Learning in Technology Education

LEARNING IN TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
CHALLENGES FOR THE 21ST CENTURY
VOLUME ONE
Edited by Howard Middleton

Margarita Pavlova & Dick Roebuck
Centre for Technology Education Research Griffith University
All papers in this book have been peer reviewed.
Copyright © 2002 Centre for Technology Education Research, Griffith University and
individual contributors.
Learning in Technology Education: Challenges for the 21st Century.

Proceedings of the 2nd Biennial International Conference on Technology Education
Research held at the Parkroyal Gold Coast, Australia, 5 – 7 December 2002.
ISBN 0 909291 74 8
Two Volume Set
Desktop Publishing by Karen Moorehead

Cover design by Kevin Saunders
ii
Contents
Foreword vii
Safety Instruction: A Case of Missing Identity 1
Geoff Badham
Technology Teacher Education: Is it Time to do a Maslow? 9
John Barlow
The Transformation of Queensland JuniorSecondary School Manual Arts into
Technology Education: A Qualitative Analysis of the Teacher's Role 17
Roy J. Barnes & Ivan R. Chester
How do Learners Engage with Hypermedia in Vocational On-line Learning? 25
Fred Beven
Building 'Flax Bridges' in Technology Education to Uphold the Treaty of Waitangi
Partnership Principle 35
Ann Bond
Teaching Strategies of Technological Literacy Education in Teacher's Colleges: A
Case Study on Craft Course in Hualien Teacher's College 46
Yuhshan Chang & Hsiuyen Wei
The Application of Knowledge Elicitation Techniques in the Computer-based
Technology Education Environment 53
Ivan Chester
Making Progress: Progression and Technology Education in New Zealand 62
Vicki Compton & Cliff Harwood
Using the Technology of the Internet to Enhance the Literacy Development of
Secondary Students with Reading Problems 71
Kim Cooney & Ian Hay
Contingency in the Classroom Design Process 81
Robert S. Davis, Campbell J. McRobbie & Ian S. Ginns
The Process of Design in Technology Education 90
Louis R. Ewington
Exploring Information and Communications Technology as a Technological Area 98
Garry Falloon
Theme-based Instruction Design is Centered on Technology 107
Rong-Jang Fang & Tung-Chung Tsai
iii
Improving Students' ICT Use: The LDCT at Burleigh Heads State School 112
Glenn Finger, Nigel Baker, Debbie Nagel & Kerry Rarere
Teaching Technology – Design Briefs and Rich Tasks: Contradictions and
Challenges Facing Future Teachers 120
Glenn Finger, David Adams-Jones & Chris Vickers
The Relationship Between Out of Context Assessment Tasks in Technology
Education and that of the Same Task Embedded in Authentic Classroom
Technological Practice 128
Wendy Fox-Turnbull
What Teachers Really Know About Technology When They Claim They Don't Know? 142
Ian S. Ginns, Christine V. McDonald, Campbell J. McRobbie & Sarah J. Stein
Implementing Technology Education in a High School: A Case Study 152
Christopher Hamilton & Howard Middleton
The Implementation of the Technology Curriculum in New Zealand: The Results of
National School Sampling Study 161
Ann Harlow, Alister Jones & Bronwen Cowie
Sustainable Technology Learning by Theatre-Playing 170
Wolfgang Haupt, Jürgen Wehling & Thomas Langkau
Walking the Minefield: Technology Research in a New Zealand Intermediate School 178
Fiona Haynes
A Strategic Framework for Research in Technology Education 190
Marie Hoepfl
Educational Reform and the Technology Education Curriculum in Taiwan's Primary
Schools 211
Chia-Sen Jimmy Huang
Integration of Academic and Extra-Curricular Technology Education in One School
System Near Lake Biwa, Japan 221
Yasumasa Itakura
Narratives in Technology Education 228
Beverley Jane
Computer-Based Assessment: Its Use and Effects on Student Learning 235
Judith Kearney, Margaret Fletcher & Brendan Bartlett
Hedgehogs, Foxes, Crows, and Other 'Intelligent' Beings: Explorations of the
Relationship Between Multiple Intelligence Theory and Design and Technology 243
Steve Keirl
Against the Provincialism of Customary Existence: Issues Arising from the Interplay
of 'Essential Learnings', Design and Technology and General Education 253
Steve Keir
iv
Significant Research Problems Relating to Teaching 263
Kisilu M. Kitainge
Examining Models for Implementing Technology Education in Queensland Primary
Schools 272
Vicki Knopke
Theory Meets Practice: Lecturers at a College of Education Put Theory into Practice
when They Teach Technology Education on a Regular Basis to Year 7 & 8 Children 278
Kerry Lee
Teaching Students Creativity in Technology Education in Taiwan 284
Ta-Wei Lee & Yuh-Shan Chang
What Learning Styles Do Students Have in LT (Living Technology) Classrooms?:
Perceptions of Model Bridge Structuring Activity 292
Ranlong Lin
Understanding Design in Primary Design and Technology 301
Denise J. MacGregor
v
vi
Foreword
Technology education might be a product of the 20th century, but the real challenges will
be encountered during the 21st. Indeed it could be argued that the last decade of last
century was concerned more about becoming aware of the nature and dimensions of the
challenges rather than in formulating responses to them. This book draws on a wide
range of perspectives to show how the development of technology education is
proceeding and the role research is playing in both identifying the important questions
and helping to shape the kinds of answers that might meet the needs of students,
teachers and teacher educators.
Contributors to the book come from America, Australia, Canada, England, Germany,
Hong Kong, Japan, New Zealand and Taiwan. The papers cover a wide range of
contemporary issues and themes in technology education, including, information and
communication technologies, pedagogy, philosophy, teacher education, cross curricular
issues and approaches, primary technology education, assessment, developments and
research methods. However, many papers could not be classified into single categories
and displayed the richness of the interconnections between issues. The one overriding
theme to emerge is nevertheless, the centrality of understanding the process by which
students learn about and through technology.
Howard Middleton
Director, Centre for Technology Education Research
Griffith University
December, 2002
vii
viii
Safety Instruction:
A Case of Missing Identity
Geoff Badham
Griffith University, Brisbane
S
afety learning is an 'old' subject that faces a modern problem of dealing with new
technologies. Current methods of safety learning fail to identify safety problems that
involve loss of control of power tools. This paper examines reasons for this failure and
suggests ways of learning that might prevent many of the loss-of-control accidents experienced in
industry.
Introduction
Two of the 'challenges' that form the theme of this conference will be considered in this
paper – changes in the concept of the learner and the current emphasises in education on
problem-solving. The context in which these two issues will be considered is safety
learning. Traditional methods of safety instruction are inconsistent with conceptual
understanding or problem-solving methods of learning. Furthermore, the failure to
address these two issues may be responsible for many of the accidents experienced in
industry that involve power tools. In this paper, it is reasoned that many loss-of-control
accidents occur because of the inability of tool operators to correctly identify problem
tasks due to the lack of understanding of tool control, rather than an inattention to
conditions well known to the operator.
In the first section of this paper an analysis of the cause of one accident reveals that
the operator failed to clearly identify the safety problem. It will be argued that the failure
to correctly identify safety problems is symptomatic of many loss-of-control accidents.
The limitations of current safety instruction and informal learning, both of which
preclude an adequate understanding of the concepts and processes needed to solve
'accident' problems before they occur, will then be discussed. In the final section,
consideration will be given to some possible conceptual and procedural issues necessary
for improving safety instruction.
An analysis of one accident

One accident from an industry study conducted by the author will be examined to
illustrate the claim that many loss-of-control accidents result from the incorrect
identification of problem tasks. The accident involved a fourth year apprentice who
suffered serious hand injury while working on a bench saw in an industrial setting. The
accident report stated that the injury was due to a momentary lapse of concentration and
1
st
Learning in Technology Education: Challenges for the 21 Century
recommended that all apprentices receive regular rest periods during repetitive tasks. The
apprentice was experienced in using the bench saw and the docking actions were routine.
The apprentice stated his mind (attention) was not on the task but on other issues
(anecdotal evidence from interviews with experts supports that this distracted state is
common when performing well practised, repetitive tasks).
On closer examination of the apprentice's accident, it became apparent that two
interrelated 'causes' were not included in the accident report. The first involved the set-
up of the bench saw, which although not designed for docking actions, was being used
for this purpose. The multi-purpose use of tools is a common practice in industry
because of the large capital outlay for specialist machinery. In such circumstances,
docking procedures are reasonably safe if the saw guide is not used to measure the
lengths of timber, or if the guide is used it must not extend beyond the centre of the saw
blade. If the saw guide is too long then the off-cut sections of timber become jammed
between the blade and guide. To alleviate this problem the off-cut timbers have to be
removed. The safest procedure for removing these off-cuts, and the one taught in formal
institutions, is to use an extended push stick, thereby keeping the operator's hands clear
of the blade. However, (the second issue) instead of using the push stick the apprentice
used his hand to push the timber aside, an action which necessitated reaching across the
blade. This procedure is also a common practice in industry workshops, possibly because
a push stick is seldom readily at hand, may interfere with other activities and is less
efficient than a hand movement.
Although the margin of safety was only a few centimetres, the apprentice and his
father (who owned the business) apparently considered the action of reaching across the
blade was 'safe', because it had been performed by them many hundreds of times over
the years without serious consequence. Despite their combined experiences, this was an
accident waiting to happen, because inherent within the established routine procedures
of the apprentice, and modelled by the father, was a fundamental and dangerous flaw
with control of the action limited to the attention span of the operator. While the safety
report was correct in identifying the need for regular rest periods, the procedure of
reaching across the blade was at fault. The length of time that the apprentice was
working was only one of a number of possible attention diverting interruptions likely to
arise in a busy workshop and rest breaks were thus unlikely to prevent such accidents.
The actions of the apprentice did not mean that he was without safety concerns. The
fact that there are so few accidents in hazardous environments is an indication that tool
operators generally avoid accidents (Hale & Glendon 1987). Despite reaching across the
saw blade to remove the off-cut material by hand, the fourth-year apprentice was careful
to avoid touching the saw blade. That he avoided the saw blade on scores, if not
hundreds of occasions, is 'evidence' of his 'success' in working safely. However the
apprentice's success was based on several faulty premises. It was evident in his actions
that the apprentice lacked a sound of understanding of the loss-of-control conditions
involved in the docking task, particularly those causing the off-cut material to jam.
Moreover, he failed to realise the limitations of his attention to the danger, and even after
the accident he (and the safety inspectors) failed to recognise the importance of the saw
guide as a major causal factor contributing to the accident. In short, the apprentice failed
2
Safety Instruction: A Case of Missing Identity
to correctly identify the safety problem. The apprentice's failure is not unique. There
appears to be a general lack of understanding of tool interactions by operators that might
enable them to consistently identify control (and loss-of-control) conditions and respond
appropriately. This lack of conceptual knowledge of tool control is evident in the wide
spread use of dangerous procedures and the absence of control instruction in most
training institutions.
Reasons loss-of-control problems are difficult to recognise

Despite the fact that tool operators are sensitive to subtle changes in the 'look and feel'
aspects of controlling tools for production purposes they often appear unaware of safety
control. There are various reasons individuals fail to correctly identify potential loss-of-
control situations, but all derive from a lack of understanding of the interactions involved
in controlling tools and the conditions that might affect these interactions resulting in
loss of control.
Power tools are usually well designed, with margins of control that can substantially
reduce the likelihood of loss of control and opportunities to learn about safety control.
For example, the main handle on portable circular saws is aligned directly above and
behind the blade. The handle is not needed to support the saw against the timber. This
support is achieved by the interaction between blade and base plate. The designed
position of the power-saw handle is meant to reduce loss-of-control. Control is achieved
by pressing down on the back section of the blade, to overcome the upward force of the
rear half of the blade if alignment of the blade in the kerf is not maintained (referred to
as kickback). In extreme cases kickback can cause the saw to jump completely out of the
saw cut. On most power tools, handles are positioned to offer maximum support against
the effects of these movements. Paradoxically, it is the in-built control capabilities of
tools that can insulate individuals from the effects of their actions, because sensitivity to
relatively minor breaches of control that may be forerunners to more severe accidents are
not experienced (Hale & Glendon 1987).
Moreover, well designed tools allow individuals to 'successfully' use inappropriate
procedures without injury, often for some considerable time. Even when in-built control
features are 'tested' through inept actions, such as improperly maintaining saw alignment,
many operators appear to be unaware of the reasons for loss of control. For example, in
a review of a large number of major accidents, Rasmussen (1987) found that many
accident victims often ignored significant and repeated danger signals while involved in
other activities. In power-tool tasks, this failure is evident in the general lack of
appropriate response to near-miss accidents. For instance, the fourth year apprentice
persevered with the continued jamming of the off-cut material (which would have
constrained his ability to finish the task quickly). The actions of the apprentice show a
persistent tendency to ignore clear signals warning against loss of control. As DeJoy
(1994, p.8) concludes, the "…significance of minor and near-miss accidents may be lost
on most workplace members".
The skills and experience of tool operators often enable them to successfully cope
with minor losses of control; hence the specific combination of loss-of-control
influences that can severely affect a routine procedure may not occur for some time. This
3
st
is evident in the fact that both safe and unsafe actions, such as those of the apprentice,
are generally skilfully executed and often have been used 'successfully' for some
considerable time. Moreover, potentially dangerous procedures remain 'hidden' amongst
a majority of actions that are safe. Operators, therefore, may consider that they have
been successful and safe simply because they have completed a task to an acceptable
standard without serious mishap.
Safety control skills (i.e. the ability to assess risks and perform tasks on the basis of
tool control) are often confused with production control skills (i.e. those procedures
used to complete a task to an acceptable quality in an acceptable time). In many
instances, production and safety control skills are in accord. For instance, a firm hold on
a tool is often needed to maintain both production and safety control. However, these
control skills are not always compatible and in some instances safety skills conflict with
production skills. For instance, when using a grinding wheel a fine finish is achieved by
holding material lightly, this is contrary to a firm hold needed to avoid loosing control of
the material. Similarly, tasks that have to be completed quickly often compromise safety
control. The failure to distinguish between production and safety skills may explain the
failure by tool operators in industry to wear protective equipment (Coleman & Long
1995), apparently relying on their production skills to avoid accidents.
The safety issues arising from confusion between production and safety control skills
are further compounded by two commonly held beliefs about safety by experienced tool
operators. The first of these beliefs is that safe working practices are closely related to the
use of protective measures, particularly in the form of safety equipment and, to a slightly
lesser degree, preventative measures, such as the need 'for regular rest periods' that was
recommended in the apprentice's accident report. The difficulty with this approach is
that many tasks cannot be performed behind protective barriers and at best these barriers
slow down production. It was to improve production efficiencies that the blade guard
had been removed from the saw used by the apprentice. The second belief is that safety
skills are a by-product of production skills (i.e. safety control skills are derived from or
are the same as production control skills). Therefore, conventional safety instruction may
be perceived as separate from or secondary to production skills. Neither view of safety
assists learners to identify safety problems
From an instructional perspective, there are significant differences between the
circumstances under which production-control skills and safety-control skills can be
learned. Production skills appear to arise naturally from tool usage, through formal
training and from workplace experiences. For example Evans and Butler (1992) found
that knowledge essential for achieving consistently good welds was absent during
instruction, nevertheless apprentice welders were able to develop these skills with
practice. As production skills such as welding are practised cause and effect can be
evaluated. By this means operators gain some understanding of the interactions involved
and learn to recognise the combination of conditions unique to each situation. However,
opportunities for individuals to practice, evaluate and improve safety skills 'naturally' are
far less accessible. Loss of control is experienced infrequently; therefore, individuals are
only occasionally aware of safety requirements. Although, the apprentice almost certainly
would have cautiously reached across the saw blade the first few times that he removed
4
the off-cut material, he could not have safely 'experimented' with impediments to
removing the material, such as deliberately wedging the material between saw and guide.
Whereas, production skills are 'tested' every time a tool is used, safety skills appear to be
occasional happenings and necessary only when hazards occur.
Production and safety skills also differ in that there is a cogent degree of consensus
between power-tool experts on both quantity and quality outcomes, but a surprising lack
of conformity between these experts on many safety aspects of tool control. For
instance, experts possess a remarkable degree of conformity in what constitutes a quality
job (although they may not be capable of articulating all of the qualities). In industry,
experts can accurately estimate in advance production times involving a number of
individuals and have a shared appreciation of the most appropriate (and often unstated)
standards required. Conversely, tool operators appear to lack a shared knowledge of what
constitutes a control hazard. For instance, uncertainty by individuals as to what
constitutes a dangerous situation has been noted by Lawrence (1974) in mine workers,
and by Hale (1970) in the electrical industry. Absoud and Harrop (1984 cited in Coleman
& Long) found that only forty percent of British workers who suffered hand injuries
were able to report why their accident occurred.
In all of these instances there is a failure by individuals to adequately recognise
control problems even after extensive workplace experience. The solution appears to be
to change current methods of instruction so that the requisite conceptual knowledge is
brought up-front in the learning process, along with the formation of learning situations
that encourage students to use and develop this knowledge. For example, flexible and
adaptive problem solving in most disciplines appears to depend on a sound
understanding of the relationships between the various parts of a problem (Gott 1994;
Kieras & Bovair 1984), and the ability to apply that knowledge (Anderson 1993).
Suggested changes to safety instruction

The suggested changes to power tool instruction centre on four traditional instructional
practices that are not conducive to recognising safety problems:
• traditional safety instruction largely ignores knowledge of the causes of loss-of-control
accidents,
• the use of instructional problems that make conceptual knowledge of accidents largely
irrelevant to finding correct solutions;
• instructional tasks that fail to promote student recognition of problem types;
• instructional practices that encourage learning procedures for part of a complex task
without a coherent understanding of why those procedures are appropriate.
Apprenticeship and related school-based instruction is 'practice oriented' (Gott 1989, p.97)
and, with an emphasis on competency based training and a tendency towards
disaggregation of skills (Stevenson & McKavanagh 1992), is inclined towards emphasising
procedural skills and practising set patterns of behaviour rather than understanding the
knowledge underlying these activities (Thomson 1990). As Evans (1990) observed after
research into arc welding training, "… welding instruction is characterised by skill tied to
5
st
explicit statements of procedures and some practical theory, but little use of more
abstract conceptual knowledge …" (p.1).
The skills most practised in training institutions are the lower level skills that are
aimed at improving the manipulation of tools and not the conceptual knowledge needed
for knowing when and where to (safely) operate tools (Thomson 1990; Gott 1994).
Consistent with the theories of Gagne (1977), there appears to be a widespread
assumption within these institutions that lower order skills need to be well established
before attempting higher order skills. That is, instruction tends to be limited to 'how to
do something', rather than to understanding 'how tools are controlled'. Moreover, many
training tasks comprise relatively 'closed' problems with few alternative solutions, despite
the fact that the versatility offered by most power tools presents many ways of
completing a task. Furthermore, instruction tends to consist of one method for executing
a procedure, which students then practise in order to be proficient in that procedure. The
purpose of this paper is not to examine the conceptual understanding needed for safety
control. However, certain assumptions can be made from the fact that loss of control is
due to dynamic, as opposed to static, factors. Without movement of the tool, the
material or the operator, accidents cannot occur. Therefore, loss of control knowledge is
most likely to depend on understanding (and responding appropriately to) the
relationships (interactions) between these movements.
However, it is insufficient to simply identify control (and loss-of-control) situations
in the learning process. Traditional safety instruction is not only largely devoid of control
safety, tasks are designed in such a way that the use of conceptual knowledge is largely
irrelevant in correctly performing the task. For instance, most dangerous situations are
removed from the learning environment with safety equipment readily at hand, tools that
are safely setup and the imposition of standardised rules and procedures. Safety tests are
normally separate from production tests and mainly comprise recall of general safety
rules, without the need to recall safety problems. Furthermore, long production runs
(which may result in the use of short-cut procedures and inattention to the task) that
are common in many industry workplaces are the exception during training. Similar
failings have been observed in the learning of mathematics and chemistry (Sawrey 1990;
Lythcott 1990) where the solutions to problems could be achieved with little or no
application of the underlying concepts. In such cases, students fail to learn to apply
conceptual understanding and have difficulty in solving unfamiliar problems. Control
safety instruction, therefore, needs to encourage learners to use and develop the requisite
conceptual knowledge as procedures are practised in 'real-world' situations. Learning
should include comparisons between tasks that highlight control similarities and
differences that might lead to a conceptual understanding of tool control (The Cognition
and Technology Group at Vanderbilt 1993; Perkins & Blythe 1993).
The failure of instructional institutions to promote student recognition of problem
types is evident in the failure of the apprentice (and others) to recognise the safety
problem, even after the accident had occurred. Similarly, Sweller (1989) demonstrated
that many students were able to repeatedly perform algebra and physics calculations, but
were unable to connect these solution methods with the relevant problem. The
instructional emphasis tends to be on the application of specific task skills, rather than
6
on differentiating between problem types. Likewise, traditional safety instruction

emphasises protective safety measures (and production skills), without clearly defining
safety problems. The difficulty with this type of safety instruction (and the testing of
safety knowledge) is that students learn solutions without knowing the question. That is,
instruction fails to give students the knowledge to identify safety problems in terms of
the cause of accidents. Once again the solution is to use and develop the requisite
conceptual knowledge as the procedures for performing the tasks are practised. For
instance, the specific skill of donning protective equipment at the beginning of a task and
then concentrating on production issues is unlikely to improve control safety. Students
must be encouraged to practise looking for potential loss-of-control problems (based on
their understanding of tool interactions) every time they perform a task, just as they seek
to identify production problems every time that they plan a task.
The fourth suggested instructional change is to the tendency in traditional instruction
to either teach specific safety procedures or overgeneralise these procedures. For
instance, specific traditional steps for teaching student to use a bench grinder might
include, examine the wheel for any defects, check the tool rest clearance, ensure the
wheel is suitable, ensure safety shields are fitted, etc. The flip side of teaching specific
steps is to overgeneralise. Overgeneralisation occurs when instruction requires that
students will wear protective equipment at all times. Neither instruction of specific steps
nor overgeneralisation is likely to identify conceptual relationships across tools. Specific
power tool tasks are not complex, but the combined range of tools, tasks, materials and
situations is an involved system. Kieras and Bovair (1984; also Gott 1989) have reasoned
that the ability to predict the effects of change in a system depends on knowledge of the
way the system works. Although tool operators may establish a connection between the
effect and cause of an accident, it is not easy to transfer this knowledge to other potential
loss-of-control situations without conceptual understanding of how the entire 'system' of
tools works.
Conclusion
The issues discussed in this paper are part of a much broader educational debate on
providing learners with the skills to cope with new technologies. Loss-of-control
situations in the use of power tools appear to be poorly understood, in part, because
safety education has failed to keep up with tool technology and design. However, the
solution pathway appears to be well trodden in fields such as science, mathematics and
more recently in technology education. Research is needed to identify the missing
conceptual knowledge that will enable tool operators to recognise safety problems and to
apply appropriate avoidance procedures in all situations. Without this knowledge the
experience of the apprentice will continue to be repeated by many others who have not
received adequate training.
References
Anderson J R 1993, 'Problem solving and learning', American Psychologist, vol.48, no.1, pp.35–44.
Coleman N & Long A F 1995, Workers' compensation statistics: A profile of Australian hand tool injuries
and diseases, Worksafe Australia.
7
st
DeJoy D M 1994, Managing safety in the workplace: An attribution theory analysis and model,
Journal of Safety Research, vol.25, no.1, pp.3–17.
Evans G T & Butler J 1992, 'Expert models and feedback processes in developing competence in
industrial trade areas', Australian Journal of TAFE Research and Development, vol.8, no.1, pp.13–32.
Evans G T 1990, 'Instruction features and learning approaches in apprenticeship training', Paper
presented in the symposium, Applied Cognitive Research: A Multidisciplinary Symposium, Silver
Jubilee Conference of The Australian Psychological Society, Melbourne, 23–28 September.
Gagne R M 1977, The conditions of learning, Holt Rinehart and Winston, New York.
Gott S P 1994, 'Rediscovering learning: Acquiring expertise in real world problem solving tasks',
Key note conference paper, (re)Forming Post-compulsory Education and Training: Reconciliation and
Reconstruction, Centre for Skill Formation Research and Development, Faculty of Education,
Griffith University.
Gott S P 1989, 'Apprenticeship instruction for real-world tasks: The coordination of procedures,
mental models and strategies', in Review of Research in Education, ed. E Z Rothkopf, American
Educational Research Association, Washington, DC, Ch. 3, pp.97–169.
Hale A R 1970, Accidents during high voltage electrical circuit switching, Report to Electricity Council,
National Institute of Industrial Psychology, London.
Hale A R & Glendon A I 1987, Individual behaviour in the control of danger, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Kieras D E & Bovair S 1984, 'The role of a mental model in learning to operate a device', Cognitive
Science, vol.8, pp.255–273.
Lawrence A C 1974, 'Human error as a cause of accidents in gold mining', Journal of Safety Research,
vol.6, no.2, pp.78–88.
Lythcott, J 1990, 'Problem solving and requisite knowledge of chemistry', Journal of Chemical
Education, vol.67, no.3, pp.248–252.
Perkins, D & Blythe, T 1993, 'Understanding up front: A performance approach to teaching
for understanding', Annual Meetings of the American Educational Research Association, Atlanta,
April 1993.
Rassmussen J 1987, 'Risk and information processing', in Risk and decisions, eds W T Singleton &
J Hovden, Wiley, Chichester.
Sawrey, B A 1990, 'Concept learning versus problem solving: Revisited', Journal of Chemical
Education, vol.67, pp.253–254.
Stevenson J C & McKavanagh C W 1992, 'Skill formation for the workplace', in Education and work,
ed. M E Poole, Australian Council for Educational Research Ltd, Radford House, Melbourne.
Sweller J 1989, 'Cognitive technology: Some procedures for facilitating learning and problem
solving in mathematics and science', Journal of Educational Psychology, vol.81, pp.457–66.
The Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt 1990, 'Anchored instruction and its
relationship to situated cognition', Educational Researcher, vol.19, no.6, pp.2–10.
Thomson P 1990, 'Problem-solving and the transfer of skills', Australian Journal of TAFE Research
and Development, vol.6, no.1, pp.66–77.
8
Technology Teacher Education:
Is it Time to do a Maslow?
John Barlow
Australian Catholic University
T
his paper will argue that contemporary secondary technology teacher education models
may no longer effectively produce a fully prepared classroom technology teacher with an
adequate knowledge base. It will examine an alternative model that might be considered.
In particular, it will explore the implications of a hierarchical needs model, based on Maslow's
hierarchy of needs, that could be used to form the basis of future technology teacher education
programs.
Introduction
The technological and pedagogical knowledge base required of technology teachers
entering the secondary school sector has expanded and continues to expand dramatically.
Many experienced technology teachers have undertaken pre-service teacher education
programs that provided a very strong foundation in both the basic pedagogical skills they
were to use in the classroom together with the technologies they were expected to teach.
Moreover, those teachers who were interested have been able to continually expand their
knowledge base over time through participation in, for example, further study, and
various professional development and retraining programs.
However, for a number of reasons, such as significant syllabus revisions, beginning
secondary technology teachers confront a situation where they are generally required to
possess a significantly broader knowledge base compared to that of their more
experienced colleagues when they first entered the teaching profession. Indeed the
knowledge base required of a beginning technology teacher is quite likely to be that of an
experienced technology teacher. Moreover, with the emphasis now on a process (design)
focus rather than the traditional materials focus, the philosophical basis underpinning the
teaching of and about technology also requires 'new' knowledge associated with
appropriate pedagogical skills.
At the same time, the current shortage of secondary technology teachers, being
experienced throughout Australia and Internationally for that matter has impacted in a
number of significant ways on pre-service teacher education programs. Firstly, numerous
short term (in duration) and intensive (in load) pre-service and retraining programs have
been introduced in order to attempt to complement the shortfall of secondary
technology teachers. This shortfall is occasioned both by the reduced number of
graduates from traditional pre-service courses coupled with the attrition rates associated
9
st
with teachers retiring from the various school systems. Secondly, schools and school
systems no longer possess the extended discretionary 'time' for beginning technology
teachers to consolidate and master their chosen profession. Thirdly, some non-
government schools, in particular, are increasingly inclined to 'poach' undergraduates
before they have completed their pre-service teacher education programs in order to
meet their staffing requirements. This then requires the student teacher and university to
come to some accommodation so that they can complete their program and eventually
qualify for general teacher accreditation.
Taken together, these factors have the potential, in the short term, to place
extraordinary burdens and stresses on beginning secondary technology teachers as well
as, in the longer term, whittle away at the ideals of the contemporary technology
curriculum with its philosophical emphasis on foresight, technacy and the like. Perhaps
one way forward might be to consider a different model for preparing secondary
technology teachers, and in so doing provide structures for meeting the needs of student
teachers as well as the systems in which they might be eventually employed.
In formulating such a model, the following interrelated issues are briefly discussed:
Maslow's hierarchy of needs,
Maslow and technology education, and
Confidence.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs

