Theme 8: Caribbean Political Development Up To 1985

1. Explain the reasons for the failure of the major attempts at unification in the British-
colonized Caribbean before 1939.

The Leeward Islands Federation (1871)

This could be called the brainchild of Governor Benjamin Pine. There were six
(6) member countries, (called presidencies)

 St. Kitts

 Nevis

 Antigua

 Montserrat

 Dominica

 The British Virgin Islands

The Leeward Islands

Each member country had two representatives. The membership decreases in 1882
when St. Kitts becomes joined to Nevis. In 1940, Dominica was transferred to the
Windward Islands further decreasing the number of council members.

The council of the Leeward Islands Federation allowed for the creation of two
councils

1. A Federal Executive- an advisory body to the Governor.

2. A General Legislative. This was compromised of federal officials nominated by

the Governor and unofficial members from each Presidency. Members served for a
three year period.

The council could legislate in conjunction with the Presidential Legislative Council
on matters such as:
  Prisons and asylums

 Police force

 Auditing of public accounts

 Post and telegraph

 Education

One important note was the fact that the matter of the U.S. bases was transferred
from the Presidential Legislative council to this body. The Leeward Islands
Federation was quite ‘successful' in the context of its lifespan 85 years. It was
superseded by the West Indies Federation.

Crown Colony Government 1866-1898

A number of persons were satisfied or encouraged by the improvements made by

the new Crown Colony government. Measures such as:

1. Public works on roads, bridges and drains

2. Improvement in postal services

3. Building of more schools

4. Health campaigns

5. More effective police force

The majority however was concerned that the political changes were very shallow.
The white minority was still in control. The elected representatives were in the
minority. There were still too many people from the mother Country who
controlled the machinery of government. They were often indifferent to the
specific needs of a colonial society.

The majority still did not have a say in the governing of the country. They could
not vote and neither were they eligible for positions in the government yet they
were required to pay taxes. The emerging middle class was totally unsatisfied.
Some of them had acquired higher education. They had expected to play a more
significant role. They wanted changes in the constitution not just more schools or
new roads.

Nationalists felt that there was too much dependency on the Mother Country for
the financing of projects. This meant that they had to budget according to whatever
funding they received. There needed to be much more opportunities for
employment in order to alleviate the stress and poverty that was being experienced
by so many.

They argued that there needed to be answers from within the country and the
region. As a region they needed to begin steps towards independence. It is against
this background that some British territories were assimilated- joined together by
the end of the 19th century.

1. St. Kitts and Nevis. (1882) Anguilla was added the following year 1883.

2. Antigua and Barbuda. The latter was annexed by An Order-in-Council of

August 1, 1860.

3. Trinidad and Tobago. In 1889 Tobago was brought under authority of the
Governor of Trinidad.

4. Jamaica and British Honduras (Belize). In 1862, the colony of British Honduras
was placed under the administration of a Lieutenant Governor who was under the
authority of the Governor of Jamaica. This relationship did not last long however
as some twenty two years later (1884) British Honduras became a separate colony
with its own Government.

5. By an Act of 1863, Cayman was placed under the authority of Jamaica's

Legislature. By another Act of 1873, the Turks and Caicos Islands were also placed
under Jamaica's care.
2. Assess the relationship between popular protest and political developments in the
Caribbean between 1935-1958.

{Students should contact their teachers or join relevant groups to find shared
notes}

3. Explain the reasons for the establishment of a federation of the British West Indies
between1945 and 1958.

The West Indies Federation

The West Indies Federation Flag The West Indies Federation Coat of Arms

Attempts at unification among the British West Indian colonies began in the late
19th century with a Leeward and Windward Island Federation. (1875). Both
attempts failed but from the experience it would seem that the consensus was that,
there was indeed a need for a British West Indies Federation. Movements to
establish the same began in the 20th century.

The Imperial Government was favorable to its formation. Why? She argued that
Federation would make it easier for her to control the colonies as a group and that
it would definitely ease the financial burden of colonial administration. She
proposed Federation in 1945.
In a Circular Dispatch to all the governors of the West Indian colonies on March
14, 1945, the then Secretary of State declared that the aim of the British policy
should be the development of Federation in the Caribbean, at such time as the
balance of opinion in the colonies is in favor of change.

The 1930's riots had clearly demonstrated that the people of the British West Indies
were indeed ready for a change. The Trade Unions which emerged for that period
also strongly supported Federation. As a collective body, they could see the
benefits of such a union. The British Labor Congress demanded Federation with
dominion status and that each member state be granted political internal
responsible government.

