Accepted Manuscript

Adaptive thermal comfort in university classrooms in Malaysia and Japan

Sheikh Ahmad Zaki, Siti Aisyah Damiati, Hom Bahadur Rijal, Aya Hagishima, Azli Abd
Razak

PII: S0360-1323(17)30250-0
DOI: 10.1016/j.buildenv.2017.06.016
Reference: BAE 4944

To appear in: Building and Environment

Received Date: 19 February 2017

Revised Date: 7 June 2017
Accepted Date: 7 June 2017

Please cite this article as: Ahmad Zaki S, Damiati SA, Rijal HB, Hagishima A, Abd Razak A, Adaptive
thermal comfort in university classrooms in Malaysia and Japan, Building and Environment (2017), doi:
10.1016/j.buildenv.2017.06.016.

This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to
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 1 Adaptive Thermal ComfortMANUSCRIPT
ACCEPTED in University Classrooms
2 in Malaysia and Japan
3 Sheikh Ahmad Zakia*, Siti Aisyah Damiatia, Hom Bahadur Rijalb, Aya Hagishimac, Azli Abd
4 Razakd
a
5 Malaysia-Japan International Institute of Technology, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
b
6 Faculty of Environmental Studies, Tokyo City University, Yokohama, Japan
c
7 Interdisciplinary Graduate School of Engineering Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
d
8 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Malaysia
9

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10 Abstract

11 The range of students’ classroom-based activities is generally restricted; therefore, individuals have limited options for adjusting
12 themselves to the indoor thermal environment. This study investigated the comfort temperature and adaptive behaviour of university

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13 students in Malaysia and Japan. Classrooms in three universities (Universiti Teknologi Malaysia; Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia;
14 Kyushu University, Japan) were set to one of two conditions during the summer season: mechanical cooling (CL) mode, where AC was
15 switched on for cooling purposes, and free-running (FR) mode, where AC was switched off. A total of 1415 students were surveyed. In
16 Japan, 93.5% of the sample was male, while more even gender distributions were found in Malaysian samples. Additionally, clo values

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17 were generally higher amongst male respondents. In Japan, the mean comfort operative temperatures in FR mode was found to be 25.1°C,
18 while in Malaysia it was 25.6°C. In CL mode, mean comfort operative temperatures were found to be 26.2°C and 25.6°C for Japan and
19 Malaysia, respectively. Comfort temperatures in FR mode were compatible with Comité Européen de Normalisation (CEN) and American
20 Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) standards, while those in CL mode were mostly within
21

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Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE) guidelines. While high proportions of students in both countries claimed that
22 they did nothing to maintain their thermal comfort, the most common activity observed amongst Malaysian students was changing the AC
23 temperature setting, due to the prevalence of CL in Malaysia.
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24
25 Keywords: thermal comfort; classrooms; air conditioning; free-running; adaptive behaviour
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26 1. Introduction

27 Developing nations will likely consume more energy than advanced nations by the year 2020, with buildings in tropical
28 countries representing major energy users [1]. Studies have shown that in Malaysia, air conditioners (AC) account for 57%
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29 of total energy use in office buildings [2]; therefore, regulating their use has significant potential for energy saving. In
30 contrast, Japan has one of the lowest electricity demand growth rates in Asia, despite having the second highest global
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31 demand for electricity [3]. After the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi disaster and the shutdown of all 10 GW nuclear power
32 generators in Japan, the country has become highly dependent on fuel imports, and particularly liquefied natural gas (LNG),
33 for meeting its energy needs [3]. In response to this reduced energy generation capacity, in May 2011 the Japanese
34 government mandated a 15% peak power reduction for large consumers (i.e. users requiring more than 500 kW of power)
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35 and asked small commercial and residential consumers to follow suit [4].
36 Providing a comfortable and healthy microclimate is especially essential for educational buildings, in which high
37 environmental quality can considerably improve occupants’ learning performance [5–7]. For the sake of practicality, thermal
38 comfort is usually controlled using simple design techniques, with ventilation, day lighting, and solar control today replaced
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39 by modern AC systems; however, the use of AC in educational buildings has complex and far reaching design implications
40 involving energy costs, policy decisions, and occupants’ well-being. As a result, more complete information about the
41 standards that guide the design of AC systems and associated comfort in educational buildings is needed.
AC

42 Previous studies have been performed in educational institutions at various levels, such as kindergarten [8–10], primary
43 school [11-12], high school [13-14], and university [15-16]. However, each of these previous studies was unique, both in
44 their research method and sample characteristics. For example, in some of the studies, ventilation modes were not defined.
45 Meanwhile, most of the adaptive thermal comfort studies were focused on naturally ventilated buildings, but in reality, not
46 many university buildings rely on natural ventilation only. Thermal comfort analysis can be used to identify the thermal
47 perceptions of building occupants and to identify possible energy savings. Using this approach in developing countries, it is
48 necessary to understand occupants’ adaptive behaviour and thermal preferences vis-à-vis those in developed countries,

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +60322031483; fax: +60322031266.
E-mail address: sheikh.kl@utm.my
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 2

1 which exhibit more environmentally friendly energy consumption under similar climatic conditions. Malaysia shares
2 climatic conditions with parts of Japan [17]; however, residents exhibit different adaptive behaviours to maintain thermal
3 comfort [18]. In this study, we investigated this behaviour and considered whether or not lower energy consumption is
4 related to factors affecting thermal comfort. In particular, we focused on the classroom environment, where students at all
5 levels of education spend most of their time [19]. The main objectives of this study were: (1) to investigate students’ comfort
6 temperature ranges in university classrooms in Malaysia and Japan during the summer season; (2) to compare comfort
7 temperatures with related standards; and (3) to observe students’ adaptive behaviour in maintaining their thermal comfort.

