ envelope (Emphatic) Voiceless dental-alveolar stop
/ʔ/ ‫اﺌ ﺊ‬ ‫اﻧﺎ‬ / ʔana/ I (Voiceless) glottal stop

/ʕ/ ‫ع‬ ‫ﻋﯿﻦ‬ /ʕajn/ eye Voiced pharyngeal fricative
IJALEL 2 (1):139-150, 2013 141
/ɤ/ ‫غ‬ ً◌ً‫ﻏﺪا‬ /ɤadan/ tomorrow Voiced uvular fricative
/x/ ‫خ‬ ‫ﺧﺎل‬ /xa:l/ uncle Voiceless uvular fricative

/q/ ‫ق‬ ‫ﻗﺮﯾﺐ‬ qari:b/ relative Voiceless uvular stop
Table 2. Shared Consonants
Consonant Arabic Arabic Meaning Meaning English

Letter Example Example
/b/ ‫ب‬ ‫ﺑﺤﺮ‬ /bahr/ sea by
/t/ ‫ت‬ ‫ﺗﻤﺮ‬ /tamr/ dates table
/θ/ ‫ث‬ ‫ﺛﻼﺟﮫ‬ /θalla:ʤa/ refrigerator think
/ʤ/ ‫ج‬ ‫ﺟﻤﻞ‬ /ʤamal/ camel John
/ɡ / ‫ق‬ ‫ﻗﻤﺮ‬ /ɡamar/ IA moon go
/ʧ/ ‫ك‬ ‫ﺳﻜﯿﻦ‬ /siʧʧi:n/ IA knife chair
/h/ ‫ح‬ ‫ﺣﺒﯿﺐ‬ /habi:b/ friend hand
/d/ ‫د‬ ‫درس‬ /dars/ lesson day
/ð/ ‫ذ‬ ‫ذﻟﮏ‬ / ða:lika/ that that
/r/ ‫ر‬ ‫روح‬ /ru:h/ soul run
/z/ ‫ز‬ ‫زھﺮ‬ /zahr/ bloom zoo
/s/ ‫س‬ ‫ﺳﯿﺎرة‬ /sajja:ra/ car say
/ʃ/ ‫ش‬ ‫ﺷﯿﺊ‬ /ʃajʕ/ thing ship
/f/ ‫ف‬ ‫ﻓﺮﻧﺴﺎ‬ /faransa:/ France France
/k/ ‫ک‬ ‫ﮐﺘﺎب‬ /kita:b/ book key
/l/ ‫ل‬ ‫ﻟﮏ‬ /laka/ for you love
/m/ ‫م‬ ‫ﻣﻦ‬ /man/ who man
/n/ ‫ن‬ ‫ﻧﺎس‬ /na:s/ people nice
/w/ ‫و‬ ‫وﻗﺖ‬ /waqt/ time way
/h/ ‫ه‬ ‫ھﺬا‬ /ha:ða:/ this home
/j/ ‫ی‬ ‫ﯾﻤﻦ‬ /jaman/ Yemen yes
Table 3. Arabic Vowels
Vowel Arabic Arabic Example Meaning

Letter
/a/ ‫ﹷ‬ ‫ﻧَﺤﻦ‬ /nahnu/ we
/i/ ‫ﹻ‬ ‫ِﻣﻦ‬ /min/ of, from
Short
/u/ ‫ﹹ‬ ‫ ٌﻏﺮﻓﺔ‬/ɤurfa/ room

/a:/ ‫ا‬ ‫ ﺑﺎب‬/ba:b/ door
/u:/ ‫و‬ ‫ ﺻﺎﺑﻮن‬/sˤa:bu:n/ soap
long
/i:/ ‫ي‬ ‫ ﻓﻲ‬/fi:/ in, at
Table 4. Arabic Diphthongs

Diphthong Arabic Meaning English
Example Example
/aw/ ‫ ﯾﻮم‬/jawm/ day house
/aj/ ‫ ﺿﯿﻒ‬/ ðˤajf/ guest eye
5. Data Analysis
In a diglossic situation "most linguistic items belong to one of the two non-overlapping sets" (Hudson, 2005, p.55). The
differences between H and L are manifested in (1) grammar, (2) lexicon and (3) phonology. According to Dittmar
(2000):
"1-L has fewer grammatical (morphological) categories and a reduced system of inflection; H has a greater grammatical
(morphological) complexity.
2- H and L have, in the main, a complementary lexicon. It is a particular characteristic of the diglossic situation that
pairs are used situation-specifically with the same meaning in the H variety and the L variety.
3- H and L share one single phonological system, in which the L phonology represents the basic system and the deviant
characteristics of the H phonology from a subsystem or parasystem"(p. 120).
IJALEL 2 (1):139-150, 2013 142
In the forthcoming sections, phonological, lexical and morpho-syntactic differences between MSA and ICA will be
introduced and analyzed, in detail.
5.1 Phonological Differences
As regards phonology, “the L system will often appear to be the more basic]…[there is quite a difference between
Classical Arabic and the colloquial varieties”(Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 91).
5.1.1 Some Arabic Phonological Rules
Standard Arabic, lacks consonants /ʧ/, /Ʒ/, /g/, /v/ and /p/, however, the first three sounds, are not ruled out in different
colloquial varieties of Arabic. The only phonemes not found in any variety of Arabic are the voiceless bilabial stop/p/ iv
and the voiced labio-dental fricative /v/.
Arabic syllable structure is CV(C)(C). It means that: (a) any syllable necessarily starts with a consonant, (b) the initial
consonant is necessarily followed by a vowel, i.e. consonant clusters are not allowed syllable initially, and (c) the
(nucleus) vowel can be followed by 0 up to 2 consonants. Some phonological differences between the MSA and ICA
are:
5.1.2 Rule-governed Phonological Alterations
5.1.2.1 Consonant Change
"/q/ and /k/ are pronounced in Iraqi dialect of Arabic /ɡ/ and /ʧ/respectively, inspired by Turkish" (Ameri and Zeighami,
2007, p. 5). Some examples are:
MSA ICA Meaning
/k/ /ʧ/
(1) /sikki:n/ /siʧʧi:n/ knife
(2) /kalb/ /ʧalib / dog
(3) /samak/ /simaʧ/ fish
(4) /katif/ /ʧitif/ shoulder
(5) /kam/ /ʧam/ how much, how many
/ q/ /ɡ/
(6) /su:q/ /su:ɡ/ market
(7) /qamar/ /ɡamar/ moon
(8) /qul/ /ɡul/ say
Consonant / ʔ/ tends to change to /j/ in ICA:

/ʔ/ /j/
(9) /ma:ʔ/ /ma:j / water
(10) /miʔa/ /mijja / hundred
(11) /ðiʔb/ /ðijb/ wolf
(12) /ma:ʔil/ /ma:jil/ willing
(13) /sa:ʔiq/ /sa:jiq/ driver
(14) /qa:ʔima/ /qa:jma/ bill
(15) /ʕabaʔ/ /ʕabaj/ veil
5.1.2.2 Vowel Change
Vowels /u/ and /a/ in MSA often change to /i/ in ICA. Some examples are as follows:
/u/ /i/
The present verb prefix vowel /u/ in MSA changes to /i/ in ICA:
(16) /tuntaʤ(u)/ /tintiʤ/ is produced
(17) /jukallif(u)/ /jikallif/ it costs
/a/ /i/
The present verb prefix vowel /a/ changes to /i/ in ICA:
(18) /jaʃtaɤil(u)/ /jiʃtaɤil/ it works
(19) /nahta:ʤ(u)/ /nihta:ʤ/ we need
MSA ICA Meaning

Vowel /a/ in MSA definite articles changes to /i/ in ICA:
(20) /ʔal-kita:b/ /ʔil-kita:b/ the book
(21) /ʔad-dars/ /ʔid-dars/ the lesson
IJALEL 2 (1):139-150, 2013 143
/u/ /a/
Present tense prefix /ʔu-/ in MSA changes to /ʔa-/ in ICA:
(22) /ʔuri:d(u)/ /ʔari:d/ I want
5.1.2.3 Change of Initial CV to CVC

In ICA the empty morph /ʔi-/ may be added to the beginning of a word, while the following vowel is deleted. This
phonological rule usually occurs in words of more than one syllable. This way the initial syllable changes from CV (in
MSA) to CVC (in ICA). This phonological process is very productive in ICA and may happen in words of different
parts of speech. Examples (23) to (30) are examples of this rule. The deleted vowels are underlined, and the syllable
boundaries are marked (ˡ):
(23) /nuˡrid(u)/ /ʔinˡrid/ we want
(24) /taˡʔaxxar/ /ʔitˡʔaxxar/ delayed(v)
(25) /fiˡra:ʃ/ /ʔifˡra:ʃ/ carpet
(26) /quˡma:ʃ/ /ʔiqˡma:ʃ/ fabric, clothing material
(27) /taˡfadˤdˤal/ /ʔi-tˡfadˤdˤal / Here you are.
(28) /huˡna:/ /ʔihˡna:/ here
(29) /hiˡsa:b/ /ʔihˡsa:b/ account
(30) /muˡna:sib/ / ʔimˡna:sib/ appropriate
5.1.2.4 Final Deletion

There is a tendency of the deletion of /u(n)/, /a(n)/, /i(n)/ word finally in ICA:
(31) /ʔal-miftah-u la: jaftah-u/
/ʔil-miftah-Ø la: jaftah-Ø/
The key does not open.
(32) /ʔaridu hiða:ʔ-an riʤa:lij-an qijas-a ɵala:ɵat-in wa ɵala:ɵin-a/
/ʔarid-Ø hiða:ʔ-Ø riʤa:lij-Ø qijas-Ø ɵala:ɵ-Ø wa ɵala:ɵin-Ø/
I want a man shoe of a size 33.
5.1.3. Occasional Phonological changes
Occasional phonological changes are those ones which do not take place systematically and frequently. They can be
found in only few examples. Occasional phonological changes are of different types. Some examples are as follows:
5.1.3.1. Consonant Change
/q/ may occasionally change to /k/:
/q/ /k /
(33) /waqt/ /wakit/ time
/θ/ may occasionally change to /t/ particularly in some numbers.
/θ/ /t/
(34) /θala:θa/ /ʔitla:θa/ three (fem.)
(35) /θala:θ/ /ʔitlaθ/ three (mas)
5.1.3.2 Vowel Change

Vowels /a/ and /u/ in MSA may change to /i/ in ICA, occasionally. Some examples are:
/a/ /i/
(36) / sˤaba:h/ /sˤiba:h/ morning
(37) /ɤada:ʔ/ /ɤida/ lunch
(38) /ʕaʃa:ʔ/ / ʕiʃa/ dinner
/u/ /i/
(39) /ʕunwa:n/ /ʕinwa:n/ address
(40) /funduq/ /findiq/ hotel
(41) /huʤra/ /hiʤra/ room
(42) /ʤumʕa/ /ʤimʕa/ Friday
(43) /ʤundi:/ /ʤindi:/ soldier, private
5.2 Morphological Differences

Palmer (2000, P. 120) asserts that "L has fewer grammatical (morphological) categories and a reduced system of
inflection; H has a greater grammatical (morphological) complexity". This implies that the two varieties do not
necessarily follow the same set of grammatical rules.
IJALEL 2 (1):139-150, 2013 144
5.2.1 Suffix Deletion
A good example of the said reduced system of inflection is the tendency of /u(n)/, /a(n)/, /i(n)/ deletion word finally in
ICA. This deletion, also mentioned as a phonological process, is of morphological importance too. As a matter of fact,
the said deleted items are verb suffices or case markers.
MSA ICA Meaning
(44) /ʔarid-u maʕʤu:n-a ʔasna:n-in/ I want a tooth paste.
I- want-suff. paste- ACC teeth-GEN
/ʔarid-Ø maʕʤu:n-Ø ʔasna:n-Ø/

I- want paste-ACC teeth-GEN
(45) /ʔuaid-u hiða:-an ʔakbar-an/ I want a larger pair of shoes.

I-want-suff. shoe-ACC larger-ACC
/ʔarid-Ø hiða:-Ø ʔakbar- Ø

I- want. shoe-ACC larger-ACC
MSA
(46) /siʕr-u ha:ðih-il-maha:sˤi:l-i li-l-mustahlak-i huwa ʔalf-u dula:r-in/
price-NOM these –ART-products-GEN for ART consumer-GEN it thousand-NOM dollar-GEN
ICA
/siʕr-Ø ha:ðih-il-maha:sˤi:l-Ø li-l-mustahlak-Ø huwa ʔalif-Ø dula:r-Ø/
price-NOM these –ART-products-GEN for ART consumer-GEN it thousand-NOM dollar-GEN
Meaning The price of these products for the customer is 1000 dollars.
5.2.2 Avoiding Obligatory Deletion

In Arabic, the regular dual and masculine plural markers end in /n/, e.g. /muʔallim-a:n/, /muʔallim-ajn/ (two [masculine]
teachers), / muʔallim-at-a:n/, /muʔallim-at-ajn/(two [feminine] teachers), muʔallim-u:n/ and / muʔallim-i:n/ ([three or
more masculine] teachers. In MSA, "when the first noun of a genitive noun phrase, referred to as the /mudˤa:f/, is dual
or masculine regular plural, the final /n/ is deleted"(Mahyar, 1994, p. 159). Some examples are follows:
(47) / muʔallim-a:n/+ /madrisatu-na/ → (48) / muʔallim-a:Ø madrisatu-na/
teacher-dualNOM school-of ours
The two teachers of our school
(48) / ʃafat-ajn/ + /-hi/ → (50) / ʃafat-ajØ-hi/

lip-dualACC/GEN of his
his two lips
(49) /muslim-i:n/ +/ ʔifri:qi:ja:/ → (52) /muslim-i:Ø ʔifri:qi:ja:/
muslim-pl.ACC/GEN Africa
Muslims of Africa
In ICA this rule is sometimes violated.
(50) /mi:lja:rajØ mitr mukaʕʕab/ /mi:lja:rajn mitir mukaʕʕab/

Two milliard cubic meters.
(51) /ʔalfajØ ʤarra:r/ /ʔalfajn traktur/ Two thousand tractors.
(52) /siʕr-u-ɵ-ɵalla:ʤa mijata:Ø ʔalif tu:man/

/siʕr-u-ɵ-ɵalla:ʤa mijata:n ʔalif dula:r/
The refrigerator costs two thousand $
5.2.3 Subject-predicate Agreement Violation

In MSA, dual and masculine regular plural markers, undergo a vowel change with regard to case. Some examples are :
(53) . /muʔallim-a:n/ (two [masculine] teachers) = Nominative
(54) /muʔallim-ajn/ (two [masculine] teachers) = Accusative and Genetive
(55) / muʔallim-u:n/ ([three or more masculine] teachers = Nominative
(56) /muʔallim-i:n/ ([three or more masculine] teachers= Accusative and Genetive.
IJALEL 2 (1):139-150, 2013 145
On the other hand, the Subject and the predicate in MSA must be in accord with regard to case. In the following
example, this rule is sometimes violated in ICA:
MSA ICA Meaning
(57) /ʔumri: ʔiθnatan wa ʔiʃru:na sanatan/ /ʔumri: ʔiθnajn wa ʔiʃri:n sana/
NOM dual NOM pl. NOM NOM dual ACC-GEN pl. ACC-GEN
age-my two and twenty year age-my two and twenty year
I am 22 years.
(58) / tˤu:lu-ha xamsa wa ʔiʃru:n mitr-an/ / tˤu:lu-ha xamsa wa ʔiʃri:n mitr-a/

NOM NOM NOM ACC
length-of it five and twenty meter length-of it five and twenty meter
It is 25 meters long.
5.2.3 Deletion of the Conjunction /ʔan/v
The conjunction /?an/ (literally meaning "that") tends to be deleted in ICA, much more than in Standard Arabic. Some
examples are:
MSA ICA Meaning
(59) /ʔuri:du ʔan ʔabqa: huna:/ /ʔari:d ʔabqa ʔihna:/ I want to stay here.
I-want that I-stay here I-want I-stay here
(60) /ʔuri:du ʔan ʔuhawwala dula:ran ʔila: dina:rin/

I-want that I-exchange dollar to dinar
/ʔari:d ʔuhawwal dula:r li-dina:rin/
I-want I-exchange dollar to dinar
I want to exchange dollars to dinars.
5.3 Lexical Differences
5.3.1 Lexical Complementary Distribution
In a diglossic situation, “There may be distinctly different pairs of words, i.e., doublets, in the H and L varieties to refer
to very common objects and concepts. Since the domain of the two varieties do not intersect, there will be an L word for
use in L situations and an H word for use in H situations with no possibility of transferring the one to the other”
(Wardhaugh, 2006, p.91). In other words, the "H and L have, in the main, a complementary lexicon. It is a particular
characteristic of the diglossic situation that pairs are used situation-specifically with the same meaning in the H variety
and the L variety" (Dittmar, 2000, p.120). Lexical Complementary Distribution includes all parts of speech. Some
examples are:
MSA ICA Meaning
5.3.1.1 Adjectives
(61) /qali:l/ /ʃuwajja / little
(62) /ba:sil/ /ʃuʤa:ʕ/ brave
(63) /ba:ʔis/ /miski:n/ poor
(64) /kaɵi:r/ /ʔihwa:ja/ much
(65) /sˤa:rim/ /ʤiddi:/ serious
(66) /sˤaqi:r/ /ʔizɤajjar/ small
(67) /mutʕib/ /taʕba:n/ tired
5.3.1.2 Adverbs
(68) /ʔiðan/ /laʕad/ then, so
(69) /ɤadan/ /ba:ʧ ir/ tomorrow
(70) /huna:/ /ʔihna:/ here
(71) /ʔiðˤan/ /ham/ also
(72) /ʔalʔa:n/ /hassa/ now
MSA ICA Meaning

5.3.1.3 Prepositions
(73) /fi:/ /bi/ in
(74) /min/ /ʔimni/ from, of
(75) /ʔila:/ /l(i)-/ toward
(76) /ʤawf/ /ʔibda:xil/ inside
(77) /bila:/ /bidu:n/ without
(78) /maʕa/ /wajja:/ with
IJALEL 2 (1):139-150, 2013 146
5.3.1.4 Interrogative Pronouns
(79) /ʔajjiʃajʔin/ /ʔajʃ/, /ʃinu:/ what
(80) /mata:/ /ʔiʃwakit/ when
(81) /kam/ /ʔiʃɡad/ , /ʔbajʃ/ how much, how many
(82) /man/ /minu:/ who
(83) /ʔajna/ /wajn/ where
(84) /lima:ða:/, /li-ʔajjiʃajʔin/ /lajʃ/ what for, why
5.3.1.5 Negative Pronouns

(85) /lajsa/ /ma:/ It is not
(86) /lan/ /ʔabada:/ never
(87) /la:/ /mu/ no, don't
(88) /la:/ /ma:ku:/ There is not
5.3.1.6 Verbs
(89) /ʔaðhabu/ /ʔaru:h/ I go
(90) /balaɤa/ /wasˤala/ He reached
(91) /baʕaθa/ /ʔarsala/ He sent
(92) /ʔastatˤi:ʕu/ /ʔagdar/ I can
5.3.1.7 Pronouns and Demonstratives

(93) /tilka/ /ði:ʧi/ that (fem.)(pl.)
(94) /nahnu/ /ʔihn/ we
(95) /ha:ða:/ /ha:ða/ this (mas.)
(96) /ha:ðihi:/ /ha:j/, / ha:ði:/ this (fem.)
5.3.1.8 Nouns
Nouns tend to be in complementary distribution, in the two varieties, much more than any other grammatical category,
(97 to 116) being only few examples:
(97) /ʔimraʔa/ /mara/ woman
(98) /mindi:l/ /ʧafi:jja/ handkerchief
(99) /θaʕalab/ /wa:wi:/ fox
(100) /laban-ul-ra:ʔib/ /ru:ba/ yoghurt
(101) /laban/ /hali:b/ milk
(102) /zajt/ /dahan/ cooking oil
(103) /ʔarruz/ /timman/ rice
(104) /durat-ul-mija:h/ /mara:fiq/ washroom
(105) /fata:/ /ʃa:bb/ young man
(106) /qamh/ /hintˤa/ wheat
(107) /mukassara:t/ /karaza:t/ nuts
(108) /mirʔa:t/ /ʔimra:ja/ mirror
(109) /na:fiða/ /ʃibbaʧ/ window
(110) /waqu:d/ /mahru:qa:t/ fuel
(111) /huʤra / /ɤurfa / room
(112) /babɤa:ʔ/ /bibi mattu:/ parrot
(113) /sulahfa:t/ /ragga/ turtle
(114) /dik ru:mi/ /diʤa:ʤ xajbar/ turkey cock
(115) /qatˤtˤ/ /bazzu:n/ cat
(116) /kurat-ul-qadam/ /tˤawba/ football, soccer
5.3.2 Borrowed Words

The lexicon of a language is said to be an open ended system. There are different strategies for adding new words to the
lexical inventory of a language. Borrowing is the most familiar technique of adding words. No language variety is
needless of borrowing. MSA and ICA are not exceptions to the rule, though there are some differences. On the one
hand “The L variety shows a tendency to borrow learned words from the H variety, particularly when speakers try to
use the L variety in more formal ways” (Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 91). This has resulted in a certain admixture of H
vocabulary into the L. On the other hand, while ICA tends to borrow words from MSA, and other languages, the
tendency in MSA is rather "loan translation". The loan translations in ICA, if any, are usually learned words borrowed
from MSA. Some examples of borrowing are as follows. The borrowed words, are either borrowed from
(geographically) neighboring languages such as Persian, Turkish and Russian, or from European languages, particularly
IJALEL 2 (1):139-150, 2013 147
English and French. It should be born in mind that any borrowed word may undergo phonological and/or semantic
change.
MSA ICA Meaning
5.3.2.1 Word Borrowed from Persian
(117) /karaz/ /ɡila:s/ cherry
(118) /ʔalkaraz-ul-hamidˤ/ /ʔa:lu:/ sour cherry
(119) /hari:r/ /biri:ʃam/ silk
(120) /sari:r/ /taxt/ bed
(121) /tˤa:wila/ /majz/ table
(122) /satta:ra/ /barda/ curtain
(123) /misˤba:h naftˤi:/ /la:la/ hurricane lamp
(124) /mahatˤtˤatu taʔbijat-il-waqu:d/
/ba:nzi:n xa:na/ gas station
(125) /dabbu:s/ /ʧanga:l/ pin
(126) /darra:q/ /gawʤa/ plum
(127) /mirwaha kahruba:ʔ-ija/ /panka/vi electric fan
5.3.2.2 Word Borrowed from Turkish
(128) /milʔaqa/ /xaʃu:g/vii spoon
viii
(129) / ʕilba/ /qu:tˤ i:/ box
(130) /ʔazzur/ /digma/ button
(131) /ʔalhaʃja/ /duʃag/ mattress
5.3.2.3 Word Borrowed from Russian

(132) /qadah-uʃ-ʃa:j/ /ʔistika:n/ix tea cup
5.3.2.4 Word Borrowed from English

(133) / ʃa:hana/ /lu:ri:/ lorry. truck
(134) /sajja:rat-isˤ-sˤa:lu:n/ /ʔistejʃin/ station car
(135) /matˤʕaf/ / kawt/ coat
(136) /taðkira/ /tikit/ ticket
(137) /durra:ʤa / /bajsi:kil/ bicycle
5.3.2.5 Word Borrowed from French

(138) /bitˤa:qa/ /ka:rt/ card
(139) /qitˤa:r-ul-ʔinfa:q/ /mitru:/ subway
(140) /sarwa:l/ /bantˤilu:n/ trousers
5.3.2.6 Word Borrowed from an Ambigiuous Source Language

Sometimes tracing the source of a borrowed word is not possible with certainty, as the word is somehow commonly
used in different languages. The source of ICA borrowed words (141) to (151) is ambiguous. Example (149) could
have been borrowed from English or French. The source of the ICA borrowed word in (150) may equally be French or
German, and in example (151) the source can be English or German, though Arabic has hardly borrowed words from
German:
(141) / ʤarra:ra/ /tiractur/ tractor
(142) / ha:tif/ /tilifun/ telephone
(143) /kaʔs/ /ɡila:sˤ/ glass
(144) /miðja:ʕ/ /ra:di:ju;/ radio
(145) /mana:di:l waraqi:ja/ /kiliniks/ tissue
(146) /ʃurfa/ /balku:na/ balcony
MSA ICA Meaning
(147) /mawqaf/ /ɡara:ʤ/ garage
(148) /sajja:rat-ul-ʔuʤra/ /taksi:/ taxi, cab
(149) /qursˤ-ul-mudammaʤ/ /si:di:/ CD
(150) /raʃʃa:ʃ-ul-ma:ʔ/ /duʃ/ shower
(151) /ha:su:b/ /kambi:u:tar/ computer
IJALEL 2 (1):139-150, 2013 148
5.4 Syntactic Differences
MSA and ICA are also different at the levels larger than lexicon. These differences are classified under syntactic
differences.
5.4.1 Different Word Order
There are several phrases and sentences with different word orders, in the two varieties. Examples are:
(152) /sa:ʕadak alla:h/ /ʔalla:h jusa:ʕadak/ May God help you

helps-you God God helps-you
(153) /hafaðˤa-k-allah/ /ʔallah ʔij-hifðˤak/ May God help you

protects-you God God protects-you
(154) /ʔams-ul-ʔawwal/ /ʔawwal-ul- ʔims/ the day befor yesterday

yesterday-ART-first first-ART-yesterday
(155) /ʔa bi-l-wazn-i tabiʕu-l-xubz-a ʔam bi-l-ʕadad-(i)/

do with - ART-weight you sell ART bread or with -ART-number
/ʔil-xobz ʔitbiʕa bi-l-wazn ʔaw bi-l-ʕadad/

ART-bread you sell with-ART-weight or with-ART-number
Do you sell bread by weight or number?

5.5 Multiple Differences
The above-mentioned partial differences, hand in hand, make the two varieties totally different at the levels larger than
phonology and lexicon. MSA and ICA use drastically different phrases and sentences in the same situations. The
following example clarifies the extent of the difference.
5.5.1 Some Productive Expressions Unique to Iraqi Colloquial Arabic
(156) /ju:ʤad/ /ʔaku:/ There( is)x …..

(157) /la:ju:ʤad/ /ma:ku:/ There (is) not….
(158) /la: ?ahad/ /mahhad/ There (is) no one...
(159) /ma:ʔismuk-a/ /ʃismik/ What (is) your name?
(160) /min ʔajn/ /ʔimnajn/ Where (is)… from?
(161) /ʔa lajsa kaða:lik/ /mawa liʃakkil/ Is'nt it so?
(162) /la: baʔs/ /majxa:lif/, /ma:ku: muʃkila/ No problem.
(163) /mahma: jakun min ʔamr-in/ /ʔala kul-i ha:l/ Anyway
(164) /bi-ʔajji-ʃajʔin/, /bi-ʔajji-siʕrin/ /ʔibajʃ/ How much
5.5.2 Totally Different Sentences
(165) /ma mihnatu ʔabijk-a / / ʔabu:k ʃinu: jiʃtiɤil /
What job father-your father-your what job
What is your father's job?
(166)
MSA a. /kajfa ʔastatˤi:ʕu-ul-ʔistifa:da min barna:maʤ/
how I-can ART benefit(n) from program
ICA b. /ʔiʃlawn ʔagdar ʔastifid min barna:maʤ /

how I-can I-benefit(v) from program
Meaning How can I use this program?
Sentences 166 (a) and (b), uttered in the same situation and bearing the same general meaning, are drastically different .
They are different, except for the word /barna:maʤ/ (program), which is a learned word, borrowed by ICA, from MSA.
This is a good example showing why the two varieties are mutually unintelligible. Some other examples are as
follows:
IJALEL 2 (1):139-150, 2013 149
MSA ICA Meaning
(167) /mata: juʕlaqu-l-masˤraf/ /ʔiʃwakit jinsadd ʔil-bang/ When does the bank close?
what time is closed-ART-bank what time closes-ART-bank
(168) /ʔana faqadtu bitˤa:qati:/ / bitˤa:qati: dˤa:ʔat/ I lost my card.

I lost card-my card-my (was) lost
(169) /fi: ajji funduqin taskunu/ /wajn na:zil ibja: findiq/
in which hotel you-stay where staying which hotel
In what hotel are you staying?
(170) /hal ʔastatˤi:ʕu ʔirsa:la baʕdˤa-l-nuqu:di ʔila: bila:d-i/

question-word I-can sending some ART money to country-my
/ʔagdar ʔadizz ʔiflu:s l-ahli:/

I-can I-send money for-home
Can I send money to my country?
(171) /ma huwa fu:lta:ʤ-al-kahrubaʔ hona:/
what voltage ART electricity here
/ʔil-kahruba:ʔ ʔihna: ʧam fult/
ART -electricity here how many volt
What is the electricity voltage here?
6. Conclusions
The data of the study manifest a good number of differences between Modern Standard Arabic and Iraqi Colloquial
Arabic. These differences were found at the levels of phonology, morphology, lexicon and syntax. Phonological
alterations were vowel change, consonant change, final deletion, and CV to CVC syllable change. Lexical differences
were mainly a lexical complementary distribution between MSA and ICA. This complementary distribution was found
to occur in words of different parts of speech, nominal alterations being the most frequent one. Morphological
alterations included suffix deletion, deletion of conjunction and subject-predicate non-agreement in Iraqi Colloquial
Arabic. And, last but not least, at the syntactic level, the two varieties showed some word order differences. These
alterations, going hand in hand, have resulted in drastic differences, thereby a mutual unintelligibility.
7. Suggestion for Further Studies
Diglossic relationship holds between the Standard Arabic, on the one hand, and such other verities of spoken Arabic as
Egyptian, Jordanian, Lebanese, Algerian, Syrian, etc., on the other. It is advisable that similar studies on any of the said
verities be conducted. Furthermore, while this article studies the differences between MSA and ICA synthetically and
qualitatively, narrower analytic and quantitative studies on the subject are recommended.
References
Dittmar, N (2000). Sociolinguistics: A Critical Survey to Theory and Application. London: Edward Arnold.
Dulay, H., Burt, M. & Krashen, S. (1982). Language Two. Oxford University Press.
Ferguson, C.A. (1959). Diglossia. Word, 15:325-40. (1959).
Finch, G. (2005). Key concepts in Language and Linguistics. Palgrave Macmillan.
Fishman, J.A. (1971). Sociolinguistics: A Brief Introduction. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House.
Hudson, R.A. (1996). Sociolinguistics (2nd edn), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jabbari, M.J. (2012) . Diglossia in Arabic-A Comparative Study of the Modern Standard Arabic and Colloquial
Egyptian Arabic. Global Journal of Human Social Sciences. Vol. XII, Issue VIII, pp 23-46, Apr. 2012.
Jorr, Kh. (1974). Al-Mu'jam-ul-Arabi-Al-Hadith. Larousse.
Mahyar, A. (1974). Arabic Grammar. (SAMT). Tehran.
Meyerhoff, M. (2006). Introducing Sociolinguistics. Routledge, London.
Trudgill, P. (1983b). Sociolinguistics; An Introduction to Language and Society, rev.edn. Harmondsworth, England:
Penguin Books.
Warduaugh, R. (2006). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. (5th edn), Oxford: Blackwell.
Watson, J.C.E. (2002). The phonology and morphology of Arabic: Oxford: Oxford University Press.
IJALEL 2 (1):139-150, 2013 150
Notes
i
(Ph.D.) , Professor of Arabic at University of Semnan, Iran
ii
(MA), Lecturer of Arabic at University of Tehran, Iran.
iii
The transcription is read from left to right although Arabic is written from right to left in the script.
iv
At least one word, i.e. /panka/ = (fan) is found in ICA.
v
/?an/ is referred to as /harf-ul-tafsi:r/(literary meaning letter of interpretation) in Arabic traditional grammar and "is
supposed to occur between two sentences, the first of which introduces the second" (Jorr, 1974:38).
vi
One of the very few Arabic words with /p/.
vii
Also used in Persian.
viii
ix
x
Copular (present) verb does not have any phonetic manifestation in Arabic.
Comparing Effect of 'Summarizing', 'Question-Answer Relationship',

and 'Syntactic Structure Identification' on the Reading
Comprehension of Iranian EFL students
Fatemeh Hemmati (Corresponding author)
Payam-e-Nour University, Tehran, Iran
E-mail: Fatemehhemmati2002@yahoo.co.uk
Safoora Bemani
Payam-e-Nour University, Tehran, Iran
E-mail: sbemanie@yahoo.com

Abstract
This study aimed at comparing the effects of 'question-answer relationship strategy', 'summarizing', and 'syntactic
structure identification training'on the reading comprehension of Iranian EFL learners. The participants were sixty (34
women and 26 men) intermediate students who answered an English reading comprehension test consisting of three
reading passages as the pretest. During the treatment, the students in the first group were supposed to summarize the
passages. The subjects in the second group familiarized with the syntactic structure identification strategy and the ones
in the third group were taught the question-answer relationship strategy. At the end of the treatment, an English reading
comprehension test similar to the pretest was administered to the groups as a posttest. The results suggested that there is
statistically significant difference between the reading comprehension abilities of the three classes. Furthermore the use
of QAR strategy led to better comprehension of reading texts with syntactic structure training and summarizing between
which there was no significant difference.
Keywords: Reading comprehension, summarization, question-answer relationship, syntactic structure
1. Introduction
It is generally agreed that well-developed reading comprehension ability is the key to students’ academic success. This
comprehension ability is not a passive state which one possesses, but it is an active mental process which needs to be
nurtured and improved. According to Resnick (1984), it is a process in which one "uses external information" to
construct new knowledge. If the process is to occur, comprehension a complicated combination of skills in which
students their understanding of various elements, the how of finding main ideas and details and make a distinction
between the two. By taking the intricacy of this comprehension into account, educators must cope with the problem of
specifying the best strategy for the purpose of contributing to its development. With this in mind, this research
investigated the most frequently used learning strategies including summarizing, question-answer relationship, and
syntactic structure training.
As many language teaching specialists such as Grabe (1991) have pointed out, both reading theory and practice have
undergone numerous changes in the second half of the previous century. Current researches have presented fresh ways
for teaching reading comprehension(RC) skills to learners of a second or foreign language. From the late 1970s,
according to Grabe (1991) "Reading was characterized as an active process of comprehending and students needed to be
taught strategies to read more efficiently." (p.337)
Dugan (1997) explains reading through a social constructivist view. Effective reading in Dugan's model depends on
creating a learning environment in which readers can learn from each other in what Dugan calls Transactional Literature
Discussions (TLD). In TLD, teachers and students collaborate to build upon each other’s responses and to deepen their
understanding of the text.
Hardebeck (2006) defines reading comprehension strategies as tools or plans for facilitating and extending
comprehension. Reading comprehension strategies can help readers remember the key points, distinguish the necessary
and unnecessary information, think about the main idea and comment on the subject matter. Good readers use lots of
strategies before, during and after reading (Dogan, 2002).
IJALEL 2 (1):151-156, 2013 152
The reading process gives rise to the issue of reading strategies. ESL/EFL learners usually employ a number of language
learning strategies during their reading process. Those strategies involve cognitive, metacognitive, compensation,
memory, affective, and social strategies (Chamot and O’Malley 1994; Crandall et al.2002; Oxford 1990).
As Cordero-Ponce (2000) explains, "summarization is perhaps one of the most significant and encompassing of all
reading strategies available to the learner for effective studying and comprehension" (p.330)
According to McNamara (2004), describing the text in one‘s own words allows the reader to transform the material
into a representation, and process the basic structure and of the sentence to transform the verbatim text into more
familiar words (Schumaker, Denton and Deshler, 1984).
As a comprehension fostering activity, the process of summarization focuses attention on the central information of the
text and provides the reader with a conceptual framework that facilitates memory and comprehension (Cordero-Ponce,
2000).
Summarization is based on Strategy intervention model (SIM) which deals with students' difficulties by teaching them to
use strategies (Palincsar, 1987; Deshler, Schumaker, Lenz, and Ellis, 1984). The main focus of the SIM strategy is not
increasing content knowledge, but rather, knowing how to learn through instruction in the summarization strategy
A theoretical explanation of how summarizing information promoted deep comprehension and learning was provided
by Kintsch and van Dijk’s (1978) model of discourse comprehension. Specifically, summarizing contributed to the goal
of constructing a solid foundation of factual and conceptual knowledge because it served to reinforce the memory
representation of the content beyond that achieved through reading (Van Dijk&Kintsch, 1983).
There is little consensus among researchers regarding the extent to which the acquisition of knowledge of grammar
among L2 learners is assisted by innate linguistic ability (Gass&Schacter, 1989). However, the role of grammar in L2
reading has not received much attention by researchers (Alderson, 1984; Nassaji, 2007; Shiotsu& Weir, 2007; Urquhart
& Weir, 1998). On the one hand, this may be attributable to the very nature of reading as a receptive language skill for
comprehending the messages of the texts. Thus, knowledge of structure was regarded to have less to do with
comprehending a text than levels of other components such as vocabulary, background knowledge, and reading
strategies (Han &D’Angelo, 2009; Urquhart & Weir, 1998).
Barry and Lazarte (1995, Nation &Snowling (2000) suggested that grammatical competence is crucial to constructing
propositions across clauses without taxing the limited working memory capacity and to bringing relevant background
knowledge into the reading task.
Alderson (1993) reviewed the data from the English Language Testing Services (ELTS) Revision Project and found a
considerable overlap between scores on the grammar test and the reading test. In a similar vein, in Kuhn and Stahl’s
(2003) review of theories and research on reading instruction, training L2 readers to parse sentences into meaningful
phrases and providing them with already syntactically segmented texts were revealed to promote L2 reading
comprehension to a significant level.
On the other hand, Tunmer (1988) revealed no direct link between syntactic awareness and comprehension but simply
an indirect one.
Urquhart and Weir (1998: 60-61) said that sentence analysis is necessary for sentence reading as proved by omitting
most function words and all inflectional morphemes, including shifting words in sentences. However, this analysis must
occur automatically to have reading fluency, and according to Grabe and Stoller (2002: 220) it takes thousands of hours
of practice to do sentence parsing automatically.
The Syntactic Deficit Hypothesis (SDH) demonstrated the importance of syntactic skills in reading development (e.g.,
Bowey, 1986; Demont&Gombert, 1996; Tunmer, 1988) according to this hypothesis, even though learning to speak and
learning to read are continuous processes, the hypothesis asserts that reading requires the ability to process more
structures than does early speech development.
Reading complex documents in order to answer questions is a common learning situation that modifies the reading
processes as described by general comprehension models. Current studies demonstrate that when students experience
explicit instruction of comprehension strategies, it improves their comprehension of new texts and topics.Question
Answer Relationships (QAR) teaches students how to decipher what types of questions they are being asked and where
to find the answers to them (Raphael, 2005).
According to Au & Raphael (2005), the use of Question Answer Relationships (QAR) provides a framework for helping
the students make the largely invisible process of listening and reading comprehension visible by giving students a
language for talking about text. This type of approach falls under Cummins' (2006) Cognitive Academic Language
Proficiency (CALP); this is the language needed to interpret and attain meaning. Cummins (2006) argues that
proficiency requires growth in multiple areas simultaneously, this is often referred to the five C's: communication
(listening and speaking), critical thinking (using graphic organizers, making inferences and using metacognition),
context (participation structures), and culture (development and sustaining of supportive peer interactions) (Diaz-Rico &
Weed, 2006).
The finding of the QAR strategy is based on three ideas. The first one is the zone of proximal development which states
that students of different age levels benefit from different amounts and types of QAR instruction (Raphael, 2005). The
second idea is the gradual release of responsibility. The teacher starts from modeling, guiding students, to providing
IJALEL 2 (1):151-156, 2013 153
opportunities for the students to try the strategy on their own. The last idea is metacognition; Students need to be
explicitly taught the answers to the questions to increase the likelihood of independent strategy use (Raphael, 2005).
Since there is no agreement among Iranian English teachers on the value of summarization tasks, syntactic structure
training, and question-answer relationship, this research was conducted to compare the effects of three strategies on the
reading comprehension ability of EFL learners in Iran.
Research Questions
The study addresses the following research questions:
1. Is there any significant difference between the effects of summarizing, question-answer relationship strategy, and
syntactic structure identification training on the reading comprehension?
2. Does question-answer relationship result in better comprehension of reading texts?
3.Does summarization of English passages result in better comprehension of reading texts?
4. Does syntactic structure training result in better comprehension of reading texts?
2. Method
2.1Subjects
To conduct the present research, three groups each consisting of 20 students of intermediate level based on the
placement test were selected and treated as the experimental groups. The majority being from 18 to 25 years of age, 24
of them were men and 36 were women. All participants were foreign language learners of English. The students in
intact English language classes were randomly divided into three groups, with each group receiving one of the three
strategies for treatment
2.2 Materials
The following materials were used for the purpose of this study:
English placement test. This test comprised of listening, vocabulary,and grammar sections. The test was designed to the
level of the students in the light of the pilot study results. It drew on past papers of the Cambridge First Certificate for
students used in Cambridge University.
Pretest and posttest. The pretestconsisted of three English passages of comparable length (about 300 words) along with
twenty multiple choice. The book was Reading Through Interaction seriesby Hartmann and Kirn. No changes or
modifications were made to the texts.
A test administration similar to the pretest was used as posttest after two weeks at the end of the treatment. It was an
English comprehension test consisting of three English tests selected form Reading Through Interaction seriesby
Hartmann and Kirn with twenty multiple choice questions.
Reading comprehension tests. During five sessions of treatment, five English reading passages of appropriate length
(about 300 words) from Developing Reading Skills by Linda Markstein and Louise Hirasawa were given to the subjects
in the first group to summarize as their homework and the second group to answer the questions by using QAR strategy.
The subjects in the third experimental group were given five passages to identify the syntactic structure and answer the
comprehension questions.
2.3 Procedures
Three reading comprehension passages with 20 multiple choice question were administered to students as a pretest. The
scores the two classes obtained on the test were statistically analyzed and compared to figure out whether there was any
difference between the experimental groups.
2.3.1 Experimental Group One
The treatment phase consisted of five sessions of instruction.The students in the first experimental group were supposed
to summaries the texts. First, they were provided with explicit instruction of the summarization skills with
someexamples. The subjects delivered their summaries in written form. Each session, one passage was considered to be
summarized. In order to provide the subjects with feedback on how they performed on the summary assignments, all the
summaries were scored for the number of main ideas included, the efficiency of summarization, the application of
summarization rules and the manner of organization and summary writing. The feedback given by the teacher consisted
of some examples of the strong points of the summary as well as guidelines for improving the subject's summary
production.
2.3.2 Experimental Group Two
In order to grasp the concept of QAR, the intervention began with direct explicit instruction, progressed into modeling,
then guided instruction and finally independent application.
In the beginning sessions, the students were familiarized with the language of QAR and how it is applied to reading
comprehension through a series of examples. Furthermore the students learned different steps they should go through to
find the answer. After the explicit instruction, the subjects were asked to work in pair, find the types of the questions
related to the passage and explain the reason it fit that category. For the second session, the students were supposed to
read the passage and write questions with three possible answers to make a multiple-choice question. When they
IJALEL 2 (1):151-156, 2013 154
became more comfortable with the language and components of QAR, they identified question types and determined
what steps they would take to answer them. They also explained the reason they chose the type of QAR. At the end of
each session, they were provided with feedback on how they performed.
2.3.3 Experimental Group Three
The experimental group three was trained to identify syntactic structure of sentences (telling types of phrases and
clauses, and sentences), core parts of sentences, head words and modifiers, as well as answering comprehension
questions.
The teacher introduced the syntactic structures by giving some examples. Each session one or two syntactic structures
were taught depending on the complexities of the structures. Then the syntactic structures of the sentences in a passage
were identified by the teacher as a model, and also the questions were answered. Each session the syntactic structures
which have been taught before were reviewed by the instructor. To provide feedback, the papers were scored by the
researcher and were given back to them.
2.3.4 Data Analysis
Following the administration of the reading comprehension posttest which consisted of three English reading passages
along with 20 multiple choice items, the student's performance on the posttest was scored.
To gain insight into the characteristics of the sample groups, the scores obtained by each group were put in various
formulas of descriptive statistics. The t-test formula was used for the meaningful comparison of the pretest and posttest
results. Furthermore, the ANOVA test was used to determine whether there was significant difference between the
groups. Then pair wise comparison of groups was done to determine which group had the best result.
3. Results
3.1 The ComparisonofThree Groups
The first research question is "Is there any significant difference between the effects of summarizing, question-answer
relationship strategy, and syntactic structure identification training on reading comprehension?"
Table 1. Analysis of Variance on the Posttest
Source of variance SS d.f. MS F Sig.
Within group 171.633 2 85.817 18.188 .000