The organisational and psychological literature contains numerous attempts at
explaining how individuals behave. Amongst these is the work of Abraham Maslow
(1943, 1968). He suggested a theory of human motivation based on satisfying a hierarchy
of needs. These needs were listed in ascending order of importance, as follows:
1. Physiological needs
2. Safety needs
3. Love or social or belonging needs
4. Self-esteem needs
5. Self-actualisation or self-fulfilment needs.
By way of summary, lower order needs should be satisfied by an individual before they
will be motivated by a higher order need. Moreover, once a need has been satisfied it is
no longer important and does not act as a motivator. That is, needs are only motivators
when they are left unsatisfied.
Maslow and technology education
The application of Maslow's theory of motivation to technology in education and
technology education is not new. Bichelmeyer (1991) [quoted in Bailey and Pownell
(1998)] suggested that Maslow's hierarchy of needs could explain how technology
integration, for example, is effected by how well or poorly human needs are met.
More specifically, using Maslow's model Bailey and Pownell (1998) identified basic
technology-related needs that they argue must be met before higher levels of technology
10
Technology Teacher Education: Is it Time to do a Maslow?
integration can be achieved. These are set out in table 1 below.
Table 1
Application of Maslow's hierarchy of needs to technology in education
Physiological needs
Time
Technology plan
Technology staff development
Technology support
Hardware, software and Internet access
Technology facilitating infrastructure
Safety Needs
Confidentiality
Technophobia
Administration support
Confidence in infrastructure
Policy support
Belonging Needs
Peer interaction
Technology committees
Teaming
Community belonging
Esteem Needs
Peer interaction
Team leadership
Teaching competence
Technology innovation
Extrinsic rewards
Self-Actualisation Needs
Teacher empowerment
Continual innovation
Continuous exploration
Creative application of technology
Bailey and Pownell argue that as applied to technology integration, Maslow's

hierarchy of needs has the potential to help transform the integration process. While the
Bailey and Pownell paper is premised on technology integration, that is computers and
teaching with computers across the curriculum, it does provide some insight into how
such an application of motivational theory might be applied in Technology education.
Indeed their attempt at enunciating what might actually be included at each needs level
provides useful insights for technology education generally.
More recently, Norman et al (2000) in discussing the notion of design and technology
in society, make the following observation:
11
st
Design as an activity clearly offers tremendous potential for self-actualisation. Designers

have more opportunity than most professionals to express themselves and act creatively
(Norman et al 2000, p.3).
They further suggest that the normally recognised characteristics of self-actualising
individuals are:
Openness to experience
Non-defensive
Independence of mind
Little fear of the unknown
Childlike perception and maturity (Norman et al (2000, p.3).
That is, perhaps in an ideal sense, the characteristics of a contemporary technology
teacher!
The notion of confidence

In a recent study Davies (2000) investigated the relationship between confidence and the
creative teaching of Design and Technology in which a number of important
observations were set out. Firstly, among teachers, there is a widely recognised difficulty
of balancing the teaching of "skills" and the promotion of creative responses from
learners. Davies further develops this issue when he provides quite a significant
observation linking teaching and learning in design and technology.
… teachers … were confident that their knowledge of the subject was good, as was their command of key
skills. In practice, they admit that they emphasise the areas of knowledge and skill with which they as
individuals are most confident. [Emphasis added]
It would appear then that the technology teachers in this study might still not have
reached the so-called self-actualisation stage. It could be argued then that they reinforced
their confidence by exploiting their strengths and by implication were not risk takers
within the learning environment. As such
They [teachers] are not willing to take any risks that might jeopardise learning and do their best to ensure
that all students learn something.
Secondly, similar observations were made in relation to the student risk aversion:
… teachers perceived students as not naturally choosing difficult tasks, which can lead to high achievement.
Instead, the students often made compromise decisions that attempted to maximise success while minimising
failure.
While the teachers seemed to be somewhat conservative in their preference for
emphasising the knowledge and skills with which they were most confident, their
students behaved in much the same way.
Some students construe projects as exciting overall but gain limited enjoyment from manufacturing due to
fears of working with the equipment. [Emphasis added]
Clearly then, one of the fundamental tenants underpinning the process model of
technology education, the encouragement of risk taking and learning from failure, is not
likely to be present when an individual teacher or student is reluctant to move from the
12
comfort zone and compromise their sense of confidence.
Maslow and confidence

If the notion of the contemporary technology curriculum is based designing, process and
risk taking, then the learning structures need to embed strategies that promote the notion
of confidence among students as well as their teachers. If Maslow's theory has any
application here, it is important to provide structures that promote the development of
confidence amongst all the participants so that all individuals can have the potential to
reach the highest needs level, self-actualisation, where the potential for successful design
experiences would seem to occur. Otherwise, many of the philosophical ideals and
intentions of the contemporary secondary technology curriculum may not be effectively
met.
A 'new' model for the pre-service education of secondary

technology teachers
This model is predicated on developing a program that attempts to produce a well-
rounded 'confident' secondary technology educator who has the potential to put into
practice and exploit the ideals of the contemporary technology curriculum.
One of the fundamental physiological needs noted by Bailey and Pownell is time. In
this instance then, the time or duration of the program requires careful consideration.
Essentially, pre-service teacher education programs fall into a number of structural
models. For example, four-year programs (either an integrated four-year program
resulting in the award of a bachelor's degree or a three-year first degree in an appropriate
discipline followed by a one-year Diploma of Education) are quite common. Not as
common however, are five-year integrated programs that seem to be gaining limited
favour in the United States. In a paper prepared for the American Council on Education,
Scannell (2000, pp.6–7) noted that questions about which types of programs produce
teachers who are best at causing their students to learn have hardly been addressed, let
alone answered. However, a number of comparisons between four and five-year
programs were presented, which included suggestions that graduates of five-year
programs:
• were better qualified,
• actually enter teaching,
• persist as teachers,
• are more committed to the welfare of children and to the profession of teaching,
• are more satisfied with teaching as a career,
• are more highly recruited, and
• achieve more in their studies.
While this comparison of four and five-year teacher education programs is based on
United States literature, it nonetheless provides a starting point for thinking about what a
'new' model of pre-service secondary teacher education might look like. What it does
13
st
provide though, is tentative evidence that a basic physiological need, time, seems to be
critical to the providing quality outcomes in such programs. Therefore given this
evidence, the commencing premise of this model is a course structure based on a five-
year timeframe.
Time is one issue, content and structure another. Given the complexity of secondary
school technology syllabi across Australia, it is suggested that the pre-service education
of technology teachers should be divided into two distinct but complementary phases: a
purpose designed Bachelor of Technology followed by a purpose designed graduate
program in technology teacher education.
Phase 1
A purposefully designed three-year Bachelor of Technology program which focuses on
all the design and technology knowledge and skills required of a technology teacher
entering the teaching profession in the 21st Century. The program should be structured
in such a way that it exemplifies the notion of Maslow's hierarchy of needs with initial
units concentrating on rigorous foundation studies aimed at developing confidence in
basic skills and knowledge. This should be followed by opportunities for specialisation in
one or two technological disciplines together with advanced and challenging design
experiences.
That is, the structure of the course should aim to firstly satisfy lower order needs
through foundation units, and then progress to the higher order needs of design and self-
actualisation. The real problem is that many students may not now reach this state
because of the limited time and competing commitments inherent in a four-year
integrated program. While this is undoubtedly personality driven, many students do not
possess the fundamental confidence required to undertake such advanced and
challenging activities because they have not been provided with appropriate and
extended opportunities to do so. Moreover, the program should be full-time with
adequate opportunities for students to experience part of the program working in
industry or working with professional design practitioners.
The sequence of subjects would of course have to conform to the requirements of
the various teacher registration authorities. More precisely however, the content of this
program should be born out of a thorough analysis of all the skills required of a
contemporary technology teacher, including, but not limited to: design, research, analysis,
problem solving, and making skills. It should also include a strong philosophical analysis
of the complex relationships underpinning the links between design, technology, ethics
and future studies.
Phase 2
A purposefully designed two-year graduate program in technology teacher education that
builds on and complements the first degree but concentrates on the various pedagogical
skills required of a technology teacher entering the teaching profession in the 21st
Century. It should have a similar structure to the first degree, in that opportunities are
provided for foundation studies in education followed by extended opportunities to
develop confidence in their chosen profession. This program might have two phases as
14
well. That is, the first phase, perhaps one semester, should simply concentrate on the
generic foundation studies common to all teacher education programs, including for
example, information and communication technology, learning, human development,
sociology of education, classroom management, and initial technology curriculum
studies.
The second phase, perhaps over three semesters, should see students placed in an
extended teaching practicum which concentrates on developing confidence in practical
classroom teaching together with concurrent attendance at university for further theory
classes and seminars that concentrate on developing a professional awareness of what
they are supposed to be teaching relying significantly on the inclusion of their own
experiences in the technology classroom. However, this should be a specialist phase that
includes a significant focus on technology education. This should include for example,
further technology curriculum studies, as well as studies focusing on the history of
technology education, contemporary theories of technology education as well as the
latest research into theory and practice in technology education. The second phase
should also culminate with the student undertaking an extended full-time teaching
practicum, perhaps of one school term duration (about 10 weeks). This approach would,
in part, attempt to overcome one of the most significant criticisms of current teacher
education programs, that is, the diminishing opportunities for classroom teaching
practice, and hence address the 'safety' needs of student teachers.
Clearly the significant problems with this model, apart from philosophical support,
are time and funding. Time in the sense, that given the current shortage of technology
teachers, an extra year in the program does little to solve the various secondary school
systems staffing problems in technology education. Cost in the sense, that such a
program to both government and individual would most likely discourage quite a
number of potential participants, both employer and student teacher.
One way of solving these two problems might be to consider providing students with
a pro-rata salary while they are completing their teaching practicum. This could address
the perennial financial needs of students while at the same time providing employers
with an opportunity to develop a degree of ownership of the education of their future
work force. Of course this would require a great deal of careful negotiation with and
between all interested parties: employers, teacher registration authorities, universities,
professional teacher associations, teacher unions, and potential students. It may mean,
for example, that in the end, such payments do not commence until the student has
successfully completed a first practicum, when they are completing their extended full-
time practicum towards the end of the program, or as part of an extended scholarship
arrangement.
Out of necessity, at least one university and one non-government employer are
already investigating the provision of salary payments to students during the completion
of their teacher education course. In this arrangement, students would be employed on a
0.6 load with the remainder of the week allocated to university attendance. This is
becoming quite a significant issue because of the widespread 'poaching' of students and
the fact that no formal protocols exist to mange such a situation either by the universities
or by the school systems.
15
st
Benefits
The implementation of this model, or a similar model, might provide:
• a more confident beginning technology teacher willing to meet the real challengers of
the contemporary technology curriculum,
• students with some funding during the latter part of the program,
• systems with teaching staff while the students are still completing their pre-service
teacher education, and
• systems with beginning technology teachers who have had the 'time' to develop within
the teaching profession.
Conclusion
This paper has briefly examined issues associated with developing a model of pre-service
secondary technology teacher education programs. It was suggested that such programs
should be focused on developing a confident beginning technology teacher and therefore
should look to the work Maslow for guidance, particularly if the ideals of the
contemporary technology curriculum are to be achieved. It was suggested that such a
model might be a five-year program, consisting of a purpose designed Bachelor of
Technology followed by a purpose designed graduate program in technology teacher
education. The issue of student salaries was also briefly canvassed.
References
Bailey, G & Pownell, D 1998, 'Technology Staff Development and Support Programs: Applying
Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs', Learning & Leading With Technology, vol.26, no.3,
November, in Information Transfer, vol.21, no.4, 2001, pp.30–35.
Bichelmeyer, B A 1991, 'The pilot implementation of an educational computer network: A
naturalistic study', Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas, Lawrence.
Davies, T 2000, 'Confidence! Its role in the creative teaching and learning of design and
technology, Journal of Technology Education, vol.12, no.1, Fall, [WWW document], URL
http://scholar. lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JTE/v121/davies.html
Maslow, A H 1943, 'A Theory of human motivation', Psychological Review, July, in B Dabscheck &
J Niland 1981, Industrial relations in Australia, George Allen and Unwin, North Sydney.
Maslow, A H 1968, Towards a psychology of being (2nd edn), Van Nostrand Reinhold, Princeton, NJ.
Norman, E, Cubitt, J, Urry, S & Whittaker, M 2000, Advanced design and technology (3rd edn), Pearson
Education, Harlow.
Scannell, D P 2000, Models of Teacher Education, Report to the American Council on Education
President's Task Force on Teacher education, American Council on Education.
16
The Transformation of Queensland
JuniorSecondary School Manual Arts into
Technology Education: A Qualitative
Analysis of the Teacher's Role
Roy J. Barnes, Ivan R. Chester
Centre for Technology Education Research
Griffith University
I
n Queensland, changing Manual Arts and implementing a Technology Education curriculum in
a systemic manner has proven to be problematic. A core group of progressive teachers has
been responsible for non-systemic changes in the curriculum in some schools. The study
reported here used qualitative research methods to investigate the factors which have influenced
those teachers to change the curriculum. Narrative interviews were conducted with five teachers
and analysis of the data has revealed five significant factors: flagging student interest, external
curriculum, supportive school environment, personal renewal and leadership style. An emergent
model of curriculum change has been identified and recommended for further research.
Introduction
The Industrial Technology and Design Teachers' Association of Queensland (INTAD)
believe that the successful implementation of new technology education focused syllabi is
at risk because there is a "lack of Education Queensland direction and policy" (INTAD
2001, p.1). The introduction of school-based management has decentralised the
implementation of syllabi. Principals now place new expectations of professionalism on
teachers to provide quality learning for students which reflect new syllabus direction.
Currently however, in many schools the Manual Arts curriculum reflects a pre 1986
manual training orientation (Warner 2001).
Manual Arts teachers have adopted a "wait and see approach" (INTAD 2001, p.2),
and are expecting a systemic curriculum direction, professional development and the
provision of resources (Warner 2001). These teachers are now "at the extreme edge of
knowledge and understanding of the content and pedagogical philosophy for the delivery
of new technology curriculum" (INTAD 2001, p.2). Failure to implement the new
curriculum may jeopardise the future viability of the subject area as there is no statutory
obligation for schools to offer subjects in the Industrial Technology and Design.
A core group of progressive teachers, approximately 40 from a total cohort of about
1150 (Warner 2001), have personally chosen to implement a school based technology
curriculum. These teachers have modified the existing shop-based syllabi and pre-empted
17
st
the new technology curriculum (INTAD 2001; Warner 2001). This situation poses a
question that has formed the basis of this research. What factors have influenced
Queensland junior secondary school Manual Arts teachers to implement a Technology
Education curriculum?
Literature review
Historically, changes in Queensland Manual Arts curriculum have only been successful
when initiated by classroom teachers (Waltisbuhl 1995). Green (1986) supports this view
but adds that a new curriculum is not implemented in Manual Arts because the "teachers'
attitudes are steeped in prescriptive methods derived from nineteenth century practice"
(Green 1986, p.27). "These attitudes have to be challenged and shown to be inadequate
to the current situation and new-ideas, programs and practices that are meaningful,
feasible, and useable have to be proposed" (Bybee & Loucks-Horsley 2000a, p.16).
Researchers have found that in the implementation of systemic educational reforms,
the attitude of the classroom teacher is crucial in determining the success or failure of
innovative curriculum (Hargreaves 1994; Sarason 1991). To successfully implement
changes, teachers must agree with the underlying philosophy of the curriculum (Stein,
McRobbie & Ginns 1999). Changing a teacher's philosophy requires teacher
development, which is a career - long process (Brady & Kennedy 1999). Without teacher
development there is no curriculum development and, conversely, where a curriculum
has changed, there has been teacher development (Givens 2000).
Implementing teacher development strategies is problematic. Teachers acknowledge
the existence of programs, policy, directives, school regulations and recommendations
but in practice, they often feign what needs to be done to comply with requirements. The
curriculum students actually receive is more influenced by what teachers believe, by what
peers believe and do, and by other more elusive cultural matters. (Sergiovanni 1996;
Wallace 1998).
Hargreaves (1997), has proposed that theories of educational change have been
ineffective because they focused on technical planning. These theories of educational
change were developed within a positivist epistemology that provides " a set of logical
rules of explanation, independent of the world and its social practices" (Usher, Bryant &
Johnston 1997, p.176). The social aspects of change are therefore ignored. Support for
new theories of educational change is based on a conceptualisation of social reality which
recognises knowledge as personal, subjective, and as being developed and interpreted
within a unique social context (Cohen & Manion 1994). Researchers in education (Evers &
Lakomski 1996) are using this understanding of social reality to justify methods of
research into the relationships of participants rather than the technical components of an
educational social system. This research is grounded in the real-world experience of
teachers, students and administrators and their social reality. The approach is
interpretive, the analysis of the data is inductive, with theory being emergent and not
preceding the research (Cohen & Manion 1994).
This grounded approach to research was seen as being appropriate for investigating
the problem presented in this project. The literature review revealed a gap in the
knowledge in regards to factors which influence teachers to change curriculum content
18
The Transformation of Queensland JuniorSecondary School Manual Arts
and practice. Using a grounded research approach provided an opportunity to discern

some of the elusive attitudes, beliefs and cultural matters which influence teacher
development and therefore their role in the change process. Focusing the research on the
Queensland junior secondary school, Manual Arts teachers who have implemented a
Technology Education curriculum was seen as best involving a reflective investigation of
the factors which have influenced the change. An ethnographic methodology was
deemed to be appropriate with data collection through narrative interviews.
Methodology
Narrative interviewing
In the context of this project, narrative interviews were in the form of an unstructured
discussion focusing on the research question. The participant was encouraged to narrate
the story of their experiences during the period when they were changing the curriculum.
The unstructured interview creates a conversational encounter which allows the
interviewee to tell a story in their own way and the interviewer the freedom to respond to
new material raised during the interview.
Participants were selected from a list provided by the Industrial Technology and
Design Teachers Association (INTAD) of exemplar technology teachers involved in new
curriculum implementation. From this list five teachers were chosen who were also
involved in the QSCC Technology KLA trial. These teachers had voluntarily
implemented a Technology curriculum prior to being invited to apply for involvement in
the syllabus trial and their programs were used as the basis for the initial in-service
materials. Data were collected from each participant in their own school environment
using an audiotape.
Data analysis
The data obtained from each participant was initially read and studied to obtain a 'feel'
for the individual's story. Each participant had recorded a brief resume and this was used
as the basis for a descriptive profile which outlined their career and the process by which
they had experienced curriculum change. The finished profile was emailed to the
participants and their feedback sought to ensure that they were not being
misrepresented. As a result of completing the profile a much deeper understanding of
the unique themes and issues within each individual's interview data was gained.
The next step in the analysis of the data involved an inductive two-stage process.
Firstly, a list of the frequently recurring themes and issues was prepared for each
individual. The groups of supporting text for each theme and issue were categorised and
labelled as 'factors'. The result of this process was a new document featuring a set of
factors which had influenced the participant along with supporting extracts from the
interview data. This was repeated for all the participants, one at a time and without
reference to one another to minimise influence from previous data.
The second stage of the analysis involved identifying and labelling factors which were
common to a number of participants. These were then documented in a narrative format
and illustratively grounded in as much supporting raw data as possible. The factors were
19
st
subjected to an extensive literature review to ascertain whether or not a relationship

existed between the identified factors and any existing theory. From the relationships
between the factors, an emergent model of curriculum change has been proposed.
The factors
A factor, in the context of this study, is an influence which existed prior to the change
and therefore influenced the teacher to initiate the change process.
Flagging student interest

"Flagging Student Interest" influenced the teachers' decision to maintain or change the
current curriculum. The participants described a process whereby a lack of student
interest in a subject initiated change, the students' needs tailored the new curriculum and
once a new curriculum was implemented the students' enthusiasm provided the impetus
for the ongoing change process. Stein, McRobbie and Ginns (1999) proposed that before
teachers fully embrace the new beliefs and practices of technology curriculum, they need
to experience the value through the changes in student learning. In this project the
students' change from boredom with the traditional program, to a positive response to
the technology curriculum, has encouraged the teachers to rethink their attitude to
existing curriculum.
External curriculum
"External Curriculum" influenced the participants to adopt a Technology Education
focus to the curriculum change that they planned. At the time that the participants were
initiating curriculum change, the only syllabi in the Manual Arts area were the 1986
traditionally based Shop A and B. The documents that influenced the teachers and
provided a technology direction included the Technology Key Learning Area statements,
overseas curriculum and senior school syllabi such as Technology Studies.
This exposure to external curriculum was by accident rather than design but the
effect fits with Fullan's (1999) top/down and bottom/up strategies of change. Fullan
states that there has to be a simultaneous operation initiated of systemic policy and
classroom innovation. In this study the external curriculum has influenced the teacher at
a time when other factors such as flagging student interest were present. This may
explain why the fragments of external curriculum have contributed to the actions of
these teachers in changing the traditional curriculum.
Supportive school environment