8 2. Methodology

9 2.1 Climatic conditions

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10 In Malaysia, study locations were chosen in Shah Alam and Kuala Lumpur, both within the Klang Valley, located on the
11 south-west of the Malaysian peninsula. In Japan, study locations were selected in Fukuoka, the capital of Fukuoka
12 Prefecture, which is located on the northern coast of Kyushu Island. The Klang Valley experiences a tropical rainforest

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13 climate (i.e. it is hot and humid throughout the year) based on the Kӧppen world climate classification of Kottek et al. [20].
14 Fukuoka’s climate is categorized as humid subtropical, with mild winters and hot humid summers. Surveys were conducted
15 during the 2014 boreal summer season, when climatic conditions were most similar in both locations. The mean annual

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16 temperature and humidity in Malaysia are 27.0 °C and 80%, respectively. During the Fukuoka summer season, mean
17 temperature and humidity are 26.9 °C and 70%, respectively.

18 2.2 Study buildings

19

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Three universities participated in this study: Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Shah Alam campus and Universiti
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20 Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) Kuala Lumpur campus in Malaysia, and Kyushu University (KU) Chikushi campus in Japan
21 (Table 1; Fig. 1). The UiTM and KU campuses are located in suburban areas, while UTM is in an urban area.
22 Classrooms used in this study were occupied by lecturers and students and were picked randomly after securing the
23 permission of the Dean of each university faculty. In total, six classrooms in the building of the Malaysia Japan
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24 International Institute of Technology (MJIIT) of UTM, and 14 classrooms in the building of the Faculty of Mechanical
25 Engineering at UiTM were used. In Japan, four classrooms were selected in the Interdisciplinary Graduate School of
26 Engineering Science (IGSES) buildings of KU. For reference purposes, the orientation of windows in each classroom that
27 was investigated was also recorded.
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28
29 Table 1 Summary of classrooms and sample size
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University, Measurement Building Classroom Orientation

Country Location Mode n Total
Campus period block code
Malaysia UTM, 3°08’N, 13/4/2013– MJIIT CL CR1 W 63 677
Kuala 101°42’E 5/5/2013 Isolated
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CR2 207
Lumpur (20 days) room
CR3 W 85
CR4 S 68
CR5 W 83
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CR6 W 171
UiTM, 3°04'N, 5/3/2013– Faculty FR CR2, CR3, W 106 302
Shah Alam 101°30'E 21/5/2013 Mechanical CR4, W
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(29 days) Engineering CR5, CR6 W

CL CR1, CR7, W 196
CR8, CR9 W
Japan KU, 6°53'S, 24/2/2013– A FR CA1, CA2 E 86 449
Chikushi 107°36'E 12/3/2013 CL CA1, CA2, E 260
(13 days) CA3 E
B FR CA4 N 66
CL CA4 N 37
Total 1428
UTM: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia; UiTM: Universiti Teknologi MARA; KU: Kyushu University
CL: Cooling; FR: free-running; n: number of samples
E: East; N: North; W: West
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(a) (b) (c)

1 Fig. 1 Facade of investigated buildings in: (a) Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), (b) Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), and (c) Kyushu University
2 (KU).

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3
4 The MJIIT building in UTM is a ten-level building with two wings to the west and east (Fig. 1a). The total area of the
5 building is 24,200 m2. All of the classrooms used were located in the west wing, spread over levels two, four, seven, and
6 eight. The area of each classroom was approximately 57 m2 with a seating capacity for 40 students (Fig. 2a).

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7 The Engineering Tower building in UiTM (Fig. 1b) consisted of 16 levels with a total area of 31,439 m². Levels two,
8 eight, and nine were chosen for use in this study. Classroom area ranged between 38 and 47 m² and rooms were occupied by
9 up to 30 students (Fig. 2b). All classrooms had a similar design, including tinted windows, fans, and an air conditioning
10 system for cooling purposes; however, some classrooms had north-west facing windows while others had south-east facing

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11 windows.
12 In Kyushu University, classrooms were located in two buildings of the Interdisciplinary Graduate School of Engineering
13 Science (IGSES), and were distributed on levels one and three (Fig. 1c). Each classroom had an approximate area of 55 m2
14 and a seating capacity of up to 40 students (Fig. 2c). The two buildings contained a split type air conditioning system.

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15 Despite the availability of air conditioning, these classrooms were operated on a changeover mixed-mode basis, and for the
16 purpose of this study, they were classified as FR when air conditioning was not in use and CL otherwise. Ergo, both CL and
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17 FR results in Japan come from the same set of respondents. Some classrooms faced towards the east and were exposed to
18 morning sunlight, while others faced west and were exposed to afternoon sunlight.
19
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(a) (b) (c)

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20 Fig. 2 Classroom conditions during learning activities in: (a) Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), (b) Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), and
21 (c) Kyushu University (KU).

22 2.3 Data collection

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23 Data were obtained through indoor field measurements and questionnaire survey, which were performed simultaneously.
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24 For each classroom, data collection was carried out at times where students were participating in a learning activity (both
25 morning and afternoon). All materials, including the questionnaire, were placed in the classroom twenty minutes before the
26 lecture started. Before data collection, students were briefed about their participation in the survey.

27 2.3.1 Thermal environment assessment

28 Field measurements included five objective parameters: outdoor temperature (To), indoor air temperature (Ta), indoor
29 globe temperature (Tg), indoor air velocity (Va), and indoor relative humidity (RH). For outdoor environmental parameters,
30 data were obtained from the MJIIT weather station and the Japan Meteorology Agency [21]. For indoor climatic parameters
31 (Table 2), calculation of mean radiant temperature followed the procedures laid out in the American Society of Heating,
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1 Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Handbook [22], while indoor operative temperature was
2 calculated as the mean of mean radiant temperature (Tmrt) and Ta [23].
3
4 Table 2 Specification of measurement instruments