Between group 268.950 57 4.718
Total 440.583 59
As table 1 indicates, the calculated value of Sig for the performance of the three groups on the posttest was .000 which
was lower than .o5; therefore it was concluded that there is significant difference between the three strategies. In other
words, the null hypothesis that "there is no significant difference between the three groups." is rejected. Furthermore,
the pair wise comparison of the three groups was done in order to figure out whether there is significant difference
between them. Table 2 presents the result.
3.2 The Pair wise Comparison of the Groups
Table 2. Multiple comparison of Groups on the Posttest
Group(I) Group(J) Mean Differences (I-J) Sig.

1 2 -3.750 .000
3 -.350.867
2 1 3.750 .000
3 3.400 .000
3 1 .350 .867
2 -3.400 .000
As table 2 shows, the groups were compared two by two by the use of mean differences. The calculated value of Sig
for the performance of group one and two which are .867 and .000 shows that the two groups were different. Therefore
it was concluded that there is significant difference between groups which used summarizing and question-answer
relationship. The calculated value of Sig for the performance of the group two and three are .000 and .867 which
indicates that there is significant difference between question-answer relationship and syntactic structure training. On
the contrary, the comparison of group one and three shows that the calculated value of Sig is .000 and lower than .05;
IJALEL 2 (1):151-156, 2013 155
therefore it was concluded that there is no significant difference between summarizing and syntactic structure training.
Figure 4.2 below shows the mean scores of students on the posttest.
3.3.The comparison of pretest and posttest
To determine the effect of treatment on the students' scores on the posttest, the following questions were suggested.
1. Does the use of question-answer relationship result in better comprehension of reading texts?
2. Does the summarization of English passages result in better comprehension of reading texts?
3. Does the use of syntactic structure training result in better comprehension of reading texts?
Table 3. The Comparison of the Mean Differences of the ThreeGroup Scores on the Pretest and Posttest
Mean Differences t d.f. Sig.
Group One 1.5 9.747 19 .000
Group Two - 2.650 - 20.184 19 .000
Group Three 1.2 8.718 19 .000
The use of "t" test for the mean scores of each group on the pretest and posttest showed that since the calculated Sig
value is lower than .05, it was concluded that , the null hypotheses that "the use of the three strategies do not result in
better comprehension of reading texts." are rejected.
4. Conclusion, Discussion, and Suggestion
The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of summarizing, question-answer relationship, and syntactic
structure training on the reading comprehension. To recapitulate the findings and the conclusion of this study, it can be
claimed that there was a statistically meaningful difference between the mean achievements of the three groups in favor
of the group two which the participants received the QAR strategy. The findings also demonstrated that the treatment
was effective in three groups. Regarding the effect of syntactic structure training, the result was in consistence with
previous studies' findings (Cowan, 1976; Berman, 1984; Shiotsu & Weir, 2007). On the contrary, some of the studies
showed that reading comprehension is little dependent on a syntactic analysis of the texts (Ulijn & Kempen, 1976).
Furthermore, the result of the study confirmed the Syntactic Deficit Hypothesis according to which reading demands
more syntactic knowledge than beginning readers possess.
The results also demonstrated that summarization instruction had a positive effect on the reading comprehension.
Although the result was not compatible with the previous studies (Brown & Day, 1983; Garner, 1985), the other studies
have shown the importance of summarizing as a tool for improving reading comprehension. Moreover, the strategy was
in line with the SIM strategy which claimed that students learn to acquire, retrieve, manipulate, store, remember, and
express academic content information in an organized and a systematic manner.
The pair wise comparison of the groups also illustrated that the use of question-answer relationship had significant effect
on the reading comprehension comparing with the other groups. The finding is consistent with previous studies
(Graesser, Singer, &Trabasso, 1994; Kintsch, & Saunders, 1978) which suggested that question-answer relationship
seems to activate prior knowledge and allows students the opportunity to tap into prior knowledge and use it to their
advantage. Furthermore, results showed that the QAR strategy falls under Cummins' (2006) Cognitive Academic
Language Proficiency (CALP), and it is also based on three ideas: The zone of proximal development, the gradual
release of responsibility, and metacognition (Raphael, 2005).
Finally the pair wise comparison of the groups showed that syntactic structure training and summarization assignment
had no significant influence on the reading comprehension performance of the other groups. The result was in vein with
Robertson & Nunn (2009), and Ajaja (2011) study which showed that the two strategies had no significant effect on the
reading comprehension ability comparing with other strategies. The research has shown that there are more strategies
that affect reading comprehension. Hence, it seems reasonable to conduct more research to compare the other strategies
with QAR strategy in order to find out whether it is effective in comparison with the others. Furthermore, Since the
research has been limited to the students of intermediate level, further research is recommended to figure out the effect
of QAR strategy on the learners of various levels especially lower levels.
Reference
Alderson, J. C. (1993). The relationship between grammar and reading in English for academic purposes test battery. In
D. Douglas & C. Chapelle (Eds.), A new decade of language testing research: Selected papers fromthe 1990 Language
Testing Research Colloquium (pp. 203-219). Alexandria, VA: TESOL.
Au, K.H., &Highfield, K., & Raphael, T.E. (2006).QAR now: a powerful and practical framework that develops
comprehension and higher-level thinking in all students. New York, NY: Scholastic, Inc.
Au, K. H. & Raphael, T. E. (2005).QAR: enhancing comprehension and test taking across grades and content areas.
The Reading Teacher, 59(3), 206-221.
IJALEL 2 (1):151-156, 2013 156
Barry, S., & Lazarte, A. A. (1995). Embedded clause effects on recall: Does high priorknowledge of content domain
overcome syntactic complexity in students of Spanish?TheModern Language Journal, 79, 491-504.
Bernhardt, E. (1986). Cognitive processes in L2: An examination of reading behaviors. In J.Lantolf & L. Labarca
(Eds.), Research in second language learning: Focus on the classroom (pp. 35-51). Norwood, NJ:
Ablex.
Bowey, J. A. (1986). Syntactic awareness in relation to reading skill and ongoing reading comprehension monitoring.
Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 41(2), 282-299.
Demont, E., &Gombert, J. E. (1996). Phonological awareness as a predictor of reading skills and syntactic awareness as
predictor of comprehension skills. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 66, 315-332.
Chamot, A.U., and J.M. O’Malley (1994).Language Learner and Learning Strategies. In N. Ellis (Eds.), Implicit
andExplicit Learning of Languages (pp. 371- 92). London: Academic Press
Corder-Ponce, W.L. (2000). Summarization interaction: effects on foreign language comprehension and summarization
of expository texts. Reading research and instruction, 39 (4), 329 – 350.
Crandall, Jaramillo, Olsen, and Peyton (2002).Using Cognitive Strategies to DevelopEnglish Language and
Literacy.Retrieved from http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-3/using.htm.
Cummins, J. (1979). Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children. Review of
Educational Research, 49 (2), 222-251.
Deshler, D. D., Schumaker, J. B., Lenz, B. K., and Ellis, E. (1984). Academic and cognitive interventions for LD
adolescents: Part II. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 17, 170-179.
Diaz-Rico, L.T., & Weed, K.Z. (2006). The crosscultural language and academic development handbook: Boston, MA:
Pearson Education, Inc.
Dogan, B. (2002). The effects of strategy teaching on reading comprehension, motivation and retention in coopertaive
and traditional classes. Unpublished Doctorate Thesis, DokuzEylul University, Institute of Educational Sciences, Izmir.
Dugan, J. (1997). Transactional literature discussions: Engaging students in the appreciation and understanding of
literature. The Reading Teacher, 51, 86–96.
Grabe (1991).Current developments in second language reading research. TESOL Quarterly.
Grabe, W. and Stroller, L.F. (2002).Teaching and Researching Reading.Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education Ltd.
Graesser, A. C., Singer, M., &Trabasso, T. (1994). Constructing inferences during narrative text comprehension.
Psychological Review, 101(3), 371e395
Hardebecek, M. M. (2006). Effectiveness and usage of reading comprehension strategies for second grade title 1
students. Unpublished Master Thesis, Minesota State University, Education Department, Minnesota.
Kintsch, W., & van Dijk, T.A. (1978). Toward a model of text comprehension and production.Psychological Review,
85(5), 363-394.
Koda, K. (1988). Cognitive process in second language reading: Transfer of L1 reading skills and strategies. Second
Language Research, 4, 133-156.
Kuhn, M. R., & Stahl, S. A. (2003). Fluency: A review of developmental and remedial practices. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 95, 3-21.
McNamara, D. S. (2004). SERT: Self-Explanation Reading Training. Discourse Processes, 38, 1–30.
Nation, K. &Snowling, M. (2000). Factors influencing syntactic awareness skills in normal readers and poor
comprehenders. Applied Psycholinguistics, 21, 229-241.
Oxford, R. (1990). Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. New York: Newbury House.
Palinscar, A. S. (1987). Metacognitive strategy instruction. Exceptional Children, 53,118-124. Raphael, T.E. (1982).
Question-answer strategies for children. The reading teacher.36, 186-190.
Resnick , L.B. (1984). Comparing and learning: Implications for a cognitive theory of instruction. In H.Mand1, N.L. Stein,
&T.Trabasso (Eds.), Learning and Comprehension of Text.(pp. 431- 443).Hillsdale. NJ: Erlbaum.
Schumaker, J. B., Denton, P.H., and Deshler, D.D. (1984).The paraphrasing strategy. Lawrence: University of Kansas.
Shahriari, S. (2002).Comparing the effect of oral and written summarization on the reading comprehension ability of Iranian
high school students.
Tunmer, W. E., Herriman, M. L., & Nesdale, A. R. (1988).Metalinguistic abilities and beginning reading. Reading Research
Quarterly, 23(2), 134-158.
Urquhart, S. and Weir, C. (1998). Reading in a Second Language: Process, Product and Practice. New York: Longman.
Does Writing Self-efficacy Correlate with and Predict Writing

Performance?
Rapassak Hetthong (Corresponding Author)
Department of Languages and Linguistics, Faculty of Liberal Arts
Prince of Songkla University Hatyai Campus, Songkhla, Thailand
E-mail: tefl.th@gmail.com
Adisa Teo
Department of Languages and Linguistics, Faculty of Liberal Arts
Prince of Songkla University Hatyai Campus, Songkhla, Thailand
E-mail: adisa.s@psu.ac.th

The research work was financed by Graduate School, Prince of Songkla University Hat Yai Campus, Thailand.
Abstract
Self-efficacy has been broadly studied in recent decades and it has been attested an essential contributor to success in
English language learning. However, to date, there have been few studies looking into self-efficacy in EFL writing, and
into the students’ self-efficacy at a micro-skill level. This paper aims to investigate whether there is a relationship
between writing self-efficacy and writing performance and to explore whether students’ overall writing self-efficacy
predicts their overall writing performance. By means of a questionnaire for writing self-efficacy and a paragraph writing
test, paragraph writing scores of 51 third-year English majors were collected. Then the data were computed using
Pearson Correlation Coefficient and the Simple Linear Regression. The results reveal that there is a significant positive
relationship between writing self-efficacy and writing performance both at the paragraph level and at the sub-skill level.
Furthermore, the overall writing self-efficacy predicts the overall writing performance. In the last part, the importance
of self-efficacy is discussed and implications for EFL/ESL education are offered.
Keywords: aspects of writing, English as a foreign language, paragraph writing, writing self-efficacy
1. Introduction
According to social cognitive theory, self-efficacy has been proved to be the most consistent and reliable predictor of
students’ task performance (Bandura, 1997). Self-efficacy is an individual’s confidence in his/her ability to successfully
perform a particular task. Self-efficacy is derived from four sources: mastery experience, vicarious experience, social
persuasion and emotional state. In academic context, self-efficacy helps a student to determine how much effort,
persistence and resilience to be put on a task. For example, in writing classes, highly self-efficacious students view
difficulties as tasks to be mastered form a stronger sense of commitment to their interests in the writing tasks; and
recover quickly from difficulties and disappointments. Conversely, inefficacious students avoid challenging tasks;
believe that difficult tasks and situations are beyond their capabilities; fall back on previous personal failures and
negative outcomes; and quickly lose confidence in their personal abilities (Schunk, 1996). As self-efficacy beliefs
directly influence subsequent behaviors, they have been attested to be a better predictor of performance than factors
such as actual ability or previous accomplishments (Bandura, 1994).
1.1 Background of the Study
It has been more than three decades since Albert Bandura (1977) introduced self-efficacy theory and the construct has
gained attention in various fields of knowledge. From the review of correlational studies of learners/students’ self-
efficacy in L2/FL settings within the last 10 years, the evidences have supported the claim that language achievement or
performance can be explained by self-efficacy beliefs (Chen, 2007; Chen & Lin, 2009; Erkan & Saban, 2011; Gahungu,
2007; Ghonsooly & Elahi, 2010; Mahyuddin et al., 2006; Naseri & Zaferanieh, 2012; Rahemi, 2007; Rahimi & Abedini,
2009; Shah et al., 2011; Shang, 2010; Termit & Saravana, 2012; Tilfarlioglu, & Cinkaram, 2009; Woodrow, 2011; Zare
& Mobarakeh, 2011). This claim was in concert with the meta-analysis conducted by Multon, Brown, & Lent (1991),
which revealed that self-efficacy determines 14% of the variance of students’ academic performance.
Writing is perceived among EFL students as demanding and it is the most difficult language skill to master (Huwari &
Noor Hashima, 2011; Latif, 2007). Students’ ability to express their thoughts effectively in their writings is related to
how they perceive their confidence in their writing ability (Erkan & Saban, 2011; Shah et al., 2011; Woodrow, 2011).
IJALEL 2 (1):157-167, 2013 158
As Latif (2007) states, skilled writers who have positive beliefs about their writing ability tend to possess sound
knowledge of vocabulary and grammar. They expect to do well when they are assigned writing tasks. In contrast, poor
writers are likely faced with difficulties in producing effective and coherent writings, as they worry about their lack of
language-related writing skills and they are afraid of negative evaluations from teachers and peers. These negative self-
beliefs keep them from starting to write in English. Students’ negative writing affects are the problems faced by both
native and non-native teachers. Similarly, Erkan and Saban (2011) also noticed that many of the students who took an
English written exam finished their exam paper quickly without trying to write a good paper
In the past decade, most of the self-efficacy research studies were undertaken in Iran (Abedinia et al., 2011; Ghonsooly
& Elahi, 2010; Heidari et al., 2012; Naseri & Zaferanieh, 2012; Rahemi, 2007; Rahimi & Abedini, 2009; Zare &
Mobarakeh, 2011), Malaysia (Mahyuddin et al., 2006; Sani & Zain,2011; Shah et al., 2011; Termit & Saravana, 2012;
Wong, 2005), Taiwan (Chen, 2007; Chen & Lin, 2009; Shang, 2010; Su & Duo, 2012) and Turkey (Çubukçu, 2008;
Erkan & Saban, 2011; Tilfarlioglu & Ciftci, 2011; Tilfarlioglu & Cinkaram, 2009) in order to provide a new insight into
self-efficacy to EFL teachers and scholars. All the studies mentioned above centered on whether self-efficacy correlates
with anxiety, strategy use, or language performance. The review of these studies shows that there are strong connections
between these three constructs. Proponents of self-efficacy theory suggest that if language tasks and activities are
perceived as interesting and achievable, learners tend to engage themselves more in the learning process and the tasks.
In the field of L2/FL writing, self-efficacy has been found to positively correlate with writing performance (Amogne,
2008; Chen & Lin, 2009; Erkan & Saban, 2011; Shah et al., 2011; Woodrow 2011). Pajares (1996) states that a person's
performance is better predicted by his/her judgment about personal ability than his/her actual ability or previous
successes. This assumption was supported by the study of Chen (2007) who found that self-efficacy predicts students’
language performance. The current study therefore postulated whether an investigation with Thai EFL students would
yield the same result or not. However, one point to note as Bandura (1997) cautioned is that, self-efficacy and
performance should be measured at a compatible layer. Following Bandura’s (1997) suggestion, the current study
investigated writing self-efficacy in relation to writing performance both at sub-skill and paragraph levels.
1.2 Research Questions
1. At sub-skill and paragraph levels, does the students’ writing self-efficacy correlate with their writing
performance?
2. Does the students’ overall writing self-efficacy predict their overall writing performance?
1.3 Significance of the Study
Primarily, self-efficacy is a prominent motivational construct that needs more studies to shape up insights among
researchers and educators. To the best of the researchers’ knowledge, the present study was the unique one of self-
efficacy studies, as it looked into the importance of self-efficacy at a sub-skill level. The present study serves as an
additional investigation with new findings; it contributes to the theoretical framework of self-efficacy and supplements
an alternative to the education of English or L2 writing.
2.1 Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy beliefs have both positive and negative impacts on learners’ perceptions towards their ability in learning a
particular task/skill. Schunk (1996) states that learners with higher levels of self-efficacy are more likely to set high
achievable goals and persevere to fulfill those goals. Inefficacious students tend to set low goals and tend to quit if the
task becomes difficult. Self-efficacy beliefs affect how students put effort in the task/skill they attempt. Self-efficacy
mediates the students’ judgment whether to try more or avoid doing the task. Self-efficacy allows students to formulate
a sense of competence when they are faced with difficult tasks (Pajares, 1996) and leads students to further engage
themselves in that learning task. On the other hand, in case of inefficacious students, tasks are believed to be harder than
they actually are. This eventually causes a decrease in effort and persistence.
Bandura (1977) theorizes that self-efficacy is generated within a learner’s thought, as he/she interprets the information
which is derived from four sources. The first and the most powerful source which influences self-efficacy is mastery
experience. In the context of L2/FL learning, it refers to learners’ previous successes in a certain area of abilities/skills.
That is, learners’ grades or scores in previous language courses can heighten or lower their confidence in doing a related
language task. The second source, vicarious experience, is when learners observe language performance of others and
compare it to their own. According to self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1977), the most dominant form of vacarious
experience is when learners see peers or others who are regarded as equally competent as the observers perform a task.
Learners will generate the beliefs that “if he/she can do, so can I”. The third source, social persuasion, helps learners to
form personal efficacy when the comments or feedback they receive is interpreted in a positive way. Learners who
positively perceive feedbacks tend not to fear mistakes; in addition, they tend to regulate themselves in terms of
strategies until they find the strategies which work for them. The fourth source of self-efficacy is emotional state. It
refers to anxiety or fear that students encounter when they need to perform certain tasks that they perceive to be out of
control. Examples of situations that worry learners can range from being singled out to answer the question in class to
taking a written exam within time limit.
2.2 Writing Self-efficacy
This term was firstly coined by Frank Pajares (2003) and later the notion has been studied by various researchers in the
IJALEL 2 (1):157-167, 2013 159
past two decades. Writing self-efficacy is self-efficacy in the domain of English writing. As a significant positive
relationship between students’ self-efficacy beliefs and their writing performance was found in many studies in
ESL/EFL contexts (Amogne, 2008; Chen & Lin, 2009; Erkan & Saban , 2011, Shah et al., 2011; Woodrow 2011), it can
be implied that self-efficacy plays a crucial role in learners’ writing. Writing self-efficacy mediates the way a writer
thinks, feels and acts (Schwarzer & Fuchs, 1995). Confidence in English writing manipulates learners’ perceptions
towards writing in general; it mediates possibility whether they will master or avoid writing tasks. If learners believe
they can do a writing task, whether they are excellent or poor writers, it is likely that they will try harder to cope with
challenges that may rise during the time they practice or perform the task. In the face of frustrations and difficulties,
self-efficacy promotes learners’ self-commitment to a pursuit of strategies until they achieve the task. Thus, it is fair to
state that writing performance can be explained by writing self-efficacy.
2.3 Assessing Writing Self-efficacy
There are two suggested practices in the assessment of self-efficacy in relation to learning task performance. First of
all, Bandura (1997) has cautioned researchers who attempt to predict academic outcomes from students' self-efficacy
beliefs that self-efficacy beliefs should be measured in the way that the aspects of students’ self-efficacy being measured
should be exactly represented in the scoring scheme for assessing the performance/task. A researcher who wishes to
assess the essay-writing self-efficacy has to consider the task demands of writing an essay which can range from writing
a simple sentence with accurate punctuation and grammatical structure to organizing sentences into a paragraph. A
writing self-efficacy questionnaire does not lend itself to predict students’ writing performance, if the scoring criteria of
the writing test are not reflected in the items of the questionnaire for writing self-efficacy. Secondly, Pajares (2003) also
asserts that the items in the writing self-efficacy questionnaire should be worded in terms of “I can”, rather than “I will”.
2.4 Review of Related Studies
L2 education scholars have found a number of evidences which support the proposition that writing self-efficacy plays a
crucial role on writing performance. Woodrow (2011) attempted to highlight the significance of writing self-efficacy in
a large sample size with 738 Chinese university students from four universities in a major city in China. The result of
Woodrow’s study indicates significant relationship between writing self-efficacy and writing performance. In the study,
the subjects were given 8-point Likert scale questionnaires to measure self-efficacy and anxiety in writing. Then, the
writing task immediately followed. As the study was designed to investigate whether anxiety and self-efficacy were
related to writing performance, it took a structural model equation to generate the whole picture of relationship and
predicting ability of the two constructs over writing performance. The results of the model indicated that there is a
strong negative relationship between writing anxiety and writing performance (-.71); in addition, it was revealed that
writing self-efficacy is moderately related to writing performance (.43). The relationship between writing anxiety and
writing performance was mediated by self-efficacy. The findings conform to those of Chen & Lin (2009). This study
also indicates that there is an association between self-efficacy beliefs, anxiety and language performance/achievement.
However, the writing anxiety does not directly predict writing performance as the writing self-efficacy does.
Given a research work with a similar type of results, Shah et al. (2011) explored whether the 120 Malaysian Form-3 and
Form-5 students’ general self-efficacy and self-efficacy in writing correlated with their writing performance. In his
study, students' writing test score from a national standardized essay writing test was found to have a moderate positive
correlation (r = 0.563) with general self-efficacy, and high positive correlation (r = 0.641) with writing self-efficacy.
Though holistic scoring method was the means of scoring the students’ writing test, an evidence of correlation at the
sub-skill level were found. Self-efficacy in organization and mechanics were correlated with writing performance. The
criteria group of "Mechanics" in his study contained quite a range of sub-skills including using correct tenses, writing a
coherent paragraph, punctuating correctly, spelling correctly, using an adequate range of vocabulary for the task, using
correct transitions and coordinators to link ideas, as well as the ability to incorporate idioms and proverbs. The
"Organization" area covered some aspects such as organization of ideas, the presence of topic sentences, supporting
details, and concluding the essay in a good paragraph.
Nevertheless, there were other two research projects which yielded different results. One was Al-Mekhlafi (2011)’s
investigation into the relationship between Arab EFL trainee-teachers’ writing self-efficacy and their writing
achievement. The study yielded no significant relationship between the two variables; its result contradicted to the
finding of the aforementioned study that Woodrow (2011) conducted. His study took a 38-item questionnaire which is
used to explore sources of writing self-efficacy. Moreover, the writing achievement was measured in a form of total
score the students obtained from the writing course which consists of 20 % from portfolio, 20 % from mid semester test,
10 % from participation, and 50 % from the final examination. This affected the concept of self-efficacy which should
be regarded as task-specific, since the variable of writing achievement was portioned into several components.
Another was Anyadubalu (2010)’s research work in a high school in Thailand to investigate whether there is a
relationship between English language performance, general self-efficacy and English language classroom anxiety. He
further explored whether general self-efficacy and English language classroom anxiety predicted English language
performance. His study yielded findings which are partially inconsistent with self-efficacy theory. The correlation
between English language classroom anxiety and English language classroom anxiety was found to exist; whereas that
between English language performance and general self-efficacy was not found. Drawing on the findings, it can be
hypothesized that the level of specificity of self-efficacy and performance being examined may impact the relationship
between them. Although efficacy beliefs were measured at a general level, after a regression analysis, it was revealed
that both general self-efficacy and English language classroom anxiety were the better predictors of English language
IJALEL 2 (1):157-167, 2013 160
performance than other confounding factors being measured in his study. Taking the findings of this study into account,
it cannot be definitely concluded that self-efficacy correlate with, or predict language performance.
Based on the four studies mentioned above, it can be pointed out that instrumentations of self-efficacy beliefs and
instrumentations of language performance/achievement might have an effect on the findings. Bandura (1997) and
Pajares (1996) strongly cautioned that the measures of two constructs being compared to investigate their correlation
must correspond to each other and must be at the same level in terms of specificity. The construct of self-efficacy should
not be generalized as self-concept, self-esteem, or even as sources of self-efficacy.
In a study supporting Bandura (1997)’s claim about predicting ability of self-efficacy over language performance, Chen
(2007) investigated the impact of four independent variables, namely English listening self-efficacy, English listening
anxiety, perceived value of English language, and perceived value of English culture on English listening final
performance of the 277 Taiwanese non-English major students. Listening self-efficacy was found to be of highest
correlation with listening performance (r=.74). This implies that participants who had high level of listening self-
efficacy performed in the listening tasks better than those who had low level of self-efficacy. Chen (2007), in line with
Bandura (1986) and Pajares (1996), suggested that a measure of self-efficacy that closely corresponded with a measure
of task performance would maximize the potential of self-efficacy to predict performance. Additionally, a regression
analysis was performed to see how well the four variables contributed to the level of English listening final
performance. It was found that, among the four independent variables, English listening self-efficacy was the strongest
predictor (β= .638) of listening performance when the other three independent variables were controlled.
3. Method
3.1 Subjects and Design
The subjects of this study were 51 third-year students who majored in English in Department of Languages and
Linguistics at Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai Campus. To measure self-efficacy in paragraph writing as a
predetermined task, the subjects must represent the population of EFL students who had sufficient background
knowledge to provide information about paragraph writing that they studied in their second year. A purposive sampling
method was then taken. This research study took a cross-sectional design; a paragraph writing test and a questionnaire
for writing self-efficacy were the instruments.
3.2 Instrumentations
3.2.1 Paragraph Writing Test and the Scoring Criteria
Subjects were asked to write a single argumentative paragraph of 150 words in the paragraph writing test. The subjects
needed to write one main idea with supporting details to answer whether the Internet is useful or harmful. This test took
the features of the “Test of English for Educational Purposes” (TEEP) which provides the subjects with an instruction, a
writing prompt, and suggestions for using time. (See the Paragraph Writing Test in Appendix A). To grade the
paragraph, this study used the analytic scoring criteria adopted from “TEEP attribute writing scale” by Cyril Weir
(1990). This scale is used to assess the essay in the “Test of English for Educational Purposes (TEEP)”. The scoring
criteria included seven aspects: 1) relevance and adequacy of content, 2) compositional organization, 3) cohesion, 4)
adequacy of vocabulary for purpose, 5) grammar, 6) punctuation, and 7) spelling. The score for each criterion ranges
from 0 to 3. The perfect score of the paragraph is 27. (see the TEEP Attribute Writing Scale in Appendix B) In the
piloting stage, the 33 paragraph writing test papers were scored by three raters using the TEEP Attribute Writing Scale
(Weir, 1990). The paragraph writing test and the scoring criteria has been checked for its interrater reliability. The
Chronbach Alpha Coefficient was computed and found to be 0.927.
3.2.2 Questionnaire for Writing Self-efficacy
This questionnaire consists of 12 items in Thai. They are in consistence with the seven writing aspects constituting the
scoring criteria of the paragraph writing test (See the Questionnaire for Writing Self-efficacy in Appendix 1). Each
writing aspect is covered by two questionnaire items except the aspects of punctuation and spelling which are covered
by only one questionnaire item. The questionnaire for writing-efficacy was developed based on self-efficacy theory. It
takes response formats ranging from 0 to 100, as it is proved by a study regarding response format by Pajares et al.
(2001) to be of reliability when assessing self-efficacy beliefs. The subjects wrote any number from 0 to 100 to rate
their judgment about their ability to write a paragraph. After a pilot study, the internal consistency of the scale was
computed and the Cronbach alpha was found to be 0.9106.
3.3 Procedure
The instruments were piloted with 33 third-year English majors from a university in South of Thailand. As this group of
subjects had as similar exposure of paragraph writing as the subjects in the main data collection, convenience sampling
technique was then taken. For the administration in the pilot study, the subjects were given the questionnaires and then
the writing test. The whole process took approximately 1 hour and 45 minutes.
Later, the data obtained from the subjects’ score on the questionnaire was computed using SPSS 11.5. The total alpha of
the questionnaire was found to be 0.9106 and all the items were acceptable based on the corrected item-total correlation
and alpha if item deleted criteria. It could be implied that the questionnaire for writing self-efficacy is highly reliable. In
order to examine the interrater reliability of the paragraph writing test and scoring criteria, all the subjects' paragraphs
were scored by 3 raters using the TEEP Attribute Writing Scale. Then, the Chronbach Alpha Coefficient were computed
IJALEL 2 (1):157-167, 2013 161
and found to be 0.927. It indicates that the paragraph writing test and the scoring criteria was reliable with high level of
interrater reliability.
After the pilot study, the main study was conducted with 51 third-year English majors in Department of Languages and
Linguistics at Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai Campus, Thailand. It followed the same sequence of
administration as in the pilot study.
3.4 Data Analysis
All data were encoded into SPSS 11.5. The first research question can be answered by calculating the correlation
between the mean score of subjects’ writing self-efficacy and the mean score of their paragraph writing test, aspect by
aspect, to determine whether there is any relationship between them. For the second research question, the Simple
Linear Regression analysis was performed to see whether the students’ overall writing self-efficacy predicts their
overall writing performance.
4. Findings
This part reports the results of the analysis. The correlations between the students’ writing self-efficacy and their writing
performance and the results of Linear Regression analysis are presented as follows:
4.1 Correlations between the Students’ Writing Self-efficacy and their Writing Performance
Table 1. Correlations
WSE
Con- Organi- Cohe- Vocabu- Gram- Punct- Spell- Overall
tent zation sion Lary mar uation ing WSE
WP
Content .57(**)
Organization .61(**)
Cohesion .36(**)
Vocabulary .52(**)
Grammar .60(**)
Punctuation .55(**)
Spelling .56(**)
Overall WP .71(**)
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
WP: Writing performance, WSE: Writing Self-efficacy
Table 1 demonstrates the different levels of correlations between the students’ judgment about their ability in seven sub-
skills and their writing score received from the paragraph writing test for that sub-skill criterion. The correlations range
from 0.36 to 0.61: cohesion (r=0.36), vocabulary (r=0.52), punctuation (r=0.55), spelling (r=0.56), content (r=0.57),
grammar (r=0.60), organization (r=0.61) respectively. This signifies that the aspect which students judged themselves
about their ability most accurately was organization; on the contrary, cohesion was the aspect that the students judged
themselves about their ability least accurately.
4.2 Predicting Ability of Overall Writing Self-efficacy over Overall Writing Performance
Table 2. Model Summary