"Supportive School Environment" describes the internal school political milieu that has
supported and encouraged the participants' to change the curriculum. The contributors
to this environment are the Principal, Head of Department, Manual Arts staff, School
council and parents. The nature of the school environment has affected all of the
participants. Some of them had tried to implement changes at previous schools but were
unsuccessful because of a hostile or apathetic attitude to the new subject direction. The
main underlying theme that the participants describe involves the administration giving
the teacher the freedom to change.
20
An investigation of the literature from previous research indicates that a supportive

school environment is a fundamental requirement for the successful implementation of
new curriculum (Bybee & Loucks-Horsley 2000a; Penney & Fox 1997). This environment
includes time, materials, organisational structures which encourage people with ideas, and
collaborative opportunities for professional dialogue (Penney & Fox 1997). These
strategies, especially opportunities for professional dialogue and structures that
encourage ideas, would allow teachers "freedom" similar to that described by the
participants in this project.
Peer support is a factor which is well documented in previous research. The attitude
of the classroom teachers defines the day to day environment in which the innovative
teacher works. As Givens (2000) states "innovation cannot succeed unless the majority
of staff are at worse neutral but it is clearly important to have a majority positively
inclined to the curriculum change" (p.74). This is particularly so in the case of a Head of
Department. When they provided a supportive environment, the teachers began to
change the curriculum.
Personal renewal
"Personal Renewal" describes a process of personal reflection and development which
changed the teacher's belief in Manual Arts. The result was a philosophical shift towards
the ideals of Technology Education prior to implementing changes to the curriculum.
The process was induced by separate elements such as, career dissatisfaction, the
influence of peers or mentors, further study and spiritual enlightenment.
Four of the participants were all trained as traditional Manual Arts teachers and were
not exposed to the elements of personal renewal until they had been teaching for at least
15 years. They reported experiencing a period of dissatisfaction with their job and the
subject area, which led to a phase of personal reflection. Bascia (1998), maintains that
teachers experience four distinct phases of personal growth as they progress through
their career. When teachers enter the profession they are initially concerned with survival.
Subsequently they question their suitability to the career. Once these concerns are
satisfied they enter a third phase where they look for ways to improve their teaching
ability. In the fourth phase they experience a desire to influence other teachers. Effective
teacher development usually takes place in a teacher's third phase of personal growth. It
involves the teacher challenging their old beliefs and forming new beliefs, developing
knowledge and learning new skills (Bybee & Loucks-Horsley 2000b). This is the process
of personal renewal described by each of the experienced teachers.
Leadership style
"Leadership Style" describes the personal characteristics which dictated the response of
the participants when acted upon by the other factors. This factor emerged from the data
as a dual factor as two different forms of leadership were apparent, "Trendsetter" and
"Promoter." A trendsetter in this context is a person willing to accept new ideas and
implement them when no one else is interested and set an example through direct
leadership that others follow. Four of the participants, all acted as trendsetters in the
manner in which they have implemented the Technology Education curriculum.
21
st
The Promoter leadership style describes one participant's approach to the change
process. His leadership style emerged from the data as a supporter of change rather than
a driver of change. He allowed the teachers freedom to initiate new curriculum and pro-
actively lobbied the school administration to change the perceptions and attitudes to the
subject area. He continually used the term "We" and credits the changes that have
occurred as being a result of a collaborative effort. As a result of his leadership style, he
has created a supportive school environment which is one of the key strategies for
educational change in schools (Fullan 1998).
Emergent model of curriculum change

The four factors, flagging student interest, external curriculum, supportive school
environment and personal renewal form a system of change which has influenced the
participants to introduce a non-systemic curriculum change. The factors are interrelated
and have provided a simultaneous influence on the participants. Further investigation of
the data revealed that the participants' leadership style contributed to this phenomenon
and forms the nucleus of an emergent model of curriculum change in technology
education. The model was labelled the, "Trendsetter model of non-systemic curriculum
change in Technology education," vide figure 1.
Supportive School
Flagging
Environment
Student
Interest
Curriculum
Change
External Trendsetter
Curriculum Leadership Style
Personal
Renewal
Figure 1
Trendsetter model of non-systemic curriculum change in technology education
22
Flagging student interest raises the trendsetter teacher's awareness that there is a
problem with the existing subject while personal renewal provides the process of teacher
development that is required for them to begin to question their belief in Manual Arts. A
trendsetter teacher influenced by flagging student interest and undergoing a personal
renewal is searching for a direction of action which will meet the needs initiated by these
factors. Exposure to external curriculum focuses their energy on the curriculum change
process. When these three factors are simultaneously influencing the trendsetter teacher,
a desire to change the curriculum is initiated. Teachers influenced in this manner require
a supportive school environment, which may be provided by the existence of a promoter
style leadership, before they are able to successfully implement curriculum change. This
environment must allow the teacher freedom to explore and trial new curriculum
directions.
Conclusions and recommendations

This project aimed to define the factors which have influenced Queensland junior
secondary school Manual Arts teachers to implement a Technology Education
curriculum. Five important factors emerged from an analysis of narratives. These were,
flagging student interest, external curriculum, supportive school environment, personal
renewal and leadership style. Two leadership styles were evident, trendsetter and
promoter. The trendsetter leads by implementing the curriculum personally, whereas the
promoter leads by supporting other teachers and encouraging them to implement
changes.
As an outcome of the research an emergent model of curriculum change has been
proposed. The trendsetter model of non-systemic curriculum change in Technology
Education hypothesises that a teacher with a trendsetter leadership style, when
influenced by flagging student interest, external curriculum and personal renewal, will
implement a curriculum change if they are in a supportive school environment.
The research has also identified two factors, personal renewal and supportive school
environment, which could be developed to assist teachers' receptivity to the change
process. Effective personal renewal may be initiated by the provision of a sustained
period of professional development. A supportive school environment may be enhanced
by the employment of a teacher, preferably the Head of Department, whose leadership
style is that of a promoter. The conclusions and proposed model provide future
researchers and practitioners with context-relevant data which may be used for the basis
of further research.
References
Bascia, N 1998, 'Teacher unions and educational reform', in International handbook of educational
change, eds A Hargreaves, A Lieberman, M Fullan & D Hopkins, Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp.895-915.
Brady, L & Kennedy, K 1999, Curriculum construction, Prentice Hall, Sydney.
Bybee, R & Loucks-Horsley, S 2000a, 'Standards as a catalyst for change in technology education',
The Technology Teacher, vol.59, no.5, pp.14-17.
Bybee, R & Loucks-Horsley, S 2000b, 'Advancing technology education: The role of professional
development', The Technology Teacher, vol.60, no.2, pp.31-36.
23
st
Cohen, L & Manion, L 1994, Research methods in education (4th edn), Routledge, London.
Fullan, M 1998, 'The meaning of educational change: A quarter of a century of learning', in International
handbook of educational change, (eds) A Hargreaves, A Lieberman, M Fullan & D Hopkins, Kluwer,
Dordrecht, pp.214–228.
Fullan, M 1999, 'On effecting change in arts education', Arts Education Policy Review, vol.100, no.3,
pp.17–18.
Evers, C & Lakomski, G 1996, Exploring educational administration: Coherentist applications and critical
debates, Pergamon, Oxford.
Givens, N 2000, 'Curriculum materials as a vehicle for innovation: A case study of the Nuffield design
and technology project', Research in Science & Technological Education, vol.18, no.1, pp.71–84.
Green, B 1986, 'Role of design in technology teacher education', in Technology Teacher Education
Monograph, Australian Council for Education through Technology, Newcastle C.A.E., pp.25–
30.
Hargreaves, A 1994, Changing teachers, changing times, Cassell, London.
Hargreaves, A 1997, 'Introduction', in Rethinking educational change with heart and mind 1991 ASCD
yearbook, ed. A Hargreaves, ASCD, Alexandria, VA, pp.vii–xv.
INTAD 2001, Unpublished position paper.
Penney, D & Fox, B 1997, ' 'At the wheel or backseat drivers?': The role of teachers in contemporary
curriculum reform', Queensland Journal of Educational Research, vol.13, no.2, pp.14–27.
Sarason, S 1991, The predictable failure of educational reform: Can we change before it's too late, Jossey-Bass,
San Francisco.
Sergiovanni, T 1996, Leadership for the schoolhouse, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
Stein, S, McRobbie, C & Ginns, I 1999, 'Introducing technology education: Using teachers'
questions as a platform for professional development', Research in Science Education, vol.29, no.4,
pp.501–514.
Usher, R, Bryant, I & Johnston, R 1997, Adult education and postmodern challenge: Learning beyond the
limits, Routledge, London.
Wallace, M 1998, 'Innovations in planning for school improvement: Problems and potential', in
International handbook of educational change, eds A Hargreaves, A Lieberman, M Fullan & D Hopkins,
Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp.1181–1202.
Waltisbuhl, A 1995, 'A history of manual training in Queensland 1885–1970', Unpublished
doctoral dissertation, University of Queensland, Brisbane.
Warner, N (Speaker) 2001, Manual Arts in Queensland, Cassette recording, Griffith University.
24
How do Learners Engage with Hypermedia
in Vocational On-line Learning?
Fred Beven
Centre for Learning and Work Research,
Griffith University
T
he merger of computer, communication, and information technologies has enabled the
current hypermedia capabilities found on the Internet and Intranets. The use of hypermedia
to complement customary instruction or even to provide entire courses has a great deal of
momentum in educational communities. For example, in the IT training market it has been
predicted (IDC 1998) that technology based training in 2003 will comprise 14 percent of the
market, up from 2 percent in 1998.
However, an understanding of how hypermedia technologies will support educational processes
present us with a number of substantial challenges. For not only does the use of these
technologies not guarantee effective learning, inappropriate uses may in fact hinder learning.
Nonetheless, educators and authors (e.g. Hall 2000) argue that many aspects of technology
make it easier to create environments that fit the principles of learning. This paper reports a
preliminary analysis of data collected from students interacting with educational hypermedia in a
vocational setting.
Introduction
The first part of this paper reviews the educational hypermedia literature in an attempt to
better understand what it is and to articulate what is seen as its potential for learning.
What seems apparent from this analysis is that there is still much to understand about
how and why learners interact with educational hypermedia in the way that they do. The
final part of this paper reports a preliminary analysis of data collected from four students
interacting with educational hypermedia in a vocational setting. The study sought to map
the actions of learners as they interacted with hypermedia driven courseware. The
analysis of these actions moves toward a tentative understanding of some of the reasons
behind these actions.
A definition of hypermedia
Hypertext is an idea that can have its historical roots traced back to Vannevar Bush
(1945). Bush with his emphasis on the role of association in cognition dreamed of a
technology that would allow us to deal with an exponentially growing knowledge base by
quickly facilitating the selecting, retrieving and arranging of data. It has been the advent
of the computer that has allowed for the realisation of this idea. According to Tricot,
Pierre-Demarchy and Boussarghini (2000), hypermedia (the extension of hypertext) are
25
st
in effect, documents or organised collections of documents. A document is considered

to be structured material that enables the user to 'build sense' (Tricot et al 2000).
Hypermedia are electronic materials where the communication channel can be audio,
visual or both; the code used can be linguistic, iconic or analogical (e.g. sounds, pictures,
dynamic pictures); and the structure can be linear or nonlinear (see Fig 1). Thus, the
concept of a hypermedia document is richer than the more traditional notion of a
document that we associate with its paper based form. It is this richer notion of a
document that leads to claims about its educational potential.
Figure 1
What is a (Hypermedia) document (Tricot et al 2000, p.104)
(Reproduced with the kind permission of the Journal of Computer Assisted Learning)
What are the claims about hypermedia?

Hypermedia and information
Hypermedia presents a new way to interact with media that differs from reading standard
linear media (e.g. textbooks, diagrams and charts). For example, within a textbook the
text is typically presented in a linear form, in which there is a single way to progress
through the text, starting at the beginning and reading to the end. In contrast, within
hypermedia, information can be represented in a semantic network where multiple
related sections of media are connected to one another (Foltz 1996). Users may browse
through the sections of media, jumping from one node to another. This permits the
reader to select a path through the media that is most relevant to their interest. The
concept of user selected pathways in hypermedia to retrieve and read information is seen
as having educational application as it has the potential to accommodate differing
learning styles.
26
How do Learners Engage with Hypermedia in Vocational On-Line Learning?
Educational hypermedia
In recent years, the emergence of digital documents has progressed from word-processed
text, through stand-alone hypermedia, to the World Wide Web. When directed at
educational purposes the technologies are collectively referred to educational
hypermedia. Some commentators and educators (e.g. Landow 1992; Dryden 1994) have
predicted major shifts in paradigm to the manner in which we understand the learning
experience and the educational process as a result of these technologies. The promise of
hypermedia has been touted as having 'the potential to become a significant application
area: equalling or perhaps exceeding that of word processing, spreadsheets and general
database application' (Begoray 1990, p.121). The nonlinear nature of hypermedia and
assumptions about its educational value appear to underlie much of this argument.
Yet after a decade of research, other authors (Mcknight, Dillon & Richardson 1991,
1996; Dillon & Gabbard 2000) suggest that such strong claims are short of supporting
evidence from studies of learners. Dillon (1996) argues that in the last decade of
empirical evidence much has been generally assumed about hypermedia, but rarely
demonstrated; 'that the unmistakable advantages of hypertext have rung hollow' (p.26).
The lack of a general theory of hypermedia learning and a tendency to overlook the
lessons learned from user studies of previous technologies are considered major reasons
for these claims not being realised (Dillon & Gabbard 2000).
Welch and Brownell (2000) argue that technology is effective when developers
thoughtfully consider the merit and limitations of a particular application while
employing effective pedagogical practices. This stance argues that instructional objectives
should drive decisions as to what technology is to be used and how. Tessmer (1993),
almost a decade earlier, argued that developers should not just use a specific form of
technology because "we can". Instead he urged developers to conduct, what he called a
"front end" evaluation to carefully consider the suitability of a multimedia format in
terms of the instructional objectives. This, he argues, would help to establish the extent
to which the medium enhances the leaning experience. In order to do this he suggested
that developers employ formative evaluation procedures to test prototypes of multimedia
products.
This brief review of the literature indicates a number of things. Firstly, there needs to
be more work done with respect to the development of a general theory of hypermedia.
Secondly, research so far has not yet established whether the claimed advantages of
hypermedia for education can be realised. I would argue that research that seeks to gain a
better understanding of the learners' experiences when engaged with educational
hypermedia would play a crucial role in informing both of these issues. The next section
reviews hypermedia and learning.
Hypermedia and learning

Learning with the use of computers has been a growing aspect of education for more
than two decades. In more recent times, and with the advent of the World Wide Web,
applications have developed which utilise web browsers as the underlying production
and delivery engine. The earliest entries into computer based learning were usually
written using programming languages and constructed in the main by computer
27
st
programmers. The pervasive nature of web browser technology, the underlying

universally adopted Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) and software that enables the
lay person to develop bowser screens without any knowledge of HTML has led to a vast
array of web-based products including educational products.
Hypermedia is a form of information access which is highly attractive to educational
users because, on the surface at least, it leaves them in full control of that access while at
the same time making it extremely easy. Hypermedia provides "learning environments
that promote the active, personal exploration of information for both comprehension
and information" (Welsh 1995, p.275). Thus, as a learning context, it is seen as turning
control over to the learner, a construct considered central to effective learning.
Hypermedia as such espouses a very constructivist (Billett 1994; Von Glaserfield 1987)
approach to learning: a view of learning emphasising active and interpretative knowledge
acquisition, as individuals integrate and extend their knowledge in an effort to maintain
its viability .
Web-based learning has been lauded as ushering in a new era of learning, and like
many technologies in the past, as the mechanism to change the very nature of education
and schooling in the future. Yet as Dillon (1996) asserts, during the last decade the
empirical evidence does not support this view. He argues that the practice of hypermedia
design has been accompanied by an uncritical acceptance of a host of quasi-
psychological notions of reading and cognition. He goes on to argue that as a
consequence hypermedia has largely failed to fulfil much of its early promise. Both he
and others (e.g. Dreyfus 1998; Mayer 1999) believe that this is in part due to an
inappropriate emphasis on the technology and not the learner. As with technologies and
educational innovations of the past, research tends lag behind development.
Much of the research into the use of hypermedia in education has focused on the
capability of hypermedia for flexible information organisation and retrieval, interface
design, or mixed media. The use of hypermedia as a tool for mediating the nature of the
cognitive interactions that occur between learners and the computer has been less
thoroughly explored (Yang 2002). In addition, not much attention has been given to
analysing the cognitive processes that go on in learner's interactions with the technology.
Therefore, there is a need for further exploration of learners' interactions with
hypermedia in order to understand better the cognitive processes it activates. The next
section reports a preliminary analysis of data from a study that sought to map the actions
of learners as they interacted with hypermedia courseware.
The study
Method
The study followed a qualitative paradigm and focussed on gathering data from students
undertaking a web-based course in computer networking as they interacted with the web-
based courseware. The data were collected using a screenbased video capture software
(Camtasia) that recorded the learner's real time interaction with the software. Immediately
following the initial capture the session was played back to the respondent and they were
asked to explain what they were doing and why. Stimulated recall was used to get
respondents to articulate their reasons for interacting with the software in the way they did.
28
The participants were 4 students who self selected by volunteering from a class group
of 12. This class group was chosen for a number of reasons. Firstly, the learners were
engaged in on-line learning. Secondly, as most of the web-based interactions happened
on home computers, it was critical that the computer on which they were working had
the disk capacity to hold video files and had a read and write CD-ROM for transferring
these large files. Thirdly, the student cohort was known to posses the technical skills to
load the capture software, activate the capture, and transfer the results to CD-ROM. All
of the volunteers had computers of sufficient capacity and also had the necessary
technical skills.
Data analysis
The courseware consisted of a series of topics constructed as a set of documents or
screens. Each respondent was asked to work through a topic they had not previously
attempted. The courseware allowed them to choose the manner in which they did this.
For example, it was possible for them to move through the screens in a linear fashion
following the structure of the courseware. Conversely, using a number of navigational
aids that were provided, they were able to move around the screens in any manner they
chose. A sample screen is shown below as Figure 2.
Figure 2
Typical screen layout and navigational devices
29
st
Each of the screens provided the learner with a consistent interface. The right hand
side of the screen contained text, whilst the left had side provided a graphics display area.
Not all screens had graphics and in these cases the graphics area contained a
watermarked logo. Some screens contained multiple graphics, indicated by numbered
buttons on the left side of the graphics segment (see Figure 2 as an example). The
additional graphics could be viewed by placing the mouse cursor of the appropriate
number. On some screens the amount of text was greater than that able to fit in the text
window. In this case scroll bars would be provided. Navigational aids were provided
across the bottom of the screen that allowed the learner to move forward or backward in
a linear fashion or to move to some other part of the courseware. The bottom navigation
bar also provided access to a set of review questions, a quiz and a glossary. As a result,
the learners were able to follow the structure of the courseware in a linear fashion or
choose to navigate through the material in a non-linear way, selecting a pathway of their
own making.
In order to assist in the later analysis of the data the learners were asked to place the
cursor in the area they were currently using. For example, if they were reading text they
moved the cursor down the text as they read.
It was a recorded version of the learners chosen method of interacting with the
screens accompanied by their stimulated recall of these events that formed the data set
for initial analysis. A framework for the initial review of the data was developed. Each of
the video files was viewed and the data mapped onto a four-column table (see Figure 3).
SCREEN USED RESPONDENTS USER

STATEMENTS TRANSACTIONS
Overview
I started to read Started Notepad
Yes the text and
glanced briefly at
the graphic.
Typed acronyms in
full in notepad
There were some
acronyms here that
were new to me
Cut & pasted
acronyms
Ignored threaded
case study as I Reviewed text
don't find it useful
at this point
Ignored case study
Glanced at the
diagram
Figure 3
Sample data used for the preliminary analysis
30
The first data column contained a graphic of the screens selected by the learners in
the order in which they worked through them. The second column indicated whether or
not the user engaged with the screen or whether they by-passed it. The third column was
an abridged version of the utterances made by the learner during the stimulated recall
recording. The final column was a record of the user transactions identified on the
recording. Together they provided a rich picture of the navigational track chosen by the
learner as well as providing some insight as to the reasons for some of those actions.
Discussion
Presented next are some observations from a first pass analysis of the data. These
observations are presented with respect to the learners' use of the three main aspects of
the software interface, namely, the Content Display area, the Media Display area and the
navigation bar.
Content display area

This area made available the text material on a page by page basis. In most cases the page
of text fitted in the content display area, however, when it did not, a scroll bar aided
access. Arrows appearing in the navigation bar facilitated movement between text pages.
All learners read the text word for word in a forward linear fashion with only a few
instances of backward and forward movement within a screen, and almost no backward
and forward movement between screens. There was no occasion in which a learner
moved between or around sub-topics (available via the navigation bar). There was some
movement between the text and the graphics presented alongside. However, when
finished with the graphic the learners returned to the text and took up where they had
left off.
This seems to indicate that these learners were very much influenced by the structure
of the text as provided. Given that they were learning new material this is perhaps not
surprising. The coherence of the information, afforded by the structure imposed by the
author, is familiar to learners (linear reading). Knowledge acquisition is generally
perceived today as an active process of constructing mental representations and a
coherence of the knowledge used in building these representations is likely to be of
benefit in this process. This might explain why these learners did not take the
opportunity to engage with the text in a non-linear way.
This might not be the case though when the purpose for engaging with the text is
different. For example, reviewing material prior to assessment or undertaking a task
might not necessitate a full linear engagement with the text. In this case, the learners
mental representations are likely to be better formed from the knowledge acquired from
prior engagements with the text. Observations from this situation might reveal a more
non-linear approach (e.g. skimming or skipping, or going directly to a particular point) of
the text.
Hyperlinks were available throughout the text. These links were both internal (to
within the module) and external (to outside the module). Whilst one learner used these
links often, the other three made no use of these links at all. When questioned, those not
making use of the links believed that the links often led them into far greater detail than
31
st
they felt necessary, and caused them to lose the thread of the topic as a whole. One
learner thought that these links might be more useful when reviewing a topic rather than
with initial learning.
One special hyperlink that was used by all four learners and marked 'Lab Activities'.
This link led to a comprehensive outline of a practical activity the learners would be
required to undertake later. All learners gave the same reason for following this link; they
found it useful because the laboratory information sheet provided a comprehensive
overview of the practical activity in which they were to engage and acted as a primer with
which to decide what information in the unit might be important. This was interesting as
it added further weight to the earlier proposition that learner interaction with the text is
linked to purpose, in this case, the completion of a practical assessment successfully.
Media display area

The media display area sat alongside and to the right of the text window (see Figure 2).
This window was an adjunct to the text and did not always contain a graphic. On some
occasions the window contained more than one graphic, which were presented as
overlays and accessed via mouse movement.
All four students engaged with the graphics. The time spent on the graphics was
short indicating that they were not studied in any depth. The media display area had a
zoom function that caused a selected part of the graphic to become enlarged within the
window.
Learners made the following comments and observations about the media display
area. Being situated next to the text window was generally seen as positive, however two
of the four learners said that they found this a distraction. Three of the four found the
graphics not always to be useful. Reasons given included that the diagrammatic
representation presented were not always understood, often not seen as relevant, and
sometimes were too complex. Respondents also reported that in some instances
differences between the graphics on different pages were not obvious and caused them
confusion (changes not highlighted or apparent). The zoom capacity was not used, and
not seen as providing any useful purpose.
Navigation bar
This bar (see Figure 2) provided the means of navigating between pages as well as access
to other functional components (e.g. a glossary). The Chapter pull-down menu and the
index button provided direct access to various parts of the chapter. A review button took
the learner to a set of review questions that are to be answered prior to commencing a
new chapter. A quiz buttons took the learner to a series of questions, which helps them
to determine if they have mastered the content of the chapter. The browser button
launches a new window that contains a listing of important key terms used in the
curriculum. Back and next buttons allowed the learner to navigate from page to page and
were the primary navigational buttons.
The pull-down navigation bar and Index were not accessed by any of the learners.
Movement between pages was carried out (in a linear fashion) using the next and back
buttons. Although multiple ways of navigating the pages were provided the navigational
32
movements were aligned with the chapter structure.