Manufacturer,
Instrument Parameter Sensor type Resolution Accuracy and tolerance
Country
Thermo recorder Air temperature T&D, USA External sensor 0.1°C ± 0.5°C
TR-77Ui Relative humidity 1% RH ± 5% RH [at 25°C, 50%]
Thermo recorder Globe temperature T&D, USA External sensor 0.1°C ± 0.3°C [−20°C to 80°C]
TR-52i
Hot-wire Air movement Kanomax, Japan Needle probe 0.01 m/s ± (2% of reading ± 0.0125)

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anemometer 6542-2G m/s [0.10–30.0 m/s]
VelociCalc 9565 Air movement TSI, USA Straight probe 960 0.01 m/s ± 3% of reading

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6 To investigate indoor conditions, instruments were placed at four to five points around each classroom (Fig. 3). Each pair
7 of thermo recorders (TR-77Ui and TR-52i) was attached to a stand that positioned them 1.1 m above the ground (Fig. 4).
8 The remaining instruments were placed in the corners of the room and measured Ta and Tg. For each set of measurements,

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9 instruments were left for 90 min with data collected at 10 s intervals.
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11

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(a) (b)
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(c)
12 Fig. 3 Instrument layout in the classrooms of: (a) Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), (b) Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), and (c) Kyushu
13 University (KU). Cross-filled circles denote 52i thermo recorders, triangle-filled circles denote VelociCal 9565 air movement recorders, and star-filled
14 circles denote 77Ui thermo recorders. The positions of air conditioners (AC; dark grey shading), fans (light grey shading), desks (blue cross-hatched areas),
15 windows, doors, students, and lecturers are labelled.
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1
2 Fig. 4 Thermo recorders and sensors attached to a stand and held 1.1 m above the floor.

3 2.3.2 Thermal comfort survey

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4 Questionnaires were prepared in English and accompanied by local language translations. They were compiled based on
5 the works of Damiati et al. [18], Indraganti et al. [24], and Mustapa et al. [16]. Thermal sensation was evaluated using the

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6 ASHRAE 7-point sensation scale, 5-point scale of thermal preference, thermal acceptability, and 6-point scale of overall
7 comfort (Table 3). Collected meta-data included gender, age, height and weight, adaptive behaviour, and clothes worn by
8 the student. Questionnaires were distributed before the class started and students were asked to answer questions at the end
9 of the class. Because all respondents were performing the same activity, listening to lectures, the metabolic rate is assumed
10 to be equal to 1.2 met, based on ASHRAE Standard 55 [25].

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11 In total, 1428 questionnaires were completed; however, 13 were removed owing to measurement error because the
12 sensors were not attached properly to the instruments (i.e. 1415 responses were used for analysis). Respondents were all
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13 university students aged between 20 and 23 years old (Table 4). Other physical parameters were similar across all locations
14 (i.e. weight, height, BMI), with female respondents generally having smaller bodies than male respondents. The ratio of
15 female to male respondents was approximately even in Malaysia, while there were more male respondents in Japan (93.5%).
16 The mean clothing insulation of students in Japan, both female and male, is lower than that in Malaysia. In terms of gender
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17 differences, female students in KU and UiTM have slightly lower clothing insulation compared to male students, and vice
18 versa in UTM.
19 Table 3 Thermal comfort scales
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Thermal sensation Thermal preference Thermal acceptability Overall comfort

No. Scale No. Scale No. Scale No. Scale
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−3 Cold −2 Much warmer 1 Acceptable 1 Very comfortable

−2 Cool −1 Slightly warmer 0 Not acceptable 2 Comfortable
−1 Slightly cool 0 No change 3 Slightly comfortable
0 Neutral 1 Slightly cooler 4 Slightly uncomfortable
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1 Slightly warm 2 Much cooler 5 Uncomfortable

2 Warm 6 Very uncomfortable
3 Hot
20 Thermal sensation 7-point scale of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)
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21 Table 4 Mean demographics and clothing insulation of questionnaire respondents

Clothing
AC

Age Weight Height BMI

University Gender insulation
(year) (kg) (m) (kg/m2)
(clo)
UTM Female (n = 111) 20 (1) 49.8 (8.9) 1.57 (0.06) 19.8 (4.2) 0.56 (0.16)
Male (n = 148) 20 (1) 64.7 (16.3) 1.70 (0.08) 22.4 (4.8) 0.51 (0.18)
UiTM Female (n = 135) 21 (1) 54.5 (10.9) 1.59 (0.06) 21.6 (4.2) 0.59 (0.17)
Male (n = 167) 21 (1) 67.4 (17.6) 1.69 (0.07) 23.5 (5.5) 0.62 (0.20)
KU Female (n = 29) 23 (1) 47.4 (4.6) 1.58 (0.05) 19.0 (1.2) 0.46 (0.12)
Male (n = 420) 23 (1) 65.5 (10.6) 1.72 (0.06) 22.0 (3.3) 0.45 (0.12)
22 Values in brackets denote one standard deviation around the mean
23 UTM: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia; UiTM: Universiti Teknologi MARA; KU: Kyushu University
24 n: number of survey participants
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1 3. Results and discussion

2 3.1 Outdoor and indoor thermal environment during the voting

3 The results showed that the mean outdoor temperature at the time of measurement was much lower in Japan than in
4 Malaysia; however, the mean indoor air temperatures were similar, regardless of ventilation mode (Table 5). The results
5 suggest that indoor relative humidity (RH) is impacted by ventilation mode. Locations under FR mode had higher RH than
6 those under CL mode. The lowest indoor relative humidity was found at UTM (Malaysia), which was operating under CL
7 mode, while the highest value was observed at KU (Japan), which was operating under FR mode. In contrast, indoor air
8 velocity was not impacted by ventilation. In both FR and CL mode, classrooms in Japan had the lowest air velocity (< 0.10
9 m/s).