Model R R Square Adjusted R Std. Error of the
Square Estimate
1 .712(a) .508 .498 1.946
a Predictors: (Constant), Writing Self-efficacy
A Simple Linear Regression analysis was performed to see how well the student's overall writing self-efficacy predicted
their overall writing performance. The students’ scores on the questionnaire for writing self-efficacy functioned as the
independent variable, and the scores on the paragraph writing test functioned as the predictor. As shown in Table 2, it
can be implied that the correlation (R = .712) between the overall writing self-efficacy and the overall writing
performance significantly and strongly exists. As this is an overall result of the strength of relationship, a more specific
analysis must follow.
Table 3. ANOVA(b)
Sum of
Model Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.
1 Regression 191.314 1 191.314 50.509 .000(a)
Residual 185.597 49 3.788
Total 376.912 50
a Predictor: (Constant), Writing Self-efficacy b Dependent Variable: Writing Performance
IJALEL 2 (1):157-167, 2013 162
By considering Table 3. ANOVA(b), the p-value (sig.) less than 0.001 indicates that the finding is statistically
significant. This signifies that the predictor predicts the dependent variable. (F=50.509, df=50 and p<0.001). It could be
said that the predictive power of the students’ overall writing self-efficacy over their overall writing performance was
significant.
Table 4. Coefficients (a)
Unstandardized Standardized
Model Coefficients Coefficients T Sig.
β Std. Error Beta
1 (constant) 5.325 1.158 4.599 .000
Writing Self-efficacy .020 .003 .712 7.107 .000
The data in Table 4 provide us with a better picture of how well the independent variable (overall writing self-efficacy)
could predict the dependent variable (overall writing performance). The value of Beta ( β) in Standardized Coefficients =
0.712 (N = 51) indicates that an increase of one standard deviation in the predictor (overall writing self-efficacy) will
result in a change of 0.712 standard deviations in the writing performance. The p-value (Sig.), which is less than 0.001,
confirms that the students’ overall writing self-efficacy predicts their overall writing performance.
5. Discussions and Conclusions
The current study was aimed to investigate whether there are correlations between students’ writing self-efficacy and
their writing performance, both at sub-skill and paragraph levels, and whether the students’ overall writing self-efficacy
predicts their overall writing performance. When the correlation at the level of paragraph writing was examined, there
was a high positive relationship between the students’ overall writing self-efficacy and their overall writing performance
(r=0.71). In other words, although there was a variation of sub-skill correlations, the correlation of the overall paragraph
writing was highly positive. The findings were consistent with those of Shah et al. (2011) who found that Malaysian
students’ writing ability in the aspect of mechanics such as punctuation and spelling are moderately correlated with their
writing self-efficacy. However, there was an evident controversial result. The cohesion aspect in this study was found to
yield low positive correlation, while this aspect in Shah’s study yielded a moderate positive correlation. The results that
correlations at sub-skill level between writing self-efficacy and writing performance are consistent with self-efficacy
theory (Bandura, 1997), that is, students’ accuracies in judging themselves about their ability to deal with sub-skill tasks
generally vary. Schunk (1996) explained that learner have different judgments about their personal ability and generate
their self-efficacy by associating the tasks with previous successes. Zimmerman et al (1992) state that students who are
familiar with the task, tend to regulate themselves in terms of strategy use to acquired skills for the task and accomplish
it. Drawing on the results of the Linear Regression analysis, it can be implied that writing self-efficacy significantly
correlate with writing performance. Overall, the result of regression analysis supports the assumption that writing self-
efficacy has a predictive power over writing performance. The result was consistent with those of Chen (2007). From
the overall empirical evidences, the theory of self-efficacy has been confirmed and success or performance in L2
learning can be explained by self-efficacy.
6. Implications and Suggestions
From pedagogical perspective, teachers of L2/EFL are suggested to create a motivating language classroom. First of all,
instead of giving a test, teachers can conduct a questionnaire of self-efficacy for diagnostic purpose before starting a
class. Teachers should realize that the issue of aspects of writing is individual and specific. Teachers should personalize
students’ learning by having them practice certain skills. In practice, once the self-rating results reveal certain aspects
students lack, teachers should attend to them by intervening with appropriate techniques. Secondly, teachers should not
rely too much on traditional ways of teaching writing which focuses on teaching grammatical rules and showing errors
in the early drafts to students in class. Cheng and Dörnyei (2008) suggest “teachers’ motivational strategies” that can
promote students’ confidence and have been proved universal in both western and oriental cultures such as “1) make
clear to students that communicating meaning effectively is more important than being grammatically correct, 2) design
tasks that are within the students’ ability, 3) teach students learning techniques, 4) provide students with positive
feedback, and 5) encourage students to try harder” (p. 157).
For research implications, interested researchers in the field may want to
1. explore an impact of task familiarity on learners’ self-efficacy and their language performance by using tasks of
different levels of familiarity.
2. explore the relationship of self-efficacy with other variables such as cognitive style, locus of control, goal orientation
etc.
3. experiment whether certain EFL activities that promote metacognitive knowledge contribute to the enhancement of
self-efficacy and learning improvement (Pajares, 1996; Shannon, 2008).
4. explore how learners’ self-efficacy is heightened during a language course; what strategies students use to enhance
their motivation; or whether teacher’s motivation strategies contribute to the increase of leanrners’ self-efficacy and the
improvement of their task performance.
IJALEL 2 (1):157-167, 2013 163
References
Abedinia A., Rahimib A., & Zare-eec A. (2011). Relationship between Iranian EFL learners' beliefs about language
learning, their language learning strategy use and their language proficiency. Procedia - Social and Behavioral
Sciences, 28 (2011), 1029-1033
Al-Mekhlafi, M. A. (2011). The Relationship between witing self-efficacy beliefs and final examination scores in a
writing course among a group of Arab EFL Trainee-teachers. International Journal for Research in Education (IJRE),
29, 16-33. Retrieved from www.fedu.uaeu.ac.ae/journal/docs/pdf/pdf29/2_E.pdf
Amogne, D. (2008). An investigation of the correlation among efficacy sources, students’ self-efficacy and performance
in reading and writing skills: Bahir Dar University in Focus. (Unpublished master’s thesis), Addis Ababa University,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Anyadubalu, C. C. (2010). Self-efficacy, anxiety, and performance in the English language among middle-school
students in English language program in Satri Si Suriyothai School, Bangkok. International Journal of Human and
Social Sciences, 5(3), 193-198. Retrieved from http://www.waset.org/journals/ijhss/v5/v5-3-29.pdf
Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. New York: General Learning Press.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 71-81).
New York: Academic Press. (Reprinted in H. Friedman [Ed.], Encyclopedia of mental health. San Diego: Academic
Press, 1998), 153-174.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W.H. Freeman.
Cubukcu, F. (2008). A study on the correlation between self-efficacy and foreign language learning anxiety. Journal of
Theory and Practice in Education. 4(1), 148-158
Chen, H. (2007). The relationship between EFL learners’ self-efficacy beliefs and performance. (Unpublished doctoral
dissertation), Department of Education, Florida State University, United States
Chen, M. C., & Lin H. (2009). Self-efficacy, foreign language anxiety as predictors of academic performance among
professional program students in a general English proficiency writing test. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 2009(109),
420-430.
Cheng, H-F., & Dörnyei, Z. (2007). The use of motivational strategies in language instruction: The case of EFL teaching
in Taiwan. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 1(1), 153-174.
Erkan, D. Y., & Saban, A. (2011). Writing performance relative to writing apprehension, self-efficacy in writing, and
attitudes towards writing: A correlational study in Turkish tertiary-level EFL. The Asian EFL Journal Quarterly, 13(1),
164-192.
Gahungu, N. O. (2007). The relationships among strategy use, self-efficacy, and language ability in foreign language
learners. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Northern Arizona University, United States
Ghonsooly, B. & Elahi, M. (2010). Learners' self-efficacy in reading and its relation to foreign language reading anxiety
and reading achievement. Journal of English Language Teaching and Learning, 217, 45-67
Heidari, F., Izadi, M. & Ahmadian, M. V. (2012). The relationship between Iranian EFL learners’ self-efficacy beliefs
and use of vocabulary learning strategies, English Language Teaching, 5(2)
doi:10.5539/elt.v5n2p174
Huwari, I. F., & Noor Hashima, Abd. Aziz. (2011). Writing apprehension in English among Jordanian postgraduate
students at Universiti Utara Malaysia (UUM). Academic Research International, 1(2), 190-198. Retrieved from
http://www.savap.org.pk/journals/ARInt./Vol.1(2)/2011(1.2-16).pdf
Latif, M. A. (2007). The factors accounting for the Egyptian EFL university students’ negative writing affect. Essex
Graduate Student Papers in Language & Linguistics, 9, 57-82.
Mahyuddin R., Elias H., Cheong L. S., Muhamad M. F., & Noordin N. Abdullah M. C. ( 2006). The relationship
between students' self-efficacy and their English language achievement. Malaysian Journal of Educators and
Education, 21, 61-71.
Naseri, M., & Zaferanieh, E. (2012). The relationship between reading self-efficacy beliefs, reading strategy use and
reading comprehension level of Iranian EFL learners. World Journal of Education, 2(2), 64-75
Multon, K. D., Brown, S. D., & Lent, R. W. (1991) Relation of self-efficacy beliefs to academic outcomes: A meta-
analytic investigation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 30-38.
Pajares, F. (1996, Winter). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543-578.
Pajares, F., Hartley, J., & Valiante, G. (2001). Response format in writing self-efficacy assessment: Greater
discrimination increases prediction. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 33, 214-221.
Pajares, F. (2003). Self-efficacy beliefs, motivation, and achievement in writing: A review of the literature. Reading &
Writing Quarterly, 19(2), 139-158.
IJALEL 2 (1):157-167, 2013 164
Rahemi, J. (2007). Self-efficacy and Iranian senior high school students majoring in Humanities. Novitas-ROYAL, 1(2),
98-111 Retrieved from http://www.novitasroyal.org/Rahemi.pdf (September 21, 2012)
Rahimi, A., & Abedini, A. (2009). The interface between EFL learners' self-efficacy concerning listening
comprehension and listening proficiency. Novitas-ROYAL, 3(1),14-28
Shah P. M., Mahmud W. H., Din R., Yusof A., & Pardi K. M. (2011). Self-Efficacy in the writing of Malaysian ESL
learners. World Applied Sciences Journal (Innovation and Pedagogy for Lifelong Learning), 15, 08-11
Retrieved from http://www.idosi.org/wasj/wasj15(IPLL)11/2.pdf
Shannon, S. V. (2008). Using metacognitive strategies and learning styles to create self-directed Learners. Institute for
Learning Styles Journal, 1(Fall), 14-28
Sani, A. M. & Zain, Z. (2011). Relating adolescents’ second language reading attitudes, self efficacy for reading, and
reading ability in a non-supportive ESL setting. Reading Matrix, 11(3), 243-254
Retrieved from http://www.readingmatrix.com/articles/september_2011/sani_zain.pdf
Schunk, D. H. (1996, April). Self efficacy for learning and performance. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the
American Educational Research Association, New York
Shah P. M., Mahmud W. H., Din R., Yusof A., & Pardi K. M. (2011). Self-Efficacy in the writing of Malaysian ESL
learners. World Applied Sciences Journal (Innovation and Pedagogy for Lifelong Learning), 15, 8-11 Retrieved from
http://www.idosi.org/wasj/wasj15(IPLL)11/2.pdf
Shang, H. F. (2010). Reading strategy use, self-efficacy and EFL reading comprehension. The Asian EFL Journal
Quarterly, 12(2), 18-42
Schwarzer, R. & Fuchs, R. (1995). Self efficacy and health haviours. In Conner, M. & Norman, P. (Eds). Predicting
Health Behaviour. Open University Press
Su, M. H., & Duo, P. C. (2012). EFL learners’ language learning strategy use and perceived self-efficacy.
European Journal of Social Sciences, 27(3), 335-345
Retrieved from http://www.europeanjournalofsocialsciences.com/ISSUES/EJSS_27_3_04.pdf
Termit, K. R. S., & Saravana, K. R. (2012). The relationship of writing apprehension level and self-efficacy beliefs on
writing proficiency level among pre-university students. English Language Teaching, 5(7), 42-52
doi:10.5539/elt.v5n7p42
Tilfarlioğlu, F. T., & Ciftci, F. S. (2011). Supporting self-efficacy and learner autonomy in relation to academic success
in EFL classrooms (A Case Study). Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 1(10), 1284-1294. Retrieved from
http://dx.doi.org/10.4304/tpls.1.10.1284-1294
Tilfarlioglu, F. Y., & Cinkaram, E. (2009). Self-efficacy in EFL: Differences among proficiency groups and relationship
with success. Novitas-ROYAL, 3(2), 129-142
Weir, C. J. (1990). Communicative Language Testing. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.
Wong, M. S-L. (2005). Language learning strategies and language self-efficacy: Investigating the relationship in
Malaysia. RELC Journal, 36 (3), 245-269
Woodrow, L. (2011). College English writing affect: Self-efficacy and anxiety. System, 39, 510-522.
Zare, M., & Mobarakeh, S. D. (2011). The relationship between self-efficacy and use of reading strategies: The case of
Iranian senior high school students. Studies in Literature and Language, 3(3), 98-105
Retrieved from http://cscanada.net/index.php/sll/article/view/j.sll.1923156320110303.148
Zimmerman, B. J., Bandura, A., & Martinez-Pons, M. (1992). Self-Motivation for Academic Attainment: The Role of
Self-Efficacy Beliefs and Personal Goal Setting. American Educational Research Joutnal, 29 (3), 663-676.
IJALEL 2 (1):157-167, 2013 165
Appendix A: Paragraph Writing Test
Paragraph Writing Test
Name ___________________ ______________________ Participant Code: ____
This is a test of your ability to write a paragraph in English. You have 1 hour to write a paragraph of 150 words
for a university lecturer on the following topic.
“Some people say that the Internet has a positive impact on students' life; others tend to argue that it is harmful.
Which idea do you agree with?” Please support your idea.
Your writing will be assessed by the following criteria:
Scoring Criteria Details
1.Content of The content must be relevant to the topic and it should have adequate supporting details.
your answer
2.Organization Your main idea must be well-developed and flow in a logical sequence.
of your ideas
3.Cohesion You must use appropriate sentence connectors and transitions to make a strong
paragraph.
4.Vocabulary Vocabulary must be appropriate for the purpose of the paragraph.
5.Grammar Writing is excellent and fluent, with none or very few grammar errors.
6.Punctuation Your punctuations must be accurate.
7.Spelling Your spellings must be accurate.
Suggestions for using your time

1- Think Think of possible ideas about the topic. Select only the best idea for your paragraph 10 minutes
and reasons to support the main idea.
2- Plan Write the main idea and supporting details in a logical sequence. 5 minutes
3- Write Write the paragraph. 40 minutes
4- Edit Read through your paragraph, check for errors, and check that the meaning is clear 5 minutes
for your reader.
Total 60 minutes
IMPORTANT REMINDERS:
1. An off-topic paragraph will receive a score of zero.
2. Any notes in this booklet will not be marked.
3. Your paragraph must be double-spaced.
*** When you are told to do so, you can start writing your paragraph.
Note:
Appendix B: TEEP Attribute Writing Scale

A. Relevance and adequacy of content
0. The answer bears almost no relation to the task set. Totally inadequate answer.
1. Answer of limited relevance to the task set. Possibly major gaps in the treatment of topic and/or pointless repetition.
2. For the most part answers the tasks set, though there may be some gaps or redundant information.
3. Relevant and adequate answer to the task set.
B. Compositional organization
0. No apparent organization of content.
1. Very little organization of content. Underlying Structure not sufficiently controlled.
2. Some organizational skills in evidence, but not adequately controlled.
3. Overall shape and internal pattern clear. Organizational skills adequately controlled.
C. Cohesion
0. Cohesion almost totally absent. Writing so fragmentary that comprehension of the intended communication is
virtually impossible.
1. Unsatisfactory cohesion may cause difficulty in comprehension of most of the intended communication.
2. For the most part satisfactory cohesion although occasional deficiencies may mean that certain parts of the
communication are not always effective.
3. Satisfactory use of cohesion resulting in effective communication.
IJALEL 2 (1):157-167, 2013 166
D. Adequacy of vocabulary for purpose
0. Vocabulary inadequate even for the most basic parts of the intended communication.
1. Frequent inadequacies in vocabulary for the task. Perhaps frequent lexical inappropriacies and/or repetition.
2. Some inadequacies in vocabulary for the task. Perhaps some lexical inappropriacies and/or circumlocution.
3. Almost no inadequacies in vocabulary for the task. Only rare inappropriacies and/ or circumlocution.
E. Grammar
0. Almost all grammatical patterns inaccurate.
1. Frequent grammatical inaccuracies.
2. Some grammatical inaccuracies.
3. Almost no grammatical inaccuracies.
F. Mechanical accuracy I (punctuation)
0. Ignorance of conventions of punctuation.
1. Low standard of accuracy in punctuation.
2. Some inaccuracies in punctuation.
3. Almost no inaccuracies in punctuation.
G. Mechanical accuracy II (spelling)
0. Almost all spelling inaccurate.
1. Low standard of accuracy in spelling.
2. Some inaccuracies in spelling.
3. Almost no inaccuracies in spelling.
Appendix C: Questionnaire for Writing Self-efficacy (Thai version)

แบบว ัดความเชือในความสามารถแห่งตนในเรืองการเขียนภาษาอ ังกฤษ
หมายเลขผู ้ตอบแบบสอบถาม: ____
คําชีแจง ข ้อความต่อไปนีเป็ นเรืองความเชือในความสามารถแห่งตนในเรืองการเขียนภาษาอังกฤษ ให ้นักเรียนเขียนตัวเลขจากเลข 0
ถึง 100 ทีนักเรียนเชือว่าบ่งบอกระดับความสามารถของตนเองในประเด็นนัน ๆ
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
เชือว่าทําไม่ได ้แน่นอน เชือว่าทําได ้ในระดับ เชือว่าทํา
ปานกลาง ได ้ดีแน่นอน
ตัวอย่าง
A. ฉั นสามารถเขียนงานในระดับอนุเฉท (paragraph) โดยไม่ต ้องมีคําชีแจงหรือความช่วยเหลือใด ๆ 65
1. ฉั นสามารถคิดประเด็นต่าง ๆ ทีเกียวข ้องกับหัวข ้อทีต ้องเขียนได ้อย่างรวดเร็ว
2. ฉั นสามารถหาตัวอย่างทีสนับสนุนความคิดหลัก (main idea) โดยไม่ออกนอกหัวเรืองทีเขียน
3. ฉั นสามารถจัดลําดับความคิดได ้อย่างเป็ นเหตุเป็ นผล
4. ฉั นสามารถเขียนโครงสร ้างของอนุเฉท (paragraph) เพือขยายความคิดหลัก (main idea) ได ้
5. ฉั นสามารถเขียนประโยคทียาวและซับซ ้อนโดยใช ้คําเชือมประเภท sentence connectors เช่น and, because,

but, although เป็ นต ้น ได ้อย่างถูกต ้องและมีประสิทธิภาพ
6. ฉั นสามารถเชือมโยงประเด็นต่างๆ โดยใช ้คําเชือมประเภท transitions เช่น firstly, furthermore, in addition,

therefore, in other words เป็ นต ้น ได ้อย่างถูกต ้องและมีประสิทธิภาพ
7. ฉั นสามารถใช ้คําศัพท์ทเหมาะสมกั
ี บงานเขียนประเภทต่าง ๆ เช่น การเล่าเรือง (narrations)
การบรรยาย (descriptions) การอภิปราย (argumentations) ได ้อย่างมีประสิทธิภาพ
8. ฉั นสามารถใช ้คําพ ้องความหมาย (synonym) ได ้โดยไม่ต ้องใช ้คํา ๆ เดิม ซําไปซํามา

IJALEL 2 (1):157-167, 2013 167
9.ฉั นสามารถตรวจแก ้ข ้อผิดในงานเขียนของฉั นในเรืองความสอดคล ้องของประธานและกริยา (subject-verb
agreements) รูปพหูพจน์ (plurals) กริยาทีเหมาะสมกับกาล (verb tenses)
และเรืองอืน ๆ ได ้
10. ฉั นสามารถเขียนประโยคทีไม่มข
ี ้อผิดพลาดทางไวยากรณ์
11. ฉั นสามารถใช ้เครืองหมายวรรคตอน (punctuations) ในการเขียนระดับอนุเฉท (paragraph) ได ้อย่างถูกต ้อง
12. ฉั นสามารถสะกดคําศัพท์ภาษาอังกฤษทุกคําได ้อย่างถูกต ้อง
Appendix D: English Translations for the Items in “Questionnaire for Writing Self-efficacy”
Item 1: I can quickly think of ideas that are relevant to the assigned topic.
Item 2: I can easily find examples to support the main idea without getting off topic.
Item 3: I can organize ideas in a logical sequence.
Item 4: I can structure a paragraph to support the main idea.
Item 5: I can make long and complex sentences by using correct sentence connectors.
Item 6: I can effectively connect ideas with appropriate transitions.
Item 7: I can use appropriate vocabulary for the purpose of writing, e.g., narrations, descriptions, argumentations, etc.
Item 8; I can use synonyms rather than repeating the same words over and again.
Item 9: I can edit my writings for mistakes regarding subject-verb agreements, plurals, verb tenses, etc.
Item 10: I can write sentences without grammatical errors.
Item 11: I can correctly punctuate a paragraph.
Item 12: I can correctly spell all the words in a paragraph.
Student Voice on the Instructional Qualities of the Effective English

Language Teacher: A Collective Case Study
Corinne Vong Siu Phern (Corresponding author)
TESOL at the School of Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia
11800 USM, Penang, Malaysia
Tel: 006-019-559-4060 E-mail: cvsp68@gmail.com
Dr. Mohamad Jafre Zainol Abidin (Senior Lecturer)

School of Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia
TESOL at the School of Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia
11800 USM, Penang, Malaysia
Tel: 006-019-415-2105 E-mail: jafre@usm.my