September 1947 at the 2nd Caribbean Labor Congress held in Jamaica

"..... is convinced that the development of West Indian nationhood, the evolution of
our social and cultural standards, expressions and stability, our economy ... can
best and most fully be secured by the Federation of the territories concerned. "

From 1945 to 1957 a series of Conferences were held to determine the way
forward. The first was convened by the British Secretary of State. It was held in
Montego Bay. All were present except representatives from British Honduras and
British Guiana. The leaders present all agreed with the idea of Federation,
because it was felt that it would be an important step towards achieving self
government. They hoped that it would provide a vehicle for achieving political
independence of the member states as a group. They could show Britain that they
were ready for independence.

They argued that together they could seek common solutions since they shared a
common history, culture, and economic structures. They had begun co-operating in
other areas such as The Imperial College of Agriculture (1922) and the University
of the West Indies (1948).

On February 23, 1956, Queen Elizabeth 3rd, approved the establishment of the
West Indian Federation. Two years later in January 1958, the Federation became a
reality. Trinidad was elected as the capital. Sir Grantley Adams became the first
and only Prime Minister. It had a Senate of nineteen nominated members: two
from each of the colony except Montserrat which had only one and a House of
Representatives of 45 elected members and a Council of Senate presided by the
GG- an executive appointed by Britain (Lord Hailes) and ten ministers that would
form the Cabinet along with the Prime Minister.
 Grantley Adams

Later the House was increased to sixty four members, Jamaica getting thirty six
and Trinidad sixteen. This was the result of the two arguing that the House was
being controlled by the collective votes of the smaller countries. Further quarrels
and disagreements developed that would ultimately lead to the demise of the
federation.

4. Explain the reasons for the failure of the British West Indies Federation in 1962.

Reasons For the Failure Of The West Indies Federation

The Federation was weak from the beginning. It started out with serious handicaps
that would lead to its collapse some four years later. Firstly British Virgin Islands
and the two mainland colonies of British Guiana and British Honduras did not join.
Bear in mind that they were the largest of the BWI in terms of size. Thus it
happened that the next two largest member countries Jamaica and Trinidad came to
dominate the Federation.

The Federation had very little fiscal powers. The amount of dues was inadequate.
Two million pounds could not successfully finance the operations of the
Federation. Jamaica contributed 43% of this amount while Trinidad's share was
39%. Perhaps because of this Jamaica strongly opposed the Federation's appeal for
the right to levy direct taxes or custom duties. Jamaica's Alexander Bustamante
called the Federation a "federation of paupers".

Even the site of the Federal capital was in dispute. In 1958, Chaguaramas was still
leased to the U.S. for a base. The lease was for 99 years. The then Premier, Eric
Williams had to argue and fight to get ‘permission' to use it! Others felt that the
base should be located elsewhere. Many Barbadians felt that the capital should be
located in Barbados since the Premier came from that island. But this issue was
only a percentage of the internal strife that existed.

The members of the Cabinet were aspiring for national leadership in their own
countries and it was felt that they were sidetracked by this. It was a signal that they
were more devoted to their own country than to the Federation. This is the reason
they argued, that Norman Manley and Eric Williams did not contest the Federal
elections of 1958. They were conceived as the chief political figures and negotiator
who could give the Federation the kind of leadership and direction it so desperately
needed in its embryonic stage. To make matters worst, only an estimated 56.9% of
the eligible voters in the ten territories participated in the federal elections.
Suspicions began to mount. From the very beginning therefore, the Federation did
not have the enthusiastic or overwhelming support of the general public.

There were fears that the larger countries would have to shoulder the burdens and
economic responsibilities of the smaller ones. The notion of free movement among
the countries also created its own fears that the markets of the larger territories
would be flooded with migrants from the ‘poorer' countries. Since Trinidad was the
most developed of all the territories ‘industrially' she felt she had more to lose.

The event which put a decisive end to the Federation was the referendum held in
Jamaica on September 19, 1961, the results of which led to the withdrawal of that
island. A state of despondency descended upon the members from the Eastern
Caribbean. The future of the Federation now rested upon the shoulders of Trinidad.
But on December 4, 1961, the PNM led by Dr. Eric Williams won a landslide
victory in the general elections. So, she too withdrew after Eric Williams' now
infamous speech of "one from ten leaves zero". Trinidad proceeded forthwith to
national independence.

Nevertheless, the Federation was able to achieve the following:

1. It provided training in vital areas for example the meterological service. This is
crucial to a region plagued by hurricanes.

2. There was co-op in areas such as research- which led to the effective eradication
of endemic tropical diseases throughout the region.