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10
11 Table 5 Mean values of climatic parameters

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University Mode To (°C) Ta (°C) Tg (°C) Tmrt (°C) Top (°C) RH (%) Va (m/s)
UTM CL (n = 677) 30.8 (2.4) 24.2 (0.8) 24.2 (0.9) 24.2 (1.1) 24.2 (0.9) 49.5 (6.8) 0.13 (0.11)
UiTM FR (n = 106) 29.9 (3.1) 24.9 (0.3) 25.0 (0.5) 25.1 (0.9) 25.0 (0.5) 66.1 (3.0) 0.19 (0.05)
CL (n = 196) 33.4 (2.9) 24.0 (1.0) 24.1 (1.0) 24.3 (0.8) 24.1 (0.9) 59.7 (6.5) 0.28 (0.09)

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KU FR (n = 152) 25.3 (1.6) 25.2 (0.7) 25.3 (0.7) 25.4 (0.7) 25.3 (0.7) 69.8 (5.0) 0.03 (0.02)
CL (n = 284) 25.5 (2.5) 25.1 (0.8) 25.1 (0.8) 25.1 (0.8) 25.1 (0.8) 63.4 (6.7) 0.03 (0.02)
12 Values in brackets denote one standard deviation around the mean; To: outdoor air temperature Ta: indoor air temperature; Tg: globe
13 temperature; Tmrt: mean radiant temperature; Top: operative temperature; RH: indoor relative humidity; Va: air movement
14 UTM: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia; UiTM: Universiti Teknologi MARA; KU: Kyushu University

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15 n: number of survey participants; CL: cooling; FR: free-running
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17 Mean values of the four thermal indices (Ta, Tg, Tmrt, and Top) were similar for each location (i.e. < 1°C difference) and all
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18 had significant linear regressions (p < 0.001) and strong correlations (Table 6). These result confirm that any one of these
19 indices is suitable for analysis, and we chose to focus on operative temperature since it is used to determine comfort ranges
20 in international standards (i.e. ASHRAE [25] and CEN [26]).
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22 Table 6 Regression equations and correlation coefficients of thermal indices

Mode Ta:Tg Ta:Tmrt Ta:Top

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FR (n=258) Tg = 0.97 Ta+ 0.96 (0.87) Tmrt = 0.97 Ta +1.06 (0.65) Top = 0.98 Ta +0.55 (0.88)
CL (n=1157) Tg = 0.99 Ta + 0.22 (0.98) Tmrt = 0.99 Ta +0.27 (0.91) Top = 0.99 Ta + 0.26 (0.98)
23 Values in brackets denote correlation coefficients (r); Ta: indoor air temperature; Tg: globe temperature; Tmrt: mean radiant
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24 temperature; Top: operative temperature

25 n: number of survey participants

26 3.2 Subjective evaluations

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27 Questionnaire responses showed that the mean thermal sensation vote (TSV) was within −1 ≤ TSV ≤ 1 at all locations,
28 with the highest value and the value closest to 0 both observed in KU under FR mode (Table 7). The mean values at all
29 other locations were < 0, indicating that most occupants felt cold inside the buildings. For the 7-point TSV scale, regardless
30 of mode (FR or CL) or location, the highest proportion of respondents were ‘neutral, except under CL mode in Japan (FU),
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31 where the highest proportion (39.4%) voted for ‘slightly cool’ (Fig. 5). Most respondents preferred ‘no change’ to the
32 indoor temperature, consistent with mean thermal preferences (TP) that were mostly close to 0 (−0.1 ≤ TP ≤ 0.1), with the
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33 exception of Japan under FR mode, where most occupants tended to prefer warmer conditions. The mean overall comfort
34 (OC) ranged between 2.5 and 3.0, indicating ‘slightly comfortable’ and ‘comfortable’, respectively. The predicted values,
35 predicted mean vote (PMV) and predicted percentage of dissatisfied (PPD) results are slightly different from the
36 questionnaire results. While the mean TSV in all locations, except FR mode in Japan, was less than zero, only students in
37 CL mode classrooms in Malaysia were predicted to have negative mean PMV: -0.4 and -0.3 in UTM and UiTM,
38 respectively. This indicates that the neutral sensations for occupants in these locations are biased towards the ‘slightly cool’
39 side. The deviation from neutral thermal sensation is evidenced by high PPD values compared to other locations: 14.8% and
40 16.1% in UTM and UiTM, respectively. The PMV and PPD in FR mode in Malaysia, as well as both ventilation modes in
41 Japan, are closer to the neutral thermal sensation.
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1 Table 7 Mean values of subjective parameters

University Mode TSV TP PMV PPD (%) OC

14.8
UTM CL (n = 677) −0.7 (1.3) 0.0 (0.9) -0.4 (0.6) 3.0 (1.1)
(13.6)
UiTM FR (n = 106) −0.9 (0.9) −0.1 (0.8) 0.1 (0.4) 8.7 (4.3) 2.5 (0.9)
16.1
CL (n = 196) −0.9 (1.0) 0.1 (0.9) -0.3 (0.7) 2.7 (0.8)
(15.8)
KU FR (n = 152) 0.1 (1.3) 0.3 (0.7) 0.2 (0.3) 8.0 (3.9) 2.9 (1.1)
CL (n = 284) −0.6 (1.1) −0.1 (0.7) 0.1 (0.3) 7.6 (4.6) 2.8 (1.0)
2 Values in brackets denote one standard deviation around the mean; TSV:
3 mean thermal sensation vote; TP: mean thermal preferences; OC: mean
4 overall comfort, PMV: predicted mean vote

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5 UTM: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia; UiTM: Universiti Teknologi MARA;
6 KU: Kyushu University
7 n: number of survey participants; CL: cooling; FR: free-running
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11 (a) (b)
12 Fig. 5 Proportion of respondents selecting each value of thermal sensation vote (TSV) under free-running (FR; grey colour) and cooling (CL; white colour)
13 conditions in: a) Malaysia and b) Japan.
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14 3.3 Thermal comfort zone