Abstract
A majority of Malaysian students only have average English language proficiency, although instructional qualities of
the effective English language teacher have by far been expounded by English language experts. Thus, this study aimed
to investigate the extent to which the responses of student voice representing above average, average and below average
English language proficiency from the primary, secondary and tertiary levels - have agreed with expert opinion’s
description of instructional qualities of the effective English language teacher. In this respect, student voice was
analysed using triangulation not only on the instructional qualities discussed, but also on the literature review.
Interesting findings revealed that student voice still had something extra to contribute in determining the instructional
qualities of the effective English language teacher, with a touch of irony and constructive criticism on how such
qualities of English language teachers/lecturers could still improve, so as to appear more effective in learners’ eyes.
Keywords: student voice, effective English Language teacher, instructional qualities, expert opinion, learners
1. Introducation
1.1 Statement of the Problem
To date, experts of the English language have expounded on all that needs to be known of the kind of instructional
qualities the effective English language teacher is expected to have, as a perfect reference for all those teaching the
language. Nevertheless, the English language proficiency of a majority of Malaysian students is still very much on the
average, instead of being the targeted excellent, seen in Table 1 on the following page, where in Institute of Teacher
Education Y (ITE Y), its English language lecturers are well trained to teach English, while the undergraduate trainee
teachers of the aforementioned institute were among the best selected post-Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia students throughout
the country to follow the newly introduced degree programme in institute of teacher educations nationwide. In this
respect, the performance of undergraduate trainee teachers in the English language proficiency paper was severely short
of being excellent, seen only in thirteen of them who had outshone their counterparts. Moreover, as English cannot be
mastered overnight, it can be safely assumed that the English language mastery of these undergraduate trainee teachers
may not have equally been as outstanding as their mastery of other academic subjects during their primary and
secondary school education, despite their having been under the tutelage of teachers who had taught them English
during this period of at least ten to eleven years.
IJALEL 2 (1):168-179, 2013 169
Table 1. The Comparison of English Language Proficiency II Grades Among First Year Undergraduate Trainee Teachers
in Their Second Semester of Institute of Teacher Education Y in Kedah
English Language Proficiency II Grades
English Year 1 No. of D+ C- C C+ B- B B+ A- A
language Sem undergraduate
lecturer 2 trainee
Weak Average Good Very
Class teachers
Good
Lecturer 1 A 19 1 2 4 4 1 5 2 0 0
Lecturer 2 B 20 0 0 2 6 8 4 0 0 0
Lecturer 3 C 21 0 1 8 6 6 0 0 0 0
Lecturer 4 D 20 0 3 1 4 6 6 0 0 0
Lecturer 5 E 18 0 0 0 0 2 11 5 0 0
Lecturer 4 F 18 1 0 2 3 4 2 2 3 1
Total no. of
undergraduate trainee 116 2 6 17 23 27 28 9 3 1
teachers
Note. Adapted from ITE Y’s Examinations Unit (November 2008).
Therefore, the problem which arises is - English language teachers in primary and secondary schools, as well as English
language lecturers in institute of teacher educations are well-trained in the subject they teach, have all the input from
English language experts worldwide on how to become effective in terms of instructional qualities - and yet, the
majority of some of the best Malaysian students in general represented by the sample in ITE Y, still fail to excel in
English.
Therefore, what actually qualifies the instructional qualities of the effective English language teacher? In this respect,
teaching comes with experience (Merseth, 2003; Mestre 1996) as a result of lessons learnt from mistakes made in the
past as well as the building up of various skills which are applied to different children accordingly (Merseth, 2003).
Interestingly, what defines the instructional qualities of the effective English language teacher has been heavily
expounded by English language experts, namely English language teachers and English language lecturers well-versed
in the language who are assumed to know the ins and outs of such qualities that befit the role model English language
teacher/lecturer; yet, too little attention has been paid to student voice on the matter. Whatever the reasons for the lack
of past research to investigate student voice on instructional qualities of the effective English language teacher, the
researcher believes it is crucial that the definition for such a teacher should equally include valuable descriptive
feedback from student voice - lest this definition be far too inclined towards expert opinion alone. Thus, the researcher
is interested to investigate how far student voice has agreed with the instructional qualities of the effective English
language teacher outlined by expert opinion, in order for newer insights discovered to be added on to the pool of expert
interpretation on the same topic. After all, it is only when the English language teacher/lecturer is actually able to cater
to the learning needs as outlined by student voice itself - that the aforementioned teacher’s/lecturer’s effectiveness be
duly acknowledged.
1.2 Significance of the Study
When the instructional qualities of the effective English language teacher that student voice wishes to see are disclosed
through this study, the researcher intends to strike new awareness in existing English language teachers of primary and
secondary schools (both public and private), as well as in English language lecturers of institute of teacher educations
and universities - on what student voice tends to see as its idea of the effective English language teacher. This is so that
the above-mentioned English language teachers and lecturers may also be able to tailor their instructional qualities to
match what student voice actually seeks - so as to cultivate the atmosphere of truly effective teaching and learning of the
English language. In that way, the researcher has no doubt that such teaching and learning will as a result also become
more enjoyable, if not more meaningful for both teacher and student - because the English language teacher still is the
very source from where the mastery of English on the part of the student - begins.
1.3 Review of Literature
For the purpose of this study, eighteen instructional qualities of the effective English language teacher expounded by
expert opinion can be summed up as follows; the first, being competent to teach English (Bainbridge, 1994;
Cruickshank, Jenkins, & Metcalf, 2003; “English Teacher,” 2007; Hart, 2007; Holt-Reynolds, 1999; Khalid Al
Seghayer, 2006-2007; Kizlik, 2007; Tomlinson & Jarvis, 2006; Vadillo, 2000; Westwood, 1995); the second, planning
lessons (Anderson, 1989; Cruickshank et al., 2003; Hart, 2007; Kyriacou, 1986; Martin, 2007; Vadillo, 2000); the third,
carrying out teacher-centred teaching (Reynolds, 1992) or facilitating (Collins, 1986; Khalid Al Seghayer, 2006-2007;
Papier, 2002; Reynolds, 1992); the fourth, bringing creativity to the classroom (Hayes, Nicolic, & Cabaj, 2001; Khalid
Al Seghayer, 2006-2007); the fifth, teaching words in context or directly giving the meaning of words (Papier, 2002);
the sixth, making use of computer technology to teach (Davis, 1998 – 2006; “English Teacher,” 2007; Hayes et al.,
2001; Khalid Al Seghayer, 2006-2007; Ng, Yeung & Yuk, 2006); the seventh, incorporating beyond classroom learning
(“Effective Teaching,” 1999; Khalid Al Seghayer, 2006-2007); the eighth, being flexible (Papier, 2002; “The Effective
IJALEL 2 (1):168-179, 2013 170
Teacher,” 1998); the ninth, exercising clarity (Hasenstab, 1971; Kyriacou, 1986; Kyriacou & McKelvey, 1985); the
tenth, using the best voice and using the best voice speed (Dixie, 2003; Kauffman, Mostert, Trent, & Hallahan, 2002);
the eleventh, using direct eye contact (Cowley, 2003; Hasenstab, 1971; Kyriacou & McKelvey, 1985; Olsen & P.
Cooper, 2001); the twelfth, moving around in the class appropriately (Cruickshank et al., 2003); the thirteenth, being a
good performer (Dixie, 2003; Hasenstab, 1971); the fourteenth, allocating homework and class work accordingly
(Brophy & Kher, 1986; Cruickshank et al., 2003); the fifteenth, giving feedback on students’ work (Papier, 2002;
Vadillo, 2000; Zacharias, 2007); the sixteenth, extending academic help to students (Buskist, 2004; Vadillo, 2000); the
seventeenth, reflecting on lessons (“Classroom time,” 2007; Kizlik, 2007; Raimes, 2002; Reynolds, 1992); and the
eighteenth, refusing to stop learning (Buskist, 2004; Cullingford, 1995; Rogers, 2006). Thus, Cullingford (1995)
emphasised the fact that students are able to detect, as well as to analyse how far their English language teachers have
accepted their professional role in being confident enough to teach what students may learn - as pointed out by Farmer
(2006) and Garcia (1991).
1.4 Rationale of the Study
Research by Gentile, Spiller and Noci (2007) had recommeded how a company uses Customer Experience as a way of
interacting with its customers, where the customers will decide whether to remain loyal to the said company, or not to
purchase from it. In the same way, if English language teachers were to deliver according to student hopes, the teaching
and learning of English will be successful for both teacher and student - and vice versa.
Therefore, the researcher hopes that student voice from the present study equally heard – can ensure a broader and fairer
description of what constitutes the instructional qualities of the effective English language teacher. Similarly, Wang,
Gibson and Slate (2007) postulated that since students are the ones most influenced by the effectiveness of teachers,
their (the students’) voice on the matter would likewise be vital. In this regard, Rodgers (2006) posited that teachers
need to trust their students enough for the latter to give honest feedback on the extent of their learning under the
former’s instruction, besides the students themselves contributing ideas on how the teacher could enable them to learn
better. This is because, the central concern here is not on how the teacher has taught but rather, on how the students have
learnt. In that way, student voice heard will also be an opportunity for teachers to be able to tailor their teaching
techniques through reflective teaching, as proposed by Park and Lee (2006).
The researcher in this study attempts to answer the following research question:
What is the extent to which student voice agrees with how expert opinion has described the instructional qualities of the
effective English language teacher?
2. Method
The qualitative approach chosen for this collective case study - with qualitative data provided by student voice
representative of selected primary school pupils, secondary school students and undergraduate trainee teachers on their
description of the effective English language teacher - was for the purpose of complementing the findings of expert
opinion in the review of literature, and to find out if certain generalisations could be made through student voice coming
from children in the primary school, adolescents in the secondary school, and young adults in the institute of teacher
education regarding their description of the instructional qualities of effective English language teacher.
In this respect, the researcher was less keen to generalise research findings to learners in general as would happen in a
quantitative study, but rather, to investigate the in-depth psychology of learners pertaining to the topic. As posited by
Holliday (2002), qualitative research which grows from areas of anthropology and sociology broadens the view that
quantitative survey and statistics are not enough to understand human matters and therefore, there is a necessity to probe
deeper into the subjective qualities that influence human behaviour. As put forth by Heppner and Heppner (2004),
qualitative researchers are akin to road travellers in the exploration of the unknown. In this regard, Byrne (2001) argued
that the function of qualitative data is to provide richer knowledge about the sample that may be applicable to other
situations, whereas Trochim (2006) postulated that it is pertinent to display the participants’ viewpoints containing rich
descriptive detail - through qualitative research.
2.1 The Research Design and Participants
The research design for this particular study - a collective case study – involved student voice on the instructional
qualities of the effective English language teacher coming from three research participants respectively in a primary
school in the Kedah State, in a secondary school in the Kedah State as well as in an institute of teacher education in the
Penang State of above average, average, and below average English language proficiency respectively, based on the
recommendations of their English language teachers/lecturers, and who were total strangers to the researcher.
2.2 The Research Instrument
In this regard, the researcher utilised the interview of nineteen semi-structured interview questions, as depicted in Table
2 on the following two pages, for each of the child, adolescent, and young adult categories. These questions centred on
eighteen thematic headings of the instructional qualities of the effective English language teacher by expert opinion, as
summarised in the literature review. The interview was conducted using a tape recorder, after the interview questions
had firstly been scrutinised by three English language experts; and secondly, after the interview questions were refined
based on a pilot test being carried out on individuals other than the research participants of the study, so as to increase
the chances of success of the impending actual research to be carried out.
IJALEL 2 (1):168-179, 2013 171
Table 2. Student Voice on the Instructional Qualities of the Effective English Language Teacher:Interview Questions
for Primary School Pupils/Secondary School Students/Undergraduate Trainee Teachers
No. Interview Question Thematic Heading
1. Your English language teacher/lecturer should speak good (i) Being Competent to
English, read aloud well in English, write well in English and Teach English
should be trained in English in order to become a good English
language teacher/lecturer. What do you think? Can you please tell
me why?
2. If your English language teacher/lecturer all the time comes into (ii) Planning Lessons
class and does not teach any English nor give any work in
English, or tells you to do your own work or to study by your own
self, would you like that? (If Yes or No) Can you please tell me
why?
3. Would you like your English language teacher/lecturer to do all (iii) Carrying Out
the talking when teaching, while you do all the listening, reading Teacher-Centred
and writing only? (If Yes or No) Can you please tell me why?
Teaching or
Facilitating
4. Do you enjoy learning English all the time with a partner, or in a (iii) Carrying Out
small group, or both? Can you please tell me why? Teacher-Centred
Teaching or
Facilitating
5. Will it be enough for you if your English language (iv) Bringing Creativity
teacher/lecturer just uses the English textbook to teach, or would to the Classroom
you like your English language teacher/lecturer to use other kinds
of teaching aids also, for example, videos, songs, charts and so on
to teach English? Can you please tell me why?
6. Do you like your English language teacher/lecturer to make you (v) Teaching Words in
guess the meanings of words in English, or do you like your Context or Directly
teacher/lecturer to tell you the meanings of those words on the Giving the Meaning of
spot, or both? Can you please tell me why? Words
7. Do you like your English language teacher/lecturer to use the (vi) Making Use of
computer and the LCD to teach all the time? (If Yes or No) Can Computer Technology
you please tell me why? to Teach
8. Other than learning English in the classroom, what are the ways (vii) Incorporating Beyond
your English language teacher/lecturer can help you use English Classroom Learning
out of the English language classroom?
9. If the English lesson cannot go on as planned due to certain (viii) Being Flexible
reasons, for example, your English language teacher/lecturer has
to suddenly send a pupil/student/undergraduate trainee teacher to
the hospital, will you feel unhappy that you cannot learn any
English for that lesson? Can you please tell me why?
10. Do you think that your English language teacher’s/lecturer’s (ix) Exercising Clarity
teaching should be clear when your teacher/lecturer is speaking to
the class or writing on the blackboard/whiteboard? (If Yes or No)
Can you please tell me why?
11. How loudly would you like your English language (x) Using the Best Voice
teacher/lecturer to speak, and how fast should your and Using the Best
teacher/lecturer speak? What interesting way would you like your Voice Speed
teacher/teacher to speak? Can you please tell me why?
12. If your English language teacher/lecturer looks at you in the eye (xi) Using Direct Eye
when teaching or speaking to you, how would you feel? Can you Contact
please tell me why?
13. Would you like your English language teacher/lecturer to walk (xii) Moving Around in the
around the class when your teacher/lecturer is teaching, or would Class Appropriately
you like your teacher/lecturer to just remain at the front of the
class, or both? Can you please tell me why?
IJALEL 2 (1):168-179, 2013 172
No. Interview Question Thematic Heading
14. If your English language teacher/lecturer makes mistakes in class (xiii) Being a Good Performer
when teaching, or does not know the answers to some of the
questions asked by the pupils/students/undergraduatetrainee
teachers, how do you think the teacher/lecturer should react? Can
you please tell me why?
15. Do you like getting homework or class work from your English (xiv) Allocating Homework
language teacher/lecturer that is easy, or difficult, or both? (If Yes and Class Work
or No) Can you please tell me why? Accordingly
16. Do you like your English language teacher/lecturer to tell you (xv) Giving Feedback on
whether what you have said, read or written in English is correct Students’ Work
or wrong? (If Yes or No) Can you please tell me why?
17. Would you like your English teacher/lecturer to help you with (xvi) Extending Academic
your English if you need to see your teacher/lecturer after the Help to Students
English class is over? (If Yes or No) Can you please tell me why?
18. If an English lesson didn’t go so well, for example, perhaps your (xvii) Reflecting on Lessons
English language teacher/lecturer was not in such a good mood,
how do you hope the teacher/lecturer to behave during the next
English lesson? Can you please tell me why?
19. If your English language teacher/lecturer continues studying to (viii) Refusing to Stop
become a teacher/lecturer who knows more about the English Learning
language, do you think that the teacher/lecturer will be a much
better English language teacher for you, in terms of teaching
skills? (If Yes or No) Can you please tell me why? To you, will
that teacher/lecturer also automatically become better as a person?
(If Yes or No) Can you please tell me why?
3. Results
The results of the study are best displayed in its most detailed description through Table 3.
Table 3. Student Voice Which Tallied With, Added On To, or Refuted Expert Opinion When Describing the Instructional
Qualities of the Effective English Language Teacher
Student Voice Versus Expert Additional Views from Student Voice Not Mentioned by
Opinion on Thematic Headings Expert Opinion/Differing from Those of Expert Opinion’s
3.1 All of student voice agreed · Some qualified English lecturers fail to transfer what they know
with expert opinion on the English to all the students (UTT3).
language teacher’s/lecturer’s being · A good English language teacher must also know how to teach
competent to teach English. weak students (S2).
3.2 All of student voice was in line · I’m lazy to go to the internet to search for materials (S1).
with expert opinion on the English · I’m weak in English... we need to do lots of work that the teacher
language teacher/lecturer planning gives ... good for us (S2).
lessons.
· I would like the lecturer to guide us a bit ... we are ... not really
good in what we are doing ... she should come into class and give
us some input (UTT1).
· If the teacher fails to plan lessons: I cannot improve ... and ...get
good marks for my English (P2).How can students be clever?
(S3) Students may end up doing work unrelated to English instead
( UTT3).
3.3(a) S2 and UTT2 supported · We merely listen ... we’re afraid of asking the teacher anything ...
teacher-centred teaching by the we’re shy ... our English is not good ... if I were to always ask
English language teacher/lecturer but questions , my friends will say ... I am a show-off ... (S2).
with differing reasons from expert · I don’t speak much ... would try and understand what the lecturer
opinion’s. means ... if I didn’t understand, I would approach the lecturer
personally, or search for answers myself. I come from a Chinese
school which taught using this style ... (UTT2)
IJALEL 2 (1):168-179, 2013 173
3.3(b) All of student voice except · P1, P2, P3, S1, S3, UTT1 and UTT3 wanted the opportunity to
for S2 and UTT2 was against teacher- ask the English language teacher/lecturer questions whenever
centred teaching of the English they were in doubt of any part of the lesson.
language teacher/lecturer, opposing · There should be a chance for students to speak, or to give
expert opinion. opinions, and I want to improve my self-confidence (UTT3).
· If the teacher/lecturer did all the talking: It would be boring for
me ( S3 and UTT3).
3.3(c) All of student voice tallied · I like pairwork because groupwork is noisy (P1 and S3). I can
with expert opinion on the English help and discuss with my pair (P1). Students tend to hold
language teacher/lecturer facilitating. conversations about other things rather than to discuss academic
matters during group work (S3).
· I remember it better if people explain things to me ... Usually ,in a
group, I will listen first, and if I have better suggestions, then I
will voice it out (UTT2).
3.3(d) UTT1 at the same time · I feel it a bit unfair that points given by me during groupwork
conditionally disagreed with expert presentations might be utilised by group members who refuse to
opinion on the English language contribute ideas during discussions but later score as well as I,
lecturer facilitating. which would be a bit frustrating to me (UTT1).
3.4 All of student voice was in line · I love video clips by the English language teacher/lecturer (S1,
with expert opinion on the English S2, S3 and UTT3).
language teacher/lecturer bringing · I like the teacher to translate English into Mandarin ... and to use
creativity to the classroom, but with model test papers so that we can do better in exams (P1).
varying ideas.
· I’d like the teacher to utilise grammar books, comprehension and
grammar with us (P2 and P3).
· I prefer the English language teacher to use songs (S1 and S3); I
like learning English through the newspapers; The teacher could
let us surf the internet on the computer (S2).
· I like novels, the Reader’s Digest (UTT1 and UTT3); interesting
articles from the internet (UTT1).
· It is up to the lecturer’s creativity to use teaching aids (UTT2)..
3.5(a) Only UTT1 supported expert · I like the teacher to give some tips on what the meaning of the
opinion’s reasons for the effective word is (P2).
English language lecturer to teach · I can learn, when I look up the meanings of the word myself (P3).
English words in context, that is, in
order to remember words better. · Through dictionary use: It will make me think (UTT3); in
locating meanings, I’ll find out multiple meanings of a word (S3).
3.5(b) P3 solely agreed with expert · I can learn faster (P1 and UTT2); this method is more practical
opinion about directly giving the (UTT2); a must when 1 cannot think anymore (P2).
meaning of English words, such as · The dictionary fonts are too small and sometimes I can’t
through transalation from English understand the explanation for the meaning of words (S1).
into Mandarin.
· When the teacher tells the meanings on the spot, I become
confident of those meanings. If I were to guess, I’m afraid of
making mistakes as English words may have multiple meanings
(S2).
3.6 All of student voice except for · The lecturer could use the LCD which is more colourful, as well
UTT3 supported expert opinion on as animation and word pronunciation videos (UTT2).
using computer technology to teach, · Occasional use of the Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) projector by
but with its own reasons. the English language teacher/lecturer was preferred: Otherwise,
I’ll be bored ( P1, S3, UTT2); the teacher will be wasting time
each time she switches on the computer and starts the LCD (P3);
my eyes would become painful if I were to look at the LCD
screen for too long (S1 and S3).
· Occasional LCD use was also preferred due to liking the
teacher/lecturer to teach using the English textbook and
IJALEL 2 (1):168-179, 2013 174
magazines (S2), conventional teaching (P1, P2, UTT1) as well as
the lecturer’s own experiences related to the topic taught (UTT1).
· The lecturer may every time use the laptop and LCD, but students
learn not because of all these items ... but through the way the
lecturer imparts the knowledge (UTT3).
3.7 All of student voice was in · Through English Storytelling competitions (P2); The lecturer
line with expert opinion on the could encourage us to utilise English through poems, blogs,
English language teacher/lecturer singing contests (UTT2), or through a ‘no deadline’ Book Club
incorporating beyond classroom for us to share various interpretations of Literature text (UTT1).
learning, but with ideas which almost · I like the teacher to give me a set of questions that I have to find
all differed from that of expert answers for that can help me improve my English (P3); the
opinion’s. teacher can hold non-exam oriented extra classes for us when she
is free (S3); the teacher could mark my essays, based on difficult
titles linked to what I had learnt, pointing out my errors that I can
learn from (S2).
· The teacher/lecturer could encourage us to communicate in
English regularly (P1, S1, UTT3).
3.8 All of student voice had · I would not like it as: English is my favourite subject (P1); I can’t
individual responses differing from get to learn English (P2, P3 and UTT3); I find such a waste as an
that of expert opinion’s on the hour’s knowledge is still valuable (UTT3).
English language teacher/lecturer · I would be totally elated at: being able to relax more (S3); doing
being flexible, in the case of being other work or my own work (S1 and UTT2).
unavoidably absent.
· I would be partially happy at the chance of having a free English
period but I fear I might not be able to catch up in my English
should too many lessons be missed (S2 and UTT1).
3.9 All of student voice agreed · The teacher needs be clear because: I want to understand what
with expert opinion on the English she is saying (P1, P2 and S1); I don’t want to be wrong when
language teacher/lecturer exercising learning (P3); we can model the lecturer’s pronunciation (UTT2).
clarity. · If the lecturer was not sure about what she is saying, it would
make us insecure as well (UTT1); I may feel that English is
boring and I’m not interested in this subject anymore (UTT3).
· The teacher’s teaching should be in dual-language ... English and
Malay ... we find it easier to follow (S2).
· All of student voice find it clearer to decipher the
teacher’s/lecturer’s handwriting that was big enough.
3.10(a) All of student voice · Such voice projection is necessary to enable those sitting at the
supported expert opinion on the back to hear (S3).
English language teacher/lecturer · If the teacher’s/lecturer’s voice is too loud: it would scare me (P1
using the best voice. and UTT1), disturb other classes (P3), make me feel very
uncomfortable (P2), hurt my ears (S1 and S2) and irritate me
(UTT3).
· But if the teacher/lecturer were to use too quiet a tone: I would
not be able to hear (P1, P2, P3 and S1); it gets on my nerves even
if she has a sorethroat (UTT1).
· The teacher/lecturer being monotonous would bore all of student
voice except for S2; I won’t know when she is angry or when she
is trying to make a point (S2).
3.10(b) All of student voice · In contrast with expert opinion, all of student voice disliked the
supported expert opinion on the English language teacher/lecturer speaking too slowly, which
English language teacher/lecturer would not only be a waste of time for both teacher and pupils, but
using the best voice speed, with an also would bore students and undergraduate trainee teachers
exception where voice speed was alike.
concerned
3.11 Student voice was a mixture · I feel nothing, because I am not scared of the teacher (P1).
IJALEL 2 (1):168-179, 2013 175
of reactions towards expert opinion’s · The teacher’s/lecturer’s direct stare proves intimidating: such a
point of view on the English language stare would bring back painful memories of my having
teacher/lecturer using direct eye encountered fierce and angry English language teachers in the
contact. past (P2, P3 and S1); it would make me feel guilty (S2, UTT1,
UTT2 and UTT3); uneasy (UTT3); shy (S3) or irritated (UTT2).
· I would like it if direct eye contact came from the the effective
English language teacher/lecturer who did not administer
physical punishment (P2), was friendly (P3) or gentle (UTT1).
3.12 All of student voice agreed · If the English language teacher/lecturer were to move around
with expert opinion on the English when teaching: I can’t concentrate (P1); it would make me dizzy
language teacher/lecturer moving (S3 and UTT2).
around in the class appropriately, but · We can ask the lecturer questions personally (UTT1 and UTT3) ;
based on their varying preferences. if I didn’t know something, I could raise my hand to ask the
teacher ... I’m so small... (S2).
· Such movement of the teacher is appropriate: when she gives us
exercises to do (S1); so she can see what each student is doing ,
as some may be sleeping, playing or doing other work (S2).
3.13 All of student voice tallied · The teacher should be angry, because the pupils laugh at her (P3).
with expert opinion on the English · The teacher/lecturer could instead verbally apologise (P1, P2, S2
language teacher/lecturer being a and UTT1), react casually (S3), channel it into a humorous way
good performer, let alone P3. (UTT1), or to admit one’s fault (UTT3), as being prone to error
was only human (S2 and UTT1).
· The teacher/lecturer could expand one’s knowledge through
dictionary use (P1 and P2), book references (S3, S1, UTT2 and
UTT3), referring to fellow English language teachers (P2, P3 and
S2) brainstorming answers with students (S2 and UTT1) or
accepting being corrected by students (S1, S2 and UTT2).
3.14 All of student voice contrasted · All of student voice was discovered to like a combination of both
with expert opinion that the effective easy and challenging English homework instead.
English language teacher/lecturer · I find easier homework: manageable (P1); I’m less tensed by it
needed to allocate homework and (P3 and S2); it is time-saving (UTT2)
class work accordingly to what
students were able to cope with. · More difficult homework: proves a chance for me to gain more
English knowledge (P1, P3 and S2); compels me to think
(UTT2); enables me to discuss answers with friends (S3, UTT1
and UTT3); prepares me better for English exams (P2 and S1).
3.15 All of student voice was in · I feel more appreciated that the teacher wants to help me (S2).
line with expert opinion on the · If the lecturer were to not say anything about what I’d said or
English language teacher/lecturer written, it would be as if there was nothing wrong ... (UTT3).
giving feedback on students’ work.
· Feedback in the form of compliments to undergraduate trainee
teachers by the lecturer ought to be done in private, else it incur
unwarranted jealousy by undergraduate trainee teachers not
equally complimented upon (UTT1).
3.16 All of student voice supported · I totally like such help, but would never ever again approach the
expert opinion on the English lecturer who looks for excuses not to help me ... (UTT3).
language teacher/lecturer extending · I am the teacher’s student, and if I have any problems with my
academic help to students. learning of English, she has to help, it is her responsibility (S1).
· I prefer to only ask the teacher in class ... I would like the teacher
to entertain me after class, although in reality, the teacher will
show a displeased expression (S2).
3.17 All of student voice tallied · All of student voice hoped/expected the teacher/lecturer to come
with expert opinion on the English in for the next class in a better mood so as to: be able to deliver
language teacher reflecting on lessons what was meant to be taught (P2); execute things accurately
in the event of the teacher’s/lecturer’s (UTT3); enable us to be happier/more inspired learning English
bad hair day during lessons. (P1, P2, P3 and S1); make us feel comfortable asking the teacher
IJALEL 2 (1):168-179, 2013 176
to clarify things not understood (S3).
· The lecturer needs to be calmer (UTT2), or to apologise for one’s
earlier conduct for the sake of mutual understanding (UTT1 and
UTT3), else be subjected to negative criticism by students (UTT1
and UTT2).
3.18 All of student voice agreed · All of student voice except for UTT3 saw themselves as being
with expert opinion on the English able to learn more from the teacher/lecturer they regarded as then
language teacher/lecturer refusing to more knowledgeable; but the lecturer was not necessarily better if
stop learning, but with varying she failed to teach interactively (UTT3) or if she had academic
reasons certificates (UTT1).
· Will the teacher who continues learning will be a better person?:
I’m not sure (P1 and P2); it’s the experience in life that changes a
person, not the education the person gets (UTT1); the
teacher’s/lecturer’s negative character would not change with
higher education gained (S1, P3, S3, UTT2 and UTT3); she
might become disinterested in teaching weak students (S2)/the
lecturer might become arrogant very easily (UTT2).
Note. All of student voice = P1, P2, P3, S1, S2, S3, UTT1, UTT2, UTT3. P1=Pupil 1. P2=Pupil 2. P3=Pupil 3.
S1= Student 1. S2=Student 2. S3=Student 3. UTT1=Undergraduate Trainee Treacher 1.
UTT2=Undergraduate Trainee Teacher 2. UTT3=Undergraduate Trainee Teacher 3.
4. Discussion
To be effective based on instructional qualities, student voice implies that the English language teacher/lecturer:
· needs to have English competence, but is also able to transfer knowledge of English to learners critical of the
lecturer.
· cannot afford to short-change learners through unplanned English lessons without avoiding inevitable adverse
results.
· needs to not only modify teacher-centred teaching in order to cater to learners who are shy, but to also exercise
a two-way communication with them.
· has to consider the benefits of pairwork for learners, while at the same time equally needs to monitor and find
ways to prevent the sponging off of more vocal group members during groupwork evaluations.
· is required to teach English words in context to help build thinking and independence on the part of learners,
but at the same time needs to consider the benefits of directly giving the meaning of English words to learners
themselves.
· has to intersperse computer technology together with conventional teaching.
· needs to be open to suggestions from learners regarding creative ways they actually prefer learning English
and on the types of beyond classroom learning which attract them in their learning of English.
· has to consider making up classes missed which learners deem important.
· needs to exercise clarity in writing and in speech to the extent of translating English into students’ mother
tongue which would prove most helpful to some of them.
· has to use the best voice which is neither too loud, too soft, nor monotonous, besides using the best voice speed
that is not too fast nor too slow – for maximum effect on learners.
· needs to use direct eye contact that conveys being friendly and wanting to help learners understand what is
being taught.
· is required to refrain from moving about too much when teaching in order to prevent giddiness in some
learners, but at the same time is expected to move around to furnish better interaction with learners, as well as
to monitor unwarranted student activities.
· in the face of making blunders: needs to consider reacting calmly, or laughing it off, or displaying anger so as
not to be demeaned, or apologising to the class, or making up for one’s lack by referring to various sources
for the answer, or even being willing to accept correction from learners.
· has to be aware that learners themselves equally prefer a combination of easy and challenging homework.
· needs to give feedback on learners’ work, but at the same time needs to do it discretely sometimes so as to
prevent other students from becoming jealous.
· is required to extend academic help to learners to help them gain more learning and improve in their English,
as well as to clarify things not understood, be it during or after the English lesson.
· needs to reflect on one’s lessons especially after a display of bad mood in class so that student learning can be
IJALEL 2 (1):168-179, 2013 177
resumed as usual, rather than the mental and emotional preparedness of learners to study English be
jeopardised, as well as student trust in teachers/lecturers be eroded.
· has to be aware that learners see the teacher’s/lecturer’s continual learning as merely being able to provide
them with a bigger store of knowledge, while the teacher’s/lecturer’s increased teaching skills is regarded by
them as being based on teaching experience rather than mere paper qualifications, and that these learners
opine that the teacher’s/lecturer’s personality will not change for the better with continual learning.
5. Conclusion
There appears to be a somewhat similar pattern of the extent student voice from selected pupils, students and
undergraduate trainee teachers has endorsed expert opinion’s description of the effective English language teacher
where instructional qualities are concerned. In this respect, not only does student voice on occasions totally agree with
expert opinion, but there are also times where student voice sometimes concurs with expert opinion, but with ideas and
reasonings different from what that have been posited by the latter. In other instances, student voice tallies with expert
opinion, yet elaborates further on matters discussed where the latter does not; while student voice sometimes even
totally counters with expert opinion, having had its own specific interpretions instead, or also not being able at all to
provide any form of reasoning – suggesting a logical lack of maturity on the topic discussed by younger research
participants.
Thus, this goes on to prove that no matter how much student voice tallies with expert opinion, it still has something
extra to contribute in determining the instructional qualities of the effective English language teacher/lecturer, as pupils,
students and undergraduate trainee teachers are thinking individuals in their own right. In this regard, student voice is
indeed crucial in providing a channel for pupils/students/undergraduate trainee teachers alike to be bold enough to tell
the experts of the English language - that if the latter were to expect any English language teacher/lecturer to be hailed
as truly effective - then what student voice expects of the effective English language teacher equally needs to be heard,
considered, internalised and acted upon accordingly by all English language teachers/lecturers at large. This is because,
irregardless of how much prior research has been conducted by the English language experts just to carve out a picture
perfect role model of the effective English language teacher, analysing the reverse side of the coin represented by what
student voice is equally trying to impart is, in itself, educational.
Most interestingly too, the responses of the nine participants often tallied with one another, irrespective of their age
group nor English language proficiency command – as each of them could actually help determine the kind of English
language teacher/lecturer they considered effective enough in terms of intructional qualities for them to be able to be
comfortable with, in their quest to master the English language. Therefore, the above-mentioned discovery proves to
indeed be new to the world of research, as well as becomes an important message to any teacher/lecturer of the
English language that learners, regardless of age nor proficiency in the language - are more often than not capable
of providing somewhat similar critical feedback on what they observe on the instructional qualities of their
English language teachers/lecturers which they consider effective. After all, any problems that revolve round the
teaching and learning of English - are simply the consequence of mismatched expectations of learners and their
English language teacher/lecturer.
Hence, delving into the minds of pupils, students and undergraduate trainee teachers alike provides a rare opportunity
for the researcher to seek the missing link as to what is really expected by student voice of the instructional qualities of
the effective English language teacher - which further contributes to existing expert opinion on the matter - and finally
serves as a more complete reference for all interested parties - educators and learners alike - that goes to make the
teaching and learning of English as successful as it ought to be.
References
Anderson, L. W. (1989). The effective teacher: Study guide and readings. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Bainbridge, W. L. (1994). Teachers now lack motivation to excel. The Columbus (OH) Dispatch. Retrieved
from http://www.schoolmatch.com/articles/CDSEPT94.htm
Brophy, J., & Kher, N. (1986). Teacher socialization as a mechanism for developing student motivation to learn. In R. S.
Feldman (Ed.), The social psychology of education (pp. 257-288). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Buskist, W. (2004). Ways of the Master Teacher. APS Observer, 17 (9). Retrieved from
http://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/getArticle.cfm?id=1637
Byrne, M. (2001). Sampling for qualitative research. AORN Journal. Retrieved from
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FSL/is_2_73/ai_70871448
Classroom time management. (2007). TimeManagementAdvice.org. Retrieved from
http://www.timemanagementadvice.org/classroom_time_management.html
Collins, N. (1986). New teaching skills. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cowley, S. (2003). Sue Cowley’s teaching clinic. London: Continuum.
Cruickshank, D., Jenkins, D. B., & Metcalf, K. K. (2003). The act of teaching (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Cullingford, C. (1995). The effective teacher. London: Cassell.
IJALEL 2 (1):168-179, 2013 178
Davis, R. S. (1998-2006). Using a foreign language beyond the classroom. Randall’s ESL Cyber Listening Lab.
Retrieved from http://www.esl-lab.com/research/ways.htm
Dixie, G. (2003). Managing your classroom. London: Continuum.
Effective teaching principles and practices. (1999). Report of the Ad Hoc Senate Commitee on Teaching Quality,
Effectiveness and Evaluation, May 1999. Retrieved from http://www.arts.ubc.ca/Effective_Teaching.79.0.html
English teacher: Secondary job analysis of physical, mental, and emotional demands. (2007). Teacher Education.
Retrieved from http://education.byu.edu/ted/pdf/secondary.pdf
Farmer, F. (2006). Accountable professional practice in ELT. ELT Journal, 60 (2), 160-170.
Garcia, E. E. (1991). Effective instruction for language minority students: The teacher. Journal of Education, 173 (2),
130-141.
Gentile, C., Spiller, N., & Noci, G. (2007). How to sustain the customer experience: An overview of experience
components that co-create value with the customer. European Management Journal, 25 (5), 395-410.
Hart, G. (2007). What makes a good English teacher? Socyberty. Retrieved from
http://www.socyberty.com/Education/What-Makes-a-Good-English-Teacher--.47949
Hasenstab, J. K. (1971). Characteristics of effective teachers. Performance Learning Systems: The Heart of Teaching
Issue 79. Retrieved from http://www.plsweb.com/resources/newsletters/hot_archives/79/effective_teacher
Holliday, A. (2002). Doing and writing qualitative research. London: Sage Publications.
Hayes, L., Nicolic, V., & Cabaj, H. (2001). Am I teaching well? Exeter: Learning Matters Ltd.
Heppner, P. P. & Heppner, M. J. (2004). Writing and publishing your thesis, dissertation & research: A guide for
students in the helping professions. California: Thomson Learning.
Holt-Reynolds, D. (1999). Good readers, good teachers? Subject matter expertise as a challenge in learning to teach.
Harvard Educational Review, 69 (1), 29-50.
Kauffman, J. M., Mostert, M. P., Trent, S. C., & Hallahan D. P. (2002). Managing classroom behaviour : A reflective
case-based approach (3rd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Khalid Al Seghayer. (2006-2007). Characteristics of good English instructors. ESL Elite. Retrieved from
http://search4.incredimail.com/?q=profile+of+effective+english+teachers&lang=english&source=001043051011&p=2
Kizlik, B. (2007). Tips on becoming a teacher. Adprima Site Directory. Retrieved from
http://www.adprima.com/tipson.htm
Kyriacou, C. (1986). Effective teaching in schools. Oxford : Basil Blackwell Ltd.
Kyriacou, C., & McKelvey, J. (1985). An exploration of individual differences in ‘effective’ teaching. Educational
Review, 37 (1), 13-17.
Martin, D. (2007). How to be an effective EFL teacher. EFL Press. Retrieved from
http://www.eflpress.com/how_to_be_an_effective_efl.html
Merseth, K. (2003, February). An interview: Teaching students to be good teachers. HGSEnews. Retrieved from
http://www.gse.harvard.edu/news/features/merseth02012003.html
Mestre, J. (1996). General lessons learned in the preparation of teachers. Retrieved July 15, 2007, from
http://oliver.aapt.org/micros/mestre.doc
Ng, C., Yeung, S. A., & Yuk, H. H. R. (2006). Does online language learning diminish interaction between student and
teacher? Educational Media International, 43 (3), 219-232.
Olsen, J., & Cooper, P. (2001). Dealing with disruptive students in the classroom. London: Kogan Page Limited.
Papier, D. (2002). The thrill of being an ESL teacher. 2002 ESL MiniConference Online. Retrieved from
http://www.eslminiconf.net/may/papier.html
Park, Gi-Pyo, & Lee, Hyo–Woong. (2006). Characteristics of effective English teachers perceived by high school
teachers and students in Korea. Asia Pacific Education Review, 7 (2), 236-248. Retrieved from
http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/2b/1e/6f.pdf
Raimes, A. (2002). Inspiring new approaches to the teaching of writing. 2002 ESL MiniConference Online. Retrieved
from http://www.eslminiconf.net/june/raimes.html
Reynolds, A. (1992). What is competent beginning teaching? A review of the literature. Review of Educational
Research, 62 (1), 1-35.
Rogers, A. (2006). Lifelong learning and the absence of gender. International Journal of Educational Development, 26
(2), 189-208.
The effective teacher. (1998). National Research Center on English Learning Achievement. Retrieved from
http://www.ed.gov/inits/americareads/educators_effteach.html
Tomlinson, C. A., & Jarvis, J. (2006). Teaching beyond the book. Educational Leadership, 64 (1), 16-21.
IJALEL 2 (1):168-179, 2013 179
Trochim, W. M. K. (2006). Qualitative measures. Research Methods Knowledge Base. Retrieved from
http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/qual.php
Vadillo, R. S. M. (2000). Some hints for the English language teacher. Instituto Superior de Formación y
Recursos en Red para el Profesorado. Retrieved from
http://search4.incredimail.com/?q=profile+of+effective+english+teachers&lang=english&source=001043051011&p=2
Wang, J., Gibson A. M., & Slate, J. R. (2007). Effective teachers as viewed by students at a 2 year college: A multistage
mixed analysis. Issues in Educational Research, 17. Retrieved from http://www.iier.org.au/iier17/wang.html
Westwood, P. (1995). Current issues in effective teaching and learning. Retrieved from
http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/archives/forum_learner/learner5.html#effective
Zacharias, N. T. (2007, April). Teacher and student attitudes toward teacher feedback. RELC Journal, 38 (1), 38-52.
Two Heads May Not Be Better than One in Writing to Learn Spanish
as a Second Language
Ya-Chin Tsai, Ph.D.
Department of Foreign Languages, National Chiayi University
85 Wunlong Village, Minsyong Township
Chiayi County 621, Taiwan
Tel: 886-5-2263411 E-mail: tsai@mail.ncyu.edu.tw

Abstract
This study investigated two approaches to writing to learn Spanish as a second language. Eight undergraduate students
were exposed to task-based language learning and a traditional approach in a counter-balanced manner to learn Spanish
verbs from writing stories. While the participants made significant improvements in morphosyntactic accuracy over
time, their performance with regard to syntactic complexity was deteriorated. When the two approaches were compared,
no significant differences were found in accurate use of Spanish reflexive verbs or complexity of the stories. Although
the number of language-related episodes and accurate use of reflexive verbs were positively related, the correlation did
not reach a significant level. Due to the nature of this small-scale study, generalizability of these results is limited.
Keywords: task, interaction, output, accuracy, complexity, language-related episode, second language acquisition,
reflexive verb
1. Introduction
1.1 Task in SLA
There is an ongoing interest in the application of task-based language learning (TBLL) to enhance second language
acquisition (SLA) (Bygate, Skehan, & Swain, 2001; Ellis, 2003). In recent decades, TBLL has become widely adopted
in syllabus designs (Johnson, 2003). Ellis (2003, pp. 9-10) elaborates the concept of a task, as follows: (a) it is a work
plan, (b) it involves linguistic activity, (c) it requires primary attention to be on meaning, (d) it allows learners to select
the linguistic resources they will use, (e) it requires learners to function primarily as language users rather than learners,
and (f) it has a clearly defined non-linguistic outcome.
Unlike the traditional approaches, TBLL is characterized by the high levels of interaction that occur among learners
(Larsen-Freeman, 2000). However, it remains a matter of concern to what extent such peer interaction actually fosters
SLA. Specifically, it remains unclear whether TBLL is more efficient in stretching learners’ second-language
development beyond a level that is possible to attain with a traditional approach (Storch, 1999).
The use of TBLL is premised on the principle that two heads are better than one (Lantolf & Poehner, 2008), and thus,
during their interactions, learners’ attention is drawn more closely to the form/linguistic problems they encounter
(Doughty & Williams, 1998). However, little research has been conducted to find out whether TBLL is more effective
than traditional approaches in raising learners’ attention to Spanish morphosyntactic elements.
1.2 Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is three-fold: (1) to compare the actual performance yielded from TBLL with that of a
traditional approach, (2) to evaluate the learning outcomes from using both approaches together, and (3) to examine
language acquisition in relation to learners’ attention to linguistic problems. The following three research questions are
investigated in this study:
1. What impact did the two approaches together have on learners?
2. Was TBLL better than the traditional approach with regard to accuracy and complexity of the students’
written output?
3. Did the students’ attention to linguistic problems affect the accurate use of Spanish verbs?
1.3 Role of Output in SLA
Swain (1995) stated that input alone is not enough to develop higher grammatical competence, and thus proposed the
Output Hypothesis. She argued that it is necessary to produce output to compensate for the insufficiency of relying on
input alone to achieve learning goals. Giving learners more chances to produce output can encourage them to process
IJALEL 2 (1):180-185, 2013 181
language in more depth. Because their attention will be drawn to form (Swain, 1995), producing output facilitates the
development of grammatical competence. However, the Output Hypothesis was not intended as a replacement for the
Input Hypothesis. Instead, the former was proposed as an addition to the latter (Ellis, 2003).
Output has at least three key functions with regard to SLA (Swain, 1995). First, learners’ attention is channeled to
form/linguistic problems in their interlanguage system. When producing output, they have the opportunity to notice any
gaps between what they intend to express and what they already have acquired in their interlanguage system (Swain &
Lapkin, 1995). The second function is related to learners’ hypotheses testing. Producing output provides learners with
opportunities to test their hypotheses with regard to linguistic well-formedness or comprehensibility. When a learner’s
interlanguage system is pushed to generate output, it is more likely that language acquisition will take place (Taron &
Liu, 1995). The third function is concerned with metalinguistics. Reflection on language use motivates learners to
contemplate the linguistic resources they have at hand. Simply stated, when producing output learners have a chance to
evaluate their interlanguage system in the form of metatalk. All three functions have been considered important in
triggering language acquisition.
1.4 Peer Interaction in SLA
Social activities have been reported to maximize the zone of proximal development (Lantolf & Poehner, 2008). Goss,
Zhang and Lantolf (1994) investigated the effects of peer interaction on a grammaticality judgment. In their study, some
participants carried out the judgments independently, while the others worked in pairs or triads. The results showed only
a slight variation between individual performance and pair/triad performance, though pair/triad performance achieved a
higher rate of accuracy with regard to grammatical features. However, their study suffers from a few flaws. The major
flaw, for instance, lies in the use of a grammaticality judgment as an assessment, as there is some controversy over the
reliability and validity of this type of instrument (Leow, 1996).
Although sociocultural theory emphasizes the pedagogical value of TBLL, traditional approaches are not without value
(Storch, 2002). For example, Storch (1999) contended that traditional approaches result in more complex and lengthier
output than TBLL, albeit with less accuracy.
1.5 Importance of attention in SLA
Attention—identified by the occurrence of language-related episodes (LREs) during peer interaction (Swain & Lapkin,
1995; Swain, 1998)—is one of the necessary conditions for SLA to occur. An LRE refers to “any part of a dialogue in
which students talk about the language they are producing, question their language use, or other- or self-correct” (Swain,
1998, p. 70). LREs can be lexis-based or form-based (Swain & Lapkin, 1998). Lexis-based LREs refer to comments on
vocabulary items, while form-based LREs represent students’ attention to the spelling of morphemes or specific
syntactic structures.
The occurrence of LREs seems to serve as an index of language acquisition. Swain and Lapkin (1998) analyzed the
LREs produced by students working together during a jigsaw activity, in which the students created a story based on
pictures. Although the metatalk among the students was considered vital to improve accuracy, this conclusion was
drawn from analysis on partial data. It is uncommon that the data were selectively analyzed to support the researchers’
claims. Moreover, the researchers conceded that the number of LREs produced during peer interaction varied
significantly across groups. Because the amount of time that the students spent on the activity also varied, the time
factor might have affected the results.
2. Method
2.1 Participants
The participants were eight undergraduates who spoke English as their first language. Their previous learning
experiences with Spanish were limited (0 to 1 year) and they had stayed in Spanish-speaking countries for only between
0 - 3 months.
2.2 Materials & Instruments
Four similar sets of pictures were used for data collection (See the Appendix for an example). The pictures illustrated
“Manuel’s Daily Routine” (Knorre, Dorwick, Pérez-Gironés, Glass & Villarreal, 1997, p. 133). Every picture depicted a
routine activity, such as taking a bath, brushing teeth, or getting up in the morning. Similarities among the sets of
pictures allowed linguistic comparisons.
2.3 Target Items
Spanish reflexive verbs in the present tense were selected as the target items to be assessed. Spanish is a pro-drop
language, and conjugation is necessary to convey information regarding subject and tense. There are three necessary
conditions to use reflexive verbs properly: (1) to conjugate a verb, (2) to supply a reflexive pronoun, and (3) to place a
reflexive pronoun immediately before a conjugated verb. In declarative sentences, the reflexive pronoun, which is in
agreement with the agent of the sentence, must be explicitly spelled out and placed before a conjugated verb. For
irregular verbs, the vowel of the stem is conjugated for the subject.
The target items to be studied were acostarse (to go to bed), afeotarse (to shave), bañarse (to take a bath), ducharse (to
take a shower), ponerse (to put on clothes), despertarse (to wake up), sentarse (to sit down), divertirse (to have a good
time), dormirse (to fall asleep), peinarse (to comb), cepillarse (to brush), and vestirse (to get dressed).
IJALEL 2 (1):180-185, 2013 182
2.4 Procedure
The data collection period consisted of four sessions (pretest, traditional, TBLL, and posttest). After the pretest, four of
the participants independently wrote a story for a set of pictures while an audio-recorder was used to capture their
thinking aloud. The others constructed a story in pairs for the same pictures and their discussions were also recorded.
Then, using a different set of pictures with the same theme, the two approaches were administered to the same
participants in a counter-balanced fashion. Finally, all the participants took a posttest. Each participant created stories
independently for the pre- and posttests, which were based on the content of the pictures they had seen in both
approaches.
2.5 Data Analysis
2.5.1 Accuracy
The written stories produced by the participants were analyzed in terms of accurate use of morphosyntactic elements—
i.e., the conjugations of the verbs, use of the reflexive pronouns, and word order. The accuracy of using a reflexive verb
was scored by the following criteria:
o use of a correct verb (occurrence: 1; absence: 0)
o conjugation (correct: 1; incorrect: 0)
o occurrence of a reflexive pronoun (occurrence: 1; absence: 0)
o form of the pronoun (correct: 1; incorrect: 0)
o word-order of the verb and the reflexive pronoun (correct: 1; incorrect: 0).
For the accurate use of a verb, a total of five points stood for mastery, while zero points represented very poor
performance.
2.5.2 Complexity
Complexity was measured in terms of number of sentences, the number of words, and the ratio of clauses to sentences.
T-units, which have been used for English data, were not appropriate for data analysis in this study, because Spanish and
English have different syntactic structures.
2.6 Coding Procedure
The recorded data was transcribed and analyzed for LREs (Swain, 1998), which were operationalized as follows, with
examples taken from transcribed protocols:
1. Lexis-based LRE: talk related to participants seeking Spanish vocabulary or selecting among competing
lexical items.
e.g., S1: OK, here we go putting on clothes, see? We always have these pictures, and I never know the words
for them…
S2: Se desp, se des, -viste! Yeah, se viste.
S1: Isn’t it viste like a look? Oh, that’s vista.
S2: Vestir means to dress yourself—vestirse.
S1: Se viste? Ah, OK.
2. Form-based LRE: talk related to spelling or any aspect of Spanish morphemes or syntactic structure during
story creation
e.g., S3: Uhhh, le gusta cantar en el baño. Asfiar? Asfiarse? Ah afeitarse afeitarse? Afeitarse?
3. Results
T-tests and correlation analyses were conducted. The stories written during the traditional approach were compared to
those written during TBLL. The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (r) was obtained to measure the
relationship between LREs and accuracy. The participants’ performance is displayed in Table 1.
Table 1. Pretest vs. posttest performance
Pretest Posttest
M SD M SD
Number of sentences 11.50 4.07 6.12 2.41
Number of words 95.62 21.09 48.87 17.13
Ratio 1.45 .20 1.58 .33
Accuracy 13.25 5.06 18.12 7.43
The stories were assessed in terms of complexity and accuracy. For Research Question One, three t-tests were
performed for complexity. The t-test comparing the number of sentences in the pre- and posttest revealed a significant
difference, t (14) = - 7.124, p < .01. The t-test comparing the number of words produced in the pre- and posttests also
IJALEL 2 (1):180-185, 2013 183
revealed a significant difference, t (14) = - 6.53, p < .01. However, the t-test comparing the ratios between the pretest
and the posttest showed no significant difference, t (14) = .99, p > .05. One t-test was administered for accuracy. The
pre- and posttest performances differed significantly in accuracy, t (14) = 2.39, p < .05. In sum, the participants made
progress in accuracy from the pretest to posttest, while the level of complexity decreased. The number of sentences and
words significantly decreased, though the ratios of clauses to sentences did not differ significantly (Figure 1).
120
100
80 sente nce
word
60
acc uracy
40 ratio
20
0
pretest posttest
Figure 1. Pretest vs. posttest
For Research Question Two, t-tests were also conducted. The participants’ performance is displayed in Table 2. The first
t-test revealed no significant difference between the two approaches in the number of sentences, t (10) = .11, p > .05,
while the second showed no significant difference in the number of words, t (10) = .51, p > .05. A third t-test comparing
the ratios revealed no significant difference between the two approaches, t (10) = .40, p > .05, while the last t-test
showed no significant difference in accuracy, t (10) = 1.9, p > .05. In brief, the learning outcomes out of TBLL were not
significantly different from those derived from the traditional approach with regard to accuracy and complexity.
Table 2. Traditional vs. Task-based

Traditional Task-based
M SD M SD
Number of sentences 8.12 1.45 8.25 2.21
Number of words 64.50 16.50 59.50 14.47
Ratio 1.36 .24 1.30 .14
Accuracy rate 14.00 8.83 23.75 6.94
For Research Question Three, a correlation analysis was conducted for LREs (ranging from 0 to 10) and the accurate
use of reflective verbs. Although the LREs and accuracy rate were positively related, the correlation did not reach a
significant level (r = .5, p > .05). Moreover, due to the small sample size, this result has to be interpreted with caution.
4. Discussion
This study investigated two approaches to writing to learn Spanish morphosyntactic elements, and several findings were
derived. First, accuracy seemed to be achieved at the cost of complexity. Second, TBLL did not outperform the
traditional approach with regard to accuracy or complexity. Third, attention to linguistic problems, as revealed in the
LREs, did not enhance complexity or accuracy to a significant degree.
The traditional approach used in conjunction with TBLL was found to enhance the accurate use of Spanish reflexive
verbs. One possible explanation is that the two approaches together drive the participants to acquire the verbs by
repeatedly producing output. That is, more time spent practicing output increases the accuracy rate. Because of the
similarity among the sets of pictures, the participants’ attention was constantly concentrated on how to conjugate the
verbs accurately, which resulted in a higher accuracy rate. However, the accuracy rate seems to have been achieved at
the cost of complexity. Due to limited attentional capacity in cognition, there appears to be a trade-off effect between
accuracy and complexity (VanPatten, 1996).
Compared with the traditional approach, TBLL alone did not seem to optimize learning outcomes. Interestingly, this
finding does not support Storch (1999), who argued that TBLL has a positive effect on accuracy and that the traditional
approach leads to greater complexity. This study found that TBLL alone led to neither greater complexity nor accuracy,
in comparison with the traditional approach. It is possible that the participants in this study had never engaged in TBLL
previously in their Spanish learning. Owing to their unfamiliarity and lack of experience with TBLL, the participants
were unable to benefit from it.
This study challenges the conventional view of the relationship between attention to linguistic problems and learning
outcomes, as revealed in the correlation between LREs and accuracy. Indeed, one of the findings actually ran counter to
those of prior research (Swain, 1998; Swain & Lapkin, 1998), which highlighted the significant relationship between
accuracy and attention to linguistic problems. It is suggested that LREs evolve naturally out of TBLL, whereas it might
IJALEL 2 (1):180-185, 2013 184
not hold true with regard to thinking aloud. It has been contended that thinking aloud protocols might not actually
represent what was occurring in the learners’ mind (Kuusela & Pallab, 2002). It is undeniable that thinking aloud while
writing is intrusive and may lead to cognitive overload. Therefore, we have good reason to believe that the thinking-
aloud transcripts may have underrepresented the actual thinking that took place in the participants’ minds. Furthermore,
due to the small-scale nature of this study, the results should not be generalized. More work is needed to shed more light
on the effects of TBLL and the traditional approach on SLA.
5. Limitations
This study has several limitations. First as a small-scaled study, the generalizability of the results is rather limited. In
addition, since this study focused on the learning of Spanish reflexive verbs, the results should not be generalized to
other grammatical structures.
6. Recommendations
Some recommendations are suggested here for future studies. First, more participants should be invited to verify the
results, as well as increase external validity. Furthermore, TBLL should be implemented with different linguistic targets
to examine its pedagogical effects. Finally, replication studies should be conducted to help us further clarify the issues
raised in this work.
Acknowledgement
The author would like to thank the editor and anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments. Any errors that remain
are my sole responsibility.
References
Bygate, M., Skehan, P., & Swain, M. (Eds.) (2001). Researching pedagogic tasks: second language learning teaching
and testing. Harlow, UK: Pearson.
Doughty, D. & Williams, J. (Eds.) (1998). Focus on form in classroom second acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Goss, N., Zhang, Y., & Lantolf, J.P. (1994). Two heads may be better than one: Mental activity in second-language
grammaticality judgements. In Tarone, E. E., Gass, S. M., Cohen, A. D. (Eds.), Research methodology in second-
language acquisition (pp. 263-286). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Johnson, K. (2003). Designing language teaching tasks. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.
Knorre, M., Dorwick, T., Pérez-Gironés, A. M., Glass, W.R., & Villarreal, H. (1997). Puntos de partida: An invitation to
Spanish. Boston, MA: McGaw-Hill company.
Kuusela, H., & Pallab, P. (2002). A comparison of concurrent and retrospective verbal protocol analysis. American
Journal of Psychology, 113, 387-404. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1423365
Lantolf, J. P. & Poehner, M. E. (Eds.) (2008). Sociocultural theory and the teaching of second languages. London:
Equinox.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000). Techniques and principles in language teaching (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University
Press.
Leow, R. P. (1996). Grammaticality judgment tasks and second language development. In. J. E. Alatis, C. A. Straehle, M.
Ronkin & B. Gallenberger (Eds.), Linguistics, language acquisition, and language variation: Current trends and future
prospects (pp. 126-139). Washington, DC: Georgetown University.
Storch, N. (1999). Are two heads better than one? Pair work and grammatical accuracy. System, 27, 363-374.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0346-251X(99)00031-7
Storch, N. (2002). Patterns of interaction in ESL pair work. Language Learning, 52, 119-158.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-9922.00179
Swain, M. (1995). Three functions of output in second language learning. In G. Cook and B. Seidhofer (Eds.), For H. G.
Widdowson: Principles and practice in the study of language (pp. 125-144). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Swain, M. (1998). Focus on Form through Conscious Reflection. In C. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in
classroom second language acquisition (pp. 114-138). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Swain, M., & Lapkin, S. (1995). Problems in output and the cognitive processes they generate: A step towards second
language learning. Applied Linguistics,16, 3, 371-391. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/applin/16.3.371
Swain, M., & Lapkin, S. (1998). Interaction and second language learning: Two adolescent French immersion students
working together. The Modern Language Journal, 82, 320-337. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1998.tb01209.x
Tarone, E., & Liu, G. Q. (1995). Situational context, variation, and second language acquisition theory. In G. Cook & B.
Seidlhoffer (Eds.), Principle and practice in applied linguistics (pp. 107-124). Oxford: Oxford University.
VanPatten, B. (1996). Input processing and grammar instruction in second language acquisition. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
IJALEL 2 (1):180-185, 2013 185
APPENDIX
1 2 3
4 6
5
7
The Effect of Attitude on L2 Learners’ Choice of Compensation &