3. Advisory specialists were retained and available on statistics for housing,

education, agriculture and fisheries.
4. Small loans were secured for various projects. For example, $2.5M U.S. was
used to encourage small and middle sized businesses.

5. Five technical schools were constructed in the Leeward Islands.

6. Trinidad gave assistance to road building programmes by donating asphalt

5. Describe the contribution made to Caribbean integration by outstanding personalities

(male and female) in the English speaking territories.

Grantley Adams and the integration movement

Grantley Adams

 He attended conferences of West Indian labor leaders to consider an

umbrella group for Trade Unions

 He was elected a member of the Executive Committee of the Trade Union

Congress.

 He took part in the Conference held in Trinidad that called for urgent
legislative reforms

 He moved the adoption of a bill which he had drafted as the nucleus of the
Constitution for a federated West Indies.

 In this draft bill he laid down the fundamental principle that the federation of
the British territories in the Caribbean was on the basis of self government

 At a meeting in 1945 he stressed that each colony should be allowed to work

out its own pattern given the fact that they are at different stages of political
development.

 He argued for a loose federation.

 In his words, the federal government should be given sufficient and definite
powers to ensure the success of a program of economic development and
expansion that is originated and directed by the leaders of the Caribbean

 At the fourth conference of the congress held in Barbados Adams and his
Barbados Labour Party acted as host to the delegates.

 He put forward the case for a new series of textbooks for the West Indies
that is written from the West Indian perspective.

 At Adam's suggestion, the Barbados conference approved Secretary of State

for the colonies proposal that the opinion of the colonial legislatures be
obtained and a meeting of delegates be held at an early date to facilitate this.

 Adam's strongly supported Richard Hart (Jamaica) argument that the

development of the area as an economic entity was the only way of creating
a stable and self supporting economy. This was only possible they
continued if such a program of development and expansion is directed by
the West Indies under the unified control of a federal constitution

 He looked at the question of constitutional freedom and responsible

government

 He was elected second vice president of the Caribbean Labor Congress.

 He became the first Prime Minister of the West Indian Federation.

 Norman Manley and the integration movement

Norman Manley

 Believed in regional unity. He supported the idea that the people of the West
Indies could work together to improve the adverse social and economic
conditions that they faced.

 He participated in the plans for the first Conference of the Caribbean Labour
Congress

 He joined Grantley Adams on the six day lecture tour of the U.S. to secure
funding to offset the offset the cost of hosting the Second Caribbean Labour
Congress.

 He hosted the second Conference in Kingston (September 1947)

 He was part of the special committee that was appointed to thoroughly

examine the amendment to the draft bill for the Federal Constitution. As a
result of the committee's recommendation, the executive Council originally
proposed in Adam's bill was remodeled as a Cabinet of ministers for the
Federal parliament.

 He supported Federation when Alexander Bustamante was vociferously

against Jamaica's involvement in it.

 He was one of the chief negotiators in the Chaguaramas talks.

 He attended meetings after meetings in the series of conferences that led up
to the creation of the West Indies Federation in 1958.

 He was an important part of the process of decolonization for Jamaica and

by extension the Caribbean.

Theophilus Marryshow and the integration movement

Theophilus Marryshow

 He is nicknamed the Father of Federation

 In 1915 he established a newspaper called West Indian

 He was devoted to the cause of self government and creating a Federation of

the British West Indies. The newspaper helped to garner public support for
both causes.

 He was lead speaker for the Federation

 He devoted his life to the cause of West Indian unity.

 In 1922 the British Under Secretary of State for the colonies visited Grenada
as part of a one year tour through the West Indies to inquire into the
feasibility of an Association of the Windward Islands and of the
introduction of a Legislative Council that was partially elected. This became
 known as the Woods Inquiry. Marryshow presented proposals for
constitutional reforms.

 He was one of the first five elected members in charge of the new Grenadian
government.

 In 1932, a conference was held in Dominica to consider West Indian

Federation and self government. He was part of that conference

 In 1932 also, he was part of a two man delegation to Britain to put forward
proposals for a greater say in the government of the islands. Though the
meeting did not achieve its objectives Marryshow continued to press the
issue.

 He viewed Federation as the destiny of the West Indies.

 He saw Federation as a step to self government.

 In 1939 another conference was held in St. Lucia. Resolutions passed called
for closer union of the West Indies, uniformity of the Civil Service, sharing
of specialists, joint certification of teachers, exchange of public officers and
unification of judiciary and police among others. Marryshow was a part of
that meeting.

 He was one of Grenada's three representatives to a conference on closer

union in 1947 in St. Kitts.