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15 For indoor temperature change, Probit analysis was performed to predict the proportion of votes for each category of the
16 7-point scale [27–29]. Furthermore, this approach was used to calculate the temperature with highest proportion of votes
17 within TSV ±1, which was assumed to be the optimum condition for comfort. Based on TSV, analysis was conducted using
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18 indoor operative temperature (Top) as the covariate. The results for CL mode data from both countries were significant to the
19 p < 0.001 level; however, in FR mode the equations were not statistically significant (Table 8). Mean temperatures for each
20 equation were estimated by dividing the constant for each TSV category with the Probit regression coefficient [29].
21 Meanwhile, the standard deviation of cumulative normal distribution was the inverse of the Probit regression coefficient.
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22 All equations were plotted into sigmoid curves using the function [18], [29], [30]:
23
Probability = CDF.NORMAL (quant, mean, S.D.) (1)
24
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25 where CDF.NORMAL is the cumulative distribution function for normal distribution and ‘quant’ is the operative
26 temperature (°C).
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27 The results indicated that the proportion of people feeling cold fell as temperature increased, while the proportion of
28 those feeling warm increased (Fig. 6a and b). By extracting the three central points of the 7-point ASHRAE scale, the
29 proportion of people feeling comfortable was projected (Fig. 6c) and the function for the curve was calculated by
30 subtracting the Probit equations for TSV ±1 (i.e. the comfortable categories of the 7-point scale). In both countries, the
31 indoor operative temperature with the highest percentage of people feeling comfortable was ~26.0°C; although, the
32 proportion was slightly higher in Japan (86%) compared with Malaysia (80%). In both countries, approximately 70% of
33 respondents were comfortable when the temperature was between 24 and 28°C.
34
35 Table 8 Probit equations for thermal sensation vote

Country Mode Equation Median (°C) S.D. N R2 S.E.

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Malaysia CL P(≤ −3) = 0.304 Top - 5.85 19.3 3.293 872 0.07 0.039
P(≤ −2) = 0.304 Top - 6.63 21.8
P(≤ −1) = 0.304 Top - 7.50 24.7
P(≤ −0) = 0.304 Top - 8.62 28.4
P(≤ −1) = 0.304 Top - 9.16 30.2
P(≤ −2) = 0.304 Top - 9.55 31.4
Japan CL P(≤ −3) = 0.444 Top - 9.34 21.0 2.251 284 0.09 0.085

P(≤ −2) = 0.444 Top - 10.02 22.6

P(≤ −1) = 0.444 Top - 11.24 25.3

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P(≤ 0) = 0.444 Top - 12.43 28.0
P(≤ 1) = 0.444 Top - 12.97 29.2
P(≤ 2) = 0.444 Top - 13.35 30.0
S.D.: standard deviation; N: number of survey participants; R2: coefficient of determination; S.E.: standard error

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CL: cooling
Top: operative temperature (°C); P(≤ −3) is the Probit of the proportion of the votes that are −3 and less; P(≤ −2) is the Probit of the proportion
that are −2 and less, and so forth
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Cold (-3) Cold (-3)

Cool

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(-2) Cool
Slightly
(-2)
Cool Slightly Neutral
Cool (0) Warm
(-1)
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(-1) (2)
Neutral Slightly
(0) Warm
(1) Slightly
Warm
Warm (1)
(2)
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Hot (3)
Hot (3)
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Indoor operative temperature, Top (°C) Indoor operative temperature, Top (°C)

(a) (b)
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(c)
2 Fig. 6 Proportion of votes in each category of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) 7-point scale
3 under cooling (CL) mode in (a) Malaysia and (b) Japan as a function of indoor operative temperature (Top). (c) Proportion of respondents considered
4 ‘comfortable’ in Japan (circles) and Malaysia (crosses) as a function of Top.
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1 3.4 Comfort temperature

2 3.4.1 Regression analysis

3 Since the 1930s, regression analysis has been used to investigate thermal comfort datasets [31]. Comfort temperature is
4 traditionally obtained by regressing the subjective TSV and indoor temperature. In this study, linear regression was
5 conducted using indoor operative temperature as the independent variable and the 7-point TSV ASHRAE scale as the
6 dependent variable (Fig. 7). Predicted mean vote (PMV) was calculated for each set of data based on six parameters: Ta, Tmrt,
7 Va, RH, metabolic rate, and clothing insulation, using the PMV calculator plugin for excel by Tanabe and Sato [32].
8 Under CL mode, regression equations for both countries were found to be significant at the p < 0.001 level, despite low
9 R2 values; however, regression equations were not statistically significant under FR mode, for which too few samples were

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10 available (Table 9). The slope of the regression line was 0.332 units/°C in Malaysia and 0.424 units/°C in Japan, with the
11 change in temperature per point of TSV found to be 3.0°C and 2.3°C, respectively. The neutral temperatures acquired were
12 26.5°C and 26.3°C for Malaysia and Japan, respectively.
13

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14 Table 9 Regression equations under cooling (CL) mode

Country Mode Equation N R2 S.E. p

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Malaysia CL TSV = 0.332Top − 8.8 872 0.06 0.044 < 0.001
Japan CL TSV = 0.426Top − 11.2 284 0.09 0.083 < 0.001
N: number of survey participants; R2: coefficient of determination; S.D.: standard deviation; S.E.: standard error, p: significance level
TSV: thermal sensation vote; Top: indoor operative temperature

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15
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Thermal sensation vote, TSV
Thermal sensation vote, TSV

TSV TSV
R2 = 0.062 R2 = 0.088
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PMV PMV
R2 = 0.471 R2 = 0.477
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Indoor operative temperature, Top (°C) Indoor operative temperature, Top (°C)

(a) (b)
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16 Fig. 7 Linear regression (solid black line) through thermal sensation vote (TSV) vs. indoor operative temperature (Top) under cooling (CL) mode in (a)
17 Malaysia and (b) Japan. Dashed black line denotes the predicted mean vote (PMV).