Meta-cognitive Strategies
Abbas Ali Zarei (Corresponding Author)
Assistant professor, Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin, Iran
E-mail: aazarei@ikiu.ac.ir, aazarei@yahoo.com
Atefeh Elekaei
M.A. Islamic Azad University, Takestan, Iran
Telephone: +98912-2818077 E-mail: atefehelekaei@yahoo.com

Abstract
The present study investigates the effect of attitude on the choice of compensation and meta-cognitive strategies of
Iranian EFL university students majoring in Teaching English and English Translation. 108 intermediate students from
Qazvin and Takestan State and Islamic Azad Universities participated in this study. Data were gathered by means of
questionnaires and were analyzed using ANOVA procedures. Results indicated that the level of attitude had a
statistically significant effect on the choice of students’ compensation strategies (F = 19.407, p < .01); however the
effect of attitude on the choice of students’ meta-cognitive strategies was not significant (F = .772, p > .05).
Keywords: attitude - compensation strategies - meta-cognitive strategies
1. Introduction
There is little doubt that language learning strategies influence second language learning. The investigation of which
strategies learners use, when and how, helps teachers and researchers to find out the development learners have
regarding using their abilities, skills, aptitude and proficiencies. At the same time, a wide variety of factors may affect
the choice of language learning strategies. Among such factors age, prior knowledge, attitude, motivation, cooperative
learning, aptitude, amount of exposure, and anxiety in second language learning have been shown to be strongly related
to the choice of language learning strategies (Ames & Archer, 1988; Guilloteax & Dornyei, 2008; Ortega, 2003;
Vandergrift, 2005). The present study will focus on attitude. In addition, for manageability reasons, this study confines
itself to compensation and meta-cognitive strategies.
1.1 Statement of the problem and purpose of the study
Although many researchers have investigated strategies, motivation, autonomy, attitudes, proficiency, cooperative
learning and gender (Ames & Archer, 1988; Guilloteax & Dornyei, 2008; Ortega, 2003; Vandergrift, 2005), few have
done research on variables affecting the choice of learning strategies; therefore, this study will focus on attitude
affecting compensation and meta-cognitive strategies.
1.2 Research questions
The present study aims to find answers to the following questions: (1) Does attitude level significantly influence the
choice of compensation strategies? (2) Does attitude level significantly influence the choice of meta-cognitive
strategies?
2.1 Language Learning Strategies
Researchers would like to find out which strategies learners use in their learning, how and when they use them, as well
as what makes them assign specific strategies to themselves. Chamot (2004) defines learning strategies as “the
conscious thoughts and actions that learners take in order to achieve a learning goal"(p. 14). She holds that:
"Strategic learners have meta-cognitive knowledge about their own thinking and
learning approaches, a good understanding of what a task entails, and the ability
to orchestrate the strategies that best meet both the task demands and their own
learning strengths" (p. 14).
Learners are different, so they choose different strategies based on their understanding of which strategies can possibly
contribute to their learning (Cotterall, 2000). In addition, Oxford (1992) believes that in order to teach successfully,
IJALEL 2 (1):186-193, 2013 187
teachers must be aware of variables such as language learning styles and strategies and many other factors which differ
in various learners. Ehrman, Leaver and Oxford (2003, p. 315) claim that three factors are important to make strategies
useful: " (a) the strategy relates well to the L2 task at hand, (b) the strategy fits the particular student’s learning style
preferences to one degree or another, and (c) the student employs the strategy effectively and links it with other relevant
strategies".
According to Oxford and Crookall (1989), language learning strategies include Cognitive strategies, Memory strategies,
Compensation strategies, Communication strategies, Meta-cognitive strategies, Affective strategies and Social
strategies. Cognitive strategies refer to skills which directly manipulate or transform the language. Memory strategies
are techniques to store and retrieve new information, respectively. Compensation strategies are behaviors to compensate
for missing knowledge. Defining Communication strategies, Oxford and Crookall (1989) maintain that although they
are used in listening, reading and writing, they are typically those compensation strategies used in speaking. Meta-
cognitive strategies are behaviors to center, arrange, plan and evaluate one's learning. Affective strategies refer to
techniques to gain better control over emotions, attitudes and motivations related to language learning. They also hold
that Social strategies are actions which involve other people in language learning.
A number of studies have been conducted on learning strategies and variables affecting them (Oxford & Ehrman, 1995;
Sheorey, 1999; Griffiths & Parr, 2001; Kato, 2005). Oxford and Ehrman (1995) studied the strategy use of 520
participants and concluded that the most frequent strategies were compensation strategies. They also found that females
used compensation strategies more than males.
In a different study, Martinez (1995) compared language learning strategy use of 50 secondary school students and 30
university students. Results indicated that although no considerable difference was found between university and school
students, university students used more strategies than high school students. Spanish university students used cognitive
and pronunciation strategies the most and memory and compensation strategies the least.
In addition, Sheorey (1999) found that meta-cognitive strategies were used most frequently. 1261 Indian college
students were involved in the study wherein it was reported that the cultural background and the educational patterns
influenced some of the strategies which Indian students used. Moreover, concerning gender and proficiency, it was
found that female learners used strategies more frequently than male learners, and learners who had a high proficiency
in English used functional practice strategies more frequently than learners who had a lower proficiency in English.
Kato (2005) indicated that Meta-cognitive-Affective strategies were used most frequently and Entrance- Exam-
Measured strategy, which was a characteristic of students of Chinese, was used least frequently. Also, like the above
studies, he found gender differences in strategy use. In addition, students who used Meta-cognitive-Affective, Social
and Cognitive strategies were successful in learning, but students who used Memory-Compensation and Entrance-
Exam-Measured strategies were not. Contrary to Sheorey (1999) and Su (2005), Kato (2005) showed that students' use
of strategies was not related to their proficiency.
Moreover, there are those, like Hong-Nam and Leavell (2006), who believe that nationality affects the use of language
learning strategies. They conducted a study with 55 ESL students from various countries to consider the relationships
among the use of language learning strategies, proficiency, gender and nationality. Results indicated that intermediate
students used more learning strategies than other proficiency level students. In addition, it was found that students used
meta-cognitive strategies the most. Also, they used affective and memory strategies the least. Concerning the
relationship between nationality and the use of language learning strategies, it was reported that Chinese (China and
Taiwan) students used social strategies the most and memory and affective strategies the least. Students from Japan,
Korea and Other (Brazil, Germany, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Togo) used meta-cognitive strategies the most;
students of Japanese and Other used affective strategies, and Korean students used memory strategies the least.
Investigating the relationship between language learning strategies and years of studying English with English
proficiency of students, Magno (2010) conducted a study with 302 Korean students. Findings indicated that
compensation strategies significantly enhanced students' English proficiency. Also, it was reported that the more
students spend time learning formal English, the more their English proficiency increases. So, students can choose the
most appropriate strategies to apply.
Similarly, Radwan (2011) investigated the effect of gender and English proficiency on the use of language learning
strategies. Meta-cognitive strategies and memory strategies were found to be used the most and the least, respectively.
Furthermore, students with high proficiency level used cognitive, meta-cognitive and affective strategies more than
students with low proficiency level. Also, supporting Sheorey (1999), it was suggested that EFL cultural environment
may affect the type of strategies students use.
2.2 Attitude
One of the factors affecting the choice of language learning strategies is attitude. Ajzen (2005) defines attitude as "a
disposition to respond favorably or unfavorably to an object, person, institution, or event" (p. 3). He also believes that
attitude is a construct which is not reachable to direct observation, so measurable responses are required. A study by
Charney, Newman and Palmquist (1995) showed that students' attitude as well as belief affect their thought, what they
do while reading and writing, and their success.
Little attention has been paid to the relationship between attitude and language learning strategies. Here is a brief review
of the few available studies in this regard.
Believing that quantitative analysis of learners' test scores is not sufficient, Chen (2007) conducted a qualitative analysis
of students' learning process in a listening comprehension strategic program. 64 junior college students in Taiwan
IJALEL 2 (1):186-193, 2013 188
participated in the study. He maintains that since strategy training motivates learners to learn, changes in learners'
behaviour and attitudes are its outcome. Based on the results, these changes were categorized into learners' behaviour,
internal learning processes, learners' approach as well as their attitudes to foreign language learning.
Moreover, Macaro and Erler (2008) conducted an intervention study with young beginner learners of French to
investigate their reading comprehension. Based on the results, strategy instruction not only enhanced students'
comprehension of simple and complicated texts and developed their attitudes concerning reading, but also caused
changes in students' strategy use.
In a different study, Gokce (2008) conducted a study with 170 students of high school sections of vocational high
schools and 155 students of Anatolian high schools to investigate their motivational intensity as well as their attitudes,
the difference between Anatolian high schools and vocational high schools, differences in gender toward motivational
intensity, learning English as well as Anglo-Saxon culture. Results indicated that students of high school sections of
vocational high schools had more positive attitudes. Also, female learners were reported to have more positive attitudes
than male learners. In addition, although quantitative analysis showed that vocational high school students had a high
level of motivation, attitudes concerning Anglo-Saxon culture and learning English, qualitative analysis only showed
approximately positive attitudes of students concerning learning English. Results also showed negative attitudes of
nearly half of the students regarding learning Anglo-Saxon culture and no motivational intensity of half of the students.
Additionally, Ghazali, Setia, Muthusamy and Jusoff (2009) investigated attitudes toward text selection, students'
preferences in reading as well as the effect of teaching strategies used by teachers. Results showed that although
students were less eager toward strategies, they had positive attitude about text selection. It was suggested that teachers
have an important role not only in teaching content to students but also in shaping their attitudes. They also can choose
interesting strategies to develop the attitudes of students.
Furthermore, Wu (2010) conducted a study consisting of 754 Taiwanese students majoring in Engineering, Business
and Language to investigate the effect of two variables including gender and major on their strategy use. Results
indicated that students used compensation and cognitive strategies the most and social and affective strategies the least.
Also, the level of students' use of strategies was moderate. Concerning preferred strategies, their preference was direct
strategies. In addition, there was a considerable relationship among major, gender and the use of strategies. The students
majoring in language used strategies more than engineering and business students. Wu (2010) also found that female
students used social strategies more than males. Furthermore, a high correlation was found between the attitude of
learners toward learning and the number of strategies which students used.
To conclude, as the above mentioned studies show, attitude and language learning strategies are important factors in
language learning and teaching. However, there are few studies which have paid attention to the direct relationships
between them. Therefore, the present study aims to investigate the effect of attitude on the choice of compensation and
meta-cognitive learning strategies of EFL learners.
3. Method
3.1 Participants
In the present study, a sample of 158 Iranian EFL students studying Teaching English and English Translation (both
males and females) at Qazvin and Takestan State and Islamic Azad Universities was selected. After the administration
of The Michigan Test of English Language Proficiency and taking the results into account, the number of participants
was reduced to 108. The students' proficiency level corresponded roughly to the intermediate level and their age ranged
from 19 to 29.
3.2 Instruments
To answer the research questions, the following instruments were made use of: First, to homogenize the participants, a
general proficiency test (The Michigan English Language Proficiency Test) was administered at the outset of the study.
Second, a modified version of Oxford's SILL (Strategy Inventory for Language Learning) with 15 strategy items on a 5-
point Likert scale from 'Never' to 'Always' was given to the participants. A copy of the questionnaire is given in
Appendix A. The questionnaire was divided into two categories:
1- Compensation strategies which had six items (Part A).
2- Meta-cognitive strategies which included nine items (Part B).
Finally, a language learning attitude questionnaire on a 5-point Likert scale from 'strongly disagree' to 'strongly agree',
which included 27 items was given to them (See appendix B).
3.3 Procedures
The following procedures were followed in order to achieve the purpose of the present study. First, to remove anxiety,
all the participants were informed about the purpose of the study. Also, to encourage them, it was explained that 1 point
would be awarded to everyone who filled out the questionnaires truthfully. Then, a general proficiency test was
administered to make sure that there were no significant differences among the participants in terms of their proficiency
level. The participants had 45 minutes for the test. Those participants whose score were within one standard deviation
below and above the mean were selected for the study and the remaining participants were excluded from all
subsequent analyses. Next, in another session, the strategy and attitude questionnaires were given to all the participants.
The participants had 50 minutes to complete these two questionnaires. To analyze the obtained data and to answer the
research questions, two separate one-way ANOVA procedures were used.
IJALEL 2 (1):186-193, 2013 189
4. Results and Discussion
4.1 Investigation of the First Research Question
The first research question attempted to see whether attitude influences EFL learners' choice of compensation strategies.
To this end, participants were divided into three equal groups of high, medium, and low level of attitude based their
scores on the attitude questionnaire. ANOVA was used to see the effect of attitude level on the choice of compensation
strategies. Table 1 contains the descriptive and test statistics. Based on Table 1, the high attitude group has the highest
mean (mean = 20.72), followed by the medium attitude group (mean = 18.66), and the low attitude group (mean =
16.33). Also, F-value is statistically significant (F = 19.407, p < .01). So, the differences among three attitude groups in
the choice of compensation strategies are significant.
Table 1. Descriptive and Test Statistics for the ANOVA on Attitude and Compensation Strategies
Attitude N Mean Std. 95% Confidence Interval for
Deviation Mean
Lower Bound Upper

Bound
High 36 20.72 3.13 19.66 21.78
Compensation Mid 36 18.66 2.72 17.74 19.58

Strategies
Low 36 16.33 3.09 15.28 17.38
F = 19.407 Sig = .001 w²= .25
As Table 1 shows, 25 percent of the total variance in the dependent variable, compensation strategies, is accounted for
by the independent variable, attitude. This means that the remaining 75 percent of the variance in the dependent variable
is left unaccounted for.
To locate the differences among the groups, the post hoc Sheffe test procedure was used, yielding the following results:
Table 2. Post Hoc Multiple Comparisons of Attitude Groups in the Choice of Compensation Strategies
(I) Motivation (J) Motivation Mean Sig. 95% Confidence Interval
Group Group Difference (I-J) Lower Bound Upper Bound
*
High Mid 2.05 .017 .30 3.80
*
High Low 4.38 .000 2.63 6.13
*
Mid Low 2.33 .005 .58 4.08
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
Figure 1 shows the differences among the three attitude groups more clearly.
Figure 1. The Differences among the three Attitude Groups and the Choice of Compensation Strategies
4.2 Investigation of the second Research Question

The second research question aimed to see whether attitude influences EFL learners' choice of meta-cognitive
strategies. To this end, participants were divided into three equal groups of high, medium, and low level of attitude
based on their scores on the attitude questionnaire and another ANOVA procedure was run. Table 3 summarizes the
results of descriptive and test statistics. As Table 3 shows, the high attitude group has the highest mean (mean = 34.72),
IJALEL 2 (1):186-193, 2013 190
followed by the low attitude group (mean = 34.33), and the medium attitude group (mean = 33.22). In addition, the F-
value is insignificant (F = .772, p > .05) implying that the differences among the three attitude groups in the choice of
meta-cognitive strategies are not statistically significant.
Table 3. Descriptive and Test Statistics for the ANOVA on Attitude and Meta-cognitive Strategies
Attitude N Mean Std. 95% Confidence Interval for
Deviation Mean
Lower Bound Upper Bound
Meta- High 36 34.72 4.82 33.08 36.35
cognitive Mid 36 33.22 5.78 31.26 35.17
Strategies Low 36 34.33 5.29 32.54 36.12
F = .772 Sig = .465
Figure 2 shows the results more conspicuously.
Figure 2. The Differences among the three Attitude Groups and the Choice of Meta-cognitive Strategies
4.3 Discussion
One of the findings of the present study was that attitude significantly influenced the choice of compensation strategies.
This result lends support to those of Ames and Archer (1988), who found that students who emphasized mastery goals
in the classroom, used more strategies and had a more positive attitude toward the class. Also, the findings of the
present study supports Wu's (2010) findings that there is a high correlation between attitude of students toward learning
and the number of strategies they use. Although types of attitude were not the focus of the present study, this study is in
accordance with the findings of Sadighi and Zarafshan (2006), who found that students with positive attitudes used
strategies more commonly than students with negative attitudes. At the same time, the findings of the present study are
in contrast to those of Su (2005), who found that intermediate students used more learning strategies than other
proficiency level students. In addition, although this study did not focus on any skill, the findings of the present study
support those of Gupta and Woldemariam (2011), who found that students with high levels of attitude toward learning
more frequently used writing strategies than students with lower levels of attitude.
A number of factors account for these findings. One of the reasons can refer to the Iranian socio-cultural educational
setting in which students are used to following the teachers' instructions and where classes are predominantly teacher-
centered.
Another reason may be the participants' level of proficiency. The participants were all at intermediate proficiency level.
Therefore, they may not have been much aware of the use of meta-cognitive strategies. This may explain why no
significant differences were found among them. This claim is corroborated by studies such as Goh and Foong (1997),
Su (2005), Wu (2008), Yang (2007), which accentuate the role of proficiency in using language learning strategies and
indicate that more proficient students use some or all strategies more than less proficient students and that language
proficiency affects students' use as well as selection of language learning strategies.
The other possible reason for such findings may be attributable to gender differences. In the present study, gender
differences were not taken into account, whereas studies such as Arjomand and Sharififar (2011), Goh and Foong
(1997), Green and Oxford (1995), Kato (2005), Radwan (2011) and Sheorey (1999) emphasize the prominent role of
gender differences in the use, the choice and preference of language learning strategies.
Also, self-confidence and level of opportunities to use the target language in real environment can be addressed as the
other possible factors which might have caused such findings. Iranian students have no or little opportunities to speak
with native speakers of English. This may negatively affect their self-confidence to speak. This, in turn, may influence
their ability to make use of various strategies. After all, practice makes perfect.
IJALEL 2 (1):186-193, 2013 191
5. Conclusion
The present study attempted to investigate the effect of attitude on the choice of compensation and meta-cognitive
strategies of Iranian EFL learners. The results revealed that the level of attitude influence students' choice of
compensation strategies, but have no significant effect on the choice of meta-cognitive strategies.
The findings of the present study may have implications for teachers as well as learners. As the effect of attitude on
language learning is undeniable, the present study can help teachers and learners develop a better understanding of
attitude in an educational context. In addition, teachers can find new and better ways of teaching to introduce strategies
students does not know and increase students' attitude and the use of strategies.
References
Ajzen, I. (2005). Attitudes, Personality and Behavior. New York: Open University Press.
Ames, C. and Archer, J. (1988). Achievement goals in the classroom: students' learning strategies and motivation
processes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(3), 260-267.
Arjomand, M. & Sharififar, M. (2011). The most and least frequently used vocabulary learning strategies among Iranian
EFL freshman students and its relationship to the gender. Iranian EFL Journal, 7(1), 91-100.
Chamot, A. U. (2004). Issues in language learning strategy research and teaching. Electronic Journal of Foreign
Language Teaching, 1(1), 14-26.
Charney, D., Newman, John., H. & Palmquist, M. (1995). "I'm just no good at writing": Epistemological style and
attitudes toward writing. Written Communication, 12(3), 298- 329.
Chen, Y. (2007). Learning to learn: The impact of strategy training. ELT Journal, 61(1), 20-29.
Cottterall, S. (2000). Promoting learner autonomy through the curriculum: principles for designing language courses.
ELT Journal, 54(2), 109-117.
Ehrman, M. E., leaver, B. L. & Oxford, R. L. (2003). A brief overview of individual differences in second language
learning. System, 31, 313-330.
Ghazali, S. N., Setia, R., Muthusamy, C. & Jusoff, K. (2009). ESL students' attitudes towards texts and teaching
methods used in literature classes. English Language Teaching, 2(4), 51-56.
Goh, C. M. C. & Foong, K. P. (1997). Chinese ESL students' learning strategies: A look at frequency, proficiency, and
Gender. Hong Kong Journal of Applied Linguistics, 2(1),39- 53.
Gokce, S. (2008). Attitudes and motivational intensity of foreign language learners at vocational high schools: A
comparative study. Unpublished master's thesis. Middle East Technical University, Ankara.
Green, J. M. & Oxford, R. (1995). A closer look at learning strategies, L2 proficiency, and gender. TESOL
QUARTERLY, 29(2), 261-297.
Griffiths, C. & Parr, J. M. (2001). Language-Learning strategies: theory and perception. ELT Journal, 55(3), 247-254.
Guilloteaux, M. J. & Dornyei, Z. (2008). Motivating language learners: A classroom-oriented investigation of the
effects of Motivational strategies on student motivation. TESOL Quarterly, 42(1), 55-77.
Gupta, D. & Woldemariam, G. S. (2011). The influence of motivation and attitude on writing strategy use of
undergraduate EFL students: Quantitative and qualitative perspectives. Asian EFL Journal, 13(2), 34-89.
Hong-Nam, K. and Leavell, A. G. (2006). Language learning strategy use of ESL students in an intensive English
learning context. System,34, 399-415.
Kato, S. (2005). How language learning strategies affect English proficiency in Japanese university students. Journal of
the Faculty of Human Studies Bunkyo Gakuin University, 7(1), 239-262.
Macaro, E. & Erler, L. (2008). Raising the achievement of young-beginner readers of French through strategy
instruction. Applied Linguistics, 29(1), 90-119.
Magno, C. (2010). Korean students' language learning strategies and years of studying English as predictors of
proficiency in English. TESOL Journal, 2, 39-61.
Martinez, I. M. P. (1995). A study of the learning strategies used by secondary school and university students of English
in Spain. Revista Alicantina de Estudios Ingleses, 8, 177-193.
Ortega, L. (2003). Syntactic complexity measures and their relationship to L2 proficiency: A research synthesis of
college-level L2 writing. Applied linguistics, 24(4), 492-518.
Oxford, R., L. (1992). Who Are Our Students?: A Synthesis of Foreign and Second Language Research on Individual
Differences with Implications for Instructional Practice. TESL CANADA Journal, 9(2), 30-49.
Oxford,R. & Crookall, D. (1989). Research on language learning strategies: Methods, findings, and instructional issues.
The Modern Language Journal, 73(4), 404-419.
Oxford, R, L. & Ehrman, M. E. (1995). Adult's language learning strategies in an intensive Foreign language program
in the United States. System, 23(3), 359-386.
IJALEL 2 (1):186-193, 2013 192
Radwan, A. A. (2011). Effects of L2 proficiency and gender on choice of language learning strategies by university
students majoring in English. Asian EFL Journal,13(1), 114-162.
Sadighi, F. & Zarafshan, M. (2006). Effects of attitude and motivation on the use of language learning strategies by
Iranian EFL university students. Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities of Shiraz University, 23(1), 71-80.
Sheorey, R. (1999). An examination of language learning strategy use in the setting of an indigenized variety of
English. System, 27, 173-190.
Su, M. H. M. (2005). A study of EFL technological and vocational college students' language learning strategies and
their self-perceived English proficiency. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 2(1), 44-56.
Vandergrift, L. (2005). Relationships among motivations, orientations, meta-cognitive awareness and proficiency in L2
listening. Applied Linguistics, 26(1), 70-89.
Wu, C. N. (2010). English learning strategy use among technological college students in Taiwan. Unpublished master's
thesis. Pingtung University, Taiwan.
Wu, Y. L. (2008). Language learning strategies used by students at different proficiency level. Asian EFL
Journal,10(4), 75-95.
Yang, M. N. (2007). Language learning strategies for junior college students in Taiwan: Investigating Ethnicity and
proficiency. Asian EFL Journal, 9(2), 35-57.
Appendix A: Language Learning Strategies Questionnaires

Please answer to the following questions according to your true cases from 1 (Never or almost never true of me) to 5
(always or almost always true of me).
(1. Never 2. Rarely 3. Sometimes 4. Often 5. Always)
Part A
1. To understand unfamiliar English words, I make guesses.
2. When I can’t think of a word during a conversation in English, I use gestures.
3. I make up new words if I do not know the right ones in English.
4. I read English without looking up every new word.
5. I try to guess what the other person will say next in English.
6. If I can’t think of an English word, I use a word or phrase that means the same thing.
Part B
7. I try to find as many ways as I can to use my English.
8. I notice my English mistakes and use that information to help me do better.
9. I pay attention when someone is speaking English.
10. I try to find out how to be a better learner of English.
11. I plan my schedule so I will have enough time to study English.
12. I look for people I can talk to in English.
13. I look for opportunities to read as much as possible in English.
14. I have clear goals for improving my English skills.
15. I think about my progress in learning English.
Appendix B: Attitude Questionnaire

Fill out the following questionnaire, circling the one which best describes whether you agree or disagree with each
statement. This is for yourself not for anyone else, so answer as honestly as you can.
SD= Strongly Disagree D= Disagree N= Neither agree nor disagree A= Agree SA= Strongly Agree
1. I think I’m a pretty good language learner.

SD D N A SA
2. Learning a language may be important to my goals, but I don’t expect it to be much fun.
SD D N A SA
3. My language learning aptitude is probably pretty high.
SD D N A SA
4. I don’t have any idea about how to go about learning a language.
SD D N A SA
5. I think that I could learn pretty much any language I really put my mind to, given the right circumstances.
SD D N A SA
6. I worry a lot about making mistakes.
SD D N A SA
7. I’m afraid people will laugh at me if I don’t say things right.
SD D N A SA
8. I end up trembling and practically in a cold sweat when I have to talk in front of people.
SD D N A SA
9. I find it hard to make conversation even with people who speak my own language.
SD D N A SA
10. I feel a resistance from within when I try to speak in a foreign language, even if I’ve practiced.
IJALEL 2 (1):186-193, 2013 193
SD D N A SA
11. It is a mark of respect to people to learn their language if you’re living in their country.
SD D N A SA
12. I like getting to know people from other countries, in general.
SD D N A SA
13. Speaking the language of the community where I’ll be living will let me help people more than I could otherwise.
SD D N A SA
14. I don’t like the idea of relying on speaking English (or my mother tongue) in another country.
SD D N A SA
15. I think the people of the country where I’ll be living would like for me to learn their language.
SD D N A SA
16. I won’t really be able to get to know people well if I don’t speak their language.
SD D N A SA
17. There is a right and a wrong way to do almost everything, and I think it’s my duty to figure out which is which and
do it right.
SD D N A SA
18. It annoys me when people don’t give me a clear-cut answer, but just beat around the bush.
SD D N A SA
19. You should say “yes” if you mean yes and “no” if you mean no. Not to do so is dishonest.
SD D N A SA
20. You have to understand people’s culture and value system before you can be sure whether some things are right or
wrong.
SD D N A SA
21. I like to mimic other accents, and people say I do it well.
SD D N A SA
22. I can do impersonations of famous people.
SD D N A SA
23. I find it easy to “put myself in other people’s shoes” and imagine how they feel.
SD D N A SA
24. In school, if I didn’t know an answer for sure, I’d sometimes answer out loud in class anyway.
SD D N A SA
25. I often think out loud, trying out my ideas on other people.
SD D N A SA
26. I want to have everything worked out in my own head before I answer.
SD D N A SA
27. I’d call myself a risk-taker.
SD D N A SA
Narrative Structure in Martin Amis’s London Fields

Ahdieh Akbari (Corresponding author)
Department of English Language, Faculty of Foreign Languages, Islamic Azad University
Karaj Branch, Iran
Tel: +98-911-327-8708 E-mail: ahdieh.Akbari@gmail.com
Dr. Mahmood Azizi

Karaj Branch, Iran
Tel: +98-9112155034 E-mail: mazizijam@gmail.com
Dr. Sima Farshid