The review questions (to be taken before starting on a chapter) were used by 2 of the
4 learners. Those not using them believed that the questions focused on simple concepts
and therefore seen as having little value. This is in contrast to the Quiz, which was used
by all 4 learners. The quiz was seen to be important in finding out whether they in fact
knew what they were supposed to know. This would seem to be the on-line version of
teacher feedback which research shows to be important.
The Glossary was not used during the recorded sessions. The learners informed me
that they did not find it useful as the explanations provided generally lacked a context.
Conclusion
This preliminary analysis of the data has probably raised more questions for me than it
has provided answers. Nonetheless, it does provided a tentative glimpse at what might be
termed the differences between the formal and hidden curriculum with respect to this
hypermedia. Some observations that might inform hypermedia developers include:
• Learners at present come from a background in which learning using text has been
largely governed by the structure of that text as determined by the author. Providing
the capability (through hypermedia) to learn with text in a non-linear fashion will not
of itself cause learners to use it in this way (at least when learning new material).
• The superior form of graphics now possible through this medium may in fact be
producing counter productive effects on learning.
• In this hypermedia example the glossary provided as a learning aid adopted a
traditional paper based form and suffered from the same kinds of limitations.
Adopting the hyper concept used by the rest of the materials could assist in providing
the context the learners saw as missing.
References
Begoray, J 1990, 'An introduction to hypermedia issues, systems and application areas', International
Journal of Man-Machine Studies, vol.33, pp.121–147.
Billett, S 1994, 'Authenticity in workplace settings', in Cognition at work: The development of vocational
expertise, ed. J Stevenson, NCVER: Adelaide, pp.36–75.
Bush V 1945, 'As we may think', Atlantic Monthly, vol.176, no.1, pp.101–108.
Dillon, A 1996, 'Myths, misconceptions, and an alternative perspective on information usage and
the electronic medium', in Hypertext and cognition, eds J Rouet, J Levonen, A Dillon & R Spiro,
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah NJ.
Dillon, A, & Gabbard, R 2000, 'Hypermedia as an educational technology: A review of the
quantitative research literature on learner comprehension, control, and style', Review of
Educational Research, vol.68, no.3, pp.322–349.
Dreyfus, H 1998, 'Education on the internet: Anonymity vs. commitment', The Internet and Higher
Dryden, L M 1994, 'Literature, student-centred classrooms, and hypermedia environments', in
Literacy and computers: The complications of teaching and learning with technology, eds C Selfe & Hilligoss,
Modern Language Association of America, New York, pp.282–304.
33
st
Foltz, P 1996, 'Comprehension, coherence, and strategies in hypertext and linear text', in Hypertext
and cognition, eds J Rouet, J. Levonen, A Dillon, & R Spiro, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
Mahwah NJ.
Hall, R H 2000, 'Education, hypermedia and the World Wide Web: Old realities and new visions',
CyberPsychology & Behaviour, vol.3, no.1, pp.1–7.
IDC 1998, Worldwide and U.S. IT education and training markets 1998–2003, International Data
Corporation, Framingham, MA.
Landow, G 1992, Hypertext: The convergence of cotemporary critical theory and technology, Johns Hopkins
University Press, Baltimore.
Mayer, R E 1999, 'Multimedia aids to problem-solving transfer', International Journal of Educational
Research, vol.31, pp.611–623.
Mcknight, C, Dillon, A. & Richardson, J 1991, Hypertext in context, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK.
Mcknight, C, Dillon, A, & Richardson, J 1996, 'User centred design of hypertext and hypermedia
for education', in Handbook of research on educational communications and technology, ed. D Jonassen,
Macmillan, New York, pp.622–633.
Tessmer, M 1993, 'Front-end and formative multimedia evaluation: Sharpening "cutting edge"
technology', Paper presentation at the annual convention of the America Educational Research
Association, Atlanta, GA.
Tricot, A, Pierre-Demarchy, C & El Boussarghini, R 2000, 'Specific help devices for educational
hypermedia', Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, vol.16, pp.102–113.
von Glaserfield, E 1987, 'Learning as a constructive activity', in Problems of representation in the teaching
and learning of mathematics, ed. Claude Janvier, Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale New Jersey, pp.3–17.
Welsh, T M 1995, 'Simplifying hypermedia usage for learners: The effect of visual and manual
filtering capabilities on efficiency, perceptions and usability, and performance', Journal of
Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, vol.4, no.4, pp.275–304.
Welch & Brownell 2000 'The development and evaluation of a multimedia course on educational
collaboration, Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, vol.3, pp.169–194.
Yang, S 2002, 'Multidimensional taxonomy of learners cognitive processing in discourse synthesis
with hypermedia', Computer in Human Behaviour, vol.18, pp.37–68.
34
Building 'Flax Bridges' in
Technology Education to
Uphold the Treaty of Waitangi
Partnership Principle
Ann Bondy
Wellington College of Education
T
he New Zealand Curriculum Framework along with the professional standards for
beginning and experienced teachers in New Zealand, make explicit, the obligations all
educators have to recognising the significance of the Treaty of Waitangi. This recognition
includes the provision of opportunities in the New Zealand classroom, for all students to acquire
knowledge of Mäori language and culture. This paper describes a project that was set up to
demonstrate the inclusive nature of technology education as it is set out in the New Zealand
curriculum and how it has the potential to embrace and celebrate the culture of New Zealand's
indigenous people. It provides evidence for the argument that by providing students with
meaningful, purposeful student centred learning opportunities that are set within the context of
their own worlds of understanding and culture, they will develop confidence in their own identities
and what they have to offer the wider community as a result of this. During November 2000 and
2001 a small group of technology education student teachers from Wellington College of
Education facilitated a technological activity with groups of year 9 & 10 Mäori students from a
Wellington girls' secondary school. The activity was designed to provide opportunities for the
student teachers to carry out some microteaching in technology education with a focus on
practising the partnership principle of the Treaty of Waitangi. The secondary school students
were also provided with the opportunity to experience technology education as it can reinforce
Mäori tikanga or custom.
Situation
The project outlined in this paper investigates the idea of using technology education as a
forum for identifying learning activities and opportunities that sit within a context or
offer a link that is familiar, and is of relevance to Mäori students. In this way, the
partnership principle of the Treaty of Waitangi is beginning to be acknowledged in an
educational context
An existing issue in many schools is that the majority of Mäori children will have
non-Mäori teachers teaching them at school, bringing with them their own worldview,
their choice of course content and resources, and their own teaching styles. This creates a
situation which is in contrast to the principle of partnership agreed upon the signing of
the Treaty of Waitangi. The idea of a true partnership in education is where there is a
meeting at a mid-point. In order to shift current schooling practices in the direction of
35
st
this mid-point, and to work towards the reduction of disparities in achievement, learning
opportunities to motivate Mäori students have been the focus for this paper. Students
need to be involved in their schooling, develop their sense of belonging and gain
ownership of their own learning at school and beyond.
Background
This project grew out of two situations. The first situation began with a meeting between
myself and the teacher of Te Reo Mäori (Mäori Language) at my two daughters' large
inner city school. We were having discussions about ways to enhance the Te Reo Mäori
programme at junior level to keep the girls motivated. The second situation related to a
short course that had been designed within the Graduate School of Secondary Teacher
Education programme at Wellington College of Education. This course was in response
to the lack of opportunities for the student teachers of technology during their three
teaching experience sections in their programme, to teach technology as it is described in
the document 'Technology in the New Zealand Curriculum' (1995). The course was
developed as a technology residency (block course) and had run two years previously at a
Porirua secondary school. During the meeting with my daughters' teacher, the possibility
of linking the residency to the Te Reo Mäori programme sprang to mind and so it was
followed through.
In view of the first situation I was aware of the fact that the teacher of Te Reo Mäori
(the Mäori language) was the only Mäori teacher in the school. It can be noted that
Mitchell and Mitchell (1993) and Bloor (1996) had identified workload, lack of support,
feeling of isolation, lack of resources, expectations of others, lack of recognition as being
reasons for the low retention of Mäori teachers. My daughters' teacher had responsibility
for planning, teaching and assessing Mäori at each level of the school programme. He
was enthusiastic about any support offered, and along with the senior management of
the school, was very open to my suggestion of having the technology residency with the
year nine and ten Te Reo Mäori students. Consideration also had to be given to the
learning needs of the students in the Mäori classes. During a recent study (Bondy 1999)
with year eleven Mäori students the idea was reinforced that students who pursue task-
oriented goals tend to use deep cognitive processing strategies, to be more creative, and
to continue to be interested in a task after formal instruction is completed. The opposite
holds true for students who pursue ability goals (Graham & Golan; Pintrich & De Groot;
Pintrisch & Garcia, cited in Powdrill, Just, Garcia & Amador 1997, p.2). Shunk and
Meece (cited in Powdrill et al 1997, p.2) found that students' perceptions of course
meaningfulness or relevance to their personal lives could also contribute to their overall
satisfaction and performance in a course.
The second situation sat within the context of technology as a new curriculum
area in New Zealand. Technology education allows for task-oriented goals, fosters
creativity (Bondy 2000), and supports learning around genuine needs and
opportunities (Bondy 1999b). It doesn't have a history as an essential learning area
before the New Zealand Curriculum Framework (1993) as most of the other curriculum
areas have. Technology Education in the New Zealand Curriculum was gazetted in 1999
and so its implementation and development in schools remains varied in relation to
36
Building 'Flax Bridges' in Technology Education
school facilities and resources, and teacher professional development opportunities.
Students and teachers involved

The students of Mäori who participated in this project had one thing in common as a
group, and that was their choice of course. Although the levels and types of ethnicity
within the group varied, only a few of the girls were unable to claim Mäori ancestry. A
wide variety of background experiences and knowledge were brought to the project
within this one group of girls.
The student teachers who participated in 2000 and 2001 involved a group of an
average of twelve technology curriculum studies students. One Mäori student teacher
participated each year. In view of the complexities of measuring the student teacher
acceptance and recognition of the importance of acknowledging tikanga Mäori in view of
our Treaty partnership, it is not discussed in this article. However, their being able to
demonstrate an awareness of the implications of the Treaty of Waitangi for learning and
teaching in New Zealand schools is stated as a learning outcome in the teacher education
programme. Earlier in the year all of the student teachers had been required to do one
ten hour module in Te Reo Mäori. The generic Professional Studies programme also
incorporated a week of work on Te Tiriti o Waitangi (Treaty of Waitangi) and a major
assignment around research in the area of Mäori education. Other aspects of the
Professional Studies programme had integrated consideration of Mäori perspectives and
the curriculum studies also gave attention to this although the degree and type of
emphasis varied.
My positioning as a Päkehä grappling with the idea of addressing Mäori educational
needs is problematic. I have always felt uncertain about my place. My own identity has
continually come into question. As a teacher I have been supported by many Mäori who
have willingly shared their knowledge with me and encouraged me to continue as a
Päkehä teacher in my efforts to support Mäori students in a mainstream education
system. Not only Mäori students but also to educate non-Mäori students about Aotearoa
(NZ) as a land where partnership should be embraced. As teachers we are bound to do
this.
The project was set within the framework of the technology curriculum as it had
been studied within the Graduate School of Secondary Teacher Education programme,
and then the Te Reo Mäori course as it had been structured within the local secondary
school.
Defining Mäori education

My research interests in Mäori education have required a definition of the term, which
has historically been interpreted in a number of ways. It has been interpreted as
education for Mäori students; education about tikanga Mäori (the Mäori way of doing
things) for Mäori and non-Mäori students; and it has also focused on the teaching of Te
Reo. Marg Gilling (1989, p.21) states that there is an assumption buried in the wording:
education that is, Päkehä education is 'normal' and Mäori education is 'something else'
and she goes on to say that she as a Päkehä cannot, would not, dare not define Mäori
education although she knows it is different from Päkehä education. She asks for a
37
st
definition of Mäori education. Is it Päkehä education for Mäori? Mäori education for
Mäori? Which Mäori? In the context of this project, 'Mäori education' is an integrated
idea. Technology education can be seen as a vehicle for providing opportunities for
working within aspects of a Mäori kaupapa or strategy.
Methodology
The project sat within the framework of the Technology in the New Zealand curriculum
(1995) document (the English version). It involved mostly Päkehä student teachers and
the school students, the majority of whom had Mäori ancestry. The brief was developed
through discussion with the school senior management in response to an identified need
in the context of the school end of year prize giving ceremony. The ceremony has taken
on a similar format over a number of years, and with an increasing Mäori student
population in the school, their small representation at this important occasion was
becoming a concern. The need was to give these students some ownership and
involvement in the prize giving. The technology brief, therefore, was to develop taonga
(special gifts) using natural resources such as harakeke (flax) to accompany the traditional
awards for the ceremony. The question as to whether the activity could sit within the
definitions of 'Mäori education', to my mind, remains difficult to answer, especially in
view of the context/s described. I prefer to avoid the label and describe it as a learning
opportunity for students of Mäori to incorporate a kaupapa Mäori [Mäori context].
The year nine and ten students were placed into mixed groups of six or seven,
decided on by their Te Reo Mäori teacher. Each group had one or two student teachers
as their facilitators. They did not meet prior to the project but I made one preliminary
visit to each of the year nine and ten scheduled Mäori classes at the school during the
preceding weeks. These visits allowed me to give a description of the intended student
learning outcomes. They were also intended as information giving sessions regarding the
house keeping aspects of the project such as getting to Wellington College of Education
and back, times, places and a review of tikanga around the gathering of harakeke. The
teacher of Te Reo Mäori took the students through the legend of how Täne obtained the
three baskets of knowledge for his people. Familiarity with this legend was aimed at
giving the students a common starting point for thinking about their own knowledge and
identities. The student teachers were briefed in the same way. For four mornings the
students came to the Wellington College of Education. In 2000 the first morning
involved a powhiri (welcoming ceremony) at the college marae and in 2001 the students
spent the first morning at Waiwhetu marae in the Hutt Valley where they were also
welcomed and then presented with information, demonstrations and activities relating to
Mäori approaches to technological practice. In the days that followed the students
brainstormed, researched, planned, designed and made gifts to accompany identified
awards for the school prizegiving. On the final morning all participants returned to the
school's library at midday for a presentation and the 'handing over' of the final products
back to the school. Parents were invited to this presentation.
The processes were recorded visually with a digital camera and the students and
trainees also completed evaluations at the end of the project. Comments taken from the
evaluations of this project are included here. The visual, oral and written responses from
38
students and student teachers reinforce the idea that teaching approaches such as those
used in this technology project foster inclusion and engagement in learning.
Student teacher evaluation

The evaluation asked for a response as to how well they felt they'd met the learning
outcomes for their part in the project. They were asked to respond on a continuum of
one to five. These responses are shown as follows:
24 student teacher responses

Student teacher responses
70
60
50
40
in %
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5
Continuum where 5 = "strong"
Figure 1
Plan and facilitate a technology unit with
year 9 and 10 students of Te Reo Mäori

45
40
35
30
in %
25
20
15
10
0
1 2 3 4 5
Figure 2
Consider tikanga Mäori (a correct Mäori approach)
in the context of using natural resources in technology
39
st
60
50
40
in %
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5
Figure 3
Reflect on their technological practice and possible links
between technology and Te Ao Mäori (the Mäori world view)
Comments on how worthwhile this project was in terms of their teaching included:
• It highlighted the scope of the technological process. The process–the casual
nature, free atmosphere for the girls, yet they produced well. Students being
autonomous. (7 responses)
• Mäori content. Would love to do it again. I wish I knew more Te Reo and about
the protocols etc but the students knew heaps. (2 responses)
• Got so many ideas about related topics that would link Te Ao Mäori and
technology. (7 responses)
• Putting learning into practice. (4 responses)
• Importance of planning highlighted. (1 response)
• The activities really based around a need/opportunity with a wide scope. Also the
need was real and purposeful for the students. (2 responses)
• Contact – more experience with students. (2 responses)
• Process encouraged group work – group motivation and communication
highlighted. (3 responses)
• The presentations. (2 responses)
• The girls working with the power tools, me working with the power tools, not
having to be a bad guy as in the classroom would induce. (1 response)
Some difficulties encountered were described as:
• Quite hard to reinforce harakeke protocol, more planning and clearer guidelines
needed at the beginning, some girls didn't have work to do at times, time
constraints.
40
Students' comments
The students were also given an evaluation asking for a response relating to how well
they felt they'd met the learning outcomes relating to their part of the project. They were
also asked to respond on a continuum of one to five as follows:
76 student responses
60
Student responses in %
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5
Figure 4
Work through a technological design process
76 student responses
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
1 2 3 4 5
Figure 5
Think about tikanga Mäori (a correct Mäori approach)
when using a natural resource such as harakeke (flax)
41
st
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5
Figure 6
This activity was worthwhile for me as a student in Mäori
The students' comments on of how worthwhile this project was in terms of their
learning included:
• Cause we learnt new things. Learning how to weave. Trying to get fibre from flax.
Learnt a lot. Doing hands on as something different from what we learn in Mäori class.
(15 responses)
• It combined old traditions with new ways to present it. You got to see how modern
ways of using ancient materials came together. (2 responses)
• Freedom to choose what we wanted to do. Let us use our imagination.
(3 responses)
• Getting to know people & sharing ideas. Without all of the ideas we wouldn't have
thought of what to do. (5 responses)
• The finished product. I'm gonna make some more. I was proud of what I'd done. It
was like a souvenir. (12 responses)
• Learnt some traditional ways of the Mäori. (9 responses)
• Using the machines and tools. (9 responses)
• Good to see it after all the effort and work. (5 responses)
• It was fun. (5 responses)
Student comments on aspects that they found "not so good" nearly all related to the
group dynamics where some of the students didn't know one another and where there
was a bit of rivalry between the year levels.
My own observations are anecdotal. I had an active role in co-ordinating the
transport and resources on a "needs" basis, so a systematic method of observation was
42
difficult. I noted how well the students worked and how proud they were of their
finished products. This came through in their presentation back to the school and
parents in the school library at the end of the four day residencies. They had developed
stories around their products, giving them significance as being more than mere
inanimate objects. The spirit in which they were made came through very strongly. I was
concerned that this spirit may be lost in the formality of the prize giving so I returned to
the school in the weeks following the project to facilitate the collaborative writing of
these stories. They were subsequently published in the prize giving programmes.
The comments given by the student teachers and the students offer evidence for
supporting the argument that by providing students with meaningful, purposeful student
centred learning opportunities that are set within the context of their own worlds of
understanding and culture, they will develop confidence in themselves and their place in
the school and wider community.
Theoretical framework
As already discussed, the residency project was able to traverse a number of layers and
discourses. This was due, I believe to the approach that can be taken within technology
education. The aim of technology education is stated in the New Zealand curriculum
(1995) as follows:
Learning in technology implies becoming confident in using a variety of means to address
needs and opportunities and solve practical problems within society. It focuses on know-
how as well as knowledge itself, gathering information from diverse sources. It encourages
risk taking, lateral and divergent thinking, the development of multiple solutions to
problems, trial and error, teamwork, and the management of resources effectively and
efficiently.
Technology education explores choice and the factors that influence choice, including
culture and society, costs and benefits, aesthetics, and fitness for purpose. It seeks to
empower students to make informed choices in the use of technology and in their responses
to technological change (Ministry of Education 1995).
Hall and Bishop (2001) refer to sociologists such as Bordieu who point out that
schools tend to consistently value the cultural capital of some learners more than others,
thus advantaging students from some social and cultural backgrounds while
disadvantaging those from different backgrounds. Bordieu's concept of cultural capital
applies not simply to social class difference but also to cultural difference when the
curriculum content and the accepted ways of teaching are at variance with those of the
cultural norms of the students. (Hall & Bishop 2001, p.190). Hall and Bishop conclude
that alternative pedagogical approaches exist that include placing more emphasis on
topics that are relevant to the student perspectives and also giving them more
opportunities to explore and interpret the curriculum from their individual cultural ways
of knowing.
Conclusion
As teachers working within the New Zealand Curriculum Framework and the routines of
our schools, bringing with us our own histories, experiences and approaches, I argue that
possibilities exist. Within technology education the juxtaposing of multiple sets of ideas
43
st
can be supported through innovative approaches to teaching and learning. By

recognising the possibilities in offering a mid-point, a partnership in terms of how
learning can happen, inclusive education can occur. The 'flax bridge' metaphor may also
be seen in terms of a flax basket:
Ko koe ki tënä
Ko ahau ki tënei
Kïwai o te kete
You hold that handle of the kete,
I'll hold this handle
And we'll bear the load together
(Grace 2000)
Through this approach we can reflect the partnership principle of the Treaty of
Waitangi as it is referred to in the second paragraph of this paper. Addressing the
partnership principle has a long way to go in a wider educational forum, but in a
classroom context, the teacher has the potential to make the difference by moving
toward the mid-point of sharing experiences with the student that they find relevant and
give them a standing point in their classroom context. Technology Education allows for
this approach.
Kua Mutu!
References
Bondy, A 2000, 'Taking children's ideas seriously: Unpacking the case study to inform practice',
1st Biennial International Conference on Technology Education Research 2000 Proceedings, Centre for
Learning and Work Research, Griffith University.
Bondy, A 1999, 'Visually us: Validating the curriculum for Mäori students', Unpublished MEd
thesis, VUW.
Bondy, A 1999, 'Crowd control on rates day: Authentic contexts in technology', TENZ Conference
Proceedings. Auckland.
Bloor, D J 1996, The workloads of Mäori secondary school teachers: A national survey, Final report, Massey
University, Educational Research and Development Centre, Palmerston North, N.Z.
Gilling, M 1989, Mäori education in päkehä hands, University of Waikato, Hamilton.
Grace, P 2000, 'The Treaty of Waitangi and the expression of culture in Aotearoa', The Proceedings of
the Treaty Conference 2000, Auckland: Treaty Conference 2000 Publication Group, p.24.
Hall, A & Bishop, R 2001, 'Teacher ethics, professionalism and cultural diversity, The New Zealand
Journal of Educational Studies, vol.36, no.2.
Ministry of Education 1995, Technology in the New Zealand curriculum. Wellington: Learning Media.
Ministry of Education 1993, The New Zealand curriculum framework: Te anga marautanga o Aotearoa,
Learning Media, Wellington.
Mitchell, H, & Mitchell, M 1993, Mäori teachers who leave the classroom, NZCER, Wellington.
44
Powdrill, L A, Just, H D, Garcia, T & Amador, N A 1997, 'The effects of classroom perceptions
on motivation: Gender and ethnic differences', Educational Psychology Review, [WWW document],
retrieved 28 August 2002, URL
http://www.edb.utexas.edu/edpreview/papers/ecpm/ecpm.html
Te Puni Kökiri 2000, Progress towards closing social and economic gaps between Mäori and non-Mäori: A report
tho the ministry of Mäori affairsi, [WWW document], retrieved May 2001, URL
http://www.tpk.govt.nz/publish/gaps.htm
Te Tähuhu o te Mätauranga 1999, Hangarau i roto i te marautanga o Aotearoa, Te Whanganui ä Tara:
Te Pou Taki Körero.
45
Teaching Strategies of Technological
Literacy Education in Teacher's Colleges: A
Case Study on Craft Course in Hualien
Teacher's College
Yuhshan Chang
Department of Arts & Technology Education
National Hualien Teachers College, Taiwan
Hsiuyen Wei
Taipei Municipal Ta-An Junior High School
Taipei City, Taiwan
T
his study was designed to develop teaching strategies for technological literacy education
for teachers colleges based on the experiences of craft arts instruction in Hualien
Teacher's College. A course plan was designed and performed in Hualien Teacher's
College. According to an evaluation, students were discovered behaving significantly different in
technology cognition due to the difference of instructional materials. However, no effect of
teaching strategies was found on students' attitudes to technology. Problem-based, internet-
integrated, and social issue-centred teaching strategies for technological literacy education in
teachers colleges were suggested based on the findings.
Background
In this technological era, the great strides in technological development have been made,
and greater needs and expectations for the technological literacy have emerged.
Implementing nationwide technology education and improving citizens' technical
knowledge is one of most important practical strategies in the National Science and
Technology Development Plan (2001–2004) in Taiwan (National Science Council 2002).
Key measures were described in Strategy-7 (National Science Council 2002) as follows:
1. Technology education for citizens will be strengthened, and elementary/junior high
school science improved.
2. The dissemination of new technological knowledge will be promoted.
3. Popular science reading activities will be held.
4. Indicators will be established to gauge citizens' technological attainments. Methods
will be devised to foster scientific thinking and awareness among the public.
The greater emphasis on elementary/junior high school technology education was
46
Teaching Strategies of Technological Literacy Education in Teacher's Colleges
included in educational policy as well. Technology education is now named as "Living

Technology" in National Curriculum Standard which was named as the Nine-year Joint
Curriculum Guideline released in 2000 (Ministry of Education 1999), in Taiwan.
The traditional subjects were replaced by seven major domains of learning. The seven
domains of learning include language and literature, health and physical education, social
studies, arts and humanities, mathematics, nature and technology, and integrated
activities. The content of technology education, which evolved from Craft and Art in
elementary schools and Industrial Arts (Living Technology) in secondary schools, was
placed in 'nature and technology domain' and 'arts and humanities domain' in the Nine-
year Joint Curriculum Guideline. In other words, technology education was strengthened and
extended into elementary schools. How to improve elementary school teachers'
technological literacy and teaching ability is an important and urgent mission.
Purpose and objectives