18 3.4.2 Griffiths’ method

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19 As regression analysis was only possible for data collected under CL mode, the Griffiths’ method [33] was also used to
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20 estimate the comfort temperatures in all locations. This approach was suitable for use with both CL and FR because it can
21 be used to calculate neutral temperatures from small numbers of samples using a presumed constant as the rate of
22 temperature change per point of sensation scale. Comfort temperatures using the Griffiths’ method were calculated using the
23 expression:

Tc = T + (0 - TSV) / a (2)

24 where Tcomf is the comfort temperature (°C), T, is measured temperature (°C), and indicates Griffiths’ constant.
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1 For , we tested three different constant values (0.25, 0.33, and 0.50), as previously employed by Nicol et al. [34], Rijal
2 et al. [35], and Mustapa et al. [16], respectively. For most locations, the mean comfort temperatures calculated using these
3 values were higher when a smaller constant was used (Table 10), with the exception of data collected under FR mode in
4 Japan. Given the similar climatic conditions in Japan and Malaysia at the time of the study, the range of measured indoor
5 operative temperatures was relatively narrow. Using 0.25 and 0.33 as , comfort temperatures were least consistent with the
6 measured range. On this basis, we concluded that 0.50 was the most appropriate coefficient. This is in line with the study of
7 Nicol and Humphreys [36], who found that the actual value of the constant must be > 0.40.
8 Table 10 Comfort temperatures based on the Griffiths' method
Country Mode n a = 0.25 a = 0.33 a = 0.50
Malaysia FR 106 28.6 (3.7) 27.7 (2.8) 26.8 (1.9)

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CL 872 27.0 (4.7) 26.4 (3.6) 25.6 (2.4)
Japan FR 152 24.9 (5.1) 25.0 (3.9) 25.1 (2.6)
CL 284 27.3 (4.3) 26.8 (3.2) 26.2 (2.1)
Values in brackets denote one standard deviation around the mean; a: Griffiths’ constant

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value employed
FR: free-running, CL: cooling,
n: number of survey participants
9

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10 The results also showed that mean temperatures based on the three conditions were almost identical for each location (Table
11 11). Furthermore, estimated comfort temperatures using a Griffiths’ constant of 0.50 resulted in values closest to neutral
12 temperatures.
13 Table 11 Mean temperatures for selected TSV, TP, and OC

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Country Mode TSV = 0 TP = 0 OC < 3
Malaysia FR n = 39 25.0 (0.4) n = 67 25.0 (0.4) n = 60 25.1 (0.5)
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CL n = 288 24.4 (0.9) n = 454 24.3 (0.9) n = 174 24.1 (0.9)
Japan FR n = 61 25.4 (0.8) n = 83 25.3 (0.7) n = 59 25.3 (0.7)
CL n = 101 25.3 (0.7) n = 166 25.1 (0.7) n = 117 25.1 (0.7)
14 TSV: thermal sensation vote, TP: thermal preference, OC: overall comfort; values in brackets denote one standard deviation around
15 the mean; n: number of survey participants
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16 FR: free-running, CL: cooling

17
18 Using 0.50 as the Griffiths’ constant, the mean comfort operative temperature under FR mode in Japan (25.1°C) was
19 lower than that in Malaysia (26.8°C). In contrast, students under CL mode in Japan had a mean higher comfort temperature
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20 (26.2°C) than those in Malaysia (25.6°C). These results could mean that Japanese students are more sensitive to thermal
21 changes caused by different ventilation modes operated during the summer; however, the differences are very small (1°C)
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22 and may not be significant. This gap could be affected by the insulation of clothing worn by students in Japan, which was
23 considerably lower than that of clothes worn by students in Malaysia (see Table 7). Additionally, it might also be caused by
24 the fact that the Japanese sample was predominantly male, compared to the Malaysian sample, in which the numbers of
25 students of each gender were almost equal. This supports findings from previous studies [37–39], that gender differences
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26 could affect thermal sensation.

27 While students in Malaysia showed predictable results: higher comfort temperature in FR mode compared to CL mode,
28 students in Japan have reversed results. During summer season, Japanese government recommends the temperature setting
29 for cooling at 28 °C [40]. Generally, buildings with FR mode have low temperature condition and people find that
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30 temperature is comfortable. Meanwhile in CL mode, people set high temperature based on the government’s suggestion and
31 people find that temperature is comfortable. These results were concluded in several studies in Japan, based on field survey
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32 during summer season in offices [16], [30], [41] as well as houses [29], [42].
33 The results could also indicate that students in Malaysia are acclimatized to their environment, allowing those under FR
34 mode to be comfortable at higher temperatures and vice versa. Compared with the other three thermal indices (Tci, Tcg, and
35 Tcmrt), mean comfort operative temperature was similar for all locations (Fig. 8). For all of these results, it is important to
36 note that the students in the KU classrooms with different ventilation modes were the same group of people, since the
37 buildings employed changeover mixed-mode ventilation [43]. In contrast, classrooms in Malaysia were designed to use
38 either FR or CL mode, meaning that the respondents for each ventilation mode were different groups of people.
39
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Malaysia Japan
Comfort temperature (°C)

Comfort temperature (°C)

Tci Tcg Tcmrt Tcop Tci Tcg Tcmrt Tcop Tci Tcg Tcmrt Tcop Tci Tcg Tcmrt Tcop

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Thermal indices Thermal indices

(a) (b)
1 Fig. 8 Comfort temperatures for different thermal indices based on a Griffiths' constant value (a) of 0.50 in (a) Malaysia under cooling (CL) and free-
2 running (FR) mode, and in (b) Japan under the CL and FR modes.