Karaj Branch, Iran
Tel: +98-9124671721 E-mail: sima_farshid@hotmail.com

Abstract
Through analyzing the structure of a narrative, the process of character composition with all his or her psychological
and physical attributes can be exposed. From the evidence gathered, Martin Amis’s novel uses functional narrative
strategies in showing different features of the characters specially protagonists. In addition, it has been displayed that
the narrative agents are arranged with a special design in both novels to generate various reactions to the characters. The
study also has shown that analyzing the structure of a narrative through Genette’s arratology help explicate the text and
add depth to the meaning that can lead to a new understanding of the novels. The article has aimed to analyze Martin
Amis’s London Fields according to the representation of Gerard Genette’s narratological theories presented in
Narrative Discours while doing so, it is intended to reveal functional narrative strategies in showing different features
of the characters specially protagonists in these novels.
Keywords: order, duration, frequency, mood, voice
1. Introduction
The main focus of this article is to penetrate into the structure analysis of the novel according to the categories of
Gerard Genette’s narratology to reveal functional narrative strategies in showing different features of the characters
specially protagonists in the novel. The process of investigation of narrative strategy occurred under the light of the
three aspects proposed by Genette, narrative, story, and narrating. The analysis of the mutual relationships among the
narrative layers can expose the process of character composition. Each character is observed with all his psychological
and physical attributes. Anachronies, ellipses, summaries as well as repetitions and iterations that Genette defines in his
narrative model can be designed in such a way that they could give necessary and functional information about
characters. As an example, anachronies can provide insight into the process and content of the character’s previous
experiences. Descriptive pauses can present a detailed picture of the physical and mental state of the character.
Repetitions and iterations may alert the reader to the significant facts regarding the character and also give information
about the habits and routines of that character. Besides the narrative movements that regulate the narrative time, mood
and voice also determine character composition. For example, the things which a character says and the things which
other characters say about him as a narrator are designated by the data of the narrative voice. The perspective and the
distance which are the agents of the narrative mood may be used functionally as well to control and define a character.
With the guidance of these narrative strategies a close narratological examination can expose the factors and conditions
that produce a character.
IJALEL 2 (1):194-202, 2013 195
2. Discussion
2.1 Narrative Order
London Fields is narrated in two forms, novel and diary form. The diary sections of London Fields are complicated.
Many times Samson writes about the weather, his disease, the upcoming crisis, the problems with getting a contract for
his novel, his wrecked love life and so on. This analepsis, which gives some information about another story of the past
time, will later be used by the reader to develop an understanding of Samson’s character. In diary section, the events are
narrated as remembered in Samson’s mind. So there is no chronological order as are in thoughts and are very disrupted
and fragmented. Parts that aren’t diary are also fragmented. London Fields is composed of twenty four chapters.
Whereas the first twelve chapters are structured around one character at a time, meaning that in each of the first twelve
chapters the reader is presented almost exclusively with one character as the focal point, the last twelve are more
confusing. Within chapters, the focal point changes from one person to the next without any hints to the reader. There is
no chronological order between and within chapters. These breaks in chronology may also simply fulfill a dissenting
role, because Amis wishes to disrupt the classical novel's linear representation to some degree.
London Fields is full of passages that are so hard to organize them into a meaningful whole. The process of making
sense of the novel is a process of extricating the story from the discourse. In London fields the story of the Samsung
Young begins when he arrived in London and lasts until he turns to be the murderer. “The basic story in London Fields
is not complicated” and it may seem very trivial and straightforward, it is told in a way that is complicated, “trivial and
discontinuous rather than straightforward” (Finny 52). What makes London Fields complicated is the discourse, not the
story; A disrupted timeline; an abrupt entering into and exiting from scenes; repetitions of scenes from different points
of view, and fragmented notes in Samson’s diary are pieces of the puzzle of the discourse, and for the story to be
reconstructed, close attention is afforded.
The discordances in time order, anachronies (Genette 35) are the narrative strategies used by Amis to create this
fragmented time structure of the novel. Amis uses anachronies in the novel to fulfill different purposes such as
introducing the characters especially the protagonist, create an expectation that is to be fulfilled and letting the reader’s
imagination work.
One of these purposes is that he provides the reader with a surprising, sometimes confusing journey of exploration into
characters’ personality. It also serves to depict the various periods in the characters’ life, movements in time provide the
narrating elasticity, expand the character portraiture, and thus introduce several personality traits of the characters. The
discordances in time order, anachronies (Genette 35) are the narrative strategies used by Samson to create this
fragmented time structure of the novel. For example, the temporal organization of the events in the novel prevents the
reader from seeing a unified profile of Samson, the chronology violation helps to present Samson as a man with an
unidentified identity.
The most significant anachrony in the novel, which appears in the form of prolepsis, is in the opening of the novel. On
the first page, Samson Young, the dying narrator, tries to assess the nature of the story he is about to tell and he informs
the reader of the events that are going to happen later in the story and provides the ideal material for the novel:
This is a true story but I can't believe it's really happening. It's a murder story, too. I can't believe my luck.
And a love story (I think), of all strange things, so late in the century, so late in the goddamned day. This is
the story of a murder. It hasn't happened yet. But it will (The Note).
The reader cannot identify the protagonists in question with the traditional heroes in literature because though the reader
attributes superior qualities to them, he knows that Samson doesn’t possess virtues that will indicate his heroism
whether in the universe of the novels or in the novelistic tradition in general. The above sentences function as explicit
guides to the readers and by telling them Samson is telling the reader what to expect. This also stimulates the reader's
curiosity by partially revealing facts that will be obvious later. Samson’s first diary entry that is inserted between the
table of contents and the first chapter is the other anachrony in the novel appears in the form of analepsis since it goes
three days back in time is used to introduce the protagonist to the readers and tell those more about Samson Young. It is
an internal analepsis and it is durative since it concerns an entire period during these three days.
Three days ago (is it?) I flew in on a red-eye from New York. I practically had the airplane to myself. I
stretched out, calling piteously and frequently to the stewardesses for codeine and cold water. But the red-eye
did what a red-eye does. Oh, my. Jesus, I look like the Hound of the Baskervilles... Shaken awake to a sticky
bun at 1.30 in the morning, my time, I moved to a window seat and watched through the bright mists the fields
forming their regiments, in full parade order, the sad shires, like an army the size of England… (2-4).
One of the techniques that make London Fields complicated is the scene repetitions. Most of the times, when a
paragraph in London Fields begins, a lot of effort is needed to find where this segment comes from and if it is related to
the rest of the action, when and where it takes place. He confuses the readers by bringing a segment in medias res
without any clues about when it is taking place or what is happening. Then later the scene is remembered again with
another characters’ perspective and more information about the context is given. These parts can be considered as a
kind of repeated internal analepsis and completely homodigetic one, since those events occurs before and concerns the
elements in the foreground of primary narrative. One example that proves this well, is in chapter ten which Nicola says
to Keith:
IJALEL 2 (1):194-202, 2013 196
“Have you got all that? Are you sure? And for God’s sake don’t overdo it. Lay it on, but don’t overdo it. And
mention the globe”. And in other parts it is repeated as Keith recalls how he told Guy the message, earlier in
the Black Cross and repeats the scene from his perspective: “Anyway she’s definitely under the weather. Know
what it looked like to me? Apathy. Apathy. Staring out of the window. Playing with that globe thing. Sad little
smile on its face. […] Like – like she was pining. Pining. Pining its little heart out…” The readers just found
that a message is delivered, by Keith, from Nicola to Guy (115).
Although just in repeated analepsis, the readers find what the message was, it is not mentioned when she gave him this
message and when all these happened.
The other function of anachronies in London fields is the same as Genette’s view, “the real function of the internal
repeating prolepsis is to create an expectation that is to be fulfilled” (Genette 74). The internal repeating prolepses at the
beginning are functional for creating an image of Samson as a good narrator. However, this image disappears, so the
protagonist appears as an unreliable one. Anachronies, specially repeated analepsis, give the reader an excellent
example of how the characters perceive the actions taking place because the repeated analepsis are narrated from
different points of view. In the example given above, it is remarkable how different the two versions of the scene are. In
Keith’s version (pages 173-177) there is no mentioning of the discussion about Burton Else, which is very dominant in
Nicola’s version of the conversation (pages 187-191). The reason for the omission is obvious; Keith is losing face in the
discussion about Burton Else (Nicola is playing with the framework of Keith’s understanding of reality, the tabloid
papers), and therefore he has chosen not to report this incident to Samson. The scene repetitions are an excellent means
for ironic effects. It gives a precise illustration of the power balance between the characters and is the most dramatic
method of displaying Nicola’s superiority to Keith and Guy. The contrast between the first account in which Keith feels
in control of the situation with the revelation in the second visit to the scene, where it is shown that it is Nicola who is
the mastermind, sums up the power balance between the two.
One of the purposes of anachronies which is classified as analepsis and prolepses in London Fields is to introduce the
various life periods and personality of Keith to the readers. Along with analipses, there are some prolepses which are
much rarer than analipses. Through Genette’s explanations, a first-person narrative has a higher potential for the use of
anachronies. “By the very fact of its avowedly retrospective character, which authorises the narrator to allude to the
future and in particular to his present situation” (1997:94). In a novel such as London Fields , which shifts from third
person narrative to first person narrative, this is certainly the case. However sometimes the analepsis or prolepsis cannot
be directly attributed to a narrator, instead it may be conveyed through the memories, fears and hopes of a character
(Rimmon-Kenan, 1996). “It is only the content of the memory, fear, or hope that constitutes a past, present or future”
(Rimmon-Kenan, 1996:51). The narrative of London Fields sometimes occurs within the memories of the character
Keith whose memories are of events already passed. Most of the paragraphs in seventh chapter of the novel are about
keith’s passed memories which can be considered as internal and external analepsis. The purpose of these analepsis is to
introduce the various life periods and personality of Keith to the readers.
The other purpose of anachrony in London Fields is letting the reader’s imagination work at making the connections
adequate to understanding how the scene is to be placed. As the next example shows, a scene can be exited at an
especially tense moment, creating a ‘cliff-hanger’ which compels the reader to keep reading, waiting and expecting the
tension to be released. The conversation on page 177 between Keith and Nicola is broken off after Nicola’s: ‘…What?’.
The use of italics suggests that Keith’s: ’Jim Beam. Benedictine. Porno.’ has in some way upset Nicola, and the reader
is naturally anxious to see what happens next. Page 191, where the scene is repeated from Nicola’s point of view, with
more contexts before as well as after the conversation, marks the resolution of a suspense which has added a quality of
reading-in-anticipation to the pages in between 177 and 191.
2.2 Frequency and duration
The traditional summary and scene succession is replaced with the alternating iterative and singulative narrative in
London Fields. The speed and rhythm of the novel is thus determined mainly by the agents of frequency and
specifically by iterative structures. The study of the iterative structures spreading over the novel exhibits the fact that
these structures together with the elements of duration provide the reader with clues to the personality of the characters.
For this reason, the duration and frequency in the novel are analyzed together.
In the first twelve chapters of the novel which are structured around one character at a time, the elements of duration
and frequency make the second narrative about each character more attractive than the first narrative. The action
proceeds more slowly in the first narrative because of the descriptive scenes of the setting and pauses, whereas the
speed of the second narrative is quite fast owing to some summaries, ellipses and iterative passages. Amis uses the
frequency and duration to show each character completely.
In the chapters which is about Keith, such as the first one, the action proceeds more slowly in the first narrative because
of the descriptive scenes of the setting and detailed description of Keith. But the speed of the second narrative is more
slow due to some repeating and iterative passages. When Samson starts to narrate his tale about Keith the speed and
rhythm change. The reader is given a full knowledge of Keith’s distant past, which gives them a good perception of
Keith character. Furthermore, iterative narrating, the result of which is the effective narration of what happened several
times with a few words, dominates the novel and introduces the habits and life style of characters specially Keith. In
this scene, for example, the iterative and repeating narrating used by Samson illustrates Keith’s habits and routines.
Keith Talent was a bad guy. Keith Talent was a very bad guy. You might even say that he was the worst
IJALEL 2 (1):194-202, 2013 197
guy……….. Intimate encounters with strange-hued women had sweetened him somewhat. His saving graces
all had names. What with the Fetnabs and Fatimas he had known, the Nketchis and Iqbalas, the Michikos and
Boguslawas, the Ramsarwatees and Rajashwaris - Keith was, in this sense, a man of the world……. After that
Keith turned his back on armed robbery once and for all. He took up racketeering…………... Keith worked as
a cheat (5).
In this passage the iterative and repeating narrative provides clues to Keith’s passion for women, cheating, robbery and
racketeering. In the chapter the reader observes better keith’s attachment to cheating in the scenes depicting how he
spends time in cheating people. In all these scenes people are used as a vehicle to show completely his character. In the
following scene the protagonist’s attachment to cheating is accentuated by iterative statements.
Keith worked as a cheat. There he stands on the street corner, with three or four colleagues, with three or four fellow
cheats; they laugh and cough (they're always coughing) and flap their arms for warmth; they look like terrible birds . ..
On good days he rose early and put in long hours, going out into the world, into society, with the intention of
cheating it. Keith cheated people with his limousine service at airports and train stations; he cheated people with
his fake scents and colognes at the pavement stalls of Oxford Street and Bishopsgate (his two main lines were
Scandal and Outrage); he cheated people with non-pornographic pornography in the back rooms of short-lease
stores; and he cheated people on the street everywhere with the upturned cardboard box or milk crate and the three
warped playing cards(6).
The passage demonstrates that the character is a real cheat. Similar to the previously quoted passage, this one reveals
Keith’s soul in association with his passion for cheating. As Keith himself acknowledges, he can do any kind of cheat (7).
The succession of iterative and singulative narratives and the composition of the inner rhythm of iterative scenes contribute
to the other side of Keith’s character. They expose Keith’s living situation and how this situation influences his character
and made him as an abnormal character. To give an example, the narrator describes Keith as:
Keith was used to noise, incessant and unwelcome noise. Most of his life was played out to a soundtrack of
sadistic decibelage. Noise, noise — noise on the brink of bearability. He was used to unwelcome nearnesses,
also, tostinging proximities;,………(285).
There is a significant description of the appearance of the protagonist made by Samson in the chapters which are more
about Nicola. The portrayal reflects her life style and habits and feelings. In these chapters, the reader also can observe
Nicolas’s appearance, inner thoughts and feelings better due to the frequent and abundant use of descriptive passages
presented through pauses. This descriptive scene provides the reader with a close and realistic observation of the character.
Although it is the reader’s first direct confrontation with Nicola, he is influenced with the precise and vivid portrayal of
her. Most of the time iterative narratives with summaries and ellipses show her well to the readers. The following
singulative and iterative narratives introduces her well to the readers:
In the case of Nicola Six, tall, dark, and thirty-four, it was bound up with a delusion, lifelong, and not in itself
unmanageable. Right from the start, from the moment that her thoughts began to be consecutive, Nicola knew
two strange things. The second strange thing was that she must never tell anyone about the first strange thing. The
first strange thing was this: she always knew what was going to happen next. Not all the time (the gift was not
obsessively consulted), and not every little detail; but she always knew what was going to happen next (12).
Sam’s descriptions in the following iterative narrative with pauses include more straight feelings compared to the previous.
Nicola is keen of finding Love. The following description shows her feeling toward love.
Nicola used to think (not often and long ago) that even she might have been saved by love. Love was Plan B. But
it never happened. She could attract it, she could bring love in, modern love anyway: she could make a man
feel he was at last really living, she could give his world high colour — for a couple of months. But she couldn't
generate it, she couldn't send love out. Not even kitten love, curled and purring, with kitty smile. And if love
was dead or gone then the self was just self , and had nothing to do all day but work on sex. Oh, and hate and
death (192).
Guy Glinch is another character which there are some chapters focused on him. In those chapters, there is a significant
description of Guy and His life. The portrayal reflects the narrator’s investigation into his life. Comparing to others Sam
narrates him as “genuinely delightful human being” and in the chapters named “The Foil” he introduced him with the
use of descriptive passages presented through pauses, as:
G UY CLINCH WAS a good guy — or a nice one, anyway. He wanted for nothing and lacked everything.
He had a tremendous amount of money, excellent health, handsomeness, height, a capriciously original
mind; and he was lifeless. He was wide open. Guy possessed, in Hope Clinch, a wife who was intelligent,
efficient (the house was a masterpiece), brightly American (and rich); and then there was the indubitable
vigour of the child . . . But when he woke up in the morning there was - there was no life. There was only
lifelessness (19).
2.3 Mood
The mood in London fields will be discussed considering its two constituents: distance and perspective. The general
analysis of the novel shows that in terms of distance the novel follows a narrative strategy which brings the characters
closer to the reader through the reading process. Thus, as the narrative progresses, the reader is given a sense of
immediacy and an opportunity to discover the distinctive features of the other character step by step. There are three
IJALEL 2 (1):194-202, 2013 198
degrees of narrative distance used in this novel, making the narrator seem at times very involved in his narrative, and at
times completely absent. These variations and using narrated, transposed and imitated speech add diversity to the act of
narrating.
After the examination of perspective in the novel, it becomes clear that the reader confronts the use of variable internal
focalization and multiple internal focalizations through four main focal characters: Samson the main narrator, Keith,
Nicola, and Guy. Brian Finny mentioned in his book, about Amis’s novel, “…all of the characters are authors of one
sort or another who are vying with each other to shape events into the form of a story that will count as authoritative”
(114) first, the reader sees the events and the other characters through Samson’s eyes and then it is through other
characters ’perspective. These different perspectives provide the reader with various aspects of each character shown
from different perspectives.
Although Samson’s comments occasionally work directly on the reader’s expectations by making assessments on what
is to come but sometimes it does not happen what he said before. Catherine Bernard argues that London Fields features
“narrators whose unreliable voices and ambiguous identities should be seen as structural clues to the ontological
precariousness of discourse” (Bernard 124).These narrators are “the prismatic and diffracting lenses of the world mad
farce, of its loss of meaning, the subversion of the status of the narrator being an index of the questioning of
representation at large” (Bernard 126).
The focal point of the novel is not a fixed one within chapters and changes from one person to the other one. In the table
of contents, the last twelve chapters are not divided or structured in any way, and this is also true of the chapters
themselves. Whereas the first twelve chapters are structured around one character at a time, the last twelve are more
confusing. Within chapters, the focal point changes from one person to the next without any hints to the reader, for
instance on page 245, action changes in the middle of chapter from Guy to Keith.
In the first part of the novel Samson, the narrator, is focalized that is, the reader sees the events and the other characters
through Samson’s eyes which he uses different kinds of narrative of words to show them. However, gradually it is
shown that he is a narrator with “unreliable voices and ambiguous identities” (Bernard 1124). To call a narrator
unreliable we do not need to show him lying or deliberately withholding information, but an unreliable narrator is
someone the novel shows you cannot trust for any reason. As Samson , with the following imitated speech, claims
about how to narrate the story: ‘I think I am less a novelist that a queasy cleric, taking down the minutes of real life’ (3).
This kind of speech reveals that he is writing about events as they happen with little distance to his story. He is a
historian who is writing objectively ‘just what happened, nothing more, nothing less’. Whereas what he is really trying
to do, are more like guesses because he is using “I think” and “It had better” on the first pages where he is suggesting
about the genre. He does not yet have a whole but aimlessly trying to make a copy of life as it occurs before him. He is
narrating a story written in Nicola’s diary but his great deal of intrusion in the narration of Nicola’s story render in each
chapter. He is apparently responsible for the discourse of Nicola’s story. Based on Nicola’s diary, for example, with the
use of different imitated speech, Samson guesses that Keith will be Nicola’s murderer. ‘I found him’, it says in her
diary, ‘[on] the Portobello Road, in a place called the Black Cross, I found him’ (22), and in this light Samson
understands Keith who is put on track for his role as the murderer: ‘and murder? The eyes – was there enough blood in
them for that? Not now, not yet. He had the talent, somewhere, but he would need the murderee to bring it out. Soon, he
would find the lady. Or she would find him’ (9). The following quotation of wicked parody also shows that Samson
really believes that Keith is the murderer:
‘And what about the other Big Occasion? The other Final? Yeah well cheers, Keith. I know he’ll go out there
and give me two hundred per cent. Keith a quitter? Keith Talent? You must be – Do you want your - ? No
danger Keith will bottle it when the cosh comes down. Pressure? He fucking phrives on it’ (209).
One of the things which will be clarified through Samson focalization is about an important aspect of Keith personality
when he explains Keith’s sports monologue on page 91.
I’ve heard many such summaries from him – of boxing matches, snooker matches, and of course darts
matches. At first I thought he just memorized sections of the tabloid sports pages. Absolutely wrong.
Remember – he is modern, modern, despite the heels and the flares. When Keith goes to a football match, that
misery of stringer’s clichés is what he actually sees (97-98).
Through the above imitated speech, which is also a key to the characterisation of Keith Talent the reader finds that he is
a “brainwashed product of the tabloid culture” and his identity is a “poor mixture of tabloid headlines and sport
commentaries”.
Keith is a lower social class and a cheat. The restricted quality of Samson as the narrator and the first focal character of
the novel help preserve the distant and incomprehensible image of the Keith. For example, the reader learn much about
Keith where Samson relates Keith’s behavior with imitated speech (reported speech) (53-54).
I'd been standing under the sign saying TAXIS for about a half-hour when the royal-blue Cavalier made its
second circuit and pulled up at the bay. Out he climbed.
Taxi, sir?' he said, and picked up my bag, matter-of-factly, in the line of professional routine.
'That's not a taxi.'
Then he said, 'No danger. You won't get a cab here, pal. No way.'
IJALEL 2 (1):194-202, 2013 199
I asked for a price and he gave me one: an outlandish sum.
'Limo, innit,' he explained.
'That's not a limo either. It's just a car.'
'We'll go by what's on the clock, yeah?' he said; but I was already climbing into the back and was fast asleep
before we pulled away.
I awoke some time later. We were approaching Slough, and the metre said £54.50.
'Slough!'
Until this imitated speech Keith is a mysterious and unattainable character for the reader because there are very few
dialogues between Samson and Keith and from and before that he was just describing him with indirect speech.
However, this imitated speech excites some hates in the reader for the Keith since it reveals his real character. In this
chapter that is full of doubt and weakness the reader could see the tragic nature of Keith because this kind of speech
reveals that Keith is a dark person that scared anyone, not just an immoral villain, but a complex and fearful figure.
Guy is the other character who is observed through Samson’s focalization. He describes him using following imitated
speeches as:
“I am cultivating our third party, the foil, the foal, Guy Clinch, who, to my horror, seems to be a genuinely
delightful human being,’ (14) … ‘When I take on Chapter 3, when I take on Guy Clinch, I’ll have to do, well,
not happiness, but goodness, anyway. It’s going to be rough’ (23).
Samson’s first impression given through internal focalization appeals to the reader’s interest. Guy is portrayed as a
good, healthy and wealthy man through some imitated speeches. By using different speeches he describes him fully.
Later he comments differently about him and believes that Guy is capable of murder too. One hint is given on page 162
where Samson, using imitated speech talking about a scene occurring on page 152, warns Nicola not to rely too much
on Guy’s predictability “Guy is quite capable of surprises, especially when you are concerned. You should have seen
him at the darts. Like a lion. I was half-dead with fear”. Having different view about characters is the result of being an
unreliable narrator.
Guy’s identity is made by “hopelessly anachronistic” narratives through the transposed inner speeches in the scene
given through Samson’s focalization about Guy. The stories show iinnocence; a belief in the reforming influence of
high art, and the romantic and idealistic soul looking for life and love in a materialistic world to which he feels
increasingly alien. Guy’s excessive inhibition in the suppression of his sexuality is almost Victorian; He strongly
confronts the occasional extra-marital crushes he finds himself suffering: “It ‘was like an illness that passed after a
couple of weeks; the love virus, efficiently repelled by a determined immune system” (147). Similarly, he frequently
fights his lust for Nicola. Mentioning of Guy’s chronic physical desire literally crowd the narrative, but he hangs on to a
Platonic description of his relationship of Nicola and is unable to acknowledge this other side:
He had this toy of Nicola in his head, oval, blue-backed, like a Victorian miniature. Symbol of the real thing.
The real thing. Three brutal jolts would certainly finish it. But all kinds of considerations – including
squeamishness, another kind of amour propre, and the thought of all the mess it would leave – combined, as
always, to stay his hand (221).
Narrative of the events is given more prominence in the “murderer”. In addition, the dialogues that would provide the
reader’s direct contact with Keith and thus that would reveal important aspects about Keith’s character are rare and all
the readers have is the information given through narrator about him and this may be not so reliable. The mood is
adjusted in this particular way on purpose so as to create a distant character for the reader at the beginning of the novel
because in this way Keith is furnished with mystery and attraction and accordingly the reader’s curiosity is aroused
(Finny 124). Though the presence of the narrator is still apparent in this imitated speech, Keith’s thoughts and feelings
are at a closer distance and this brings insight into his personality.
Nicola is the other character that some chapters are through her focalization and with this new and stranger perspective
the reader rediscovers not only the narrator but also Keith Talent and Guy Clinch. It is significant for the reader to learn
about Nicola’s personality since she is the most mysterious but powerful character in the novel. It is her diary that gives
Samson the idea to follow her story and it is her plan he writes down. Nicola’s power to manipulate Samson as well as
Keith and Guy and have them, unwittingly, play roles in her personal drama which Sam thought he was only writing
down, puts her position in further perspective.
Samson believes that his own life is isolated from the events arranged by Nicola and it is the failure to realise this that is
his downfall. Nicola is double-crossing Samson by not telling him of his own involvement. The fact is that Samson is a
character in Nicola’s story, but he has not realised it from the beginning so he couldn’t foreshadow it in the novel he has
been writing. On page 466, after Samson has stepped into his story with the following imitated speech and acted the
role he was unwittingly assigned by Nicola, he wonders about the novel he has written and in which he is only a
disembodied voice and totally improbable as Nicola’s murderer: ‘I’ve just taken a casual glance at the beginning – who
knows, with a little work, it might accommodate a new ending.’ The ‘little work’ is performed after Samson’s death by
the simple operation of adding his diary to his novel. In London Fields as a whole, Samson’s appearance as the
murderer is approved by his diary, which establishes him as a character in Nicola’s story and not only the disembodied
voice of the narrator. In the chapter which is entitled ‘The Script Followed by Guy Clinch’ and it is shown through
IJALEL 2 (1):194-202, 2013 200
several tests that Guy is like a mindless puppet by Nicola and will do exactly what Nicola wants him to do and the story
through Nicola’s focalization shows that Nicola is working on both Keith and Guy and even Samson to be her murder.
Nicola examines Keith, given through internal focalization, of how much he really believes in the media-created world.
After being presented with Burton Else’s homosexuality, Keith’s whole concept of reality dies: “…for a few seconds he
blinked steadily on a heartbeat rhythm”. “but if… but then… but he…” Film, Keith, she could have said. Film. All that
not real. Not real” (190). The difficulties Keith has with separating TV and reality reach their highpoint when Keith
watches the ninety-second TV biodoc on himself. The experience leaves him ‘in a state of near-psychotic confusion’
(424), and the problems regarding how his wife will interpret the glamorous biodoc, which Nicola has been in charge of
constructing, leaves him “clinging to the notion that the biodoc would be screened only at those locations where it had
been filmed”(425).
Nicola understands Keith fully and has thereby the power to manipulate him as the reader find it through imitated
Speech. First she knows that much of the comic effect derived from the Keith character comes from his ignorant lack of
self-reflection regarding the fabricated nature of his personality, Keith, for instance, prefers sex on video where he can
fast-forward through the boring bits and go back to the good bits. Nicola learns this and seduces Keith by taping
pornographic videos of her. One of these instances shows how much Nicola understands Keith’s problems with coping
with the problems of separating TV and reality. On page 427 Keith is about to enjoy another one of the videos when
Nicola enters the bedroom in the exact same costume she is wearing in the videotaped for Keith. The segment is
continued on page 428, where it is revealed that Keith was unable to perform satisfactorily in bed with Nicola. Keith
blames his failure on “pressures of darts” (429), whereas Nicola hits the nail on the head: “Yes. And a little difficulty
switching from one medium to another. That’s what this whole thing is about” (429). Unlike Keith, who thinks that
“TV is real” (55), Nicola does not make one ontological state prior to the other; “reality” and “fiction” are both
“mediums” in which signs and constructs are open to manipulation.
The reader also observes Guy through Nicola’s internal focalization. While Guy is unaware of the fact that he is shaped
by anachronisms, Nicola understands this and uses it to manipulate him much in the same way as she does with Keith as
it is well shown through imitated and transposed inner speech. She pretends to share Guy’s passion for high art and the
implicit distinction to mass culture in order to win him over (145, 162). As the incident with the Keats lecture (352) for
Keith shows, the admiration to the high art which she shows to Guy is just a pretence; in true postmodern spirit, she
mixes the codes of high art and mass culture to make her own ends. Nicola films the lecture for Guy to convince him
that she is teaching Keith, to add some civilisation to Keith’s brutish nature. While Keith is the main victim of the belief
that ‘TV is real’, Guy here also takes the image he sees for a truthful representation.
2.4 Voice
The narrative mechanism of London Fields involves many narrative levels embedded within each other. As Brian Finny
mentioned
“Amis is drawing attention to the multiplicity of the narrative voices in this book. Sam might be the designated
narrator, but Nicola is meant to appear to control the plot and M. A. lurks just off stage reminding us that both
Sam and Nicola are narrative mouthpieces with limited autonomy. There is no escaping the problematics of the
narrative act in Amis's fiction”.
In the beginning of the novel it seems that the novel is Samson’s story, but it quickly becomes clear it is Nicola who is
in charge of events. The reader has access to her story through the way it is told, that is, via Samson. The detective-like
job of extricating the story necessarily goes via the way it is presented to us, the narrative. Even though Nicola
‘outwrites’ Samson, as well as Keith and Guy (43), her story remains ‘his story of her story’ (Finney 13). Samson’s
Story and Nicola’s diary makes the multi-layered structure of the novel. Genette states that these short narratives
(Diary) embedded within the main narratives compose metadiegeses in London Fields (232). Multiple narrating
contribute to the portrayal of Samson as an interesting character. While Some narrative in the form of a diary constitutes
the intradiegetic level of the novel, which allows the intimacy between the narrator and the reader, Nicola’s narrative
constitutes the metadiegetic universe where some diaries appears within a metadiegesis.
Along with Samson Young, there is a mysterious figure of Mark Aspery, another novelist whose flat Samson is living
during living in London. The letter at the end of the novel addressed to Aspery shows that Sam has died by the time the
novel ends and he has left the novel to him. Nick Bentley in Contemparary British Fiction clarifies this position well as:
It is never clear, therefore, how much of what we are reading is an account of the events that is faithful to
Sam’s experiences or whether Aspery has added his own alternations. Power over the narrative is, then,
removed at least one level from the narrator. It is also significant that Mark Aspery’s initials are the same as
Martin Amis. However, this is hardly a conventional novel and the reader is persuaded to ask whether these are
perhaps Mark Aspery’s initials. Later in the novel, Sam notes that Nicola refers to an ‘MA’ in her diaries,
which forces him to speculate: ‘Nicola and MA’? Nicola and Mark Aspery?(p 205) ‘MA’ thus becomes a fluid
signifier in the text referring simultaneously to Aspery and to Amis, two novels of external author ‘above’
Sam’s narrative. This would also mean that the fiction does not start on page one, as conventionally assumed,
but begins as soon as we open the front cover. In effect, the fictional world is extending beyond the bounds in
which it is usually contained and this works at a thematic as well as formal level. Amis seems to be persuading
us to think about where fiction begins and, consequently, where it ends (37).
IJALEL 2 (1):194-202, 2013 201
Samson as a character and narrator appears as the inseparable part of the narrative due to its multi-layered form. That is
the protagonist and the narrators are closely related to each other and it is necessary to examine the protagonist and the
narrators in relation to each other.A story within a story becomes a narrative strategy that draws the reader into the
protagonist’s story by arousing curiosity and this many layered narrative in London fields renders the protagonist
fabulous. For example, Between chapters twelve and thirteen there are two diary entries. Samson resolves on going to
America, hoping to re enlighten the love between himself and his lost love, Missy Harter. These notes written in the
form of a diary occur at a meta-metadiegetic level. The reader is presented with direct and sudden glimpses of the
protagonist’s past experiences, so he is immediately caught up in the protagonist’s story. Reliving the past in
imagination through meta-metadiegesis creates mystery about the protagonist, as well.
Sam uses prior narrating especially interpolated narrating to tell the story which makes him as unreliable narrator.
Whereas M. A. has the novel before him, Samson has little distance to his story and no opportunity to let knowledge of
the whole story influence how he shall write the parts; the whole just has not happened yet.Whereas what he is really
trying to do, and necessarily so, with his genre suggestions, which are more like guesses (note the ‘(I think)’ and the ‘(It
had better)’ on the first page), is to establish a frame of reference in which he can understand the events that are going
to happen. Based on Nicola’s diary, for example, Samson guesses that Keith will be Nicola’s murderer. ‘I found him’, it
says in her diary, ‘[on] the Portobello Road, in a place called the Black Cross, I found him’ (22), and in this light
Samson understands Keith who is put on track for his role as the murderer: ‘and murder? The eyes – was there enough
blood in them for that? Not now, not yet. He had the talent, somewhere, but he would need the murderee to bring it out.
Soon, he would find the lady. Or she would find him’ (9). The narrative intrusion and the use of interpolated narrating
by Samson in this part explicitly works to prepare the reader for Keith as the murderer but at the end Samson’s
unreliability becomes clear when the reader finds the real murderer.
Samson in London Fields is an intradiegetic narrator since he is a major character in the story he tells (Genette 245). He
is usually highly intrusive narrator offering observations to the reader on the action which he is involved. To add to this
use of a self-conscious intrusive voice, Amis sometimes introduces what is called “narrative involution” which involves
the entry into the fictional world of the author-or, rather, of the fictionalized quasi-author who provides one more
persona distancing the author from his creation (Brian Finny 70). Samson’s involvement from the beginning to the end
of the novel classified him as a intradiegetic - homodiegetic one according to Genette’s classification.
3. Conclusion
This study has opened new ways for understanding Amis’s novel because it has used a practical ways which makes it
easier to grasp novel’s idea by the way it has directly shown through narrative structure. The investigation of Narrative
structure of the novel related to the study of the general behavior of the characters in different situation has been the
main focus of this study, while it has led to the categorization of a number of phenomena in the novel all of which have
been examined in the light of Gerard Genette’s ideas.
It has been found that anachronies, ellipses, summaries as well as repetitions and iterations that Genette defines in his
narrative model can be designed in such a way that they could give necessary and functional information about
characters. Anachronies have provided insight into the process and content of the character’s previous experiences in
these two novels. In London Fields the story is straightforward, but the discourse is discontinuous and fragmented.
Analepsis and prolepsis gives some information about the story of the past time that later be used can be used by the
reader to develop an understanding of Samson’s character and make an exploration into his and other characters’
personality. It also serves to depict various periods in the characters’ life that prevents the reader from seeing a unified
profile of Samson, the chronology violation helps to present Samson as a man with an unidentified identity. Descriptive
pauses present a detailed picture of the physical and mental state of the characters in London Fields. As an example, in
London Fields, Pause which provides a detail consideration of Samson’s past, provides the reader a good perception of
his character and good perceptions of his character play an important role in understanding of the novel. Through the
descriptive pauses and scenes at the beginning of the London Fields, the narrator gives comprehensive information
about all characters such as Samson, Nicola, Keith and Guy and setting such descriptions of the Black Cross as a main
place that the characters meet each other. Repetitions and iterations alert the reader to the significant facts regarding the
character and also give information about the habits and routines of each character. In London Fields. Keith’s passion
for women, cheating, robbery and racketeering are shown through iterative passages.
Mood and voice also have determined character composition. For example, the things which a character said and the
things which other characters said about him as a narrator have been designated by the data of the narrative voice of
these novels. The perspective and the distance which are the agents of the narrative mood have been used functionally
as well to control and define a character. In London Fields Variable internal focalization and multiple internal
focalizations through four main focal characters: Samson the main narrator, Keith, Nicola, and Guy provide the reader
with various and sometimes contradictory aspects and of each character shown from different perspectives.
As seen, with the guidance of these narrative strategies a close narratological examination have been exposed the
factors and conditions that produce a character in London Fields.
IJALEL 2 (1):194-202, 2013 202
References
Amis, M. (1991). London Fields. New York: Vintage.
Bentley, N. (2008). Contemporary British Fiction. Edinbergh: Edinbergh university press.
Bernard, C. (1993). ‘Dismembering/Remembering Mimesis: Martin Amis, Graham Swift.’British Postmodern
Fiction.Amsterdam: Rodopi, 121-144.
Bertens, H. (2007). Literary Theory TheBasic.Torento: Routledge.
Diedrick, J. (1995). Understanding Martin Amis. Columbia, SC: University of Carolina Press.
Finney, B. (20080. Martin Amis. New York: Routledge.
---. (2006). English Fiction Since 1984: Narrating a Nation.Palgrave Macmilan.
Genette, G. (1980). Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Hawkes, D. (1997). ‘Martin Amis.’ British Writers.Eds. George Stade and Carol Howard.
NewYork: Scribner’s. Supplement IV, 25-44.
Keulks, G. (2006). Martin Amis: Postmodernism and Beyond, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
Onega, S., Angel, J., & Landa, G. (1996). .Introduction.Narratology. London, New York: Longman, 1-41.
Tredell, N. (2000). Ed. The Fiction of Martin Amis: A reader’s guide to essential criticism. Cambridge: Icon Books.
A Linguistic Study of Borrowings from English to Urdu

Dr. Muhammad Aslam Sipra (Corresponding author)
JCC, King Abdulaziz University
PO Box 80283, Jeddah 21589 Saudi Arabia
Tel: 966-509042190 E-mail: aslamsipra@yahoo.com

Abstract
This paper discusses how English came into contact with Urdu language. Moreover, it outlines factors involved in
borrowing from English to Urdu. It substantiates the influence of English on Urdu and demonstrates the conscious and
unconscious shift of vocabulary items from one language to another during the interaction between speakers speaking
different languages under any circumstances. The present study also unravels how people came across English in the
Sub-continent. Pre-partition and post partition attitude of the people of the subcontinent towards English and the
influence of English on Urdu are also bespoken.
Keywords: Language, borrowing, influence, English, loan words, Urdu, contact
1. Introduction
Unlike some other languages, English itself has been an insatiable borrower as described by David Crystal (2010) but
today’s English is a major donor language, a prime source of loaning for many other languages of the world. Likewise,
Urdu is under the influence of English and borrowing many words and expressions from English same as more than 120
languages contributed towards the present vocabulary of English. The simplest kind of influence that one language may
exert on another is the borrowing of words. When there is cultural borrowing, there is always the likelihood that the
associated words may be borrowed, too (Edward Sapir, 1921). The term ‘borrowing’ refers to the adoption of individual
words or even large sets of vocabulary items from another language or dialect (Hock, 1986).
There are around 7000 languages spoken all over the world. It has been found that when languages come into contact,
there is transfer of linguistic items from one language to another due to the borrowing of words (Kachru, 1989).
According to Kachru, there are essentially two hypotheses about the motivations for the lexical borrowing in languages.
One is termed as the ‘deficit hypotheses’ and the other is the ‘dominance hypothesis’. The deficit hypothesis
presupposes that borrowing entails linguistic gaps in a language and the prime motivation for borrowing is to remedy
the linguistic deficit, especially in the lexical resources of a language (Kachru, 1994).
Pakistan is a multilingual country where many languages are spoken as mother tongue. According to Rahman (2006),
the power and authority is captured by two languages - English and Urdu. English, being the language of colonizers of
the recent past, is the symbol of power, authority, manner and sophistication. Urdu is the second powerful language. On
the other hand, indigenous languages are being neglected by the political quarters and are being devoured by the
powerful languages. Urdu being national language serves as the lingua franca. It is the medium of instruction.
The constitution of Pakistan restricts the use of English but interestingly the constitution itself and the laws are written
in English. English happens to be the language of privileged class in Pakistan that is why English borrowings are
always welcomed. English is a second language in Pakistan. Using English as a second language predominantly derives
from postcolonial countries where English was retained after independence (Schneider, 2007).
The world is changing day by day; American policies have no more support from the world. Western policies about
Muslim countries have created a kind of disliking about English world. If we conduct a survey about the popularity of
Europe in the country, the popularity rate would be very low but surprisingly it has no effect on English language; it is
still regarded as a global language and gaining popularity day by day.
2. Short History of Urdu
Urdu as an oriental language has history of a few hundred years. Historically, it belongs to the Indo-European language.
It appears to be quite acceptable that during the Mughal rule in India the word Urdu was used for Lashkar (Army). In
Turkish, the word Urdu is used for army even now. During the process of its growth Urdu underwent many influences.
During the twelfth century the Indian court was dominated by the Turkish courtiers. So the earlier form of Urdu
underwent the Turkish influence to some extent but it was not that much strong. The languages affecting Urdu deeply
were Arabic, Persian, Sanskrit, Hindi, and Punjabi. All these were the most developed languages of their times. Among
them, Persian proved to be the greatest influential language on Urdu.
IJALEL 2 (1):203-207, 2013 204
The earliest writings which could be called Urdu rather than Hindi were the writings of Ameer Khusroo from 1255 A.D
to 1325 A.D. He referred to his Urdu preface of Diwan as Hindi. The other book was written by Syed Mubarak, a
disciple of Hazrat Nizam-ud-Din Aoliya, in which a quotation by Baba Ganj Shakkar is written in Urdu. From the
thirteenth century Hindi is mentioned as the language of the region but Punjabi, Multani, Gujrati, Dakkani were referred
to local names for distinction. Urdu came into being with the mixture of all such dialects but its original shape
developed in Delhi and its surrounding area. All provinces still have their languages but the language of U.P was Hindi
which is now known as Urdu.
Until the rule of Jahangir (a Muslim ruler), the word Urdu does not seem to be in use. However, Rekhta alongside Hindi
appears to be taking shape. It was a mixture of many dialects, i.e. Hindi, Persian, Arabic etc. Rekhta became popular in
Deccan before it reached Delhi which is reflected in Mir’s writings. Rekhta remained in use upto Mirza Ghalib’s age.
From the seventeenth century the word Urdu came into use for the language but in a limited sphere. By the end of
eighteenth century the poets and writers called Urdu as the language of Delhi. After independence, Urdu became the
national language of Pakistan. However it doesn’t mean that it is restricted to this country only. It is the mother tongue
of the people of some of the provinces of India and is easily understood in almost all the countries of South Asia.
3-Influence of English on Urdu of Pre-Partition India
The British not only captured the Indian throne but they had also established their colonies in majority of the world.
They were powerful politically and technically and they had no rival. It was during the golden age of Europe when great
progress in the field of science and technology was made. It was the time during which English was developing rapidly.
Soon it achieved the status of a language which was fully equipped in order to face the challenges of the rapidly
changing world. This is the reason why it has attained the glory of the international language. However, despite being
the language of the rulers, it could not influence Urdu before partition of India for certain reasons. Firstly, Urdu was not
the national language of the Indian Sub-continent. It was a language spoken in a particular region and by a particular
religious sect i.e., the Muslims. The Muslims were certainly not a majority. Hence, being a minority language it did not
come face to face with English. Secondly, the Muslims were the rulers of India before the British and it was they who
were robbed of power. Hence, they hated not only the British but their language also. This is the reason why they
stopped getting the education whose medium was English. Thirdly, the Muslim majority areas were kept ignorant in
order to push them to the basest level of the society. Fourthly, the Muslims tried to keep their language Urdu free from
corruption.
4. English as an International Language
In the early twentieth century, English appeared to be the international language. It was adopted as either an official or a
second language by a considerable number of countries. In twentieth century, it even reached the areas where it was not
before. By the end of the twentieth century, it became an international language because it had a cosmopolitan
vocabulary, inflectional simplicity and natural gender. More than half of the world’s technical and scientific periodicals
are published in English. It is a widely spoken and written language in the world. No language has ever enjoyed such
widespread popularity. One can say that this is the truly global language.
English is an international language spoken in many countries both as a native and as a second or foreign language. It is
taught in schools in almost every country on this earth. It is a living and vibrant language spoken by over 300 million
people as their native language. Millions or more speak it as an additional language. English is spoken habitually in the
United States, the British Isles, Ireland, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Republic of South Africa, Liberia, and
many territories under the United Kingdom and the United States of America. It is estimated that 300 million people
speak English as a second language, and an additional 100 million people use it fluently as a foreign language.
Approximately 1000 million or one billion people around the world have some knowledge of English either as a native
language, as a second language, or as a foreign language. (M.S Thirumalai, 2002).
English is the language of new technology, of computers, software and the internet (Crystal, 2003). So we have no
substitute in the field of high-tech communication and the internet; the travel business etc. Languages change naturally
and borrowing some expressions from other languages is not a big deal as they are often needed to describe things more
directly. But people should know the need to use English correctly.
5. Different Assumptions about Borrowing
People in Pakistan have different opinions about this phenomenon. Some of them assume that it’s only a matter of
globalization or they presume that every language is changing and this is part of it. That’s why many of those don’t care
at all. But there are some people who are meticulous and worried over the rapid fire of English words on their mother
tongue. They want to protect their language from the invasion of English as they consider language as a part of their
culture and identity. They are concerned that the Urdu language seems to be replaced by some kind of mixed language.
Young people grow up with mixture of two languages (Urdu and English).They even don’t have alternatives of many
words in their mother tongue. In young generation, code mixing and code switching has become a part of their speech
but older people have affiliation with their language and they feel uncomfortable with such situation.
6. How Urdu encountered English
Urdu encountered English when the British came to India. The relationship between the sub-continent and the British
started in the beginning of seventeenth century when East India Company was established in the sub-continent with its
much broader vision and long term goals to rule the sub-continent so they had the entire India in view.
IJALEL 2 (1):203-207, 2013 205
When the British came to India, both English and Urdu were influenced by each other. In the later years, Muslim empire
became very weak. The Mughal Empire collapsed owing to its own inefficiency, internal strife, uprising of the anti-
Muslim forces and the criminal negligence to develop the naval forces and strengthening of rule in the coastal areas. On
the other hand, the East India Company had full backing of their government and people in all respects. The British
government constantly gave their financial support; sent competent rulers and advisors to achieve their goal of bringing
the sub-continent under their rule. Hence in 1858 A.D., the British government made India its colony.
As far as the contact of English and Urdu is concerned, it can be traced in three stages:
1. At first, the British tourists started coming to the sub-continent, both languages started influencing each other
in a very limited way, the words were mostly the names of goods brought and sailed by the merchants of both
the nations.
2. The second stage is the beginning of the seventeenth century when the company gained strong influence over
the local politics. During this period words entered Urdu language were related to politics along with the words
from trade.
3. The third stage is the beginning of the eighteenth century when the British tried to oust the Dutch, the French
and the Portuguese from the sub-continent. They started English as a medium of education which influenced
Urdu even with more force.
After 1857, particularly the transference of the English words into Urdu was faster. After the War of Independence
1857, the British occupied India and became enemy of the Muslims of the sub-continent. The British considered The
Muslims responsible for the rebellion against them but virtually all it was because of the Hindu’s conspiracies. The
British imposed English on the people by replacing Persian completely. English replaced Persian in all the fields
including education. Urdu was given lower status as it belonged to the common man. The Muslims did not like it first as
they considered Urdu their identity. In the earliest decades of the twentieth century, the Hindus gave rise to Urdu-Hindi
controversy. It was the time when Muslims of India realized that they should have a country of their own in which they
could speak their language and practice their religion. This period ranges from end of eighteenth century until now. This
is time of massive transference of English words to Urdu and it has not stopped yet. This rapid transference is still going
on. In countries where English is a second language, the range and depth of its function is more than a foreign language
as English becomes integral to the workings of a country ( D’Souza, 2001).
7. Variations in the Process of Borrowing
Borrowing can be in different ways:
1. It can be direct borrowing with a little change and even without any change in the original word
2. The second way is as translator of the word which is already available in the vernacular
3. The third is the mixture of local and foreign language.
Mostly borrowing takes place from the dominating to the subordinate. The present article is concerned with the first
above mentioned way of borrowing. When a language takes words from another language, it tries to adopt them with
the help of the sounds closest to the original sounds of the word it possesses. Urdu is a language of rich sounds. So it
borrowed many words in their original form. For example machine, lens, image, state, cell, physician, blood etc.
However, this does not mean that the English words did not undergo any change. Somehow or the other, they
underwent some changes. The borrowing of foreign words always entails their phonetic modification. There are sure to
be foreign sounds or accentual peculiarities that do not fit the native phonetic habits. They are then so changed as to do
as little violence as possible to these habits. Frequently, we have phonetic compromises (Edward Sapir, 1921). Table 1
shows the examples of words which underwent some changes after borrowing.
Table 1. Examples of Words Showing Variations after Borrowings