 He served as one of Grenada's two senators in the Federal House of

Representatives
6. Describe constitutional arrangements used by non-English-speaking Caribbean
territories as alternatives to independence.

Puerto Rico's Political Development

The Puerto Rican flag

After the end of military occupation (1900) Puerto Rico was governed as a
protectorate state of the United States. An American governor ruled with the
assistance of an 11 member Executive Council. Six of them were Americans. The
other five were appointed by the President of the United States. That meant that the
Americans were still in control of Puerto Rico. They began to feel like Cuba. They
had switched one master for another.

In 1916, the Second Organic Act or the Jones Act was passed. Puerto Rico was
declared to be an official territory of the U.S. The governor was still an American.
The U.S. still appointed the top ranking positions in the army, judicial system and
government. The U.S. reserved the right to disallow any law that was passed by the
Puerto Rican Legislature. The Puerto Ricans were now citizens of the U.S. they
were granted the franchise although they could not vote in U.S. Federal Elections.

By the 1940's, a number of nationalists, radical elements and other groups became
quite dissatisfied with U.S. rule. There were riots and unrest which led to the death
of at least one U.S. police chief. The American government sprang into action and
appointed the first native governor.
In 1952, the Puerto Ricans achieved Commonwealth Status. She became an
Associated Free state. President Munoz Marin asked that the boundaries of this
new relationship with the U.S. be clearly defined. The U.S. government obliged
him.

Commonwealth Status

1. Puerto Rico to be governed according to the 1952 Constitution

2. She is committed to a democratic system of government which recognizes that

power is invested in the leaders by the people and must be exercised in accordance
with their will.

3. There are three branches of government: The Legislative, the Executive and the
Judiciary.

4. The Legislative Assembly shall have two houses: The Senate and the House of
Representatives whose members are duly elected by direct vote at each election.

5. Executive power is to be invested in the governor who is also chosen by the

electoral process.

6. The Supreme Court is charged with the responsibility of dispensing justice.

Other courts may be established by following due legal procedures.

7. She pledges loyalty to the principles of the Federal Constitution

8. All men are equal before the law regardless of race, color, sex, religion or birth.

Why did some Puerto Ricans support this new arrangement?

1. It ensured political stability

2. It was a democratic form of government which sought to protect the rights of the
common man

3. Puerto Ricans still had U.S. citizenship

4. They could travel to and work freely in the U.S.

5. American investment for the development of the economy was ensured

6. Puerto Rican goods would enter the U.S. without paying duties

7. They did not have to pay Federal taxes

8. They expected U.S. help, grants and funding for infrastructural projects.

9. The new constitution guaranteed the right to public education

10. Those persons who did not support independence felt that this was much better
than colonialism.

Why did some Puerto Ricans oppose this new arrangement?

1. They did not like this half state between complete political independence and
colonialism

2. The new constitution still gave the U.S. ultimate control over Puerto Rico. They
had the last word.

3. Their rulers were mere puppets. In practice, they had very little power

4. The constant exchange with the U.S. would lead to a rejection if not destruction
of the Puerto Rican culture and the adaptation of the U.S. culture

5. The Constitution was largely influenced by and patterned off the U.S.
Constitution

6. Puerto Ricans could be drafted into the U.S. army but they were not guaranteed
the same privileges as Americans.

7. Development was centered on the towns and tourist areas. The majority of the
people lived in squalid conditions. ‘democracy and individual rights' had not
reached them
 The Dutch Alternative

The Netherlands (Dutch) flag

In 1949 the countries of the Dutch Caribbean were granted Adult Suffrage and self
government. Autonomy was granted to the Dutch Antilles on December 29, 1954
by Queen Juliana. This means that they would be on equal footing with their
Mother Country- Holland. This is also known as Associated Statehood.

The Dutch Antilles comprises the ABC and 3S islands and the mainland territory
of Dutch Guiana (Suriname).

Aruba

Bonaire

Curacao

Saba

St. Eustatius

St. Maarten

What were the features of this system?

1. The territories were self governed

2. Every adult man and woman had the right to vote

3. There was a governor who was appointed by the Crown.

4. There was a Council of Ministers led by a Prime Minister.

5. Each island had its own elected Council and an Executive Council headed by a
lieutenant governor.

6. These local leaders had complete control over domestic matters.

7. The Mother Country was still in charge of defense and foreign affairs

Why did they choose this route?

(i) They felt detached from the rest of the Caribbean- Spanish, French and British.

(ii) They realized that they were too small to operate independent political systems.