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3
4 Previous studies of thermal comfort in classrooms have shown various results. In both tropical climates and in temperate
5 climates during the summer season, most comfort temperatures have been found to be high (Table 12). In the current study,

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6 the comfort temperatures of students under FR mode in Malaysia were found to be slightly higher than those in university
7 classrooms in Taiwan [44] and India [15]. In contrast, studies in primary schools in Hawaii [45] and Singapore [14] have
8 shown even higher results (although the latter study combined the comfort temperatures of students and teachers).
9 Postgraduate students in Fukuoka [16] were also found to have a higher comfort temperature compared with the Japanese

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10 students in this study who were under FR mode.
11
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12 Table 12 Comfort temperatures from different studies

Ref. Year Country Mode Sample size To (°C) Thermal index Tcomf (°C)
[45] 1998 Hawaii, USA FR 1052 24.0–33.0 Top 27.4
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[14] 2003 Singapore FR 506 26.2–30.0 Top 28.8

[44] 2006 Taiwan FR 362 23.1–30.5* Top 26.2
[15] 2014 India FR 121 14.5–33.0 Top 26.5
[16] 2016 Japan FR 81 28.0 Tg 26.7 (1.9)
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Current study Malaysia FR 106 29.9 Top 26.8 (1.9)

Current study Japan FR 152 25.3 Top 25.1 (2.6)
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[45] 1998 Hawaii, USA CL 703 24.0–33.0 Top 26.8

[44] 2006 Taiwan CL 932 23.1–30.5* Top 25.6
[46] 2011 China CL 82 24.5–30.0 Top 26.8
[47] 2015 Indonesia CL 90 25.6–32.9 Ta 24.9
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[18] 2016 Malaysia CL 1114 31.2 Top 25.6 (2.2)

[16] 2016 Japan CL 222 28.0 Tg 26.6 (1.6)
Current study Malaysia CL 872 31.4 Top 25.6 (2.4)
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Current study Japan CL 297 25.4 Top 26.2 (2.1)

13 FR: free-running; CL: cooling
14 To: outdoor air temperature
15
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Top: indoor operative temperature; Ta: indoor air temperature; Tg: indoor globe temperature
16 Tcomf: comfort temperature; values in brackets denote one standard deviation around the mean;
17 *Temperature obtained from http://www.weatherbase.com/
18
19 The comfort temperature of students under CL mode in Malaysia was identical with the results of previous studies of
20 postgraduate students in Malaysia [18], as well as of university classrooms in Taiwan [44]. Other studies in tropical
21 countries showed various results, including lower comfort temperatures in university classrooms in Indonesia [47], and
22 higher ones in primary school classrooms in Hawaii [45]. Similarly, the comfort temperature found in this study for
23 Japanese students under CL mode was similar to the results from postgraduate students in Japan [16]. A study based in
24 China under a temperate climate during summer season resulted in a slightly higher comfort temperature (26.8°C) [46].
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1 3.5 Comparison with standards

2 The comfort temperatures in each location were also compared to adaptive models from existing standards, including
3 Comité Européen de Normalisation (CEN) Standard EN15251 [26] and ASHRAE Standard-55 [25] for FR mode, and the
4 Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE) guide [48] for CL mode (Fig. 9). All of these standards have
5 thermal comfort models based on outdoor temperatures. The CEN Standard EN15251 and the CIBSE guide use running
6 mean outdoor air temperature (Trm), which is the weighted mean of outdoor air temperatures of seven sequential days prior
7 to the day of survey [26]. The ASHRAE Standard-55 uses monthly mean outdoor air temperature (Tom), which is calculated
8 from mean daily outdoor air temperatures (Tod) for all days in each month [25]. The ASHRAE standard (2004) [49] is based
9 on the monthly mean outdoor temperature. The modified ASHRAE standard (2013) [25] indicated the prevailing mean
10 outdoor temperature, which is based on mean daily outdoor air temperatures. However, the regression coefficient and

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11 constant are the same for the original and revised version of the standard [25], [50], [51].
12

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a) FR Mode (CEN Standard) b) FR Mode (ASHRAE Standard)
Tcop_MY Tcop_JP Tcop_MY Tcop_JP
MY guide JP guide MY guide JP guide

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32 32
Ⅰ:±2K III Acceptability level
30 II 90%:±2.5K
Ⅱ:±3K 30
Comfort temperature (°C)

I 80%:±3.5K
Comfort temperature (°C)

Ⅲ:±4K
28 28

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80%
26 26
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24 24 90%

22 22
I
20 II 90% 80%
III Tcomf = 0.33Trm + 18.8 20
Tcomf = 0.31Tom + 17.8
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18 18
10 20 30 40 10 20 30 40
Daily running mean outdoor temperature (°C) Monthly mean outdoor temperature (°C)
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c) CL Mode (CIBSE Guide)

Tcop_MY Tcop_JP
MY guide JP guide
32
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30
Comfort temperature (°C)

28
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26 Upper line
(+2K)
24
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22 Lower line
(-2K)
20 Tcomf = 0.09Trm + 22.6
18
10 20 30 40
Daily running mean outdoor temperature (°C)

13 Fig. 9 Comparison of the results with existing standards: a) Comité Européen de Normalisation (CEN) Standard EN15251, b) American Society of
14 Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Standard-55, and c) the Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE)
15 guide. Filled circles denote data from Malaysia, while open circles denote data from Japan. Black dashed lines denote the upper and lower limits of the
16 corresponding standard. Recommended temperature settings based on local regulations in each country are illustrated using horizontal lines (continuous
17 grey line for Japan and dash-dot grey line for Malaysia).
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1
2 The results from FR mode were consistent with both relevant standards (Fig. 9a and b); however, more points fell within
3 the highest comfort zone category of the ASHRAE standard than in that of the CEN standard. While most of the comfort
4 temperature results from Malaysia and Japan were within category I of the CEN adaptive thermal comfort model, some
5 points fell below the lower limit (Fig. 9a). In contrast, all students’ comfort temperatures under FR mode in Malaysia were
6 compatible with the ASHRAE standard’s 90% acceptability level. Only one point from the FR mode in Japan was situated
7 between the upper limits of acceptability (80% and 90%; Fig. 9b). Most results from under CL mode in both countries were
8 situated within the CIBSE guide comfort zone (Fig. 9c). Since the classrooms in Japan are situated in change-over mixed
9 mode building, the data from both FR and CL modes were also combined and compared with both ASHRAE and CEN
10 standards as shown in Fig. 10 a and b.
11