English words English Transcription Urdu Transcription Phonemic Variation
ambulance |ˈæmbjələns| |ˈæmbɒlens| /jə/ is replaced by /ɒ/
antenna |ænˈtenə| |ænˈtɪ:nə| /e/ is replaced by /ɪ:/
art |ɑːt| |ɑːrt| r is clearly pronounced
café |ˈkæfeɪ| |ˈkæfeɪ| k is unaspirated
cast |kɑːst| |kɑːst| no change except unaspirated k
chair |tʃeə| |tʃeər| r is pronounced at the end
Christmas |ˈkrɪsməs| |ˈkrɪsmɪs| /ə/ is replaced by /ɪ/ and k is
also unaspirated
column |ˈkɒləm| |ˈkɒlʌm| /ə/is replaced by /ʌ/
double |ˈdʌbl̩ | |ˈdʌbʌl̩ | /ʌ/ is articulated between b and l
engine |ˈendʒɪn| |ˈɪndʒɪn| /e/ is replaced by /ɪ/
glamour |ˈɡlæmə| |ˈɡlæmər| /r/ is pronounced
honour |ˈɒnə| |ˈɒnər| /r/ is pronounced
journalist |ˈdʒɜːnəlɪst| |ˈdʒrnəlɪst| /ɜː/ is replaced by /r/
medicine |ˈmedsn̩ | |ˈmedɪsʌn̩ | /ɪ/ and /ʌ/ are pronounced
IJALEL 2 (1):203-207, 2013 206
wrong |rɒŋ| |rɒŋ| /ɡ/ is prominent at the end
radio |ˈreɪdɪəʊ| |ˈrædɪəʊ| diphdhong is replaced by /æ/
report |rɪˈpɔːt| |rɪˈpɔːrt| r is pronounced
tank |tæŋk| |tæŋk| /t/ is unaspirated
travel |ˈtrævl̩ | |ˈtrævʌl̩ | unaspirated t and /ʌ/ is
articulated in the final syllable
In Urdu, aspirated sounds are unaspirated, r is pronounced clearly, diphthongs are replaced by monophthongs, /ə/ is
replaced by /ʌ/, / ʌ/ is replaced by /ə/,sometimes stress patterns are different which results in different pronunciation.
Countless words entered Urdu from English which are transliterated. The fact is that despite having equivalents in Urdu,
people are unaware of these equivalents (see Table 2).
Table 2. Transliterated Words

computer heater motorcycle dictionary camera phone cricket government
refrigerator air freshner hanger syllabus photo mobile engine editor
vacuum cleaner air conditioner diaper laptop school pencil glass media
cycle perfume switch report college pen operation world cup
television programme microphone dryer gas bag police receiver
cell image radio charger antenna station sofa scheme
The present study delineates that loan words are mostly nouns and frequently used in Urdu language. This is also
observed that there are some nouns in English which describe relations, i.e. uncle, aunt, grandmother, grandfather. In
English, there is only one word for father’s brother, mother’s brother, husband of mother’s sister but in Urdu we use the
word mamu /ma:mu:/ for mother’s brother, chacha /tʃa:tʃə/ for father’s younger brother, taya /ta:jə/ for father’s elder
brother, khala /kha:lə/ for mother’s sister and khaloo /kha:lu/ for khala’s husband. In English, the word grandfather is
used both for mother’s and father’s father but in Urdu the situation is different as nana /na:nə/ is used for mother’s
father and the word used for father’s father is dada /ða:ðə/. Young generation from educated class feels more
comfortable with English terms instead of Urdu. So the English nouns describing relations are also very popular in
Pakistan.
8. Contributing Factors towards Borrowings
8.1 Government Policies
In countries where English is a second language, the range and depth of its function is more than a foreign language as
English becomes integral to the workings of a country (D’Souza, 2001). After independence of Pakistan the influence of
Arabic and Persian was almost finished as the government retained English as the second language of the country.
Government introduced bilingualism in educational field. It was the time when Urdu began accepting the influence of a
language which was fully equipped, modern and was also the language of their rulers in the past. Government policies
have always been English-friendly in Pakistan. There have been two streams of education in terms of language since
independence i.e. Urdu and English. Both are used side by side. Even now, two medium are existing in almost every
field of life. So, English words entered Urdu without any obstacle. With the passage of time, frequency of borrowing
words increased so much that Urdu seems to lose its ground in Pakistan. Countless English words and expressions have
entered Urdu and most of them even don’t have their equivalents in Urdu.
8.2 Media
Media has contributed a lot in this respect as it facilitates flow of English words into Urdu language. Urdu today does
not contain the English nouns only but adjectives, verbs and adverbs, too. Almost everybody who has excess to
electronic media is bilingual. It is the language of business. The information stored in computers is mostly in English.
English is used in world’s sports and the entertainment programmes. It is the language of the five of the largest broad
casting companies of the world (BBC, CNN, NBC, CBS, CBC). English entertaining programmers are very popular
among them; they like them and copy them. Today Urdu has a rich mixture of English borrowings in it.
8.3 Social Consciousness
According to the Albert C. Bough (2010) “……..he is likely to make an effort to adopt the standards of grammar and
pronunciation of the people with whom he has become identified……”
English has become the second language in the countries like Pakistan, India, Kenya, Singapore and Nigeria. It is used
as a foreign language in many countries like Holland, Senegal etc. This is quite surprising that in education sector of
Pakistan, we hardly find pure Urdu speakers. Students are unable to complete their conversation without the help of
borrowings. People use code mixing for status symbol. They try to speak English with their children. Some young
children are grown up with English as their mother tongue; they speak L1(Urdu) in English accent.
8.4 Opinion Makers
The elite class in Pakistan reckons that English is a modern language and the prime language of knowledge to access to
IJALEL 2 (1):203-207, 2013 207
international market and communication. It would be a reverse gear as it were if it was replaced by a vernacular. Our
own language brings orthodoxy and limits our scope and vision. Translations into Urdu are even more difficult than
English and are understood by even fewer people. Especially children and young people find it easier to use English
(Harris Khalique, 2006).
9. Conclusion
English in the latter half of the twentieth century has induced Urdu very much. That is why it has become nearly
impossible to count English words in Urdu. The process of borrowing is still going on. In fact, elite class has craze for
English as they have direct contact with it. They go abroad for higher studies and even to spend their holidays. They
catch the English language while staying abroad. When they return they use it fully or by mixing it in Urdu. This has
some advantages and disadvantages, too. Urdu enriched its vocabulary by borrowing a treasure of words. Secondly,
Urdu was a complex language before, but when Urdu started borrowing English Words, it underwent the process of
simplification. This simplification enabled Urdu language to cope with the new situation which was necessary to retain
the interest of the speakers. English is a language which borrowed words from many other languages like French, Latin,
Greek, Arabic etc. This way, Urdu established contact with the world through English. However, when a language
borrows too many words from another language, it is in the danger of being corrupted because when the loan words
penetrate into a language massively, their standard cannot be tested. In the same way, Urdu has borrowed many words
of English that it has become almost impossible to maintain the standard. Hence, great many words from vulgar speech
have become part of Urdu. It has become a toy in the hands of a child. People misuse it as they insert as many English
words as they like. So the standard has lost. A patriotic speaker finds it very difficult to adopt too many words from
English whose equivalents are already present in Urdu and they are merely replaced because English has become a
language of Fashion today. Urdu did not borrow words according to its own word-structure and fixed standard which
resulted in the loss of its respect globally. It is very painful for its speakers as their pride in their language shatters and
their self confidence is lost.
References
Bough, A.C. & Cable, T. (2010). A history of the English language (5th ed.). Abingdon: Routledge
Crystal, D. (2003). English as a global language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Crystal, D. (2010). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hock, H, H. (1986). Principles of historical linguistics. New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Jean, D.S. (2001). Conceptualizing range and depth in Indian English. World Englishes, 20(2), 145-159.
Kachru, B. B.(1986). The Alchemy of English: The Spread Functions and models of Non-native Englishes. Oxford:
Pergamon Press.
Kachru, Y. & Nelson, C. L. (2006). World Englishes in Asian context. Aberdeen: Hong Kong University Press
Kachru, B.B. (1994). The speaking tree: A medium of plural canons. In Georgetown Round Table in Languages and
Linguistics (GURT). Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.
Khalique, H. (2006). The Urdu – English relationship and its impact on Pakistan’s social development. Paper presented
at Workshop titled Between state ideology and popular culture: Urdu literature and Urdu media in contemporary
Pakistan, Held in Heidelberg, Germany, 20-22 July 2006.
Sapir, E. (1921). Language: An introduction to the study of speech. New York: Harcourt, Brace
Schneider, E. W. (2007). Postcolonial English _ Varieties around the World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Thirumalai, M.S. (2002). Introduction to TESOL: Retrieved December 24, 2012 from
http://www.languageinindia.com/april2002/tesolbook.html
Community Teaching Practice for Greater Learning

Siao-cing Guo
National Taipei College of Business
No.321, Sec. 1, Jinan Rd., Zhongzheng District
Taipei City 100, Taiwan, R.O.C.
Tel: 886-2-2322-6421 E-mail: ching.chu@gmail.com

Abstract
Field experience has been considered a vital part of teacher education. Universities have to search for ways for student
teachers to gain experience in an authentic teaching environment. Several successful models incorporating service
learning have been reported across fields (Brooks & Schramm, 2007; Nandan, 2010; Salas, Safaradan, & Ugarte, 2008),
but there is still insufficient research found that combined English teacher preparation and service learning (Hsieh,
2002). Consequently, this researcher incorporated service learning into an English methodology course in Taiwan to
engage students in higher learning experiences that take them beyond traditional teacher training. This paper describes a
four-stage process of community service teaching, presenting its benefits and challenges. This study which incorporated
quantitative and qualitative methodologies proved that teaching practices in collaboration with community libraries
created three-way benefits: advancing the quality of college education and bringing valuable learning opportunities to
the student teachers as well as the children who participated; and creating memorable experiences for the students and
the communities that participated.
Keywords: service learning, teacher preparation, university partnership, higher education
1. Introduction
Traditional teacher preparation institutions usually require a teaching practicum as part of their training process. A
teaching practicum requires a placement of student teachers from the teacher preparation institution into a school
classroom with an experienced school teacher serving as a mentor. First, teacher trainers from the university provide
training and guidance regarding teaching theories, pedagogy, and curriculum. Afterwards, the trainees undergo a
practicum under the guidance of the school mentor to learn about and practice every day teaching, related duties, and
responsibilities required of a classroom teacher. General universities in Taiwan, unlike traditional teacher-training
institutions, may offer only teaching methodology courses without the comprehensive teacher-training program, thus
are not obligated to include student teaching practice or a practicum. Thus, in these general universities, establishing
this program with another institution or agency will increase the workload of faculty and administrators because it takes
time to develop a working relationship and mutual trust between institutions and between the institution and teachers
(Fisler & Firestone, 2006). Planning and communication for collaboration is extremely time consuming. When the
program is initiated, the added burden may have an impact on time needed for instruction preparation as well as from
the administration work that is expected of many university teachers.
1.1 Exploring the current teaching situation
The institution this researcher has worked for is a business-oriented college with a foreign language department. English
teaching is illustrated as one of the core subjects for student development. Because the college does not have a formal
full-sized teacher training program and has no connection with local public schools as traditional teacher institutions do,
the researcher had to contemplate alternative possibilities for setting up student teaching in organizations in the
community in accordance with academic curriculum.
1.2 Establishing a university-school partnership for teaching practice
Although successful service learning models have been reported across disciplines (Brooks & Schramm, 2007; Nandan,
2010; Salas, Safaradan, & Ugarte, 2008), there is still insufficient research found that combined English teacher
preparation and service learning (Hsieh, 2002), particularly in the EFL (English as a foreign language) teaching context.
This study intended to present a service learning model for EFL learners who had an interest in teaching children in the
future. The model provided teaching practice for student teachers and offered a service that met the needs of the
community. The model provided teaching practice for student teachers and offered a service that met the needs of the
community. The establishment of a new partnership was not an easy process. Both parties had to have a similar vision to
allow collaboration to proceed. After countless efforts, the researcher finally was able to establish a relationship with
local libraries in the community. As a result, a teaching methodology course in combination with service learning began
IJALEL 2 (1):208-215, 2013 209
to formulate. This report includes a college instructor’s self-reflection that outlines a service-learning model for student
teaching in a four-stage process and discusses the challenges and benefits for its implementation. The perceptions of
students and parents obtained through a mixed-methods investigation reflect an overwhelmingly positive commentary
on the effectiveness of the model.
1.3 Studies on Teaching practicum and educational collaboration
In teacher development, the knowledge and skills considered necessary to become a teacher have attracted many
researchers’ attention. However, teachers are required to master not only a set of teaching skills but also strategies for
problem solving and for reacting to unexpected situations. It is deemed important to have methodology courses link
with actual classroom practice (Al Jardani, 2012). Yaman and Özdemir (2012) pointed out the many dimensions of real
life that teachers may expect to encounter the real classroom environment. Only the involvement of student teachers in
the real classroom setting can increase their awareness of dynamic teaching circumstances. Williams (2009) agrees with
the importance of a practicum provided that its authentic educational environment allows the application of knowledge
and skills previously gained in course training. Most teacher education programs offer a balance of theory and
pedagogical practices. In the United Kingdom, of around 700 intensive training programs, most incorporate teaching
practice (Brandt, 2006). Directory of Professional Preparation Programs in TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of
Other Languages) in the United States and Canada reported by Christopher in 2005 reveals that more than 80 percent of
TESOL MA programs offer or require some kind of practicum (cited by Williams, 2009). The most useful practicum
will be creative and will include observation, tutoring, and service learning.
Collaboration between universities and schools or the community is a natural fit in teacher education. Universities and
schools together can provide opportunities in setting and achieving common educational goals (Crawford, 2008/2009).
The new collaborative practice among institutions supports teacher development most effectively. The TESOL program
at the University of Illinois at Chicago initiated a successful teaching practice program in conjunction with the intensive
English program already operating within its institution. Williams (2009) and her colleagues set up goals that can be
taken under consideration if teacher educators would like to involve trainees in service work.
1.4 The Concept of Service
First, the program itself is goal oriented; second, it can be integrated with coursework; third, it adds value to the student
teacher participants; fourth, it involves multiple experiences; fifth, the designed activities must create a successful
experience for the students they serve. Their program expands the practical component of their English teacher-
education program and allows pre-service teachers to interact with students prior to their teaching practicum. The
experience gives them insights into the language used by second- or foreign-language learners. It also offers
opportunities for trainees to hear the language in use and to create language activities and materials for a real audience.
The collaboration bridges the gap between theoretical course work and real work in the profession and enhances both
programs. Williams’ establishment of student teaching prior to a practicum with a partner program puts teaching
practice in a contextualized situation and encourages participants to learn together.
Lemieux and Allen (2007) indicate that a successful collaborative partnership between institutions will need criteria to
guide its practice and to assure its effectiveness and substantiality. According to Williams, researchers have identified
three characteristics of successful partnership in teacher education, which are:
1) it has to involve teachers in the development,
2) the goals should be clear and have to be agreed conjointly by all the parties involved, and
3) it has to provide benefits for all parties (2009, p. 69).
Partnership according to Merriam-Webster’s definition means a relationship usually involving close cooperation
between parties having specific rights and responsibilities. The definition makes it clear that all parties involved should
work closely together and enjoy rights but have responsibilities for what’s expected of them. Crawford and her
colleagues argue that an authentic partnership within or between institutions needs to “consist of regular, frequent, and
ongoing opportunities for genuine collaboration and learning for all involved parties” (2008/2009, p.92). If the
interaction can assure that all parties accommodate needs from all stakeholders, and the relationship can benefit
students, university, and the community, that combination is even more ideal. Therefore, this researcher proposes to
modify the list as follows.
1) It has to involve teachers and staff from all parties in the development;
2) the goals should be clear and conjointly agreed upon all parties involved ;
3) the goals must be clearly understood by all participants in the project;
4) it has to provide benefits for all parties and create meaning for all parties.
Teacher education partnership often entails an educational aim for improving life or achievement of learners; as a
consequence, the project initiated under the partnership may be more academically oriented. However, projects created
through the partnership will concern all parties; hence, it should engage them in the development process as well. In
addition, the enactment of the project may be executed by students who may be recruited after the design phase is
complete and thus may have participated in the process design. They should also have a clear understanding of what’s
expected of them and what they are working toward to assure a smooth practice. Because partnership with teacher
education is likely to involve teaching or mentoring, specific teaching objectives need to be taken into account.
IJALEL 2 (1):208-215, 2013 210
Hrabowski, III., Lee, and Martello’s (1999) research on educating 21st century teachers identifies the goals for student
teaching as
1) developing teaching expertise;
2) providing prospective teachers with school-based preparation;
3) nurturing their decision-making, reasoning, problem-posing, problem-solving, and inquiry skills;
4) preparing them to work effectively both on behalf of and among diverse student populations;
5) fostering an ethic of social responsibility; and cultivating both habits and attitudes of reflective thought (p.
295).
The above training list goes beyond the development of teaching knowledge to include higher learning such as decision
making and the cultivation of social responsibility. During the process of community work, student teachers will
increase their self-realization and cultivate their pursuit of the common good.
1.5 Issues on Community Service Learning
If teacher education focuses only on the development of subject knowledge, it will fail to prepare pre-service teachers
for the unpredictability and complexities of teaching in the real world. Many institutions have begun educational reform
that incorporates community service learning as a means to bridge the gap between theory and practice.
According to Overall (2010), service learning is grounded in a theory-experiential learning. It provides a connection
between cognition and action. Community service work provides experiential learning and helps students link course
materials with real-world experience (Cook, 2008). The opportunity to work in the community extends their learning
beyond classroom allowing them to expand their views of the community and to develop a sense of the real world.
Community-based field work can provide extraordinary opportunities for future teachers to apply what they have
learned in class, develop their ability to meet life challenges, and facilitate their professional growth prior to or during a
practicum. Cone’s study with 81 teachers found that a teaching program in combination with community-based service
learning enabled teachers to be open to new ideas, to adopt a wider variety of pedagogical methods, and to better meet
students’ needs (2009).
Community service learning offers a variety of unique challenges and benefits. According to Clayton & Ash (2004),
service learning encompasses the “‘real world’ messiness and unpredictability, complexities of social change processes,
personal and intellectual risks inherent in reflection, and shared control and responsibility implicit in partnership”
(p.59). Through service learning along with teaching experience, trainees will develop a new sense of worth as a role
model for children and as contributors to the society (Clayton, & Ash, 2004). Service learning is increasingly being
adopted because it literally entails service work as well as student learning, reflection, collaboration, and the
empowerment of the students, university, and community (Lemieux, & Allen, 2007). In the process of preparation and
execution of and reflection on service work, students will be engaged in higher learning including critical thinking,
problem analysis, problem solving, personal and professional development, interpersonal communication, and
leadership skills.
The previous section gives a brief overview on teacher development and addresses issues relevant to establishing
university partnership with institutions and the community and the need to incorporate community service learning in
teacher education for higher learning. For the next part of the paper, the researcher illustrates community teaching
practice through a college-community partnership and discusses its procedures, benefits, and challenges. In an
examination of research approaches investigating university-school collaboration, Rubin (2000) classifies this kind of
report as a self-study account by a practitioner who serves as an organizer, decision-maker, and facilitator. Reflection on
this kind of report as can allow us to document the evolution of the approach and include a systematic examination of
partnerships. Documented self-study has produced results that stimulate universities “to rethink many of their motives,
practices, and assumptions about what kind of activities and products would be of value” (pp.221-222).
2. The Model
2.1 What do we do?
The model for student teaching practice through service learning consisted of a series of stages. In this session, the
researcher described the four stages: planning, preparation and training, implementation, and reflection.
2.1.1 The planning stage
The project was established by the researcher who was also the instructor of the teaching methods course. Planning was
initiated by back and forth discussions with the college and the libraries. The discussion served the function as an
informal needs assessment to identify their concerns and goals, and what they could offer. After mutual understanding,
we agreed upon the time, place, format, and needed resources. Considering children’s short attention span, the
researcher and the partner libraries determined that one-hour English programs for community children would be
optimal. The instructor then went ahead to design a program outline and wrote a proposal. Once granted approval, the
project progressed to the design phase. Meetings between the instructor and students were set up and took place to
begin contemplation and discussion on the program theme and design of the activities.
The participating students of the community-service project were English majors taking the English teaching methods
course centering on children. Unfortunately, a majority of students took the class to fulfill school requirements, while
IJALEL 2 (1):208-215, 2013 211
only a few actually had an interest in teaching English. But the field work involving community service caught more
attention. At inception of the course, requirements of service learning were made clear to the participating students so
that they knew what to expect and would not complain about additional work demanding their own time later on. The
community-service work gave them chances to apply what they learned in class, and they had an opportunity to
contribute their knowledge and skills to expose children to a foreign language. The service work required additional
time for training and material preparation. In the planning phase, meetings with the instructor took place weekly about
three months prior to the community program. Informal discussions often emerged and ideas sparked when the
instructor and students ran into each other in the hallway or at the department office where students hang out.
The community-service work sponsored by libraries and involving the creation of an English activity program designed
for the community children had been based on educational and TESL/TEFL theories such as noticing theory (Schmidt,
1999), input hypothesis (Krashen’s, 2002, 2003), and multiple intelligence (Garner, 1983); teaching methods such as
Total Physical Response (TPR) are widely incorporated. Other techniques incorporated include modeling, repetition,
dynamic grouping, peripheral learning (such as poster, picture display), emotional involvement, songs/chants, games,
and rewards (Larsen-Freemen, 2000).
2.1.2 The preparation and training stage
After the program was mapped out, the class of volunteers underwent preparation and training. Each program would
require at least eight to ten rehearsal sessions with the instructor present most of the time. Sometimes the rehearsal was
combined with a meeting because new ideas or situations had emerged. Students with better pronunciation and fluency
would take less time because there was little need for pronunciation adjustment. The training also consisted of dramatic
presentations. The community English program involved a presentation of a dialogue, a story, or a short play which
would be enacted by the students. According to Scott and Ytreberg (1994), learning to teach is learning to act. Our
students may have been excellent language learners, but most of them were not actors or actresses, neither was the
instructor. But viewing plays and years of teaching have provided me with some drama experience. At rehearsals, I
would help students with their vocal affect using various pitches, volumes, and sounds, smoothing out their gestures and
body movements, as well as their expressions of emotions.
As the program’s start date was approaching, both students and faculty felt increasing pressure. Some matters like the
production of props were left until the last minute. It was hard for all members to find time to attend meetings, which
sometimes resulted in a fragmented rehearsal, but everyone worked to bring loose ends together. A final check of
materials and props had to be conducted at least a couple days prior just in case there was a problem, and there would
still be time to amend the situation. Because of limited budgets, most volunteers had to take public transportation to the
designated community library. The researcher had to transport those props and materials needed for the performance.
2.1.3 Implementation
On the program day, the participating students were required to arrive at least one hour prior to the program to ensure
they had sufficient time to become familiarized with the environment and to prepare. Students arrived much earlier if
the situation allowed for an on-site rehearsal. Prior to the program, it was important to assure that the physical setting
and resources were intact and in working order. All materials and props were laid out and aligned according to the
sequence of their appearance. In some situations, students had to clear up the space and sweep the floor before they
could proceed with the program. Each member had his/her own duty, but during the program, members had to work
closely together and be attentive even if they were not in the act so that the program would have a smooth flow.
Here’s a bit of history about the first year of the program, and how matters improved after the first year. Originally it
was the researcher who had to assist with the change of props, play music, take photos, and videotape the program. The
instructor admits to “feeling like an octopus” because of attending to many duties, and admits to an occasional mishap
in carrying them all out correctly. In the second year, the department assistant came out and helped with picture taking
and video recording. Consequently, the instructor could focus more on the program procedure and provide better
assistance to the students. Each year after the program, we make certain that the library properties are intact, and return
them, and thank the staff for the collaboration opportunity.
2.1.4 The reflection stage
It is important that the new inclusion of service learning was assessed to examine its effectiveness and applicability. The
researcher conducted an evaluation survey with parents and student teachers. The invitation for parents to participate in
the evaluation of the program had a twofold purpose. First, many of the service recipients were children of ages three or
younger. It would have been difficult for them to comprehend the survey questions or to express their opinions in
written format. Second, it was almost impossible for staff to assist the children with the survey because of time
constraints. The student survey took the form of a report asking open-ended questions. Feedback from library staff was
also elicited for the program evaluation.
Our community-service program with a goal of fostering learning in student teachers and community children has been
well-received. Word has spread. Since the first year of implementation, the attendance steadily increased. Recent
programs all had high attendance with more than one hundred children and parents. As they were leaving the venue
after the most recent program, many parents inquired about the next program. They wished this kind of activity was an
on-going program in the library. Parents’ frequent inquiry about future programs continues to be an indication of
success.
IJALEL 2 (1):208-215, 2013 212
3. Different Perspectives
3.1 Parents’ Perspectives
Parents’ and students’ perspectives were collected to evaluate the effectiveness of the community service model. The
parental data were collected from a questionnaire. Students’ data were collected through their reflection reports.
Overall, parents and children alike have been satisfied with our English program. Based on the survey sent to the
parents, we received a very positive response to the 2011 program. Of four hundred parent respondents, more than 93%
of parents thought their children liked our program, and only one parent did not think their child liked it. When asked to
rank our program with five stars, most parents gave us four stars out of five. More than 71% of parents gave us more
than four stars. When asked if their children learned some English from the program, 84% agreed or strongly agreed,
14.5% thought their children more or less learned some English, and only 1% disagreed or strongly disagreed. A
majority of the parents thought the program included dynamic activities (83%) and the program was highly interactive
(81%). In terms of whether their children should learn more English after the program, 77% of parents agreed or
strongly agreed whereas only 6% disagreed or strongly disagreed. Among the parents, more than 50% of the parents
demonstrated a very strong urge to attend the program in the future, and about 47% would take their children to attend
the program if there were another program in the future.
As for what parents liked the most about the program, they thought the activities presented were fun and interesting.
They agreed that the program contained a variety of activities that children enjoyed, and the activities were highly
interactive. The program “let children learn from games and learn in a joyful environment.” “Repeated practice in
various activities made learning interactive.” They also loved the fact that the use of language was about everyday life.
Finally, they were surprised that the community had a free English program. Although it offered free admission, parents
were very pleased that the program was well-planned and elaborate. They could tell that a great deal of time and effort
went into its preparation.
3.2 Students’ Perspectives
Students’ data was collected through their reflection reports. Several themes emerged including connection between
theory and practice, opportunities for hands-on experience and interaction with children, developing social skills, an
increase of self-worth and confidence, and service learning as a rewarding experience.
3.2.1 Making connection between theory and practice
Students thought that the community service allowed students to apply what they learn in class. The community
teaching work provided an opportunity for teachers and students to test and experiment with theories and methods.
Students gained experience beyond the classroom and made connections between the classroom and the real world.
· “Theories are just methods on paper. They did not tell you how children would respond when you apply them.”
· “In addition to the performance, the preparation and practices were ways to understand and become reacquainted
with the teaching methods.”
· “This community service program was an excellent way to learn about and experience teaching. This practice
strengthened my understanding of the course content and real teaching practice. It would help with my teaching
career in the future.”
· “Participating in class is participating in community.”
3.2.2 Having a first-hand experience teaching and interacting with children
Many students revealed that they had gained new insights into children’s psychology and behaviors. They learned in
class that children had a short attention span, but they didn’t know that young children just got up to walk around or
walk away if not interested. If children are curious, they will be attentive, but student teachers were not prepared to see
children who came up to touch and play with the teaching props.
· “We witnessed how kids responded to our activities and stories, and how their reactions were different from what
we had anticipated. After a couple of times, we learned to cope with the situation we didn’t plan for.”
· “When we were giving out materials for the artwork, all children crowded to the front. The teacher came to tell us
to hand out materials from different sides of the room, which was helpful.”
· “Getting the chance to watch and interact with children was the best part of the learning.”
· “I’ve learned how to interact with children, how to make eye contact, and how to attract their attention through
this practice.”
· “I admire teachers a lot more. They have to do a lot.”
3.2.3 Developing social skills for the real world
Community service learning emphasizes collaborative effort, which is different from individual learning (Lemieux &
Allen, 2007). Service learning increases awareness of others instead of only self and provides an opportunity to observe
and interact with others. In addition to a focus teaching skill, community work also helped develop social skills like
communication, negotiation, and collaboration skills. Jobs are rarely isolated. Students will need to interact and work
with other people in the future. Engagement in community work has broadened students’ horizons of the real world and
also developed their soft skills.
IJALEL 2 (1):208-215, 2013 213
· “Even though it is challenging, I enjoy the way we work together as a team and we share a common goal that is to
make children happy and help them learn.”
· “I learned a lot from others during discussion. Discussion is actually a good way to stimulate new ideas and
critical thinking.”
· “During the process, we improved our oral skills through continuous practice. I am also more confident in
expressing myself.”
· “This program was achieved through a collaboration of a team of people and hard work.”
3.2.4 Discovering self and enhancing self-worth and confidence
Involvement in community teaching practice helped students grow academically and personally as well. In the process
of conducting community service, students participated in the developmental process and execution. During the process,
their voices were heard, and their work was valued. They discovered themselves capable of many skills and, most
importantly, capable of contribution to the larger society.
· “I didn’t know I could act too.”
· “After so much practice and after the performance, I’ve become more confident.”
· “I am glad that I could bring joy and fun to children.”
· “Children were very responsive which made me feel confidence and think that I was doing well.”
· “Everybody knew I was a reserved and shy person. I was always nervous on the stage. I was delighted that I was
able to overcome my fear and perform for children.”
· “I didn’t know that I could actually do something for the society.”
· “Frankly I felt really good being able to use my skills to serve the community.”
· “This experience gave me a sense of achievement and lit my enthusiasm in teaching. I was quite happy that
children and parents said ‘teacher, bye-bye’ when they left.”
3.2.5 Discover that serving others is rewarding
Students expressed excitement and joy from the enjoyment they saw in the children. They also felt that they could make
a difference in society. Community service learning helped them realize giving was actually rewarding. The experience
opened up potential opportunities for them to continue involvement in the society and to become responsible caring
citizens.
· “When I see the kids having a good time listening to our stories, all hard work is worth it.”
· “I just made a little effort but brought happiness to children.”
· “I felt I had made an accomplishment.”
· “This program has created multi-values and had a positive impact on children and the community. They also
learned about our school and acknowledged our skills and what our students and teachers can offer.”
4. Discussion
The praise from the library staff and positive feedback from both student participants and parents has proven this model
to be effective. Students enjoyed the field experience tremendously. Some of them felt sad when the community work
came to the end and expressed interest in offering continual community service. They thought participation in
community work in fact helped them accumulate experience in teaching and provided them with an authentic
opportunity to interact with children. Students were more engaged in both the course work and service work, feeling
that this course helped them make progress into the real world, gaining additional skills such as communication and
collaboration which will very likely be required in their future work. These results coincide with research that has been
done on an economic course project in service learning by Brooks and Schramm (2007) citing students’ tremendous
gains in people and process skills. Community service learning emphasizes “students’ contribution to the community
and the development of students’ civic responsibilities” (Lemieux & Allen, 2007, p. 310). Through collaboration with
the community, universities not only cultivate intellectuals for society but also develop active participants who assume
duties and respond to social needs.
Engagement with the community can deepen the tie between university and community. To establish or extend
university-community collaboration requires commitment and effort of all parties. To provide involvement in
community service, faculty and trainees will need to make a huge commitment of their skills. It is critical that the
community service provided meets the needs of the people they serve and generates multi-experiences for all
participants as Williams (2009) and her colleagues have achieved at the University of Illinois at Chicago.
Resources and support are also essential in realization of a community service program. Physical resources that will be
needed range from a venue to materials like scissors, color markers, and tapes. In addition, faculty, administrators, and
leaders from both university and community need to share a vision and a belief in experiential learning and social
service; otherwise, the collaboration will not be realized. Support of manpower from university and community will be
required in so many ways. Take our program as an example. Our project was short of participants with only around
seven or eight people for one program activity; consequently, every member has to assume more than one duty. It
IJALEL 2 (1):208-215, 2013 214
would be very helpful if more people are involved to explain the seating arrangement, lead children and parents to their
seats, and help restore equipment and venue after the event. To organize an effective community-service learning
program, both tangible and intangible support and resources are critical.
5. Problems and Challenges in Community Service
Although the partnership with libraries was the first collaboration with the community at this institution, the English-
teaching programs we organized and implemented through community service have generated positive outcomes and
gained high praise from the department, the school, and the community partners. The process can still be improved,
however. Practitioners or administrators who wish to adopt a similar model have to overcome several problems and
challenges including loss of man power, time constraint, community demands, a strenuous training process, and having
to deal with insufficient support.
The preparation and training process was strenuous and time consuming. College students today have a heavy course
load and a variety of interests in life. It was often hard to gather students for meetings or preparation work. There were
students who dropped out of the program because of work and time conflicts. Our program engaged in foreign language
learning and development of teaching skills. Student volunteers had to act as a language model, which added another
layer of difficulty and complexity to the training. Community service teaching in the first (native) language may require
training on presentation skills, but will not require special attention on language skill improvement. In order to meet the
request of our clients, our community work had to include a level of dramatic performance. While it is possible for
students to conduct community teaching individually without any team work, dramatization requires cooperation among
a group of people. Moreover, language-major students are good at language, but many of them do not know how to act.
Training students for stage performance would be challenging. It would also take time and plenty of practices just for
students to overcome fear and anxiety to perform in front of the public. Time spent on planning and preparation was
very stressful for both faculty and students. So far, there is only one academic course combined with service
learning/teaching in the department because this type of course is much more time- and labor-intensive than other
courses. But after witnessing the growth in students and satisfaction in the children, the researcher concluded that it was
definitely worth commitment.
Support from the university and education-related bureaus may be missing at the moment it is. Service learning is for
the purpose of offering one’s service to the greater good. To some extent, it include the connotation of sacrifice. Hence,
lacking resources and support becomes a natural part of the process. Administrators and staff may think service learning
as a good innovative pedagogical approach, and that is probably where their support ends. Our program did receive
administrative attention and financial support to some extent, but the funding was rather limited. What we received
merely covered student insurance and some teaching materials and props. We found recycling materials and reutilized
them to reduce costs. In addition, the instructor had to be responsible for transporting the properties and often to pay for
the parking herself. The department has many duties and programs, thus is already short of staff on a regular basis. The
staff may not be available for assistance, which often left the instructor and students to handle such matters.
These challenges have become barriers that administrators and teachers have to overcome when they attempt to forge
community service in teacher development programs (Kezar & Rhoads, 2001). Several evidence-based studies already
demonstrated the success and impact of combined teaching and service learning. Hopefully more participation in this
pedagogy will induce support from institutions, education agencies, and the community. Despite what seems a
discouraging list of obstacles and difficulties that were met in putting together the program, its success and inherent
value to all involved convince us that once the program gains wider support, the negative aspects will be minimized and
the benefits increased.
As a result of the service teaching activity initiated by the researcher and the success of the programs presented at local
libraries, we know that students, faculty, the university, and the community stakeholders (including libraries, parents,
and children) have benefited. This community-service teaching practice has created a win-win situation for all parties.
Harnish and Bridges conclude that university-community collaboration has a “mutually beneficial impact on the
community, students, and faculty” (2004, p.108). This kind of practice may inspire universities and other institutions
alike to build a relationship with community groups to create a wide range of community service activities because
communities are likely to be short of expertise, resources, and manpower. However, it requires a strong commitment
from all parties including students, faculty, universities, and the community to create successful collaboration. An
institution-community partnership can promote language literacy and have a positive influence on children. It will also
strengthen the tie between school and community, school and children, school and parents, and community and home.
6. Conclusion
The student teaching practice through community service learning created in collaboration with local libraries offered
substantial benefits to the public, the institution, students, and faculty. Students, in particular, found the community
experience rather unique and valuable due to the linkage with education and the outside world. As Overall (2010)
proposed, service learning has an added value to education. Students develop a better understanding of the course
materials and they are better prepared for the world. Muğaloğlu and Doğanca (2009) suggest strengthening the tie
between university and school (community) to create opportunities for teaching practice. Key to the success of this kind
of effort is that the community teaching practice provided the opportunity for skill application, confidence boosting,
broader learning, connection to the real world, and contribution to society. To cope with the rapidly changing world,
educators and universities need to strive to establish new relationships and situations which help students explore new
IJALEL 2 (1):208-215, 2013 215
roles and new possibilities.
This paper has reviewed literature on teaching practices and service learning through university-community partnership.
It also presents an evaluation report on a student-teacher training model through community service based on the
perspectives of the instructor, parents, and participating students. The teaching practice through community service
learning illustrated in this study contributed to learner-centered learning, gains in field experience, increased societal
awareness and responsibility, and improved society learning. The conjunction of academic institutions and community
agencies needs to be encouraged, but the collaboration requires deliberate and continuous effort.
References
Al Jardani, K. S. S. (2012). A Study of Educational Reform & Teacher Training in Oman. International Journal of
Applied Linguistics & English Literature, 1(1), 64-69.
Brandt, C. (2006). Allowing for practice: A critical issue in TESOL teacher preparation. ELT Journal, 60(4), 355-64.
Brooks, N, & Schramm, R. (2007). Integrating economics research, education, and service. Journal of Economic
Education, 38(1), 36-43.
Clayton, P., & Ash, S. (2004). Shifts in perspective: Capitalizing on counter-normative nature of service-learning.
Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 16(2), 59-70.
Cone, N. (2009). A bridge to developing efficacious science teachers of all students: Community-based service-learning
supplemented with explicit discussions and activities about diversity. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 20(4), 365-
383.
Cook, A. S. (2008). Global dimensions in service learning: A collaborative grant-writing project. International
Education, 37(2), 6-129.
Crawford, P., Roberts, S., & Hickmann, R. (2008/2009). All together now: Authentic university-school partnerships for
professional development. Childhood, Education, 85, 91-95.
Fisler, J. & Firestone, W. (2006). Teacher learning in a school-university partnership: Exploring the role of social trust
and teaching efficacy beliefs. Teacher College Record, 108(6), 1155-1185.
Harnish, R.J., & Bridges, K. R. (2004). University-community partnership: Teaching applied social psychology to
foster engagement in strategic planning. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 10(1), 107-119.
Hrabowski, III. F., Lee D., & Martello, J. (1999). Educating teachers for the 21st century: Lesson learned. Journal of
Negro Education, 68(3), 293-305.
Kezar, A., & Rhoads, R. A. (2001 ). The dynamic tensions of service learning in higher education: A philosophical
perspective. The Journal of Higher Education, 72(2), 148-171.
Krashen, S. (2003). Dealing with English fever. Selected papers from Twelfth international symposium on English
teaching, pp.100-108. Taipei: Crane Publishing Company.
Krashen, S. (2002). The comprehension hypothesis and its rivals. Selected papers from eleventh international
Symposium on English teaching/Fourth Pan Asian Conference, pp.395-404. Taipei: Crane Publishing Company.
Lemieux, C, & Allen, P. (2007). Service learning in social work education: The state of knowledge, pedagogical
practicalities, and practice conundrums. Journal of Social Work Education, 43(2), 309-325.
Nandan, M. (2010). Service learning partnership between university and school students: Experiential learning inspired
through community research. Journal of College Teaching and Learning, 7(7), 25-33.
Overall, P. M. (2010). The effect of service learning on LIS students’ understanding of diversity issues related to equity
of access. Journal of Education for Library and Information Science, 51(4), 251-266.
Rubin, V. (2000). Evaluating university-community partnerships: An examination of the evolution of questions and
approaches. Cityscape: A Journal of Policy Development and Research, 5(1), 219-230.
Salas, S., Safaradan, M., & Ugarte, A. (2008). Teaching English for and with communities. English Teaching Forum,
46(3), 30-34.
Schmidt, R. W. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 11(2), 129-158.
Scott, W, 7 Ytreberg, L. (1994). Teaching children English. New York: Longman.
Williams, J. (2009). Beyond the practicum experience. ELT, 63(1), 68-77.
Yamen, S., & Özdemir, M. (2012). Moving from theory to practice: ELT pre-service teachers. International Journal of
Applied Linguistics & English Literature, 1(1), 27-38.
The Use of Talisman in William Butler Yeats’s Poetry: A Signifier of

the Objet Petit a
Serkan ERTİN
Department of Western Languages and Literatures, Kocaeli University
41380, Kocaeli, Turkey
Tel: 0090-262-3032884 E-mail: serkan.ertin@kocaeli.edu.tr