The purpose of this study was to develop and examine a technology teaching strategy in
the Craft course in Hualien Teacher's College. The specific objectives were as follows:
1. To design a technology literacy teaching plan used in Craft course in Hualien
Teacher's College
2. To examine the effect of the teaching plan
3. To develop a technology teaching strategy for teacher's college Craft courses in
Taiwan.
Methodology
The methodology used in this experimental study was a static-group comparison design.
Those main methods were literature-reviewing, teaching experiment, and interviews.
There were three groups in this study, group A receiving inquiring-technology-teaching,
group B receiving lecture-technology-teaching, and group C receiving non-technology-
teaching (traditional craft course).
Sample
This study selected three classes, totalled 92 freshman students in Hualien Teacher's
College in Taiwan, for teaching experiment. class-A and class-B was selected from
Department of Language Education. For control group, class-C was chosen from
Department of Social Education.
After experimental teaching, a posttest of technological awareness and a
questionnaire of attitude toward technology were taken by all groups. A product
evaluation was taken on group A and group B.
Instrumentation
A technology-awareness test was designed to examine participants' understanding of
technology. Through 35 freshman students responses, with an internal consistency
reliability (p<.01) and face validity, 21 questions were selected from 35 questions to form
the technology-awareness test.
47
st
Based on studies of Kieft and Kuwik (1984) and Boser, Daugherty and Palmer
(1996), the researcher (Chang 1998) developed an attitude-toward-technology
questionnaire. The questionnaire was adopted in this study again.
With the expert validity and the inter-rater reliability (p<.05), this study used a
product-evaluation form to assessing student's works. That form included two main
items, those were designing (shape, colour, and structure) and making (forming,
combining, and decorating).
Data analysis
Data were analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS Version 8
for Windows). Descriptive parameters, including frequencies, percentages, means, and
standard deviations were used to organise and summarise the data.
Along with descriptive data, comparisons of technological-awareness and attitude-
toward-technology among participants were analysed using analysis of variance
(ANOVA).
Analytic induction and constant comparison technique were used to analyse textual
data gathered by interviews.
Findings
According to the Anova Summary Table of technology-awareness test scores, a
significant difference was found between technology-awareness mean scores among
three groups. In addition, Scheffe's post hoc analysis yielded statistically significant
difference between class-A and class-C (p<.01). Another significant difference was
between class-B and class-C (p<.01). Nevertheless, there was no significant difference
between technology-awareness mean scores of class-A and class-B (see Table 1 and
Table 2).
The research results indicated that participants' technology-awareness could be
improved through thematic technology instruction which might be inquiry or traditional-
lecturing. However, teaching methods (inquiring and traditional-lecturing) made no
difference in participants' technology-awareness.
T-test procedures revealed no significant difference between those products mean
scores of class-A and class-B (see Table 3). The result revealed that both methods of
inquiring and traditional-lecturing had the same teaching effects on students' product
creations.
According to the result of an ANOVA statistical analysis, there was no significant
difference among mean scores of those three groups (see Table 4 and Table 5). This
result implied that these three strategies of technology education did not cause any
difference of students' attitude toward technology.
48
Table 1
Technology-awareness test scores
CLASS-A CLASS-B CLASS-C TOTAL
N 37 33 22 92
Mean 14.378 13.878 11.000 13.391
(SD) 3.344 3.323 2.708 3.444
Table 2
Anova Summary Table of technology-awareness test scores
SOURCE SS DF MS F POST HOC
COMPARISON
Between 169.695 2 84.847 8.30** A>C
Within 910.217 89 10.227 B>C
Total 1079.913 91
**P<.01
Table 3
T-Test comparison of the mean scores of product
GROUP N MEAN SD DF T
Class A 18 38.444 4.642 34 -0.819
Class B 18 39.611 3.867
Table 4
Scores of attitude toward technology
GROUP CLASS-A CLASS-B CLASS-C TOTAL
N 38 33 34 105
Mean 156.447 151.812 152.787 153.834
(SD) 12.347 9.092 13.016 11.737
Table 5
Anova summary table of scores of attitude toward technology
SOURCE SS DF MS F
Between 426.409 2 213.204 1.56
Within 13625.784 100 136.257
Total 14052.194 102
49
st
Besides quantitative analysis, main experimental participant's opinions were presented

inductively as follows.
1. time arrangement: every presentation of one technology topic should take 10-15
minutes. To introduce a technology sub-system in a week (in two hours) was too
short to learn in depth.
2. topic choosing: students could choose their own topic for presentations. It made
students participate automatically and more actively.
3. data seeking: methods of data seeking should be introduced at first, e.g. the list of
journals, electronic information systems, and Internet.
4. data presenting: how to prepare and how to present should be introduced at first.
Team members should seek, analyse, and synthesise data mutually and collectively,
and decide what to present.
5. content listening: listening to other's presentation made great gains. The content of
presentation should be outlined and easy to understand.
6. presentation evaluating: evaluating methods of questioning, testing, and note-writing
might be used diversely. Specifications of evaluation should be more concrete and
reachable.
Recommendations
According to the evaluation, students were discovered being significantly different in
technology cognition due to the difference of instructional materials. However, no effect
of teaching strategies was found on students' attitudes toward technology.
Based on main findings, problem-based, internet-integrated, and social-issue-centred
teaching strategies of technological literacy education in teachers colleges were suggested.
A recommended teaching strategy was proposed as follows:
1. Credits/hours: at least 3 credits/hours.
2. Content: there were three necessary parts of technology teaching content for
craft course in teacher's colleges.
(1) technology literacy: student-centred technology issues emerged in contemporary
society.
(2) technology education: history of technology education, curriculum and materials,
teaching and evaluation, and technology classroom planning and managing.
(3) problem solving: creative problem solving, problem solving activities for
children.
3. Procedures: there ten main steps of technology literacy learning cooperatively
(see Figure 1).
(1) introducing goals and objectives: introducing students instructional goals,
objectives, content orientation, implementation, and evaluation as clearly as
possible.
50
(2) selecting appropriate topics: through brainstorming, students selected important,

practical, appropriate topics for their team.
(3) practicing practical skills: practicing basic designing and making skills.
(4) introducing data collecting: learning collecting data through professional
organisations, lists of journals, electronic journals, catalogues, and Internet.
(5) collecting and analysing data: collecting and analysing data, and preparing
necessary media for a successful presentation, e.g. OHP, models, and
PowerPoint files.
(6) learning how to present.
(7) presenting: each team making a free and easy presentation in 10-15 minutes.
(8) questioning and discussing: presenter holding the discussion and encouraging
other students to participate in. Teacher question students randomly.
(9) commenting: teacher commenting on students' presentations.
(10) announcing next topics.
introducing goals and objectives
selecting appropriate topics
practicing practical skills
introducing data collecting collecting and analysing data
learning how to present
presenting
questioning and discussing
commenting
announcing next topics
Figure 1
Procedures of technology literacy teaching
51
st
Reference
Ministry of Education, ROC 1999, 'National education development and reform for the new
millennium', [WWW document], retrieved September 9, 2002, URL
http://www.eje.ntnu.edu.tw/l-english/l-mainframe.asp
National Science Council ROC 2002, 'Abstract of National Science and Technology Development
Plan (2001–2004), [WWW document], retrieved September 9 2002, URL
http://nscnt04.nsc.gov.tw/tc_new/abstract.htm
Chang, Y S 1998, 'A study of college students' attitudes toward technology', Journal of Hualien
Teacher's College, vol.8, pp.297–316.
Kieft, L D & Kuwik, P D 1984, 'The implications of affective learning for industrial arts
education', in Affective learning in industrial arts, ed. Gerald L Jennings, pp.104–146, 33rd
Yearbook of the .American Council on Industrial Arts Teacher Education, McKnight,
Bloomington, IL.
Boser, R., Daugherty M & Palmer, J 1996, The effect of selected industrial approaches in technology education
on students' attitude toward technology, Council on Technology Teacher Education, Reston, VA,.
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED 395–212).
52
The Application of Knowledge Elicitation
Techniques in the Computer-based
Technology Education Environment
Ivan Chester
Centre for Technology Education Research, Griffith University
T
he teaching of Technology Education is becoming increasing involved with the use of
computer technology. Computers are now commonly used to enable students to control
devices such as lathes, mills and robots, to acquire data for input into the process of
improving the solutions to problems, to design new products through the use of CAD, to design
and test electronic, hydraulic and pneumatic circuits, to both store and present information, to
access information via the internet, and as a means by which learning material is presented,
tested and recorded through computer based instruction. However, despite the plethora of new
software with which both technology students and teachers interact on a daily basis little research
has been undertaken that seeks to really understand the nature of the cognitive interaction being
undertaken or the manner in which students can progress from simply using the software at a
relatively simple or superficial level to efficiently or expertly using the same materials. In order for
this research to be successfully undertaken knowledge elicitation techniques need to be
developed and trialed that will help to gather the detailed data that will enable generation of an
understanding of the cognitive processes and human software interactions involved. This paper
outlines the factors that must be considered when choosing appropriate knowledge elicitation
techniques for the types of learner/computer interactions that occur in Technology Education
before outlining a possible technique that may be applicable.
In order to gain an understanding of the differences between computer use and efficient
computer use Bahavnani and his associates (Bahavnani 2000; Bhavnini & John 1996 &
1997; Bhavnini, John & Flemming 1999; Bhavnini, Reif & John 2001) have undertaken a
number of research projects in order to ascertain whether or not experienced CAD
operators use efficient CAD strategies. They have found that the use of strategies that
reduce drawing production time are not gained through traditional training programs or
the use of existing training and software manuals. This, they maintain, is because both of
these methods concentrate on the acquisition of a series of command skills (related to
the algorithms within the software) and not to the strategic knowledge necessary to use
them effectively. They cite four categories of strategic knowledge iteration, propagation,
organisation and visualisation that relate to a range of software applications. Table 1
(Bhavnini & John 2000, p.339) presents an overview of these categories and the 10 more
specific strategies involved.
As an outcome of the studies by Bahavnani et al (Bahavnani 2000; Bhavnini & John
1996 & 1997; Bhavnini, John & Flemming 1999; Bhavnini, Reif & John 2001) it becomes
53
st
clear that efficient software use in the CAD environment or in fact a range of other
software environments likely to be encountered in Technology Education is not occurring
through current training methods.
"However, the knowledge to use direct manipulation tools does not seem to aid users to
perform complex tasks efficiently. Several studies have shown that despite training and
many years of experience, many users with basic command knowledge do not progress to an
efficient use of applications" (Bahavnani 2000, p.338).
Studies into effective software use needs to be grounded in the cognitive psychology
literature on both expertise and knowledge elicitation. Expertise, in order that the data
collected reflects efficient use of the software and is therefore valid and knowledge
elicitation in order that the methods of data collection utilised provide a sufficiently rich
and reliable data source for effective analysis in order to inform the effective teaching of
the cognitive skills involved. Taylor (in Evans 1991 pp.170–171) maintains that the first
stages of any research into the novice-expert shift should entail:
1. Identification of the cognitive skill performance that is the ultimate objective of
instruction;
2. Analysis of expert performance of this skill in terms of the content, structure and
organisation of the underlying declarative knowledge base;
3. Design of instrumentation to measure salient aspects of this declarative knowledge base
and associated actual cognitive skill performance.
The first stage of this process involves the selection of individuals for inclusion in the
research which needs to be considered in order ensure valid data is collected. In the case
of the type of research being discussed in this paper, research into efficient use of
computer software in order to give insight into the development of more effective
pedagogical practise, it becomes even more critical as the knowledge being sought relies
on the initial subject(s) being not just users but efficient or expert users.
Expertise
A number of researchers have attempted to define expertise. Mieg (2001) discusses two
aspects of expertise, superior performance and specialised experience, concluding that
neither in itself is sufficient to define expertise but that expertise is "superior performance
based on specialised experience" (p.4). Charness and Schultetus (in Durso 2000) define
expertise as "consistently superior performance on a specified set of representative tasks
for the domain that can be administered to any subject" (p.76). They maintain that
expertise may be identified via a number of criteria such as in respect to normal
distributions on tests, through peer nomination, or through experience. Within the
Technology Education environment these methods present difficulties due to the
absence of tests across the various software applications and the lack of data available
through professional associations related to computer application use. Charness and
Schultetus (in Durso 2000) also point out that experience does not always equate with
expertise, a position supported by the research of Bhavnini and John (1997).
54
The Application of Knowledge Elicitation Techniques
Table 1
Ten general strategies and how they are useful in word processing, spreadsheet, and CAD tasks.
GENERAL WORD SPREADSHEET CAD EXAMPLES
STRATEGIES PROCESSING EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
Iteration
1. Reuse and modify Copy and modify an Copy and modify an Copy and modify an
group of objects existing paragraph to existing table and existing graphic
create a new one formulas to create a arrangement to create a
new one new one
2. Check original before Check if paragraph is Check if column Check if window in
making copies correct and complete headings are correct building facade is
before making many and complete before correct and complete
copies making new table before copying to create
headings many copies
3. Handle exceptions Group paragraph, drop Group all information, Group graphic
before modification of a sentence, then modify drop table headings, elements, drop an
groups group then modify group element, then modify
group
Propagation
4. Make dependencies Make paragraphs Make formulas Make window in building
known to the computer dependent on a format dependent on numbers facade dependent on a
definition in cells graphic definition
5. Exploit dependencies Modify style definitions Modify formula Modify graphic
to generate variations to generate variations of dependencies to definitions to generate
the same document generate different variations of a building
results for the same facade
data set
Organisation
6. Make organisations Organise information Organise yearly data in Organise columns and
known to the computer using lists and tables different sheets walls on different layers
7. Generate new Generate table from Generate bar graph Create 3-D model from
representations from tabbed words from table 2-D floor plan
existing ones
Visualisation
8. View relevant Magnify document to View formulas, not Do not display patterned
information, do not view read small print results elements
irrelevant information
9. View parts of spread- Use different views of Use different views of Use two views focused
out information to fit the same document to the same document to at the ends of a long
simultaneously on the bring two tables view column headings building facade to make
screen together on the screen and data at the end of a comparisons
for comparison long table
10. Navigate in global Use outline view to view Use outline view to view Use global view to view
view, manipulate in local entire document and entire spreadsheet and entire building and
view specify location of specify location of specify location of
interest, use local view interest, use local view interest, use local view
to make modification to make modification to make modifications
55
st
Sternberg (1991) and Sternberg and French (in Hoffman 1992, p.191) propose that
"experts can do "automatically" things that nonexperts can do only with great effort or
not at all". They describe expertise in terms of the ability to process information in an
automatic manner that enables the expert to utilise the executive control processes of
planning, monitoring and revising while undertaking much of the other information
processing automatically and in parallel with these processes. The novice, however, has
to rely on serial, controlled processing in both the knowledge and control domains which
is both more demanding and time consuming. Thus much of the cognitive activity of the
expert is transferred from the limited capacity of working memory and into long-term
memory with its much larger capacity. The novice, however, is forced to rely on
processing within working memory and is therefore restricted by its limited. The second
aspect of expertise identified by Sternberg and French (in Hoffman 1992) is that of
attributed expertise. A person is considered an expert in a particular field if they are
"regarded as such by others" (p.195). This accords with the work of Charness and
Schultetus (in Durso 2000) who propose peer nomination as one method of identifying
expertise.
Chi, Glaser and Farr (1988) and Sternberg (1999) have attempted to identify the
characteristics of expertise. High levels of domain knowledge, the ability to recognise
large and meaningful patterns in the domain of their expertise, the speed of task
performance, superiority of both short and long-term memory in their domain, the
ability to recognise and represent problems at a deeper more principled or structural
level, the characteristic strategy of attempting to understand the problem prior to
commencement, a propensity to solve problems in a forward direction from the given
information, the ability to accurately predict the difficulty of problems, and strong self
monitoring skills when undertaking tasks are all recognised identifiers of expertise. These
characteristics need to be taken into account in the selection of experts for research.
Schraagen, Chipman and Shalin (1999) cite Hall, Gott and Pokorny (1995) and
Hoffman, Shadbolt and Burton (1995) on the topic of selection of experts maintaining
that there is a "scarcity of true experts" but make the observation that "articulate experts
with recent experience in both performing and teaching the skill are particularly useful"
(p.6). On this basis and taking cognisance of the expertise literature it is therefore possible to
develop a set of criteria for the identification of potential research subjects for the type of
Technology Education research being proposed.
1. They would need to have a number of years experience in the domain.
2. Others would regard them as possessing domain expertise.
3. They have experience in teaching/training others.
Knowledge elicitation
The manner and validity of data collection, or knowledge elicitation, is critical in the type
of research under discussion. Cooke (2000) provides an overview of knowledge
elicitation methods outlining four alternate methods; verbal reports, observations,
interviews, and process tracing noting that each method has inherent advantages and
shortcomings. Cooke (2000) outlines a number of factors to be considered when using
56
either verbal or written descriptive reports. In relation to Technology Education research

the descriptive method may have the advantage that:
• it may save time on the part of experienced users and therefore potentially gain more
cooperation,
• it may provide the opportunity to request experienced users to use an alternate strategy
from their initial preference. Analysis of this may enable the researcher to discover
whether the strategy chosen initially is linked to the functions available within the
package being used or is independent of them,
• it may provide an insight into a possible method of instruction.
It may have the disadvantage that:
• there may be a difference between the described method and the actual method of
software use that could affect the validity of the study,
• it may be more time consuming for the experienced user in that they may feel
compelled to undertake the task first before describing the process,
• the process of recording the description orally may be unfamiliar or rushed resulting in
essential information being omitted and therefore a lack of useable data,
• the process of recording the description in written form may be extremely time
consuming and again therefore rushed,
• the method of operation described may not actually work within the software
environment therefore effecting the validity of the study,
• the description provided may concentrate too much on the surface processes without
providing sufficient insight into the automatic processes employed. Schraagen,
Chipman and Shalin (1999) support this notion in that experts may often not have
"direct conscious access to their relevant knowledge and skills" (p8).
Observations and interviews

The strength of the observation method of data elicitation, according to Cooke (2000),
is that the data is collected, providing the researcher is unobtrusive, in a natural setting
thus enabling the actual expert behaviour to be viewed. Schumacher and Czerwinski
(in Hoffman 1992) maintain that while observation has a certain amount of power as a
means of data collection "it can be hard to get a detailed picture of a user's mental model
of a complex system" (p.68). They also point out that the coding and transcription of
data can be very time consuming. In many instances observation is coupled with
interviews or other methods of verbalising the cognitive processes. Gordon (in Hoffman
1999) outlines four methods by which this may be achieved, unstructured interviews,
structured interviews, think-aloud verbal protocols and retrospective verbal protocols.
Gordon maintains that these methods, in the main, elicit declarative and not procedural
knowledge a position supported in part by Cooke (2000) who explains that considerable
skill and training may be necessary in order for interviewers to use unstructured
interviews or the highly specific interview methods necessary in order to gain insight into
57
st
an expert's procedural or strategic knowledge.

Think aloud verbal protocols enable the researcher to gain information from the
expert while they are in the process of performing the task. While this may be
advantageous there is some concern (Gordon 1999, Cooke 2000, Rowe, in Evans 1991)
that the process of verbalising may effect task performance and that the information
gathered may not provide the insight necessary as many of the expert's cognitive
processes may be automated. It is suggested in that concurrent verbalising can only
report current consciousness and not explanations or interpretations (Cooke 2000,
p.491). To attempt to do anything else may interfere or in fact change the thought
processes of the individual thus automated processes or information regarding
perception or retrieval may not be collected accurately in this manner but would need to
be inferred from the information collected. It is important to note that it is the process
that is being monitored and not the underlying thoughts of the subject which would need
to be deduced from the actions. This may be overcome to some extent through the
process of retrospective verbal protocols where the explanation is produced following
the task performance however this method has the disadvantages outlined for other
descriptive methods. It is suggested therefore that this type of information is better
collected through interviews between the subject and the researcher due to the nature of
the interview interaction.
Process tracing
An alternative method of data collection is to provide a means by which the data can be
recorded during the process of software use such as video recording. Schraagen,
Chipman and Shalin (1999) describe this as the 'process tracing' method which Cooke
(2000, p.490) defines as "the collection of sequential behavioural events and the analysis
of the resulting event protocols so that inferences can be made about the underlying
cognitive processes". Schraagen, Chipman and Shalin (1999) also recommend including
the "collection of verbal think aloud protocols while the SMEs (subject matter experts)
perform a representative set of task problems" (pp.8-9). This methodology, as has been
pointed out, may have some drawbacks however Schraagen et al do propose that these
protocols may be later supplemented with probe or retrospective probe questions. This
data collection method may have the advantage that:
• the actual process of software use is recorded therefore providing a more complete
understanding of the procedures employed,
• the relationship between the software strategy being employed and the particular stage
of the process would also be available to the researcher.
It may have the disadvantage that;
• subjects may not have the availability of the technology necessary for the recording
process,
• the time and inconvenience involved in establishing the recording process may
mitigate against subjects volunteering to be involved in the study,
• subjects may feel constrained due to the recording process,
58
• the process can be costly,

• rich data associated with lengthy data collection sessions mean that data analysis may
be unwieldy and interpretation difficult.
A number of knowledge elicitation methods are therefore available however Cooke
(2000) asserts that throughout the 1980s and 1990s "it became increasingly clear that due
to the complexity of knowledge and even greater complexity of cognitive skill, that
multiple knowledge elicitation methods were probably required for any single
application" (p.499). Rowe (in Evans 1991) and Gordon (in Hoffman 1999, p.115)
support this notion stating that "at least two different methods should be employed" if
the goal is to capture both declarative and procedural knowledge. In view of the need to
employ multiple methods of knowledge elicitation it is considered advantageous to
consider strategies whereby actual computer performance could be recorded and
subsequently used as the basis for post-performance interview in what may be referred to
as stimulated recall. This is slightly different to retrospective verbal protocols in that the
process is directed by the researcher as the subject is asked to comment on and explain
the procedures employed at specific points in the process. A suitable method of
recording computer performance therefore needs to be established. In their summary of
data collection methods Schraagen, Chipman and Shalin (1999) point out that it is
important that the process is "easy and natural for the subjects" (p.469) which would
seem to mitigate against the use of video recording techniques.
Cooke (2000, p.501) points out that "unlike traditional knowledge elicitation and task
analytic methods, methods that focus on computer-recorded events can amass data in
the background, posing little threat of interference to task performance". In order to
investigate this possibility a number of computer software options have been identified
that may allow for the process of recording to be achieved. These included the Lotus
product "ScreenCam", Microsoft "Camcorder" and the TechSmith product "Camtasia"
all of which are commonly used for the production of computer-based instruction or
product promotion material. In each case the software enables the capture of all
computer operations as they occur on the screen and records them in a video format.
They all have the additional feature of being able to record sound at the same time in the
form of voice-over. These products therefore have the potential to be able to provide the
necessary data for the purpose of this type of research. The software is relatively
inexpensive and is able to be readily installed on the subject's computer. The subsequent
"video" is then able to be saved to a CD for researcher analysis.
Tests of each of the software packages have been undertaken to ascertain their
effectiveness. While each is capable of performing the necessary function "Camtasia" has
been found effective for a number of reasons. It is the only package useable over a range
of operating systems which can be an important factor as subjects may be using a variety
of platforms such as Windows 2000, 98, 95 and NT. Pausing during the recording phase
segments the video thus allowing for ease of analysis by being able to jump from one
point to another during playback. It is also currently available in a time restricted trial
version via the Web thus overcoming the potential problems associated with software
licensing. The resultant "video" file is also in a form readable on almost any computer.
59
st
This has the advantage that a dual knowledge elicitation strategy, as has been seen to be
advantageous, may be relatively easily employed.
The knowledge elicitation process

Installation of the recording software may be carried out by the researcher or, depending
on the skill and experience of the subject, through the provision of suitable instructions.
Following installation of the software the research subject is able to activate the
recording function and then complete the software tasks set down by the researcher.
This can be done at a time convenient to the subject thus enabling full concentration on
the specified tasks. The video file is then retrieved by the researcher for initial data
analysis. This is usually undertaken via the production of a CD-Rom as the files are quite
large,. This enables the researcher to identify and initially analyse the processes used by
the subject and allows the researcher to construct an interview process which can then be
employed in order to attempt to identify the procedural knowledge being utilised. This
may be undertaken by once again using the recording software. In this case the recording
includes the payback of the original video and, due to the ability to capture voice data as
well, the "stimulated recall" interview between the subject and the researcher. An
extremely rich data source thus becomes available due to the fact that the researcher has
available not only the original recording of the expert undertaking the task but also the
explanation of the cognitive processes involved during the structured interview. During
the interview the playback of the original video can be paused so that time can be spent
eliciting the nature of the procedural knowledge employed at key stages in the process.
The combination of the dual data elicitation techniques thus has the ability to overcome
many of the perceived drawbacks of other knowledge elicitation techniques when
undertaking research into computer use in Technology Education.
References
Bahavnani S K 2000, 'Designs conducive to the use of efficient strategies', in Conference Proceedings on
Designing Interactive Systems, ACM Press, New York.
Bhavnini & John 1997, 'From sufficient to efficient usage: An analysis of strategic knowledge',
Proceedings of CHI'97, pp.91–98.
Bhavnini & John 1996, 'Exploring the unrealised potential of computer-aided drafting', Proceedings of
CHI'96, pp332–339.
Bhavnini, John & Flemming 1999, 'The strategic use of CAD: An empirically inspired, theory-
based course', Proceedings of CHI'99, pp.183–190.
Bhavnini, Reif & John 2001, 'Beyond command knowledge: Identifying and teaching strategic
knowledge for using complex computer applications', Proceedings of CHI'2001, pp.229–236
Durso, F T (ed.) 2000, Handbook of applied cognition, John Wiley and Sons, England.
Evans, G 1991, Learning and teaching cognitive skills, Australian Council for Educational Research,
Victoria, Australia.
Chi, M T H, Glaser, R & Farr, M J (eds) 1988, The nature of expertise, L. Erlbaum Associates,
Hillsdale, N.J.
Hoffman, R R (ed.) 1992, The psychology of expertise: Cognitive research and empirical AI, Springer-Verlag,
New York.
60
Meig, H A 2001, The social psychology of expertise: Case studies in research, professional domains, and expert
roles, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, London.
Neisser, U 1967, Cognitive psychology, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Schraagen, J M, Chipman, S F & Shalin, V L 1999, Cognitive task analysis, LEA, London.
Sternberg, R J 1999, Cognitive psychology, Harcourt Brace College Publishers, Orlando.
61
Making Progress: Progression and
Technology Education in New Zealand
Vicki Compton
Auckland College of Education, Massey University,
Whangarei, N.Z.
Cliff Harwood
College of Education, Massey University,
Palmerston North, N.Z.
T
his paper is based on findings from New Zealand Ministry of Education funded research
undertaken in New Zealand classrooms over the past three years. Initial work resulted in
the development of a Technology Assessment Framework (TAF), with subsequent work
focusing on employing this framework to explore progression. This paper reports specifically on
the analysis carried out in 2001 to identify key features of technology education that could be
developed into a progression matrix suitable for use by New Zealand teachers across all year
groups, technological areas and contexts. 'Component of practice' is the term given to the
features identified as key for progression in technology education in New Zealand. The
establishment of these is discussed and the three specific 'components of practice' identified are
explained. Feedback from teachers on the usefulness of these 'components of practice' in their
teaching of technology is also presented, along with their comments on the progression matrices
and illustrative exemplars associated with each currently under development.
Introduction
During 1999, 2000 and 2001 the New Zealand Ministry of Education funded three years
of research into assessment in technology education. This research was classroom based
and initially sought to identify and enhance assessment practices used in New Zealand
junior secondary (year 9 and 10) technology programmes. By 2000, the focus had
widened to include primary, intermediate and senior secondary (years 1 through to 11) as
well as pre-service teacher education courses. Findings from the early stages of the 1999
research identified the difficulties that teachers were having in creating technology
programmes that recognised and supported student learning in technology, both across
technology areas and beyond that of 'one off' isolated activities. The Technology
Assessment Framework (TAF)1 was developed to support the development and delivery
of technology units that provide opportunities for students to undertake technological
practice and thus reflect the interlinking nature of the technology curriculum strands.2
The strands of Technology in the New Zealand Curriculum (Ministry of Education 1995)
encompass eight achievement objectives. In an attempt to describe student progression,
62
Making Progress: Progression and Technology Education in New Zealand
these achievement objectives are leveled (level 1 to 8 in terms of student achievement) as

discrete entities in keeping with other curriculum documents in New Zealand. The
technology curriculum document however, clearly states that the strands (and thus the
achievement objectives within these) should be viewed as integrative and thus all
'students' technological experiences should reflect the interlinking nature of the strands'
(Ministry of Education 1995, pp.31, 35 & 41).
Findings and/or discussions from professional development programmes and
research undertaken since the curriculum's release (Burns 1997; Compton 1997;
Compton 2001; Compton & Harwood 1999a; Compton & Harwood 1999b; Compton &
Jones 1998; Davies 1998; Jones & Compton 1998) have reinforced the importance of the
integrative nature of the strand/achievement objectives in technology education.
The student 'progression' described in the curriculum, by the leveled achievement
objectives, is reflective of the lack of understanding about the nature of student
progression in technology at the time of the curriculum's development. This resulted in
level statements that show a change in the way the achievement objectives are described,
rather than a description of progression in terms of student learning. More importantly
however, the discrete level statements do not reflect the integrative nature of the
strands/achievement objectives as espoused in the curriculum. In order to reflect this
integration, progression needs to be described in a way that recognises and validates the
interlinking of the strands/achievement objectives through a focus on technological
practice. By the end of 2000, it was clear that in order to advance 'progression' in
technology education it was necessary to establish 'key features' that reflect the
integration of the strands, are applicable across year groups, technological areas and
contexts, and that reflect significant features of student learning in technology as
documented from classroom practice.
Analysis of previous work