(iii) They already shared a common government administration with its

headquarters in Curacao. Independence was not something that they desired.

(iv) Apart from the oil refineries in Curacao, the rest of the Antilles did not have
enough resources to guarantee economic prosperity.

(v) They expected to get help with infrastructural developments: roads, bridges
etc...

(vi) The idea of them being partners carried a certain sense of security. The Mother
Country was in charge of defense and foreign affairs.

Suriname was a very large territory. It had a long history of Maroons (Bush
Negroes). The Negroes were in favor of complete independence. They felt that
they could handle independence. The Asians were in favor of Associated
Statehood. They feared black domination of the economy and power. By the 1960's
the racial conflict began to manifest itself in the political arena.

In November of 1975 Suriname opted for independence.

The French Caribbean Territories Become Departments of France After 1946

The French flag

France had colonized five Caribbean territories Haiti, Guadeloupe, Martinique,

French Guiana and La Reunion. After Haiti's Revolution and independence (1804)
France secured the remaining four colonies. In 1945, while the British proposed a
federation of the West Indies to her colonies, the proposal of assimilation was put
to the vote and the colonists voted overwhelmingly in favour of it.

These territories were granted Overseas Department Status on March 1946

(departements d'outre-mer). Why? By the end of World War II (1939-1945) many
of the European countries opted for imperialism rather than colonialism. It would
guarantee them the same level of control as colonialism yet it would be far
cheaper. There would be co-operation and sharing of power between the
representatives of the Metropolis and the colonies. This ensured some level of
continued loyalty. This was important in light of the political riots of the previous
century in the West Indies (Jamaica 1865 Barbados 1875 St. Vincent 1862)

How would this system work or operate?

This system replaced the old system of dependencies where the Governor,
appointed by the King, ruled with the aid of a Council- later General Council. They
were to concede their cultural traditions and adopt the French culture. The
departments were to be regarded as a part of and not separate from France, they
were no longer colonists but Frenchmen which meant that they would enjoy all the
rights and benefits of French citizens and those born in France. They would have
the same constitutional position.

These departments were headed by Prefects who replaced the Governor. The
Prefects ruled with the aid of a general Council consisting of mayors who were
responsible for Communes and sub-prefects who were responsible for
Arrondisements. The Prefects represented a new branch of the political system.
These Prefects were given a number of political, judicial and economic roles to
play in the departments. They were given control of the armed forces, internal
security and defense. One of the main economic roles played by Prefects of the
departments was to regulate imports and exports and set prices for goods. The
Prefects were also charged with declaring martial law, supervising the Public
Services and above all, ensure the loyalty of the islanders to the Metropole France.

Why did Guadeloupe, Martinique, La Reunion and French Guiana accept

such an arrangement or status?

The territories did not suffer major economic or military damage during World
War II and felt they should express their gratitude to France by showing loyalty to
their Mother Country. France had offered these colonies, in a plebiscite in 1945,
the option of assimilation with her.

These territories were to become additional districts of France itself which meant
that their political evolution and developments would run parallel to that of France.
There was an increase in the presence of locals from the territories in
administration as more political posts were created: Mayors (Communes), Prefects
and heads of local Public Services which meant an increase in political power.
Natives were now eligible for seats in the French Assembly. There were six
appointments to the National Assembly and four to the Senate. This status position
was very important in the context of colonial political culture.

Many conservative groups did not desire self-government. They felt that the
French administration would be superior to anything that they have created. One
can assume that they also took into context what happened in Haiti. They could not
afford to risk and lose everything. The radicals that may have desired
independence were not sufficiently strong enough to sway public opinion towards
the alternative path to development. Neither did Martinique or Guadeloupe have a
strong history of rebellion.

The departements d'outre-mer (DOM) could have a say in who represented them.
In addition, regular elections would become more prevalent, so officials could be
controlled or gotten rid of by the election system. The French colonies were also
attracted to the French philosophy of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. Once they
adhered to that, they could be assured of more progress than problems.

Benefits or Advantages of Department Status

a. France made resources available to the development of her Overseas

Departments. For example, the development of roads, bridges and other
infrastructure.

b. Land reform programs. Land was available to a wider cross section of people

c. Housing programs

d. Improved living and working conditions. They would be paid the same wages as
a worker in France in the same job.

e. The territories became full members of the European Economic Community

(EC) and as such became eligible for the EC's funding projects such as Tourism
and Shipping among others.

f. They would get help with long term economic planning as well as policies

g. Free movement and travel to France and the rest of Europe

h. They could work and study in France

i. In 1947, they were granted social security. Old age pensions and allowances
were similar to those received in France.