Abstract
Yeats’s poetry is quite rich in the imagery of loss, yearning for the glorious and distant past, and a search for identity.
The Tower is almost emblematic of the poet’s disillusionment with the modern and of his nostalgic desire for the long-
forgotten past. This article intends to analyse the social, political and psychological reasons underlying the sense of loss
pervading through the particular book and in order to keep reliability of the order of poems or their presence in the
book, The Variorum Edition of Alspach and Allt, including the final texts, will be used, otherwise it would be rather
difficult to follow the poems as Yeats is notorious for his revising his poems and even the order of the poems in his
books.
Keywords: Yeats, talisman, romanticism, nationalism, nostalgia
1. Introduction
William Butler Yeats’s poetic career is usually categorised into three rather distinct periods: The first one is his early
period, in which, he is regarded as having been under the influence of Fin de Siècle movement in London. Eddins
(1996) in his preface to Yeats: The Nineteenth Century Matrix takes it further and claims that he was “under the
influence of the Elizabethans and Romantics” because he was educated by his father who taught him Shakespeare and
Shelley particularly (p.viii). Thematically, in this period, he saved from facile sentimentalism only by his tone of
impersonality. Otherwise it would be difficult to distinguish The Sorrow of Love, in which Yeats contrasts the world of
man and nature in the context of his unreturned love, from any other Romantic or Pre-Raphaelite poem. The 1890s are
considered a transitional era in his poetry, when he produced mystical poems. However, the common opinion, as
Webster (1973) states in her introduction, was that he was neither satisfactory nor he himself was satisfied with his style
and representations (p.1). Because he had not yet reached his maturity in terms of both form and content, he either paid
too much attention to form itself, caring for rhyme patterns for instance, or he could not achieve impersonality and
produced highly personal even autobiographical works.
2. Theoretical Framework
The Tower, published in 1928, marks the beginning of his third period. This book includes The Gift of Harun Al-Rashid
but not Fragments, which was added in the Collected Poems in 1933. In the same year Yeats also changed the order of
the poems in the book and substituted The Fool by the Roadside for The Hero, The Girl and The Fool (Allt, 1961,
p.371). He was a very reader-conscious poet, and thus, in every single thing he did he had a reason. Therefore, before
starting the discussion, I would like to mention the first impressions forming upon seeing the order of the names of the
poems in The Tower, for the names and even the order of the poems have a significance in the book; Yeats must have
had a reason to reorganise the poems and to give the poems these names:
Sailing To Byzantium, The Tower, Meditations In Time Of Civil War, Nineteen Hundred And Nineteen, The Wheel,
Youth And Age, The New Faces, A Prayer For My Son, Two Songs From A Play, Fragments, Wisdom, Leda And The
Swan, On A Picture Of A Black Centaur By Edmund Dulac, Among School Children, Colonus' Praise, The Hero, The
Girl, and The Fool, Owen Aherne And His Dancers, A Man Young And Old, The Three Monuments, The Gift of Harun
Al-Rashid, All Souls' Night.
As seen above there are twenty-one main poems in the book, which gives a total number of thirty-nine when subtitles
are included. Starting with the first poem the reader sails for the ancient city Constantinople and after arriving at an
ancient Tower he is expected to stop there and contemplate on the Irish Civil War, starting from a general topic to a
more specific one. The year is Nineteen Hundred And Nineteen when the reader falls off The Wheel of fortune and goes
back to past for a while. There comes the comparison of the past to the present, which will indeed be one of the major
themes of the book. The intended reader encounters the present in The New Faces, which are The Fragments taken out
of life indeed, memories kept in Wisdom. Then once more the reader gets on time’s winged chariot to go back to past to
IJALEL 2 (1):216-220, 2013 217
visit some mythological figures. While watching the beauty of the swan tricked by Zeus, the reader suddenly wakes up
to find himself Among School Children, in real life. This reminds one of the present world they live in. Yeats does not
want his reader to get lost in the literal and deceptive meanings of myths. Then once more the reader travels to Colonus
and overhears a conversation among The Hero, The Girl and The Fool, waking him up. Shortly after that, it is time for
the reader to turn back-to-the-future to find himself before Owen Aherne and His Dancers. Comparison of the past to
present is still being carried on within the context of A Man Young and Old. After visiting The Three Monuments and
receiving The Gift of Harun Al-Rashid, the reader comes back to present and has a mystical vision, for it is All Souls’
Night now.
3. Analysis
Yeats’s organisation of the poems is in accordance with Bergson’s concept of time in that one can never live only the
present but the past, the present and the future at the same time. In this book Yeats wants to emphasise the fact of
simultaneity by bringing the reader back-and-forth constantly. He distances his narration and sets it in past in
mythology, yet his implications always refer to the present. This might be because of his allusive style. He does not
write anything directly but attributes each thing a symbolic vague context. But why does he do that? Why does he need
all this stuff? Why does he make use of mysticism, mythology or the supernatural so much? Is it a part of his defense
mechanism, such as repression or escape? What devices does he use to achieve this objective? Webster (1973) in her
introduction to the psychoanalytical study of Yeats’s poetry ascribes the use of the occult to his “reawakened” fears of
castration and the loss of integrity (p.3). These fears were already seen in his earlier poetry in the form of an escape.
However, in this period his fears might be resulting from his old age and the approaching death. Webster seems to be
right when he attributes Yeats’s obsession with the past to his own fear of castration and loss of integrity. The poet lives
the present but he cannot avoid the dependence upon the past. He constantly takes refuge in past, in the talismanic
objects of past, against his fear of death.
The occult is one of the most important elements in his poetry. Obviously John O’Leary, the old Fenian leader, was the
one influencing him. Magic was the business of his life, as Yeats states: “If I hadn’t made magic my constant study I
couldn’t have written a single word of my Blake book, nor would The Countess Cathleen have ever come to exist. The
mystical life is the centre of all that I do and all that I think and all that I write” (Ctd. in Unterecker, 1988, p.11). At this
point it is even clearer that Yeats would not have come to terms with his inner conflicts or problems such as aging if it
had not been for the talismanic objects in which he found an emotional refuge. Sure the use of talismanic objects and
mysticism do not only raise psychological questions about Yeats but also point at another layer of meaning, i.e. the
mind of a poet under colonial oppression, since “Yeats’s willful mysticism and incoherence do embody a revolutionary
potential in the poet’s insistence that Ireland should retain its culture by keeping awake its consciousness of
metaphysical questions” (Said, 1990, p.81). In his poetry we can always find statements or implications of his
dissatisfaction with the modern society and institutions, which takes the reader to one of the major themes in The
Tower, and there comes the time to sail to Byzantium to see it in detail.
The myth of Byzantium Empire, where life is entirely reflected onto art, is one of the common talismans in the book.
Yeats explains the significance of this city in “A Vision” and admits if he were given a month in antiquity and was
given a chance to spend it whereever he chose, he would spend it in Byzantium, a little before Justinian opened
St.Sophia and closed the Academy of Plato (Ctd. In Allt, 1961, p. 172). Yeats believed that all religious, aesthetic and
practical lives were one in Byzantium, all artists were impersonal and they had the vision of wholeness reflected in a
single image. This is indeed a reflection of one of the modern characteristics of his poetry because as a modern poet he
always aimed at organic unity and he did not try to compose single poems, but instead he wove works of art as if he
were dealing with a set of lace. For example, “A Man Young and Old” is accepted as the first part of a poem, “A
Woman Young and Old”. Likewise, the book, The Tower itself as a whole, is the first part of a pair completed by “The
Winding Stair”.
“Sailing to Byzantium” is the first poem of the book dealing with the myth of Byzantium. Before analysing the reasons
why Yeats longed for Byzantium so deeply, a brief look at his conception of the modern world may give us an insight
into his poetry: “A walking mummy, flames at the street corners where the soul is purified. Birds of hammered gold
singing in the golden trees. In the harbor dolphins offering their backs to the wailing dead that they may carry them to
paradise” (Ctd. in Allt, 1961, p.825). This notion could be related to Yeats’s so-called fascist tendency as he is said to
have despised democracy, modern world, science, machinery and even human equality but favoured the feudal structure
instead. The ideal civilisation for Yeats was a “hierarchical, every great man’s door crowded at dawn by petitions, great
wealth everywhere in a few men’s hands, all dependent upon a few, upto the emperor himself who is a god dependent
on a greater god, and everywhere, in Court, in the family, an inequality made law” (Orwell, 1975, p.351). However,
these lines might as well be regarded as exaggerated modern sentimentalism if one takes his description of his ideal
civilisation ironic. Those considering Yeats fascist may be failing to grasp his actual thought, for the may be a very
deep scar lying behind his harsh words. He could simply be longing for an empire like Byzantium as he strongly
disliked that of Britain. As an Irish poet using English he must have suffered a lot for Irish literary survival, and
therefore, the influence of his own background is inevitable in the imagery he uses in his poetry.
Until 1922 Ireland as a whole was occupied and ruled by Britain. The occupation had begun hundreds of years before
but only from the end of the eighteenth century a stronger Irish nationalism came out. Said (1990) distinguishes
European imperialism from all others because of some reasons: “First the extraordinary and sustained longevity of the
disparity in power between Europe and its possessions, and second, the massively organized rule, which affected the
IJALEL 2 (1):216-220, 2013 218
detail and not just the large outlines of life, of that power” (p.71). The usual pretext for colonialism is of course the
intention to modernise, develop, instruct and civilise the native people of a country. Thus, there was always the
distinction between the binaries the British and the Others. However, as seen in Said’s statements, British Empire
caused radical changes in her colonies. In other words, the British imperialism changed every single place it touched to
a great extent and the consequence for some people turned out to be excessive sentimentalism.
Nationalism is a resistance to imperialism by the people with a common history, religion and language. This is what
happened in Ireland; people resisted the imperial powers but the problem was that, according to Said, these struggles
were led by bourgeoisies. When they replaced the colonial forces in Ireland what they did was to re-impose “the old
colonial structures replicated in new national terms” (Said, 1990, p.74). This was perhaps the second disillusionment for
Yeats within the nationalist struggles as they not only fought the imperialists but also the bourgeoisie. He was totally
disappointed with the result of the movements and he expresses his feelings in September 1913: “Romantic Ireland’s
dead and gone / It’s with O’Leary in the grave” (Ctd. in Abrams, 1993, p.1873). When the reader goes back to “Sailing
to Byzantium” in the light of the colonial context, the first thing to notice will be the binary opposition, which will be
carried on throughout the book, between the old and the young. The native country described here is not proper for the
old man, as he sees himself as “a tattered coat upon a stick” (Ctd. in Abrams, 1993, p.1883). However, the words
“unageing intellect” and “sensual” are foreshadowing as they sharply differ with the ageing body of the man.
Nevertheless, the contrast still exists between body and mind in relation to the one between the young and the old. The
“sensual music” refers to the teachings of the imperialists and it is negligent according to Yeats. He even got “sick with
desire” in the end and this is why he has come “to the holy city of Byzantium” (Allt, 1961, p.408). He wants to get out
of Irish nature which torments his soul and identifies himself with the golden bird made by Grecian goldsmiths, as he
states in his famous couplet:
Once out of nature I shall never take / My bodily form from any natural thing
But such a form as Grecian goldsmiths make / Of hammered gold and gold enamelling. (Allt, 1961, p.408)
The couplet gives a very good example of a talismanic object in Yeats’s work, i.e., the lasting objects he uses to
overcome his tensions, fears or dis-eases. Now that he associates himself with art he is not a human being suffering in
the modern world, but a beautiful object of art in ancient times, which is obviously a function of his defense
mechanism, i.e., an escape.
Another poem depicting almost the same image is “Meditations in Time of Civil War”. This poem has seven sub-titles
following a deductive order, starting with “Ancestral Houses” and then continuing with “My House” and then “My
Table” and so on. Now another binary is added to the young / the old and the present / the past binaries, which is the
one between nature and culture. Yeats begins the poem with a beautiful depiction of the nature and country life.
However, between the lines 16-24 there is a straightforward criticism of the bourgeoisie, the colonial, “the inherited
glory of the rich”(Ctd. in Allt, 1961, p.418). Yeats argues that there is no gentleness indeed and the great-grandson of
the ancestral house is but a mouse. The fourth and the fifth stanzas, line 31 to be specific, deal with the comparison of
the past to present in the context of the delight of childhood. Then, in line 40, the “greatness” of the ancestors is
compared to “bitterness” and to the violence of the present (Ctd. in Allt, 1961, p.418). In the second part of the poem
the focus is on a farmhouse “sheltered” by the wall of the tower. Now the talismanic power is embodied in the tower
itself and Yeats takes shelter under the wings of the tower, on both a literal and a metaphorical level as this tower was a
real one in his own garden, where he might have had meditations in time of civil war. This is again a form of escape
used when one cannot cope with the harsh realities in life. In the next two parts the tone is the same but only the
talisman differs, shifting from a table, “unchanging like the sword”, to the “stones” of the house as only they could
stand against the destructive power of time and culture (Ctd. in Allt, 1961, p.423). In the fifth part of the poem when
some officers come and stand before his door he complains “of the foul weather, hail and rain”, which is once more an
escape from the severe facts of war time to the affectionate arms of nature. Next part does the same thing by giving the
sharp contrasts between man and nature. Here the ‘bard’ calls at the honey-bees and in this conversational style he
mentions the civil war and the young people dying at war. He ascribes it to our having “more substance in our enmities /
Than in our love” (Ctd. in Allt, 1961, p.423).
Similar to “September 1913”, “Nineteen Hundred Nineteen” takes the same theme, the obsession with the past in a
clearer and a more sarcastic manner. It sets the main idea in the very first line: “Many ingenious lovely things are gone”
(Ctd. in Allt, 1961, p.428). In the second stanza we once more encounter the romantic or neo-platonic theme of
childhood. He again, like Blake, praises the innocence possessed only in childhood: “We too had many pretty toys when
young / A law indifferent to blame or praise” (Ctd. in Allt, 1961, p.428). Sure in this respect he was influenced by
William Blake, and therefore, we can find in Yeats’s poetry the idealisation of childhood and the bitterness of
experience. The purity people have when they are children is resembled to “toys” here. In the twelfth line there is an
allusion to the myth of Icarus. Icarus is the son of Daedalus, who flew with the wax wings but fell down as he
approached the sun too much. This downfall of Icarus is used in the poem to refer to the loss of innocence, as we are the
descendents of him for we made a very big mistake by believing that “rascals had died out” (Ctd. in Allt, 1961, p.428).
In the fourth stanza the comparison turns to today and the reader finds himself among quite gloomy words, describing
the difficult conditions of Irish people those years:
IJALEL 2 (1):216-220, 2013 219
Now days are dragon-ridden, the nightmare / Rides upon sleep: a drunken soldiery
Can leave the mother, murdered at her door / To crawl in her own blood, and go scot-free (Ctd. in Allt, 1961,
p.429)
So the presence of anarchy is felt throughout the stanza. The fifth part of the poem is the most sarcastic part in fact:
“Come let us mock at the good / That fancied goodness might be gay” (Ctd. in Allt, 1961, p.429). Here mockery is
mocked by Yeats, and the people of course, especially the treasoners who supported imperialism. This poem adds to the
theme of sweet past versus bitter present but with a more direct and arrogant tone.
A very short look back is given in “Youth and Age”, a very succinct depiction of Yeats’s attitude towards colonial
oppression in past and in present. When he was younger, he says: “Much did I rage” but in time this passionate
nationalism came to an end as he saw the Romantic Ireland he looked for or tried to revive was in fact far away. “His
early and invented Ireland was amenable to his imagination whereas he ended by finding an Ireland recalcitrant to it”
(Said, 1990, p.80). Thus, he was quite different later on, especially after he started to accept things as they were, “with
flattering tongue” (Ctd. in Allt, 1961, p.434). The influence of this recognition was also seen in his poetry as he did not
take refuge of talismanic objects in his later poetry.
“Leda and the Swan” is a real masterpiece in the book as it holds multiple layers of meaning. On the first level when
one –if educated- reads it he cannot help finding himself in the famous myth of Zeus and Leda. In the particular myth
Zeus tricked and seduced Leda in the disguise of a swan. Leda, in Hamilton version, is described as the wife of King
Tyndareus of Sparta and the known story is that she bore two mortal children to him, Castor and Clytemnestra; and to
Zeus two immortal ones, Helen and Pollux. In the poem she is depicted as a very elegant but unlucky girl as she was
raped by Zeus. The choice of the words in the poem indeed tells us the true story;
A sudden blow: the great wings beating still
Above the staggering girl, her thighs caressed
By the dark webs, her nape caught in his bill,
He holds her helpless breast upon his breast. (Ctd. in Allt, 1961, p.441)
Apparently the poor girl yields to the huge swan. This is what one gets at first sight but the last two stanzas present
another level of reality and another layer of meaning: the Trojan War. The tenth line starts with the depiction of
“burning roof and tower”, a depiction of Troy after the war. The Trojan War in short was fought because of Helen, the
most beautiful mortal woman, who escaped with Paris to Troy and caused the downfall of the city, for the Greek army
destroyed the antique city altogether after a war of nine years. Thus, this is a criticism of the Greeks as they burnt up
everything there, even the tower which proves to be a very important phallic symbol for Yeats. Another interpretation
of the poem is of course the anti-colonist one, identifying Zeus and the Greeks with the English and Leda and the
Trojans with the Irish.
Belonging to a nation which suffered from the imperialist policies of Britain, Yeats could not ever get rid of the
influence of this oppression and he –deliberately or not- reflected the issues related to colonisation in his poetry.
Explaining this poem he comments:
I imagine the annunciation that founded Greece as made to Leda, remembering that they showed in a Spartan temple,
strung up to the roof as a holy relic, an unhatched egg of hers; and that from one of her eggs came Love and from the
other War. But all things are from antithesis, and when in my ignorance try to imagine what older civilization that
annunciation rejected I can but see bird and woman blotting out some corner of the Baylonian mathematical starlight.
(Yeats, 1983, 188)
The annunciation mentioned refers to the rape theme, that of Leda by Zeus disguised as a swan, causing the birth of
Helen but the collapse of the legendary city of Troy. However, the analysis of the poem implies the shifting passions of
Leda and Zeus. At the beginning of the poem Zeus had been “passionate” and Leda “helpless and terrified” (remember
the word “caught”) but in the end Leda is “caught up” in his passion and Zeus “indifferent” (Ctd. in McKenna, 1983,
p.188). This reminds me of the structure of hegemony, in Gramsci’s term. Because hegemony survives through the
consent of people as the ruling class convinces the others that its interests are the interests of all. It is a very subtle way
of dominating people. Therefore, an accusation of Leda, namely of the Irish, can be found out according to this
interpretation. Said (1990) also mentions the colonial eyes of Yeats in this poem and that Yeats wants “to reconcile the
inevitable violence of the colonial conflict with the everyday politics of an ongoing national struggle” (p.90).
“Among School Children”, another famous poem of the book, when attention is paid to its stanza forms –eight, to
number, each consisting of eight lines- and its rhyme patterns, is obviously an outcome of a very close study and
observation. Children, as a theme, have platonic connotations and romantic elements as well, for childhood is accepted
as the golden age of human life that can never come back once lost. Children at present are both our past and future.
This is why Yeats uses them as a theme to join people to their history to form their future as well. As a poet of a
colonized country he was very sensitive about nationality and therefore he tried to revive Irish culture and literature by
linking past to future. For him “history and the nation were not separable, any more than a dancer was separable from
the dance” (Said, 1990, p.92).
Similarly, McKenna defines this poem as “an effort to synthesize the sixty-year-old smiling public man, the aged one-
time lover, and would be philosopher into something as organic as a chest-nut tree, as coherent as a dancer’s
IJALEL 2 (1):216-220, 2013 220
movements” (p.191). McKenna also refers to some trios in the poem, such as three images worshipped; lovers, nuns and
mothers, but the basic trio underlying the poem –as I have aforementioned- is among past-present and future, among
childhood-maturity and old age in other words. And Yeats is the poet combining all these aspects in his poetry as he is a
real poet having the association of sensibility. He never aims at presenting his readers a single experience or a single
image but he amalgamates all his ideas and produces organic works of art. Even this poem parallels Colonus’ Praise in
terms of the dancing or the tree images existing in both poems (McKenna, 1983, p.193). Owen Aherne and His Dancer,
even, is an extension of the same theme of dancing.
In the first stanza of the poem the present is compared to past by the contrast between the old nun and the “sixty-year-
old public man” (Ctd. in Allt, 1961, p.443). Webster comments on this second “tattered protagonist”, the first one was
in “Sailing to Byzantium”, and states that in this poem more things are lost than are retained (p.219). In the next stanza
he goes back to the myth of Leda and remembers the sorrowful story of Ireland:
“I dream of a Ledaean body, bent / Above a sinking fire, a tale that she
Told of a harsh reproof, or trivial event / That changed some childish day to tragedy” (Ctd. in Allt, 1961, p.443).
The third stanza extends the criticism and refers to Helen, as she was one of the “daughters of swan”, who caused the
fall of Troy (line 20). However, he does not want to contemplate on past anymore as he does not want to scare the
children. Here another use of talisman appears in the form of “an old scarecrow” which provides a sense of relief and
comfort for him:
“Better to smile on all that smile, and show
There is a comfortable kind of old scarecrow” (Ctd. in Allt, 1961, p.446).
The same object is repeated in line 48, too, as “old clothes upon old sticks to scare a bird” (Ctd. in Allt, 1961, p.446).
He probably associates himself with the old scarecrow and takes over the mission of scaring the birds, that is struggling
for the revival of Irish culture against British hegemony. The chest-nut tree in the eighth stanza must be another object
for Yeats to “be gathered into the artifice of eternity” (Said, 1990, p.93). Reminding the reader of the Irish culture Yeats
tries to revive, the chest-nut tree is depicted as “great-rooted blossomer” as if it symbolises their native traditions
blossoming deep in soil, for it was oppressed by the British. Finally, Yeats states the impossibility of separating “the
dancer” from “the dance”, which might be taken as the unity of country and nation or the poet and native culture. Said,
for instance, takes this metaphor as the representations of history and nation (p.92).
Most of the other poems in The Tower deal with different pages of life, such as love or death. However they do not
involve as strong talismanic objects as the ones mentioned above for Yeats seems to have developed his ego. He seems
much more mature in these poems and in the following book as he does not need any object as a refuge anymore.
4. Conclusion
Yeats, the disillusioned nationalist bard, upset with the fall of Troy, tries to reconstruct the glorious city through his
verse; as a poet he is as careful as a mason. Both the tower and the city he is trying to reconstruct seem to be
symbolising the lost Irish culture and traditions, which the poet relentlessly attempts to revive. His struggle and the
harsh conditions he experienced directly influenced his poems in The Tower and the imagery he employs in the book
reveals how deeply he yearns for the lost identity and dignity. Perhaps the most important thing to defeat an enemy is
the range of sight and the power of vision, and this could be the reason why the Trojans lost the war, which culminated
in the destruction of their city. Yet Yeats the volunteer watchman of his own city is determined not to lose the war and
his biggest arm for his eternal war is his power of vision.
References
Abrams, M.H. (Ed.). (1993). The Norton Anthology of English Literature. London: Norton&Company.
Allt, P. and R. K. Alspach. (Ed.). (1961). The Variorum Edition of the Poems of William Butler Yeats. London:
MacMillan.
Eddins, D. (1996). Yeats: The Nineteenth Century Matrix. Alabama: Alabama UP.
Hamilton, E. (1982). Mythology: Timeless Tales of Gods and Heroes. New York: Penguin.
McKenna, S. and M. Mac Liammor. (Ed). (1983). The Poems of W. B. Yeats. New York: New Rochelle.
Orwell, G. (1975) W.B.Yeats. In G.Martin and P.N. Furbank (Ed.), Twentieth Century Poetry: Critical Essays and
Documents. Milton Keynes: The Open University P.
Said, E. (1990). Yeats and Decolonization. In T. Eagleton et al. (Ed.), Nationalism Colonialism and Literature.
Minneapolis: Minnesota UP.
Unterecker, J. (1988). A Reader’s Guide to W.B.Yeats. Yugoslavia:Thames and Hudson.
Webster, B. S. (1973). Yeats: A Psychoanalytic Study. California: Standford UP.
Book Review: Al-Seghayer, Khalid 2011, English Teaching in Saudi

Arabia: Status, Issues, and Challenges, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Hala
Print CO. 175 pages, ISBN 978-6030079254
Ghsoon Reda (PhD)
Department of Applied Linguistics, Yanbu University College
PO box 31387, Yanbu Industrial City 510000, KSA
E-mail: ghsoon@hotmail.com

Abstract
In this book, Khalid Al-Seghayer offers a thorough study of the history and status of English language teaching in Saudi
Arabia, highlighting deficiencies and suggesting remedies in an attempt to cure the current standards of English
education, particularly in public schools which, in his own words, “have deteriorated perhaps beyond hope of recovery”
(p. 95).
1. Introduction
In this book, Khalid Al-Seghayer offers a thorough study of the history and status of English language teaching in Saudi
Arabia, highlighting deficiencies and suggesting remedies in an attempt to cure the current standards of English
education, particularly in public schools which, in his own words, “have deteriorated perhaps beyond hope of recovery”
(p. 95).
2. Overview
In the introduction to the four-part book, Al-Seghayer begins with an outline of the reasons behind the introduction of
English into Saudi Arabia, showing that it was a key factor in facilitating the communication of the kingdom’s visions
and needs to the outside world after its establishment in the early 1930s. He then proceeds to a description of the current
contexts of the language using Kachru’s (1992) classical model of the three concentric circles of world Englishes.
Although he considers Saudi Arabia to be among the Expanding Circle countries (where English is a foreign language),
he does not exclude the possibility of considering it as a member of the Outer Circle (where it is a second language) as
in certain institutions, such as those related to science, medicine and engineering, English is used as the sole medium of
communication among members. He, however, points out that Saudi Arabia falls into the low proficiency (rather than
the inner/high Proficiency) circle country (in Kachru’s (2004) terminology).
In part I, called ‘History of EFL in Saudi Arabia and its status and functions’, the author concerns himself with what can
be referred to as the spread of English in Saudi Arabia, starting with its early introduction into the educational system
and ending with its present-time status. He brings into focus the vehicles for the presence of English in the kingdom as
well as students’ positive attitudes towards learning the language (being a means for personal and national growth) in
order to evidence the important role the language has come to assume in the country. In the remaining parts of the book,
however, he offers a detailed description of the development of English education, noting that its current standards still
do not match the status and functions of the language in Saudi Arabia. He calls for immediate reform.
In part II, called ‘The reality and needs of EFL teacher preparation programs in Saudi Arabia’, the author reviews the
past and present teacher-preparation programs offered by the English departments at various Saudi teacher-education
colleges and colleges of arts. He bases his review on studies noting that although current programs rightly place more
emphasis on linguistics and language skills than on literature, they are still inadequate due to the lack of a systematic
approach emphasising communicative competence and linking teacher trainees to schools (see p. 22). Al-Seghayer
stresses the need for prolonging the duration of language skills courses and for teacher trainees to receive additional
training in teaching methods, material preparation and classroom management from in-service teachers due to the low
proportion of methodology courses which “represent no more than 10% of the total courses offered by English
departments in colleges and universities” (p. 20). This review is followed by a reform proposal which includes long-
term and short-term plans. The long-term plan, on the one hand, involves reconsidering the study plan of the current
local EFL preparation programs and establishing an EFL national training centre that provides accreditation and training
(inside the country and abroad) for pre-service teachers. The short-term plan, on the other hand, includes long-term
professional development programs and one-shot training programs. The professional development programs suggested
are also recommended for in-service teachers since, based on the results of an unpublished study conducted by the
Saudi Ministry of Education (2004), a substantial number of these teachers are “professionally and linguistically
incompetent and do not have a firm grasp of the methods of teaching language elements” (P. 23). In addition, Al-
Seghayer notes, in-service teachers lack the incentive to develop their own professional skills as the only promotion
IJALEL 2 (1):221-222, 2013 222
they get is a senior administrative position. The author suggests that professors of Applied Linguistics and ELT
methods should also receive training to guarantee that “they have the necessary level and type of expertise to deliver
EFL courses instead of merely focusing on disseminating teaching methods and procedural skills to traditionally deliver
the course materials” (p. 26). He also suggests that English graduates should be tested and licensed before they are
allowed to enter into the teaching profession. Such measures, for him, are important to ensure that the graduates receive
satisfactory English education and teacher training.
In part III, called ‘The structure of the EFL curriculum in Saudi Arabia’, Al-seghayer provides an analysis of the
structure and features of the Saudi EFL curriculum throughout its historical developmental stages. He shows that the
development of the Saudi EFL curriculum between 1927 and 2004 represents a shift of attention from improving
learners’ reading ability to improving all their linguistic abilities, or communicative competency, through programs built
on notions and functions. However, the continuous attempts of the Saudi educational authorities to improve the EFL
curriculum and teaching approach, taking into account students’ socio-cultural background, do not seem to have
succeeded in producing proficient students, as several studies indicate (see p. 54). The author attributes the failure of the
current curriculum to achieve its objectives to a number of issues that should be resolved for bringing about reform. The
following are the most vital ones: 1) the lack of grading in the curriculum, 2) the lack of teaching resources, 3) the
insufficient time allocated for delivering the curriculum (4 periods of 45 minutes per week), 4) the incompetency of
teachers with regards to teaching methodology and test writing, 5) the adoption of a top-down model of instruction
rather than a bottom-up model in which teachers play an active role in preparing materials based on students’ needs and
abilities, and 6) the focus of students (who lack intrinsic motivation) and school administrations on achievement rather
than performance. The last point is critical because it leads English teachers to focus on preparing their students to
simply pass exams. In addition, it results in a mismatch between the course objectives and teaching methodology. Saudi
teachers adopt the Grammar Translation Method and the Audio-Lingual Method, which encourage a focus on repetition
and memorisation of word lists and grammatical rules, to teach a curriculum that is intended to develop students’
communicative competency.
In part IV, called ‘Teaching English in Saudi Arabian schools and institutions’, the author offers a more detailed
description of English education in Saudi Arabia, starting from preschool level and ending with graduate level. He sheds
more light on the factors (mentioned in part III) affecting English education, but adds a critique of the final examination
content and evaluation scheme used in schools showing that they do not assess students’ abilities but basically help
them to pass the final examination. He finishes this part by stressing the need for raising the standards of English
education through strict teacher assessment and recruitment procedures.
3. Discussion and conclusion
This study draws a detailed picture of English education in Saudi Arabia which makes it a very good resource for
researchers interested in the situation. In addition, the suggested reforms target all deficiencies. However, two important
issues need to be addressed in this regard. One issue is that the reforms are not phased which can create dilemmas in
their application. For example, the main recommendation for reforming teacher-preparation programs is linking them to
schools where the major problems with English education are shown to reside. If a substantial number of in-service
teachers are incompetent, then any training received from such teachers will do more harm than good to teacher
trainees. In addition, the top-down model of instruction adopted in schools will be an obstacle to teacher trainees’
attempts to put into practice the teaching methodology they learn in college. In fact, teacher trainees often question the
need for learning teaching methodology they will not need to use in the English classroom as they will simply deliver
prescribed materials. No reform can take place if these ailments are not cured before any attempt is made to establish a
systematic link between schools and teacher-preparation programs. There is no suggestion in this study that this should
be the case. Relevant to this is the recommendation for replacing the top-down model of instruction with a bottom-up
model. There is no indication in this study that this should happen after teachers have undergone the necessary training,
considering their pointed out incompetencies.
A second issue related to the suggested reform figures in the failure of the author to draw on the current situation of
education in the West where the textbook is replaced by course objectives and teacher-prepared materials that are
tailored to students’ needs and abilities. There is no recommendation for adopting the Western style of education either
on school or college level. No matter what changes are introduced to the EFL curriculum or the study plans of the
current teacher-preparation programs, the use of a textbook according to a prescribed pacing schedule, which is the case
in Saudi schools and colleges of education, is harmful in the sense that teachers may focus more on covering the
textbook materials according to the prescribed pacing schedule than on ensuring that effective teaching and learning are
taking place. This leads to the point that ensuring quality education requires good teaching, and good teaching needs to
be based on objectives that meet students’ needs, and not on textbooks. No training can guarantee good applications if
teaching a course would continue to mean using a certain textbook(s). Had the author taken these points into account, he
would have produced a better quality work.
References
Kachru, B. (1992). The second diasporas of English. In T. Machan and C. Scott (Eds.), English in its Social Contexts:
Essays in Historical Linguistics (pp. 230-252). New York: Oxford University Press.
Kachru, B. (2004). Asian Englishes: Beyond the Canon. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.

International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

International Journal of

Applied Linguistics &

ISSN 2200-3592 (Print)

Analyzing the Advertising Discourse- A Journey from Sight to Mind

Test Taking Strategies Instruction and Iranian EFL Learners’

Mitra Ghabelju (Corresponding author)

Received: 28-07- 2012 Accepted: 17-08- 2012 Published: 01-01- 2013

5. Discussion and Conclusion

Can Automated Writing Evaluation Programs Help Students Improve

Received: 01-08- 2012 Accepted: 10-09- 2012 Published: 01-01- 2013

Table 1. Words/Scores of First and Final submission

Table 2. Improvements in the Mean Number of Words (N=53)

1 249.60 73.90 268.43 76.36 -3.35 0.001** -0.25

Table 3. Improvements in the Mean Scores (N=53)

1 4.00 0.62 4.30 0.60 -4.36 0.000*** -0.49

Table 4. Student Writing Performance Evaluated by Human Raters

3.2 Relationship between Student Writing Improvement and Student Attitude

Table 5. Student Writing Score Improvements and Student Attitude (N=49)

Table 6. Regression for Writing Score Improvements and Student Attitude

4. Discussion and Conclusions

Teachers’ Perceptions of Using Technology in Teaching EFL

Mohammad Javad Riasati

Received: 14-08- 2012 Accepted: 11-09- 2012 Published: 01-01- 2013

Table 1.1. Teachers’ Perceptions toward Technology Integration

Table 2.1. Teachers’ views of using technology in enhancing EFL learning

Table 8. Technology implementation in EFL classes

Input Processing and Processing Instruction: Definitions and Issues

Sanaz Khalili Zangalani (Corresponding author)

Received: 21-08- 2012 Accepted: 12-09- 2012 Published: 01-01- 2013

Iranian ESP Learners’ Perceptions of Autonomy in Language Learning

Received: 23-07- 2012 Accepted: 12-09- 2012 Published: 01-01- 2013

Table 1. Key to the SILL averages

4. Results and Discussions

4.2 Learners’ engagement in autonomous activities

25. Read grammar books on own 29.3 40.6 21.1 9.0

26. Done non-compulsory assignments 36.1 30.1 21.1 12.8

4.3 Learners’ Use of metacognitive strategies

Investigating the Effects of Word Games on Iranian EFL Learners’

Hadi Hamidi (Corresponding author)

Received: 28-07- 2012 Accepted: 13-09- 2012 Published: 01-01- 2013

4.2 Inter-rater reliability of the post-test

Table 4.3. Post-test of writing (R = .83; P = .000 < .05)

Table 4.4. Descriptive statistics for the writing post-test

4.4 Testing the null hypothesis

An Investigation into the Speech Act of Compliment Response in

Received: 07-08- 2012 Accepted: 13-09- 2012 Published: 01-01- 2013

Table 1. Frequency of Compliment Response Types among Persian Speaking participants

Table 2. Frequency of Compliment Response Types across gender

366 99/38 390 99/6

Table 3. Frequency of Compliment Response Types in terms of topic of compliment

The Interplay of Motivation and Demotivation: The Case of EFL

Received: 30-07- 2012 Accepted: 13-09- 2012 Published: 01-01- 2013

Figure 1. Categorization of subjects according to type of motivation

Table 1. Frequencies of the demotivational factors questionnaire

Table 2. Crosstabulation of motivation types and demotivational factors

Waiting for Godot is an Irish Endgame: A Postcolonial Reading of

Bamshad Hekmatshoar Tabari (MA Student)

Received: 25-07- 2012 Accepted: 14-09- 2012 Published: 01-01- 2013

Exploring the State of Unbalance within the Topical and Heterotopical

Assistant Professor, Sarah Catherine Household Ilkhani

Received: 02-08- 2012 Accepted: 15-09- 2012 Published: 01-01- 2013

Figure 1. Structural Status of the Discourse

Figure 2. Elementary Narrative Organization