An analysis of data, from 37 units undertaken in New Zealand classrooms in 1999 or
2000, was carried out in the beginning of 2001. This was undertaken to establish features
of technology education as represented by learning outcomes identified by teachers,
experiences offered to students, and the outcomes of this in terms of student practice. In
each of these units students were provided with opportunities to undertake technological
practice through the development of knowledge and skills, and the operationalisation of
these, within their practice. The data available was sufficient for an analysis to be
undertaken regarding the nature of the learning inherent within the unit as a whole. The
data used in the analysis was gathered as part of two Ministry of Education funded
contracts – Technology Education Assessment in Lower Secondary 1999 and its
extension into 2000, (TEALS 1999 & TEALS 2000), and Technology Education
Assessment National Professional Development 2000 (TEAN PD 2000). The units were
delivered to students from year 1 through to year 11, and all except one focused on two
or more technological areas. The units ranged from 9 hours (primary unit) to 60 hours
(senior secondary) in duration, with the average in class time being 20 hours.
63
st
Findings from analysis

From the analysis of these 37 units the common features of technology education can be
described in terms of knowledges and skills, generic technological principles, overall
technological practice, and a group of features we have collectively called 'components of
practice'. In the following sections each of these features are discussed in terms of their
potential to serve as 'key features' for progression in technology education.
Knowledges and skills
The knowledge and skills that featured as underpinning the students' practice were, as
would be expected, dependent upon the specific focus/es of the unit of work. The range
of knowledge and skills applicable to technological practice is extensive and situated.
It is therefore impossible to define a manageable body of knowledge that could serve
as 'key' to progression in technology education. That is, whilst knowledge and skills
obviously do progress within units and across those with a level of commonality, the
possible combinations and permutations of how they are understood and employed in
technology education are too great in number to provide a valid focus for student
progression. For this reason, we argued that knowledge and skills could not be deemed
'key features', and thus should not form the basis of progression in technology education.
To attempt to do this would run counter to the philosophy of Technology in the New
Zealand Curriculum (Ministry of Education 1995) by moving towards a prescribed content
structured curriculum in order to make this manageable and allow progression to be
documented.
Technological principles
Like knowledge and skills, the findings demonstrated that principles are also embedded
to some extent within the specific context of any unit. The principles of 'Aesthetics' and
'Functionality' were significantly more common, and overt, as a focus across the units
than any others. A significant finding from this analysis was the interrelationship of the
principles with each other, and/or other knowledges and skills. The nature of these
interrelationships included the prioritisation placed on principles as they were embedded
within the specifics of the unit context. This was particularly noticeable with respect to
'Functionality'. For example, functionality in one unit was underpinned by the principles
of aesthetics and ergonomics, where as in another unit it was underpinned by the
principle of reliability and an understanding of the environmental location of the
solution. Further complicating the exploration of the way in which principles were
focused on in these units, was the fact that sometimes they were only focused on in
terms of the overall outcome, and at other times an aspect of the outcome's
development, or both. For example, the functionality of an essential oil as a remedy was
explored as well as the functionality of the extraction process used to provide the oil
yield. Conceptual understandings of generic technological principles were found to be
important in technological practice, however the underpinning constructs of a principle
itself do not progress as such. That is, aesthetics is aesthetics – any difference in terms of
progression is reflected in the way students translate their conceptual understandings of
aesthetics into their own practice. In keeping with this, descriptive criteria that focused
on a student's justification of their conceptual understandings as applied in their practice,
64
could be written. This criteria could be viewed as generalisable and therefore form a basis
for progression in technology. For example, understanding of aesthetics at level 1 might
be demonstrated by students in terms of an explanation of likes and dislikes and how
these impact on their practice. Whereas at level 5, understanding of aesthetics might be
described in terms of cultural and social influences and the differences and conflicts in
these that need resolving as part of their own practice. (Note this example is a theoretical
illustration of the point being made.) Therefore, we concluded that principles could well
be established as 'key features' for progression, but due to the limited examples of a
range of principles within the data we were working with, we feel further research into
principles as a focus for progression is required.
Overall technological practice
From this analysis, we identified that a student's overall technological practice is a key
feature of technology education. However, after two years of trying to work with overall
student technological practice as a single 'key feature' in progression, we found that
attempting to develop descriptive criteria for overall practice led to teacher frustration.
This frustration resulted from a lack of detail to describe specific achievement that
could guide future student development, particularly when subsequent technology units
focused on different technological areas/contexts. This situation was exacerbated in
modular programme delivery where the students and teachers change from unit to unit.
This also had significance at school transition points such as students changing year
groups and schools. It was from this experience that teachers began to break this practice
down into smaller units for formative and summative assessment purposes. It is these
smaller units we call 'components of practice'.
'Component of practice''
As with overall technological practice, a 'component of practice' represents all three
strands of the curriculum as they interact, however, they provide a smaller unit for
analysis than that of the overall practice. From the analysis based on these 37 units, it was
confirmed that they appeared to be of more assistance in the support and identification
of achievement, and the identification of next learning steps, than a focus on overall
technological practice alone. An analysis of the technological practice undertaken by
students involved in these units, strongly suggests the more the students understood
these 'components of practice' and incorporated them in their own practice, the 'better'
their overall practice was. This included an enhanced ability to explain and justify what
they did and why they did it. The identified generic 'components of practice' have a
commonality across units and therefore context, which allow descriptive criteria to be
developed to form a basis for progression in technology education. For example, 'Brief
Development' at level 1 will be different to 'Brief Development' at level 5, no matter
what the context is.
Conclusion from analysis

Reflecting on all of the above, we decided it would be most beneficial to focus on
'Components of Practice' as key features. We concluded this focus would enable a
comprehensive practice-based progression in technology education to be established.
65
st
The initial components of practice identified from the analysis of the units above were:
Initial Planning for Practice; Ongoing Planning for Future Practice; Technological
Practice of Others; Identification of Need/Opportunity; Brief Development; Solution -
Conceptual Design; Solution – Mockup; Solution – Prototype. These were used as the
basis for further classroom research in 2001.
Trial of components of practice

During the planning and delivery of further units in 2001, many of the initial
'components of practice' were employed. From this we refined and modified the above
list as a result of an evaluation of their usefulness in planning for, and explaining, student
achievement and progression in technology. Initial planning, and that associated with
ongoing planning, was shown to be so intertwined in practice that to make a distinction
between the two was unhelpful in terms of students' learning and teachers' practice. The
two related initial components were therefore refined to become 'Planning for Practice'.
Similarly, identifying needs/opportunities was seen to be inextricably linked to brief
development and thus were covered under a broader notion of 'Brief Development' as a
single component. The initial components relating to solution development were
refocussed from the endpoints themselves (solution as a conceptual design, mockup or
prototype) to that of the practices of endpoint development.
Solution was replaced with outcome to include recognition of the realisation of
opportunities as well as the resolution of needs. Therefore all three initial 'solution'
components were replaced with a single 'Outcome Development and Evaluation'
component.
The remaining initial 'component of practice'—'Technological Practice of Others'
was not explicitly explored in isolation. However, our developing thoughts regarding this
began to focus on the way the practice of others underpins all the three identified
components discussed, and therefore may not require stand alone exemplification. (An
explanation of these three components of practice is provided in Appendix 1.) Data was
collected from students during the 2001 units and analysed in terms of these three
'components of practice' in order to begin to establish progression matrices. Initially two
draft matrices were developed that detailed indicators of progression for Brief
Development and Planning for Practice for curriculum levels 1 – 6. Each matrix also
contained indicators for a supporting learning environment, in acknowledgement of the
importance of this environment in ensuring opportunities are provided for students to
achieve at their potential. To support the matrices we also developed exemplars that
illustrated the levelled indicators of progression for these components of practice, and
supporting materials that document individual student overall practice, and whole class
descriptions of the delivered unit. Together this material allows teachers insight into the
environment from which the exemplar was taken.
Feedback on components of practice and associated matrices

Feedback was gained from the research teachers involved in the 2001 units, as well as an
additional thirteen teachers/teacher educators throughout New Zealand. This feedback
is summarised as follows:
66
Part One: Response to matrix and exemplar material

The first set of questions focused around the three identified 'components of practice' as
key features of technology education. From the responses gained, 100% perceived that
the identified components were key features. No participants identified any further
components. There was variance in the responses regarding whether the identification of
needs and opportunities was a stand-alone component of practice or a sub-component
of Brief Development. Seventy three percent of participants felt it was embedded within
Brief Development and shouldn't be separated out. However, many of these qualified
their responses by stating it was very important and that it should be made more overt
within the indicators of Brief Development in the progression matrix. Eighteen percent
felt that it should be a stand alone component, however this was also qualified with
reference to it not being needed as separate at the lower curriculum levels. These
participants viewed the establishment of needs and opportunities by students as an
important aspect of technology due to it being strongly related to student ownership.
(The remaining 9% provided no response). All participants felt that the explanations
provided by the 'component of practice' descriptors were adequate, however many
commented on the need for some terms to be further explained, and indicated that the
material required 'wordsmithing' prior to release to a wider audience. Recommendations
were made that the critical technological terminology should be better explained in order
to make it more accessible to teachers and students, but should not be discarded.
The second set of questions focused around the nature of progression presented in
the matrices. All participants considered that the indicators within each level identified a
clear progression, and 95% considered the size of the steps between each level were
appropriate, allowing them to differentiate current (or past) student's performance. A
number of respondents reflected some concerns regarding the size of the steps and
suggested additional indicators were needed to rectify this.
All participants thought the supporting learning environment aspect was helpful to
include in the progression matrix. This was further qualified with positive comments that
focused around the importance of acknowledging the learning environment as critical in
allowing for, and supporting, student progression. Additional comments made about the
matrices more generally reflected a range of participant views that the indicators were
useful tools in all aspects of teaching technology. Comments also reflected that the
nature of the progression (i.e. that they were based on technological practice rather than
knowledge/skill based) was particularly helpful in allowing for planning opportunities for
student progression at a programme level across a range of contexts, technological areas
and for delivery by multiple teachers. A number of the participants commented that they
intend to use the 'components of practice' and their associated matrix to assist them to
plan their school-wide technology programmes next year.
The third set of questions focused on the five exemplars provided to illustrate a
'component of practice' at a particular level. All participants responded that the
exemplars provided a clear illustration of the indicators within the matrix. Three
participants were unable to respond to the second question, as they did not currently
teach technology students. Of the remaining 19 participants, all confirmed that the
exemplars had been useful in helping them make judgements about their own students,
67
st
even if they were judged to be a level above or below the level illustrated in the exemplar.
Many suggestions were made as to the need for a range of exemplars to be developed at
each level across a range of contexts to ensure they illustrate the standard as opposed to
defining it. Also suggested to aid level differentiation, was the need to develop exemplars
in the same context and/or same unit that span multiple levels.
Part Two: Moderation exercise
The research teachers provided further feedback on the 'component of practice' matrices
at a cluster meeting where they used the indicators of progression to identify the level of
students' practice in terms of Brief Development and/or Planning for Practice.
Identification of the next learning steps for these students was also undertaken, and
where possible, this information was confirmed by the teacher of the students
concerned. Indicators of a level are only valid if they provide enough direction for
teachers to make clear and consistent judgements. This activity was therefore designed to
test this validity using available resources. Teachers at both meetings were able to readily
identify the level of student practice. There was also a commonality in the identification
by both groups for the 'next steps' that these students needed to be working towards,
and the teaching practice required to support such a progression. A significant aspect to
come out of the discussions during this activity was the strength of the indicators in
providing teachers with a focus for formative student/teacher interactions during
delivery of units. Another aspect was the role the indicators of progression could play in
terms of group/class work, whilst still allowing for recognition and responsiveness to
individual student needs.
Discussion
From these responses it is clear that the concept of 'components of practice' as key
features in technology education has the support of all the trial participants. The
progression matrix with its indicators of level, was perceived to be useful for teachers in
all aspects of teaching. For example, development of a shared understanding of what
student achievement in technology at different levels looks like, unit and programme
planning, supporting progression within units, allowing for progression across contexts
and technological areas, and assisting in the identification of 'next steps' in terms of
student learning. The trial participants perceived the draft progression matrix developed
for Brief Development and Planning for Practice to be a useful beginning in the area of
developing understandings of progression in technology education.
Using the feedback gained from the trial summarised above, the matrices for Brief
Development and Planning for Practice have been refined and extended. A matrix for
Outcome Development and Evaluation has also been developed. All three matrices now
include indicators of progression from emergent to level 8 of the New Zealand
Curriculum Framework (Ministry of Education 1993), and are supported by associated
guidelines for learning environments that would support students working throughout
the different levels. These matrices are currently being trialed in whole school
programme development as well as undergoing further trialing in individual technology
teaching programmes. The results of this trailing will be used to further develop these
ideas through extending the indicators at each level (as based on an increasing range of
68
student data) and establish any other components of practice, or indeed key features, that
may become apparent. We are also working on the translation of the progression
matrices into texts that are readily accessible, and therefore useful, to a wide range of
teachers. As suggested in many of the trial participant's comments, this should be seen as
an exercise in explaining technological terms rather than replacing them with 'simplified'
language that loses the meaning inherent in technological terminology.
End Notes
1. For a full explanation of the TAF and the importance of technological practice, see Compton and
Harwood, in press.)
2. The Technology in the New Zealand Curriculum (Ministry of Education 1995) has three strands. These are
Technological Knowledge and Understanding, Technological Capability and Technology and Society.
References
Burns, J 1997, 'Implementing the Technology Curriculum: Promise and prospect', Paper presented at
the inaugural Technology Education in New Zealand (TENZ) Conference, Christchurch, October 1997.
Compton, V J 1997, 'Implementing technology education in New Zealand Schools', in Technology in
the New Zealand Curriculum–Perspectives on practice, ed. J Burns, Dunmore Press, Palmerston
North.
Compton, V J 2001, 'Developments in technology education in New Zealand 1993–1995: An
analysis of the reflections of key participants', Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, University of
Waikato, New Zealand.
Compton, V J & Harwood, C D 1999a, 'TEALS Research Project: starting points and future
directions', Paper presented at the 2nd TENZ Conference, Auckland New Zealand, 14–16
April 1999.
Compton, V J & Harwood, C D 1999b, 'TEALS Research Project: from directions to classroom
practice', Paper presented at the 30th Australasian Science Education Research Association Conference
(ASERA), Rotorua, New Zealand, 8–11th July 1999.
Compton, V J & Harwood, C D (in press), 'Enhancing technological practice: An assessment
framework for technology education in New Zealand', International Journal of Technology and
Design Education.
Compton, V J & Jones, A T 1998, 'Reflecting on teacher development in technology education:
Implications for future programmes', International Journal of Technology and Design Education, vol.8,
no.2, pp.151–166.
Davies, J 1998, 'Constructing technology education: Questions of purpose and fit', New Zealand
Annual Review of Education, pp.119–146.
Jones, A T & Compton, V J 1998, 'Towards a model for teacher development in technology
education: From research to practice', International Journal of Technology and Design Education, vol.8,
no.1, pp.51–65.
Ministry of Education 1993, The New Zealand Curriculum Framework, Learning Media, Wellington.
Ministry of Education 1995, Technology in the New Zealand Curriculum, Learning Media, Wellington.
69
st
Appendix 1
Explanation of identified components of practice
BRIEF A brief is developed to communicate a description of a desirable outcome that

DEVELOPMENT meets the need or realises the opportunity. The brief is grounded in the socio-
cultural and physical location of the need or opportunity and provides a means for
measuring the success or otherwise of the outcome. The nature of the
communication (including selected media) will be dependent on the audience for
which it is intended - including the user of the brief.
A brief is comprised of a 'conceptual statement' that communicates (via any
appropriate means) the purpose of the technological practice to be undertaken
(what is to be done and why), and 'specifications' that define the nature of such
things as appearance and performance requirements against which an outcome
can be justified as appropriate through an evaluation based on multiple
viewpoints. The specifications may also include constraints on both the outcome
and the practice.
'Brief Development' is a dynamic process that should reflect interaction with the
students on-going practice rather than a one-off written task that is completed at
the beginning of the students practice. However the brief to be used to evaluate
the outcome, should be finalised before completion of that outcome.
PLANNING FOR 'Planning for Practice' enhances the development of a technological outcome
PRACTICE through a technologists reflection and evaluation of past practice, both their own
and others', that enables them to make informed projections into their future
technological practice. In so doing they take into account the socio-cultural and
physical location in which the technological practice is occurring, as well as the
opportunities and/or constraints resulting from the practice undertaken during
development of the technological outcome. A significant aspect of this is the
ongoing critical analysis of the impacts and implications (ethical, environmental,
political, etc) of the practice as well as the outcome. This process allows for
planning that will maximise the potential for achieving a successful outcome
whereby 'successful' is defined in terms of fitness for purpose as seen in its
broadest sense. That is, an exploration of the purpose from a range of
perspectives, as well as the fitness regarding the ability to meet all functional and
sociocultural demands of the purpose.
Planning for practice therefore, ensures ongoing planning that is both flexible
enough to incorporate modifications and respond to unseen issues, and robust
enough to provide guidance and ensure resource availability.
Evidence of planning may be presented through a range of communicative
strategies including oral, graphic, written, and electronic means.
OUTCOME The development of a technological outcome (product, system or environment)
DEVELOPMENT involves the generation and refinement of potential outcomes through ongoing
AND EVALUATION experimentation, analysis, testing and evaluation against the brief. Outcomes
(and practice) should be critically evaluated from a range of perspectives to
ensure fitness for purpose as seen in its broadest sense. That is, an exploration
of the purpose from a range of perspectives, as well as the fitness regarding the
ability to meet all functional and sociocultural demands of the purpose.
'Outcome Development and Evaluation' is enhanced through the presentation of
conceptual ideas to stakeholders and analysis of their feedback, testing of
mockups, evaluation of models and prototypes and through trialing within their
intended or simulated location.
70
Using the Technology of the Internet to
Enhance the Literacy Development of
Secondary Students with Reading Problems
Kim Cooney
Education Queensland
Ian Hay
T
his investigation focuses the use of the Internet as a motivation and teaching procedure for
poor and non-readers in Queensland secondary schools. In this research students were
randomly selected into either a control or an intervention group. At the end of the 10 week
intervention period, students in the intervention group made significant gains in reading
achievement and attitude to reading using a range of standardised and informal measures. In
contrast, the non-intervention group who received their regular educational program recorded no
change in reading achievement. The reasons why the intervention was successful are discussed
along with issues associated with the use of the Internet as a technology tool in remedial and
compensatory education. The Internet literacy program under investigation aimed to expose non-
readers to a highly motivating literate environment and encourage the students to develop
strategies to overcome their reading problems.
Theoretical perspective
The pedagogy employed in the Internet literacy lessons, was informed by Vygotskian
(1978) ideas of how students learn in a social context. From a Vygotskian perspective,
students' learning in an outcome of at least four interactions: (a) the learner's level of
skill; (b) the task to be learnt; (c) the learner's social and language environment; and (d)
the level of support and instruction. Vygotsky claimed that teaching should be organised
in such a way that reading and writing are necessary and purposeful. In this context, the
Internet is employed as a motivational and teaching tool. Thus, it is considered a new
multimedia environment where new meaning and learning can be attempted by students
who have failed in traditional learning.
Literacy
Freebody and Dwyer (1992) claimed that the pedagogy of the classroom is complex, not
always supportive of reading development, and often lacked a purpose for reading.
Following this line of argument, Willet and Pearson (1994) found that less than 1% of
reading for meaning took place in many secondary classrooms, and the majority of
reading that did occur they called 'proto-reading' and 'control reading'. Proto-reading was
71
st
copying from the board, overhead transparencies, and textbooks. Control reading was
when students were set didactic tasks based on textbook activities where the 'right'
answers are taken verbatim from the text. Willett and Pearson have argued that this form
of 'busy work' is an attempt to control the students' behaviour. During these types of
activities talking about the reading was not permitted. A lack of opportunity for students
to read for meaning and to practice skills of word decoding in schools and homes has
contributed to and compounded some students' literacy difficulties (Lingard 1996). The
problem is that students with literacy problems may 'be silenced' and disengaged by the
dominant pedagogical style of teacher lecturing (Gunning 2002). Instead, students need
opportunities to participate in meaningful discussions with their teachers and peers.
Internet
Books are not the only source of literacy and the Internet needs to be incorporated into
the school literacy program (Freebody & Luke 2000). The Internet employs a visual and
dynamic user interface, while traditional technologies such as books and newspapers or
work sheets use a static interface (Newhagen & Rafaeli 1996). For many students with a
reading disabled, books hold little motivation, while the computer and the Internet are
stimulating, different, and less associated with reading and writing failure. Kozub (1999)
stated:
Many students are extremely interested in Internet topics and/or e-mailing their friends and
family. Through browsing the Internet, students make sense of the language used in order
for them to reach their selections. When e-mailing a friend or relative, students have a
wonderful opportunity to express themselves and communicate using their written skills. I
have found that students, who normally avoid writing, often can't wait to communicate
using the computer (Kozub 1999, p.11).
The hope is that computers can provide an alternative route to reading for many children
who have a history of failure associated with books, and where they can receive the
essential regular literacy practice that facilitates reading development (Wooley & Hay 2000).
Although, the computer and the Internet have the potential to motivate, provide
practice, and generally facilitate reading for meaning, students with reading problems still
need appropriate teacher instruction. Greenleaf (1992) maintained that computers are
only a part of a total classroom package of teacher directed instruction. To make sense of
what students are reading on the Internet, students still require teachers to fill in gaps in
students' knowledge and to assist them with the decoding of the text and its
comprehension.
The Internet and e-mails involve students with opportunities to interact with others,
as well as exposing them to new audiences and new experiences. In some cases other
students have constructed the text on the Internet and so the level of the vocabulary and
style of writing is more user friendly to students with a reading problem. One of the
exciting features of the Internet is that the texts can provide communicative and
purposeful reading activities with a real audience, in real time. Cooper (1996) claimed
that it is possible on the Internet to create interactive reading and writing situations that
make reading come to life. In addition, the Internet engages users in cognitively effortful
tasks and challenges participants to be active in selecting what they would like to
investigate (Newhagen & Rafaeli 1996). Students with learning problems are also
72
Using the Technology of the Internet to Enhance Literacy Development of Secondary Students
identified as having lower self-concepts (Hay, Ashman & van Kraayenoord 1997, 1998)
and the hope it that the Internet will assist these students' motivation to read and
enhance their reading and academic self-concepts.
The links with motivation

Taylor, Harris, Pearson, and Garcia (1995) stressed the importance of achievement and
personal relevance of a task in sustaining students' motivation to persist with reading and
writing tasks. The Internet provides a greater choice of reading topics of interest to
students and gives them more control to select their own reading material. An Internet
based literacy program for students with reading problems still, however, needs to
consider reading as an interactive and strategic process for making meaning and to be
based on continues assessment of students' strengths, weaknesses, and interests (Deshler,
Ellis & Lenz 1996). To this end, skill development, comprehension of texts, motivation
and recognition of achievement need to be features of a remedial reading intervention
(Hay 1995; Lerner 2000). Furthermore, Bos and Vaughn (2002) have argued that
students with learning problems need opportunities to write and express their feelings
and experiences. Consequently, the e-mail and on-line chat-rooms provide students with
the opportunity to combine reading and writing with the teacher, at times providing
feedback and support. The indications are that as a student with literacy difficulties reads
and writes on the Internet they become more confident with their reading and writing
(Abbott 1994).
The design of the program