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a) CEN Standard b) ASHRAE Standard

Japan_FR Japan_CL JP guide Japan_FR Japan_CL JP guide

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32 32
Ⅰ:±2K III Acceptability level
II 90%:±2.5K
30 Ⅱ:±3K 30 80%:±3.5K

Comfort temperature (°C)

I
Comfort temperature (°C)

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Ⅲ:±4K
28 28
80%
26 26
90%
24 24

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22 22
I
80%
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II 90%
20 III Tcomf = 0.33Trm + 18.8 20
Tcomf = 0.31Tom + 17.8
18 18
10 20 30 40 10 20 30 40
Daily running mean outdoor temperature (°C) Monthly mean outdoor temperature (°C)
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(a) (b)
12 Fig. 10 Comparison of results from change-over mixed mode ventilation in Japan, with a) CEN standard, and b) ASHRAE standard
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13 3.6 Adaptive behaviour

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14 Thermal comfort is greatly affected by adaptation. In this study, students were asked to declare any adaptive action they
15 had undertaken to adjust to the indoor thermal condition in the classroom. Under both FR and CL ventilation modes, most
16 students in Japan did nothing to adapt themselves because lectures lasted only 90 min. The most common adaptive activity
17 in Japan was drinking water or juice (15%), perhaps reflecting the easiest way for students to respond to the existing thermal
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18 environment without interrupting learning activities (Fig. 11). While there could be other reasons for students to be
19 consuming beverages, the questionnaire specifically asked them to choose any activities they did in order to overcome
20 thermal discomfort. In Malaysia, the most common action was changing the temperature setting of the AC (27%), which
21 was more popular than ‘did nothing’. This is in line with the results of previous studies in Malaysia, Indonesia, and Japan,
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22 which found that office building occupants in Malaysia tended to use AC systems more than those in the other two countries
23 [18]. Another study in Chongqing [52] found that respondents under FR mode in classrooms tended toward other
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24 behavioural adaptations (e.g. adjusting clothes, operating ceiling fans, and consuming beverages). These results are also in
25 agreement with a similar study conducted in Fukuoka [16], where most students under CL mode declared that they ‘did
26 nothing’ to adapt, while students under FR mode tended to overcome thermal discomfort by drinking water, switching on
27 fans, and/or opening windows and doors. Therefore, these results show that in less energy intensive environments, such as
28 FR mode in Japan, more adaptive actions are taken by occupants to remain thermally comfortable. Conversely, by
29 encouraging active participation by occupants in maintaining their thermal comfort, it is possible to encourage energy
30 savings from reduced HVAC use.
31
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Activities

1
2 (a) (b)

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3 Fig. 11 Adaptive actions taken by survey participants to alter their thermal environment in: a) Malaysia and b) Japan.
4

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5 4. Conclusions

6 In this study, thermal comfort in university classrooms in Malaysia and Japan was investigated. Based on the results, a
7 number of conclusions were drawn. While 70% of respondents voted within the three central TSV points, within the

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8 comfortable range, those who admitted to feeling thermally uncomfortable were usually cold, except in FR mode in Japan.
9 This points to some degree of overcooling in university classrooms in the locations investigated, which is endemic to other
10 mechanically cooled locations investigated in Malaysia and Japan, both in classrooms and workplaces.
11 Using the data from this study, it was calculated that mean comfort temperatures under FR and CL mode were 26.8°C

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12 and 25.6°C in Malaysia, and 25.1°C and 26.2°C in Japan, respectively. These results are consistent with those from previous
13 studies in Malaysia and Japan and show that comfort temperatures could be affected by geographical factors. However,
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14 other factors such as gender characteristics and clothing insulation might be affecting this result, due to the dominance of
15 male respondents in the sample in Japan and higher insulation of clothing worn by respondents in Malaysia. Additionally,
16 results from FR mode in Malaysia and Japan were compatible with both CEN and ASHRAE standards. This shows that it is
17 possible to apply these standards in hot-humid climates, despite having been developed for temperate climates.
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18 Most comfort temperature results from CL mode in Malaysia and Japan were within the CIBSE comfort zone guidelines,
19 but a number of points from both countries fell above the upper limit. This might point to overcooling when using existing
20 guidelines, which could contribute to excessive energy consumption. Additionally, the current guideline for HVAC
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21 buildings might also underestimate occupants’ thermal preference in hot-humid climates, where a greater degree of heat
22 tolerance could be found in the general population.
23 Most respondents in this study did not perform any thermal adaptations over the observation period. However, the
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24 majority of positive responses were from CL mode in Malaysia, where the highest proportion of students reported adjusting
25 AC systems to alter their thermal environment. This is mainly due to both the widespread availability of AC, the ease and
26 effectiveness of this adaptation method, and the fact that the students themselves are not responsible for the bills incurred
27 for AC use.
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28 Acknowledgements
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29 We would like to thank all participants in the survey, as well as the management and staff of the Universiti Teknologi
30 Malaysia, Universiti Teknologi MARA, and Kyushu University. Our sincere appreciation is extended to Nur Atikah Shaari
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31 for her huge contribution to data collection and Norakmal Affif Norizan for his help during data processing.

32 Funding: This research was supported by a Grant-in-Aid from the AUN/SEED Net Collaborative Research Program (grant
33 number 4B155) of the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), a matching grant (grant number 00M44), and a
34 research university grant (grant number 11H67) from the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.

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• Students’ thermal comfort was investigated during learning activities in university
classrooms in FR and CL mode
• There were high proportions of ‘neutral’, ‘slightly cool’ and ‘cool’, in all locations except in
FR mode in Japan
• Comfort temperature slightly varied between ventilation modes in both countries
• Students in Malaysia preferred to use air-conditioning to maintain thermal comfort

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