The Internet Literacy project is premised on the notion that a balanced literacy program
covering a range of literacy skills is the more effective approach. A balanced-literacy
program combines the strengths of whole language and skills based instruction, and in
doing so, creates instruction that is "more than the sum of its parts" (Pressley 1998, p.1).
Students who are explicitly taught the strategies for reading from the level of the letter
and word to the whole text level develop better literacy skills than those who are exposed
to whole text only instruction (Snowling 2000; Spencer & Hay 1997).
There is also a body of research that proposes that students' ability to comprehend
text and construct meaning from text becomes more automated when students focus on
understanding when and how to use strategies and develop the skills of self-correction
and self-monitoring (Deshler et al 1996). This study is informed by the notion that by
giving students access to conditional knowledge (the why and when strategies) and
metacognitive strategies (self-monitoring and how strategies) students are more able to
apply and re-apply the reading strategies they have learnt (Gillet & Temple 2000;
Gunning 2002). The claim is that students learn to apply and understand reading
strategies better when they are in a social/learning environment that encourages
modelling, discussion, practice, reflection, and self-review, along with some level of
direct teaching that guides the students' learning (Hay 2000). The modelling of strategies
by teachers along with discussion and practice with the text, enhances students' reading
comprehension strategies so that the student is involved in active and interpretive
reading (Pressley 1998).
73
st
Lerner (2000) maintained that teachers need to introduce students, particularly those
with a history of reading problems, to a range of reading and reading comprehension
strategies, such as predicting, questioning, constructing mental images representing text
content, seeking clarifications, responding to text based on prior knowledge,
summarising, and interpreting. Students with reading problems need to be explicitly
taught reading strategies along with vocabulary and, at times, decoding skills (Deshler et
al 1996; Gunning 2002). In addition, because of the students' past history of reading
difficulties, these specific reading strategies need to be taught in a way that engages the
student and so encourages practice and generalisation of the skills into new settings
(Chapman & Tunmer 1997; Hay 1995).
The research question
The research question under investigation in this study is: do secondary students with
significant reading difficulties who engage in an Internet literacy program, compared to
their peers, make significant improvements in their reading achievement, reading
comprehension, and attitude to reading?
Participants
The eight participating students attended a co-educational regular secondary school, and
displayed significant reading difficulties, functioning, on average, at a Year 4 level,
reading age 9 years 1 month. The students were 7 males and 1 female, average age 14
years 3 months, at the start of the intervention and were randomly assigned to either the
intervention or control group.
Procedure
The program was conducted over 10 weeks. Each student received a 30 minutes lesson
per day. Those students in the control group received their regular support program,
which focussed on improving literacy in the context of mainstream high school subjects,
assignment writing and homework support, assistance with textbook comprehension and
curriculum content, as well as counselling. The intervention group also received some of
this support, but the main difference between the two groups' daily programs was their
participation in the Internet literacy program. The academic profile of each student was
used to inform their individual Internet literacy program or their regular high school
support program.
Results
To investigate if the Internet reading program was effective, pre-intervention and post-
intervention comparisons were made for the intervention and control groups. The
measures were: Reading Age (Neale 1999); Comprehension Age (Neale 1999); Total
Reading Age (Markwardt 1989); Recreational Reading (McKenna & Kear 1990);
Academic Reading (McKenna & Kear 1990); Self-Report Reading Scale (Jason &
Dubnow 1975); and Reading Attitude Survey (Johns, Van Leirsburg & Davis 1994).
Individual interviews were also conducted with the students.
As recommended by Balnaves and Caputi (2001) for research involving same subject
comparisons and small sample size, independent paired t tests were used for this
74
comparison. Across all reading achievement (level, comprehension and amount) and
reading attitude measures, the intervention group made significant improvements. In
comparison, no significant differences in scores were identified with the control group
over the same time using the same assessment instruments (see Tables 1 and 2).
Table 1
Intervention Group: Comparison of pre-intervention and post-intervention results
(ages are reported in months)
ASSESSMENT ITEM PRE-INTERVENTION POST-INTERVENTION
Mean Mean
SD SD (df 1,3) t
Reading Age 85.3 18.64 112.0 29.82 3.43*
(Neale)
Comprehension Age 100.0 26.91 116.0 28.19 7.85**
(Neale)
Total Reading Age 96.0 24.81 122.0 32.42 4.87*
(Markwardt)
Recreational Reading 17.5 23.17 59.2 27.34 4.42*
(McKenna & Kear)
Academic Reading 17.3 11.58 70.0 27.67 6.64**
(McKenna & Kear)
Self-Report Reading Scale 0.7 0.95 14.5 5.71 4.41*
(Jason & Dubnow)
Reading Attitude Survey 1.5 1.01 6.2 3.20 3.45*
(Johns, et al)
Significance ** p<.01; *p<.05
Table 2
Control Group: Comparison of pre-intervention and post-intervention results
(ages are reported in months)
ASSESSMENT ITEM PRE-INTERVENTION POST-INTERVENTION
Mean Mean
SD SD (df 1,3) t
Reading Age 106.0 16.46 96.3 12.89 0.71
(Neale)
Comprehension Age 119.0 6.51 116.0 6.50 0.65
(Neale)
Total Reading Age 103.6 8.02 104.3 8.01 0.24
(Markwardt)
Recreational Reading 19.7 16.92 30.7 42.21 0.63
(McKenna & Kear)
Academic Reading 27.0 20.66 26.7 40.20 0.03
(McKenna & Kear)
Self-Report Reading 10.3 6.65 8.3 10.11 0.53
Scale (Jason & Dubnow)
Reading Attitude Survey 2.67 1.15 3.3 0.57 2.02
(Johns et al)
All t values non significant p>.05
75
st
Summary of student interview data

All students blamed themselves for their lack of reading and school progress. They all
spoke of the unhappiness and difficulty of being less than literate within the community
and classroom and how they were often dependent on others to cope or to pretend that
they could cope. By the completion of the study the intervention group reported more
hope for the future and seemed very happy that they could now participate in
community literacy tasks without support. The non-intervention group demonstrated no
such change and if anything seemed more unhappy with their situation.
Discussion
The Internet reading program demonstrated that it could help to compensate for
students' reading weaknesses and to appeal to their personal interests by use of 'authentic
literature'. The Internet reading program was an attempt to motivate and develop in
students with reading problems a positive attitude towards reading and improve their
level of engaged reading. This lack of engaged reading is claimed to one of the main
reasons why so many students graduate from high school as functional illiterates
(Lingard 1996).
The Internet provided a variety of topics, which according to the students in the
intervention was one of the main reasons they enjoyed using it. This, combined with the
use of decoding and comprehension strategies (i.e. retell and asking who, when, were and
why questions) had an impact on the students' motivation and ability to read. For
example, based on interviews with one of the participating students, he said:
Researcher: Your reading and writing is improving. To what do you attribute your growing
success? What do you put it down to?
Student: You. The Scheme; the program. The strategies, they're easier strategies than other stuff - the other
ways that people teach to read.
Researcher: What effect has the Internet had?
Student: I dunno. You can look up stuff that you like reading about instead of just any book that doesn't
show you what you want.
The Internet Literacy Program has provided the students with a supportive adult who
helped them solve reading problems and to perform the reading writing task at a higher
level. The students developed reflective and planning skills as well as metacognitive skills
related to using strategies for reading and writing during the program. By the end of the
program, the participating students were able to articulate reading strategies orally to the
teacher. This supports the research of Taylor et al (1995) who stressed the importance of
achievement and personal relevance of a task in sustaining motivation to persist with
reading and writing. Taylor et al, maintained that teachers need to encourage students to
become aware of their own beliefs about reading and strategies that work for them and
why and when to use them.
The Internet e-mails and chat room texts that the students encountered were often
written in a style closer to that of oral language and often used predictable language. This
is similar to the technique recommended by Learner (2000) of encouraging adolescents
with reading/writing problems to compose and read their own messages and to read
76
slightly more challenging texts than they had read before. This is in line with an
interactive approach to assessment and instruction (Gillet & Temple 2000; Lipson &
Wixson 1991). In addition, the students encountered new texts on the Internet above
their reading age level. In these situations the teacher provided more detailed support to
the students. Three main features of the Internet Literacy Program have been: (1) the
retelling and discussion of written texts; (2) the development of students' personal
repertoire of reading strategies; and (3) providing a range of personal and extended
purposes for reading and writing.
One of the common difficulties associated with the students with comprehension
problems is their inability to use their background knowledge of a topic to help them
predict and make sense of what they read in school (Pressley 1998). Consequently,
students were encouraged to use the Internet to find reading material that better matched
their own background knowledge. For example, one student explored text that tapped
into his rich sources of background knowledge associated with his travels to many parts
of Australia with his family.
Observations at the beginning of the research revealed that the students in the
intervention group were doing little if any reading in class. Often the students were
constantly in trouble with teachers and had few possible strategies for dealing with their
reading and school problems. Despite still having reading difficulties, at the end of the
intervention the students were attempting to read more in class, use more peer assistance
to carry out the tasks, availing themselves more of help from the teachers, and ask more
questions. This improvement in the students' behaviour and willingness to try to read
and write was associated with greater teacher co-operation towards these students. For
example, at the end of the intervention some teachers started to provide copies of
overhead transparencies to the students who found copying slow and difficult, and
answer sheets so they could self-correct their work.
Students at risk for school failure tend to have an external locus of control and show
little effort and motivation to interact with the task to be learnt (Bos & Vaughn 2002;
Lockhart & Hay 1995). All the students, whether in the non-intervention group or the
intervention group, gave reasons for their failure to learn to read. The non-intervention
group compared to the intervention group tended to attributed their failure to their own
perceived inadequacies, which again could be perceived as outside their control. The
Internet literacy program actively encouraged the students to engage in, and to have
choice and control of their literacy activities. For example, students used e-mails to
exchange notes with their friends and the teacher sent them links to sites that would be
of interest. They were all encouraged to use the Windows facility to set up their own
personalised desktops accessible through their own secret password. Thus, students
developed a sense of choice and control over the computer and the Internet, which
helped to open for them a world of communication through print and other media.
The students in the intervention group had experienced enormous difficulty with
reading, therefore, prior to the Internet literacy program they saw little pleasure in it. The
indications are that students with reading difficulties also appear to be less aware of the
purposes for reading, that is, they generally perceive it as a decoding, rather than a
meaning-getting task (Johns et al 1994; Gillet & Temple 2000; Gunning 2002). In the
77
st
Internet literacy program, word attack skills were not abandoned, but presented in the
context of the students' reading for particular purposes. However, there was less focus
on understanding every word, rather the focus was on gaining the overall meaning from
key words in the text and then going back over the text and using a combination of
context knowledge and grapho-phonic features of the unknown words to identify the
word and then do a reread of the passage. The student was then encouraged to do a
retelling of the text.
Students in the intervention were exposed to a wide variety of texts from different
sources written for different purposes. Most of these texts were on the Internet,
however, the teacher occasionally introduced non-Internet texts, including a range of
magazines of particular interest to the students. The Internet and computer technology
also provided a multi-sensory approach, which appealed to students' kinaesthetic learning
styles and supported their auditory and visual memory. The Internet is a highly visual
display, where pictures, colour, changing patterns, and different size and shape of text all
stimulate the reader. The form of the Internet text is often shortened and displayed in
point form, which also enhances comprehension. Where in the past the students' poor
print text skills had often precluded them from the pleasure of literacy in their everyday
lives, the Internet provided multi-sensory support and stimulation. Where choice in
reading materials and writing activities may have been absent in the classroom, the
Internet offered it. Where control over their learning was less of an element of previous
literacy programs, it was a feature of the Internet literacy program. Where perhaps
students had not previously found an activity that absolutely required reading and writing
to participate, they did on the Internet. Where teachers were meeting with resistance
from the students in the study to continue to attempt literacy development in the
classroom, the Internet was able to provide a teaching tool and medium that the students
did not associate with past reading/writing failures.
This research supports the notion that reluctant readers read and write better if they
are continually placed in non-threatening situations where they need to negotiate print to
participate. In the Internet program they were taught strategies of how to read and
comprehend text and they became involved in reading and writing for a social and
functional purpose. It is recommended that the Internet be used for students who have
experienced past failure in learning to read and write. It should be considered a tool and
a medium for a structured literacy program. Observations of the students using the
computer and the Internet indicate, however, that the Internet alone is not sufficient for
literacy development and at home, one of the students, when left unattended at his home
computer, passed many hours on the computer without ever reading a word. The
Internet, therefore, needs to be linked to the development of literacy strategies where the
teacher actively interacts with the students to enhance their involvement with the word,
the text, and the comprehension. Technologies, such as the Internet and e-mails must be
considered as tools for teachers through which the teaching and learning of literacy are
facilitated.
78
References
Abbott, T 1994, Reading IT: A teacher's guide to the use of computers in reading activities, King's College,
London.
Balnaves, M & Caputi, P 2001, Introduction to quantitative research methods: An investigative approach, Sage,
London.
Bos, C S & Vaughn, S 2002, Strategies for teaching students with learning and behaviour problems, Allyn and
Bacon, Needham Heights, MA.
Chapman, J W & Tunmer, W E 1998, 'A longitudinal study of beginning reading achievement and
reading self-concept', British Journal of Educational Psychology, vol.67, pp.279–291.
Cooper, W 1996, Philosophical perspectives on free speech and CMC: Wizards, toads, and ethics –
reflections of a MOO administrator', Computer Mediated Communication Magazine, vol.1.
Deshler, D, Ellis, E & Lenz, K 1996, Teaching adolescents with learning disabilities: Strategies and methods,
Love Pub, Denver.
Freebody, P & Dwyer, B 1992, 'Classrooms as learning environments: The structure of participation',
in Proceedings of the NSW Special Education Conference, Darling Harbour, Sydney, June.
Freebody P & Luke, A 2000, Literate Futures: Report of the Literacy Review for Queensland State Schools,
Queensland Department of Education, Brisbane.
Greenleaf, C 1992, Reading for understanding, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
Gillet, J W & Temple, C 2000, Understanding reading problems: Assessment and instruction (5th edn),
Harper Collins, New York.
Gunning, T G 2002, Assessing and correcting reading and writing difficulties, Allyn & Bacon, Boston.
Hay, I 1995, 'Enhancing the learning of students with learning difficulties through an
understanding of the interactions between students' effort, self-perception, achievement, and
teacher actions', Australian Journal of Remedial Education, vol.27, pp.22–25.
Hay, I 2000, 'Cognitive strategies in the secondary school: Investigating process based instruction
and students' perceptions of effective teaching strategies', Journal of Cognitive Education and
Psychology, vol.1, pp.146–160.
Hay, I, Ashman, A & van Kraayenoord, C 1998, 'The educational characteristics of students with
high or low self-concept', Psychology in the Schools, vol.35, pp.391–400.
Hay, I, Ashman, A & van Kraayenoord, C 1997, 'Investigating the influence of achievement on
self-concept using an intra-class design and a comparison of the PASS and the SDQ-1 self-
concept tests', British Journal of Educational Psychology, vol.67, pp.311–321.
Johns, J L, Van Leirsburg, P & Davis, S J 1994, Improving reading: A handbook of strategies,
Kendall/Hunt, Dubuque.
Jason, M H & Dubnow, B 1973, 'The relationship between self-perceptions of reading abilities and
reading achievement', in Assessment problems in reading, ed. W H MacGinitie, International
Reading Association, Newark, DE, pp. 96–101.
Kozub, R 1999, 'Dancing on the keyboard', posting to Reading Online discussion 24 November 1999.
Lerner, J W 2000, Learning disabilities: Theories, diagnosis and teaching (8th edn), Houghton Mifflin, Boston.
Lingard, T 1996, 'Literacy acceleration: Enabling secondary-age students to become literate', Support
for Learning, vol.11, pp.38–45.
Lipson, M Y & Wixson, K K 1991, Assessment and instruction of reading disability: An interactive approach,
Harper Collins, New York.
Lockhart, J & Hay, I 1995, 'Enhancing the self-concept for at-risk adolescent girls using reflective
thinking and a challenge-based program', Journal of Cognitive Education, vol.5, pp.55–70.
79
st
Markwardt, F C 1989, Peabody Individual Achievement Test – Revised (PIAT-R), American Guidance
Service, Circle Pines.
McKenna, M & Kear, D 1990, 'Elementary Reading Attitude Survey, measuring attitude toward
reading: A new tool for teachers', The Reading Teacher, vol.43, pp.626–639.
Neale, M D 1999, Neale analysis of reading ability (3rd edn), Australian Council for Educational
Research, Hawthorn.
Newhagen, J & Rafaeli, S 1996, 'Why communication researchers should study the Internet
Symposium', a special joint issue with the Journal of Communication, Journal of Computer-Mediated
Communication, 1, [WWW document], URL
http://www.ascusc.org/jcmc/vol1/issue4/rafaeli.html
Pressley, M 1998, Reading instruction that works: The case for balanced teaching, Guilford Press, New York.
Snowling, M J 2000, Dyslexia (2nd edn), Blackwell, Oxford.
Spencer, R & Hay, I 1998, 'Initial reading schemes and their high frequency words', Australian
Journal of Language and Literacy, vol.21, pp.222–233.
Taylor, B, Harris, L, Pearson, P D & Garcia, G 1995, Reading difficulties: Instruction and assessment,
McGraw–Hill, New York.
Vygotsky, L S 1978, Mind and society, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
Wooley, G & Hay, I 1999, 'Parent tutoring: Effective reading intervention', in Learning disabilities:
Advocacy and action, eds W Scott & P Westwood, AREA, Melbourne, pp.67–78.
80
Contingency in the
Classroom Design Process
Robert S. Davis, Campbell J. McRobbie, Ian S. Ginns
Queensland University of Technology
I
n the field of technology education there is a lack of understanding of the processes that
students undertake to arrive at a solution to a technological problem. In this study, two groups
of students were closely monitored as they engaged in a technology activity. The actions and
understandings they employed in the creation of an artefact were probed using classroom
observations, interviews, and the compilation of field notes. Data were analysed to ascertain if a
consistent process or strategy underpins the ability of students to advance their design in a
classroom context. It appears that students do not necessarily undertake what may be
considered as formal design processes. The process of artefact creation is typified by the
continual proposition of tentative design possibilities that are made with a conscious awareness
of incomplete knowledge. A design at any time is, therefore, always contingent on developing an
understanding of these unknowns. This concept of contingency may allow for a better
understanding of student activity in primary school classrooms, thus improving classroom practice
as well as providing guidance for further research endeavours.
Introduction
Technology education is currently being established in the states and territories of
Australia following the framework developed by the Curriculum Corporation (1994a, b).
In the state of Queensland a trial Years 1 to 10 Technology Syllabus has been developed
with the intention of having full implementation by 2002. The development of
curriculum materials was initially undertaken by the Queensland Schools Curriculum
Council (QSCC), a government organisation that has since been subsumed into the
Queensland Studies Authority (QSA). It is the QSA who will be the publisher of
curriculum materials henceforth. This being so, the subject is of interest to all primary
and junior secondary teachers in that its implementation will be mandatory in all state
schools.
An important feature of any technology curriculum is the intention that students
should be provided with opportunities for engagement in meaningful learning
experiences in which they draw upon their existing knowledge of materials, tools,
machines, systems, and gather and use information from a variety of sources (QSCC
2000; American Association for the Advancement of Science 1993). Therefore, any
understanding of design technology must involve an examination of the design process
undertaken by students, for it is this interactive process between intellectual and manual
skills that is the defining feature of the subject. Indeed, some authors (Pendergast 1999)
would place the process component (with design as a key element) at the core of any
81
st
technology curriculum, while others (Medway 1989; Eggleston 1994) simply state that
design is at the centre of technology. It would appear that there is indeed a degree of
consensus regarding the importance of design to the characterisation of design
technology (Lewis & Gagel 1992; Mioduser 1998), in particular its relevance to
assessment of student activity. Others discuss the possibility of the design process
offering a generic approach to the teaching of technology as a human process of
problem solving (Rennie, Treagust & Kinnear 1992). However, there is no 'Holy Grail' of
design process (Norman 1998), a sentiment echoed by Johnsey (1995), and being
indicative of a concern that design processes may be viewed as a linear sequence of
events that follows clearly identifiable stages.
The literature does not support the idea of such linear approaches which may be
inferred by some by oft used phrases such as "design, make, appraise" (or similar) when
discussing the design process (DeVries & Tamir 1997; Davies 1996; Donnelly 1992; Hill
1998; McCormick 1997).
The process seems to be cyclic, iterative or recursive in nature (QSCC 2000), an
interaction between 'head and hand' (Assessment of Performance Unit 1994), as an
interrelated process involving several planning-making-testing loops (Ritchie &
Hampson 1996), or as an interacting design loop (Kimbell 1997) with the goal of creating
a product. Fleer (2000) also found that students in the study she undertook did not
necessarily use designs when making artefacts but, rather, 'the materials themselves
suggested what they should make (p.56)'.
It is clear from the above research findings that an understanding of how students
undertake design activities is crucial to the development of design technology in a
classroom setting. Similarly, a question that needs to be addressed is whether teachers
can identify these design processes.
Accordingly, the aim of this study was to investigate changes in primary school
students' enacting of design processes in a classroom setting. The specific objectives of
the overall study were:
(1) To develop further understanding of the processes undertaken by students to
accomplish design tasks.
(2) To develop a consistent means to interpret student behaviour based on actual
classroom activity.
Methods and techniques

An interpretive methodology (Erickson 1988) was utilised as this approach is able to
provide "the meanings and purposes attached by human actors to their activities" (Guba &
Lincoln 1989 p.106). In this instance the researchers were seeking evidence in the
discourse and actions of the participants of their use of various strategies and
understandings of the design process.
Participants
The participants in this research program consisted of a double classroom of Year 6
students in a suburban state primary school. These students covered the age range of 10
82
Contingency in the Classroom Design Process
to 12 years. Two focus groups were established by the teacher of the class, one all boys
and one all girls. The selection of these focus groups was left to the discretion of the
class teacher. The students in these groups, along with the other students in the class,
were asked to construct a bridge that would carry a small model car across a given span
using only limited materials. The teaching unit consisted of a whole class lesson, followed
by individual group work with teacher intervention where required or requested.
The data were collected utilising video recording, audio recording, field notes and
collection of various artefacts created by the students. During activity that was not
teacher directed the researchers asked questions of the students to explore the activity
they were undertaking. These questions arose from the students' activities themselves,
and became part of the learning environment of the focus groups. The final interviews
addressed themes that had emerged from the work the students undertook in the
classroom and consisted of both pre-determined and incidental questions. The entire
data collection took place in an intensive program during a week of school time.
Analysis of data
The analysis of responses to both incidental and pre-determined questions, as well as the
discourse and activity from the classroom, were examined for evidence of common
approaches and/or strategies associated with the design task.
The categorisation of responses was undertaken through an ongoing examination of
data throughout and following the data collection. For example, possible explanations of
student behaviour were identified for testing in subsequent data collection through
further questioning of participants and/or focused observations. Data associated with
insights into approaches that progressed designs toward completion were of particular
interest. Assertions developed in this manner were refined or rejected according their
applicability to the context being examined.
Findings
A selection of responses is presented to illustrate key issues that arose in the interviews,
classroom discussions/activity and informal questioning. All names are pseudonyms.
Contingent design
A process of parallel design and development of understanding utilised by students is
examined below and is termed contingent design for the purposes of this paper. Such
designing may be seen in the continual proposition of tentative design possibilities that
are made with a conscious awareness of incomplete knowledge, any progress thus being
contingent on unknown outcomes. The rationalisation of this terminology lies in the
students' approach to developing a solution, as well as the fundamental differences that
are evident between their approach and that of conventional designing. Students do not
necessarily undertake what may be considered as formal design processes in a classroom
context. The following assertions are made in this paper:
(1) Contingent design acknowledges that failure is a means to progress. Conventional
design acknowledges failure may be an impediment to progress.
83
st
(2) Contingent design allows for the development of solutions to a problem with an
incomplete knowledge of associated issues. Conventional design is premised upon
well developed knowledge of associated issues.
(3) Trade-offs are made with certain (or assumed) knowledge of the implications of such
decisions. A designer making trade-offs in design does so in an attempt to meet the
needs of the design parameters.
The students in the class were introduced to the technology program through a
whole class lesson. In this lesson the students were shown examples of a number of
different bridges, and certain terminology relevant to bridges was introduced and
explained by their teacher, Mr Thompson. An example of the type of interaction that
occurred in this lesson is shown below, where the class is looking at pictures on the
internet of various bridges (video recording/field notes – class lesson).
Teacher: We have got another very famous bridge this one, it's called the Golden Gate
bridge. What type of bridge is the Golden Gate bridge then, have a look at
that? Bill?
Bill: Suspension?
Teacher: It is a suspension bridge, pillars on either end, cables connecting it and
holding it up.
After examining these real life examples of bridges, the students were presented with
the task that would occupy them for much of the following week. Following the
interaction cited above, the class teacher gave a demonstration of how paper can be
strengthened by folding it in a certain manner. The clear expectation was that the
students would utilise this building knowledge in the construction of their bridges. All
the groups were then to undertake an initial brainstorming activity to clarify the direction
that they would pursue. During this phase, the students made a number of decisions
regarding the approach to the task. The boys' focus group, for example, discussed the
implications of utilising various design approaches (video recording – focus group).
Michael: I reckon we should get one like that; like the Story Bridge
Oliver: Suspension?
David: Like the one in Sydney?
Oliver: No, I reckon that would waste too much time because we've only got a week
and that would take a while.
The girls' group, similarly, made decisions that had implications for the direction that
their design would take. At this stage the girls had not drawn any designs, and were
exploring the various materials that have been made available to them. In the following
exchange the girls were examining some BBQ skewers, which Thea and Louise started
bending (video recording – focus group).
Thea: They don't bend enough
Betty: Pipe cleaners bend
Louise: yeah, but they push down and they're not very strong.
The girls' group spent far more time that the boys' group investigating the properties
84
of the materials before they attempted to draw their design. Their actions were
interpreted as acquiring understanding that would affect design decisions and, ultimately,
the final product. The boys, on the other hand, drew their design and proceeded to build
the bridge immediately. This, perhaps, best illustrates the difference between trade offs in
design and contingent design. To make trade offs in a design situation requires specific
knowledge, and these trade offs are made with a predictive intention. The drawn plan is
the embodiment of this predictive intent, and such designs can only be of use if the
assumptions that underpin the design are appropriate. In this regard a drawn plan is a
representation of what is already known. In relation to the boys' focus group, it quickly
became apparent that the drawn plan did not represent a realistic proposal, and was
abandoned at a very early opportunity. In this case the bridge was constructed through a
process of continual development of understanding of the materials, termed contingent
design in this paper. The students obviously realised that this was a possibility before
they started construction (video recording – focus group).
Oliver: (gesturing at drawn design) So we won't put, like, hot glue there, 'cos we might
need blu-tak there.
Interviewer: So you're not quite sure about how some of these things are going to work
together, is that what you're saying?
Oliver: Yeah
Interviewer: So you might have to change things?
Oliver: yeah
We suggest that the italicised exchange above is indicative of the thinking that
underpins contingent design, where students are aware that they are making decisions
that will be informed by future experience rather than prior knowledge. These
observations should, however, be made in the context of how the students actually
viewed the drawn plan, and the worth that they attached to it (video recording – focus
group).
Interviewer: Why are you doing this? (the drawn design)
Oliver: We don't know, Mr. Thompson just told us to.
After the early abandonment of the drawn plan, design proceeded through a process
of continual development of understanding. Solutions were proposed, discussed within
the group and then either adopted, modified or abandoned. The following exchange took
place as the boys considered the bridge that they had partially built, realising that
modifications needed to be carried out. The next step they would take would be
'contingent' on collected data (video recording – focus group).
Michael: We need to do something on there to stick this down (indicates deck of
bridge)
Oliver: Why?
Michael: 'Cos it's not going to work otherwise
Oliver: Just see if it holds up a car (places matchbox car on deck of bridge) ……….holds
up the car
85
st
Oliver's response (italicised), is indicative of decision making based on knowledge

acquired through contingent design, thus allowing the design to be progressed.
The girls, in contrast to the process utilised by the boys' group, actually built a bridge
that was quite similar to their drawn plan, a reflection of the manner in which they
undertook preliminary materials investigations that informed the drawing process.
Contingent design was still a feature of the process that they undertook, however. In the
following exchange the girls were unsure if their bridge met one of the key design
criteria, that of being able to carry a model car across a given span (video recording –
focus group).
Betty: Let's see if it (the bridge) works
Thea: I don't think so
Betty: But it might not work
(Louise gets lid from glue bottle to roll across bridge in lieu of available car)
Louise: We'll just try it
(Rolls lid – it doesn't make it to other side of bridge)
Betty: We need something right there (indicates point on bridge that hinders the
movement of the model car through not being flush with rest of bridge
decking)
The italicised exchanges above are typical of a contingent approach to design,

whereby solutions to necessary questions are proposed, perhaps without sufficient
background knowledge, and a means to determine the usefulness of such propositions
then developed. Contingent design always has this actual activity to inform speculations
as a key feature. Such design processes are typical of the students involved in the focus
groups studied, and could be tracked through to the conclusion of the activity.
Just trial-and-error?
It would be possible to argue that the concept of contingent design is simply trial-and-
error and, therefore, does not represent any progression in the understanding of issues
associated with design processes. The similarity between what is proposed here and what
is recognised as trial-and-error is acknowledged, although it is important to distinguish
between the two means of achieving technological outcomes.
Trial-and-error may be seen as a low level means of moving towards an outcome.
Something is tried and either accepted or discarded, and another phase then attempted.
Trial-and-error is the mechanics of testing possibilities, while contingent design addresses
the broader intentions of the designer in a more methodical manner. Designs may be
contingent on new materials being made available, on new insights, on new
understandings of materials, on new conceptual boundaries to possible outcomes. Trial-
and-error is a possible means to contribute to a contingent design process, but in itself is
not sufficiently broad to explain how the students in this study arrived at solutions.
An example below, where the boys were arguing about what they need to add to the
bridge, demonstrates how trial-and-error may contribute to contingent design processes.
Michael was looking at their drawing, wondering what to use for the top section of the
86
bridge. The boys were keen on utilising as much of their allocated materials as possible
(video recording – focus group).
Michael: I reckon that should be……
David: What are you looking for Oliver?
Oliver: Pipe cleaners
Michael: What do you want pipe cleaners for?
(Oliver and David leave to get pipe cleaners, then return)
Michael: What do we want pipe cleaners for? I don't reckon we need them.
Oliver: O-kee-dokey (sic)
(boys dismiss idea)
The trial-and-error aspect of this exchange, that of acquiring materials with little
thought for how they were to be used, forms only a small aspect of the development of
understanding of the task. This has clear similarities to the previous episode involving the
girls testing their bridge, although the context of the testing is instructive. The girls
utilised the testing in a framework that was clearly contingent. That is, they fully realised
that such a test was being undertaken to inform further development. The structure of
the boys activity above appears less directed, and they have taken what is regarded as
trial-and-error approach. This lack of structure is perhaps best illustrated by the response
from Oliver to a question (post activity) about what the boys would do if changes they
made didn't work, where he replied, 'We're blown, so we just take a big gamble don't we
(video recording – focus group)?'.
Discussion
It is argued in this paper that contingency is not the same as a 'trade off' that designers
may have to make. An aircraft designer, for example, will have to make a trade off
between strength and weight to arrive at a considered design. This trade off is made with
the knowledge of the probable consequences, based on experience, knowledge of the
materials involved and understanding of the relevant theories. Students in schools do not
necessarily have such deep knowledge or experience and have to rely on a contingent
approach, whereby planning is based upon a development of the understanding of the
artefact they are working with as they progress. It should be recognised that while
students may rely upon contingent design to achieve an outcome, all designers work in a
similar fashion to a degree. The aircraft designer proposed above, while having a
thorough professional understanding of aircraft design, will still be required to
demonstrate the value of the design through a prototype, which may be considered a
contingent approach to design in that instance.
It is also argued that contingency is not the same as trial-and-error. Trial-and-error is
the process of testing a possibility, and the scope of such an approach is too narrow to
explain the behaviour of students. The broader conceptual understanding that is
engendered from contingent design subsumes trial-and-error, and allows for
development of the multitude of possible outcomes that occur through a design process.
The concept of contingent design allows for a conceptualisation of design processes
that is not dependent on any particular activity in isolation, and may allow for a general
87
st
means of examining such activity. It has also been argued here that it is necessary to
come to an understanding as to how students undertake technological problems. Having
such understanding will allow teachers to develop the necessary skills to productively
implement the subject, and the potential of the subject is consequently enhanced. A
better understanding of student behaviour by teachers may enable the identification of
the steady construction of knowledge that is possible through contingent design.
Implications and conclusions

It can be concluded that there appears to be a design process occurring in the classroom
that does not necessarily follow present models of design but, rather, appears to be
contingent on a multitude of situational factors, such as interactions between materials
used in construction, identification of the task by participants and the ability of
participants to ascertain the important elements in a successful design. These factors
cannot be determined a priori, but must be ascertained from the context of the exercise,
the participants and the environment in which they occur. Teachers, therefore, must be
aware of such factors if they are to understand what has occurred in their classroom.
Clearly this has implications in terms of assessment, although at present it is not clear
what this means at a classroom level. Further research is being carried out in this regard.
It is clear that teacher educators also need to be aware of the nature of problem
solving in technology education. Without such understanding it is possible that teachers
will not be equipped to deal with the reality of how students in their classes will
undertake solving technology problems. Issues of understanding student activity,
assessment, remediation and program development are, to a large degree, premised on an
understanding of what students are doing and how they are thinking. The concept of
contingent design offers a means to address these issues, through providing a framework
in which to understand classroom activity and, as a consequence, enhance
communication between practitioners of technology education.
For teachers to productively implement technology in their classrooms, it is necessary
for them to have an understanding of the processes that may occur. This paper has
outlined possible avenues of research into this area of contingent design, which appears
to be a regular feature of classroom technological activity, and is thus a potential means
to accessing a more general understanding of the subject.
References
American Association for the Advancement of Science 1993, Benchmarks for science literacy: Project
2061, Oxford University Press, New York.
Assessment of Performance Unit 1994, 'Learning through design and technology', in Teaching
Technology, ed. F Banks, Routledge, London, pp.59–67.
Curriculum Corporation 1994a, A statement on technology for Australian schools, Author, Carlton, VIC.
Curriculum Corporation 1994b, Technology – A curriculum profile for Australian schools, Author,
Carlton, VIC.
Davies, D 1996, 'Professional design and primary students', International Journal of Technology and
Design Education, vol.6, pp.45–59.
88
De Vries, M J & Tamir, A 1997, 'Shaping concepts of technology: what concepts and how to shape
them', International Journal of Technology and Design Education, vol.7, pp.3–10.
Donnelly, J F 1992, 'Technology in the school curriculum: A critical bibliography', Studies in Science
Eggleston, J 1994, 'What is design and technology education?', in Teaching Technology, ed. F Banks,
Routledge, London, pp.20–35.
Erickson, F 1988, 'Qualitative research methods for science education', in International Handbook of
Science Education (Part 2), eds B J Fraser & K G Tobin, Kluwer Academic Publishing,
Dordrecht, pp.1155–1173.
Fleer, M 2000, 'Working technologically: Investigations into how young children design and make
during technology education', International Journal of Technology and Design Education, vol.10,
pp.43–59.
Guba, E G & Lincoln, Y S 1989, Fourth generation evaluation, SAGE Publications, Newbury Park, CA.
Hill, A M 1998, 'Problem solving in real life contexts: An alternative for design in technology
education', International Journal of Technology and Design Education, vol.8, pp.203–220.
Johnsey, R 1995, 'The design process-does it exist?', International Journal of Technology and Design
Kimbell, R 1997, Assessing technology: International trends in curriculum and assessment: U K, Germany, U S
A, Taiwan, Australia, Open University Press, Buckingham.
Lewis, T & Gagel, C 1992, 'Technological literacy: A critical analysis', Journal of Curriculum Studies,
vol.24, no.2, pp.117–138.
McCormick, R 1997, 'Conceptual and procedural knowledge', International Journal of Technology and
Medway, P 1989, 'Issues in the theory and practice of technology education', Studies in Science
Mioduser, D 1998, 'Framework for the study of cognitive and creative issues of technological
problem solving', International Journal of Technology and Design Education, vol.8, pp.167–184.
Norman, E 1998, 'The nature of technology for design', International Journal of Technology and Design
Pendergast, D 1999, 'A statement on an ideal scope for technology', Commissioned paper for the
Queensland School Curriculum Council, [WWW document], URL
http://www.qsa.qld.edu.au yrs1_10/la/technology/pdf/brief_2.pdf
Queensland School Curriculum Council 2000, Technology: Years 1 to 10 Syllabus-in-Development Pilot
Draft, Queensland School Curriculum Council, Brisbane.
Rennie, L J, Treagust, D F & Kinnear, A 1992, 'An evaluation of curriculum materials for teaching
technology as a design process', Research in Science and Technological Education, vol.10, no.2,
pp.203–217.
Ritchie, S M & Hampson, B 1996, 'Learning in-the-making: A case study of science and technology
projects in a year six classroom', Research in Science Education, vol.26, no.4, pp.391–407.
89
The Process of Design in
Technology Education
Louis R. Ewington
Centre for Science & Technology Education Research
University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand
A
long with the introduction of achievement-based assessment for NCEA (National
Certificate Educational Achievement) at senior secondary school in New Zealand for the
first time in 2001, also came the demise of Design and Technology. Teachers of this
subject have been expected to transfer their skills to technology education or encompass trade
training courses which also gain credits toward NCEA. Many teachers are trying to embrace the
technology curriculum for the first time at senior school level after several years of trial in the
junior secondary school level. This change in focus at an examination level has required many
teachers to challenge the traditional notion of design from a linear process to a more holistic all
encompassing process that is embedded in a social context. The findings of this paper are based
on current research into design as used by industry and compares it to the design process
secondary school technical teachers has traditionally taught. The findings then report on whether
the implementation of technology has widened teachers' perception of design for technology. To
assist the reader with terminology I will refer to the traditional design process as a noun (the
design process) and the model used in technology education as a verb (the process of design).
Background
Technology education in New Zealand is one of seven core essential learning areas and
incorporates within it eight achievement objectives as well as a number of essential skills
that are common to all curriculum areas. Technology in the New Zealand Curriculum
(Ministry of Education 1995) replaced the Forms 1–4 Workshop Craft Syllabus for
Schools (Department of Education 1986) and aims at developing technological literacy
through three integrated learning strands to enable students to participate fully in the
technological society and economy in which they live and will work. It seeks to enable
and empower students with the know-how they will need to make informed choices
about technology, and to be the technological innovators of the future (Ministry of
Education 1995).
Technology is a creative, purposeful activity aimed at meeting needs and
opportunities through the development of products, systems or environments.
Knowledge, skills and resources are combined to help solve practical problems.
Technological practice takes place within, and is influenced by, social contexts (Ministry
of Education 1995). It is a planned process designed to develop students' competence
and confidence in understanding and using existing technologies and in creating
solutions to technological problems. It contributes to the intellectual and practical
90
The Process of Design in Technology Education
development of students, as individuals and as informed members of a technological

society (Ministry of Education 1995).
Design in past curricular

In New Zealand during the mid 1980s, the national Workshop Technology guidelines
included a section titled The Teaching of Design. This explained how traditional
woodwork and metalwork teachers had previously designed projects for students,
decided on materials to be used, determined size and shape of projects, decided how
projects would be made, and elaborated on how they would be finished. This new
development aimed at involving students in decisions which were traditionally the
preserve of the teacher. It was suggested that there was no best approach to teaching
design but that approaches would vary. Ministry publications elaborated on the then
recognised and accepted design process and categorised it into five major stages.
(1) Design investigation
(2) Concept design
(3) Final design
(4) Implementation
(5) Evaluation (Department of Education 1986).
By 1993, an updated national resource book for teachers expanded on the process
even further and identified design as requiring eight major stages in the process:
(1) The Situation
(2) Problem
(3) Restraints
(4) Investigation
(5) Solution
(6) Proposed Solution
(7) Realisation
(8) Testing and evaluation (Ministry of Education 1993).
This laying out of a process was put in place to assist teachers assess the whole
process of design. It commenced with the identification of an authentic need followed by
an investigation which was to deal with the student's ability to identify the requirements
of the task. Students were required to gather and select, then organise relevant
information so that suitable conclusions might be drawn and decisions made. Design
development dealt with the student's ability to select and use appropriate information to
develop a suitable design, using such techniques as concept sketching, design notes, and
mock-ups. Final design dealt with the student's ability to produce an appropriate final
design which had evolved from experimentation, modification, and refinement during
the investigation and development stages. Evaluation required students to critically
appraise their work by relating the quality of the solution to the demands of the design
91
st
brief. The student was required to include written evidence of product testing,
modification, and evaluation.
During this process, group work was seen as an important role and encouraged as
was involving community stakeholders in the identification of a variety of opportunities
for appropriate projects. This new process, whilst linear in format, is very similar to the
process of design required under the current technology curriculum. The potential
problem that existed in both the 1986 and 1993 documents as far as design was
concerned, was for teachers to restrict the flexibility of the process given to students by
not synthesising the linear design process model enough and treating more like a
lockstep process.
Design in technology
The process of design underpins the technology curriculum. The document states:
Design, including the processes of specification and development and testing of prototypes,
is an essential component of the activity. Drawing and graphics, including freehand and
technical drawing and the use of computer graphics packages, are also essential in
technological practice to depict and clarify ideas and proposed solutions (Ministry of
Education 1995, p.2).
The identified process of design for technology is demanding more flexibility and
synthesis than has been previously taught and examined at secondary school level in New
Zealand. Design investigation, as outlined in the 1995 technology document takes a
variety of forms, is promoted as being more holistically informative, and emphasises the
acquisition of relevant knowledge and skills before visual design commences.
Throughout the whole process the identified need or opportunity is the focus point, and
a continual involvement between relevant stakeholders and the designer is essential.
Planning and delivery of technology must include coverage from all three strands
(Ministry of Education 1995). The document encourages students to demonstrate
progress in technological capability through their
…understanding of abstract technological concepts and principles, understanding and
effective use of the principles and processes of design, ability to develop and work to
specified criteria, ability to use drawing and graphics to portray ideas effectively, encourage a
growing recognition of their own values, ethics, and the factors that influence them, in
relation to technological choices and decisions (Ministry of Education 1995, p.26).
Viewing the achievement objectives (from each of the three strands) from the
technology curriculum and examining how each interrelates together, we see that only
together as an entity, will they encourage a fuller more flexible process of design to occur
on a 'need to know' basis. This flexibility will then encourage technological literacy to
occur within any one of seven technological areas, and at any level from new entrant
students to students at the highest examination level.
It is recognised that most if not all of the achievement objectives should be covered
if a technology unit is to be effective for today's world. Firstly, if technological practice
takes place within, and is influenced by, social contexts, then the societal strand must be
recognised fully and dealt with as an integral part not only at the initial design stage but
throughout the whole process. Students are required to develop an awareness and
92
understanding of the ways, beliefs, and ethics of individuals and groups which promote
or constrain technological development, influence attitudes towards technological
development as well as developing an awareness and understanding of the impacts of
technology on society and the environment in the past, present, and possible future in
local, national and international settings. These societal considerations are essential to the
process of design and part of the ongoing process of design, an aspect, which has too
often been played down with the teaching of the 'design process', identified in past
curricula.
In broad terms, the knowledge and understanding strand requires students to
examine how existing technologies relate directly to that each student's identified need or
opportunity. It encourages students to look at how they are made, where they are made
and who makes them. It includes finding out how things work and the design principles
and systems have been used during the process. It can also examine how existing
technologies are currently marketed and promoted. This knowledge and understanding is
required to contain relevant information which is required prior to design and is
continued during the process of design, until the final solution has been created in its
required form. When students gain recognition of the importance of the knowledge and
understanding strands in relation to society and the identified need or opportunity prior
to design, the most important elements in the process of design has been identified.
Changes in teacher perceptions and delivery of design

The research was carried out in New Zealand with current practicing teachers who have
had a teaching career involving traditional design-based courses. A total of four teachers
were selected, two male and two female. They were all currently involved with teaching
and also involved with the implementation of the technology curriculum in secondary
schools. They came from a variety of teaching and industry backgrounds and their length
of service in teaching also varied. Two (one male and one female) have completed
masters papers in technology education and three had previously been involved with
workshop technology moderation. Two of the interviews were carried out in the school
setting and two performed in private homes. The aim of the research was to develop an
understanding of the process of design as they have related it from what they know of
previous curricula and how they perceive it to affect the technology curriculum.
One of the teachers said that for the first time, students were creating their own brief
in consultation with a stakeholder and then developing a suitable plan of action to solve
the identified problem. He cited a sample brief given to the students which required
them to identify someone who required a timepiece.
The first task students have to do is go and find a suitable client, so they go home and
interview someone who needed a clock, and then interview to get ideas of what was desired
for the clock. He continues: "Then they then do some investigation on clocks. What's out
there and what's already been done, then they'll go back to the client and show them their
findings. A discussion with the client occurred next and then the students start to come up
with concepts. After the end of concepts, it's back to the client so it's sort of ongoing with
the client making the decisions. Once decisions have been made with the client regarding
where the clock's going to go, the shape, what it's going to be made of, how it's going to be
made, how it's going be finished, what it's going to cost, when it's going be completed etc,
93
st
then they'll come up with a brief that has all the specifications that they're going to be
working to, and make it. He emphasised that design evaluation was far more important
under technology because different stages were continually being evaluated and taking place
between designer and a stakeholder.
Another teacher set up tasks that lead students to an outcome. She led them through
it by doing research into technology and society first and then went through the
development stages. She felt the development stages were like the traditional design
process but added that it was much more flexible and broader than what it used to be.
Another teacher claimed design could be simplified into two major stages. He
identified these with the students as preliminary investigative type work, and then moved
on to the design work through sketching and development. He said students seemed to
enjoy that and were then quite happy to start constructing, based on that preliminary
design work. He recognised that design did not have a set formula but commented also
that as teachers, we must accept that the hands-on work done by students is also a valid
form of design development.
This teacher's view on a specific design process was that it may well produce an
inadequate solution and said that teachers must maximise the opportunity for students to
reach a final solution and to meet customer needs. He said there is no set start and finish
points to the process.
Students should continuously revisit and possibly change or alter their design according to
their reflection on how things are going. He said it was crucial that students are plugged into
what they're doing and acting accordingly rather than following a pre-planned lock-step
method. He finished by saying that design in the technology curriculum has much more
width to it than former documents and students are never sure of the outcome before they
start their work.
Initially, many trade trained teachers were reluctant to change to technology and had
difficulty coping with the students' perceived lack of direction for design and take-home
value. One teacher expressed it by saying "The new document is so wide you could drive
a bus through it and not hit the sides of it".
Teachers' perceptions of industrial design

One teacher explained to students how stakeholders now played a considerable part in
the design and manufacture of cars and that car designers are now looking for specific
niche markets. His observations regarding current kitchen appliance design also
expressed similar thoughts.
The big change is the same with a lot of things you know, like appliances. You look at the
cost of an AEG dishwasher. It's a lot dearer than a Fisher and Paykel dishwasher but with
the AEG one you can get it to go with the decor in your house. The Fisher and Paykel one
you either have it in white or stainless steel. Fisher and Paykel are catering for the likes of me
whereas AGC is probably catering for the likes of the people who have plenty of money.
Another teacher had some pertinent comments regarding industrial design. Her
experience from working in industry had found industry using many people working
together in teams during the process of design. She says "It's quite a team thing with
different people responsible for different aspects of it." She then explained that as part of
the process, industry has expert input at different stages and the process cannot be totally
94
linear. One difference between industry and education is that design in industry is usually
a far more long-term process.
One teacher who was a qualified quantity surveyor commented on the industry
design model by saying:
The first point is that industry does not come up with a design drawing or specification that
is completely final. Design is highly customised. They get drawings up to a standard that can
establish a contractual relationship between the wider contractor and client and then the
client's representatives. When they start constructing a product there are changes made. The
needs of the customers or the client may require changes and then there is some sort of
contract arrangement to be agreed upon so that those changes can be dealt with. I've been in
contracts when there'd be no changes to the contract but later the customers would come
back and want everything changed.
Another industry trained technical teacher reinforced the aspect that cost had an
important part to play in design and that designing in teams also was really important. He
said that traditionally, teamwork hadn't been done well in schools. He said that teamwork
in industry allows a wider number of skills within a project. "There are people with
expertise in engineering, structural design, market research all that sort of thing and that
makes up the team and that's what leads to an effective design. I've never ever seen
anyone design by themselves in industry".
One teacher who had been trained in aspects of industrial design, but had no real
industry experience with it said she felt that the real world of design was often quite a
long way away from what many teachers had experienced and thus students taught. She
spoke of teachers who tended to drag the process of design out so much when often
some students had already done the process in their head. She said the hardest part was
for the students having to repeat the process on paper for the sake of assessment.
Taking on board industrial practice in technology education

Solving problems in technology education undoubtedly requires technological capability.
Practice in industry identifies the need or opportunity as being revisited again and again
as part of a long-term process, primarily to confirm requirements and to update possible
specification changes with all the involved stakeholders. It is at this point that the
relevant information researched from strands A and C is put together in context and
used within the capability strand (B). It is within this strand the physical process of
design becomes apparent using pen, pencil, or mouse is as a means of recording relevant
information. This must occur in a logical way to enable secondary students work toward
a solution. This is not suggesting for a moment that strands A and C are complete and
no longer visited. That it is inferring is that sufficient background information has been
gathered to initiate the process of design to a stage which will require more relevant
information from all strands on a 'need to know' basis.
The diagram on the following page is the result of the findings of an English research
team on design (McCormick, Newey & Sparkes 1993). This team identified design as
having six core phases. Whilst these six specific phases are individually defined in the
diagram, in reality the stages are iterative in nature and constant feedback must occur at
all stages if the process is it to be effective at all. This is indicated by the movement of
the arrows as shown.
95
st
Identification of need
Specification
Concept design
Detail design
Manufacture
Sales & usage
Figure 1
Result of the findings of an English research team on design
A recent New Zealand industry design model which was used for creating plastic
seating at a sports stadium shows conclusively their process used for design. (See Figure 2
on next page.) Note the repetitive nature of the central pathway, alternating between
analytical and creative phases throughout the whole process.
Conclusion
It is quite clearly seen that teachers' perceptions of design has widened since the
implementation of the technology curriculum.
It is recognised that for the process of design to be effective for current technological
practice, the combination of relevant technological knowledge and understanding,
relevant societal needs and influences and relevant capability skills and processes are
fundamental in underpinning the process of design. The process required in the
technology document is similar to that of current industry models and is recognised as a
wider, more flexible and more user-friendly model than previous design based curricula.
This current technology curriculum model for design with its non prescriptive content
will enable students to gain relevant technological practice in any of the seven
technological areas identified for the New Zealand technology curriculum. With this
fuller understanding of the flexibility required for the process of design in New Zealand,
we may well see an increase in entrepreneurialism occurring in the near future from the
new entrant student entering the education system at five years old to the bursary level
96
student leaving school at 17 or 18 years old and becoming competent industry designers
working in the 21st century.
INITIAL STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER STAKEHOLDER

STAKEHOLDER DESIGN BRIEF CONCEPT FINAL DESIGN
MEETING APPROVAL APPROVAL APPROVAL
MILESTONE MILESTONE MILESTONE

MEETING MEETING MEETING
Discuss what
market wants
and what the Agree on Select
business can expected preferred
make outcomes options Confirm
decisions
Analytical Creative Analytical Creative Analytical Creative Analytical Creative
Write a Prepare Resolve final Tool up to

design concept design produce
brief models details outcome
Figure 2
New Zealand industry design model used for creating plastic seating at a sports stadium
References
Department of Education 1986, Design and technology School Certificate workshop technology, Government
Printer, Willington, New Zealand.
Department of Education 1986, Forms 1–4 workshop craft, Government Printer, Wellington, New
Zealand.
McCormick, R, Newey, C & Sparkes, J 1993, 'Engineering Design: T392 Course Team', in
Technology for Technology Education, Open University, Cornwall.
Ministry of Education 1993, Design and technology Forms 6 & 7, Learning Media, Wellington, New
Zealand.
Ministry of Education 1995, Technology in the New Zealand Curriculum, Learning Media, Wellington,
New Zealand.
Prodesign 1996, Commercial success: A model, AGM Publishing, Auckland, New Zealand.
97
Exploring Information and Communications
Technology as a Technological Area
Garry Falloon
Auckland College of Education
Whangarei, New Zealand
T
his paper explores the application of the technological area of Information and
Communication Technology (TNZC 1995) within the Bachelor of Education (Teaching)
degree offered by the Auckland College of Education. It specifically focuses on the
potential offered by this technological area in providing opportunities for students to explore and
develop solutions to information-related problems, needs or opportunities existing within their
communities, whilst at the same time learning about technical aspects related to the development
of information systems to meet stakeholder specifications.
Introduction
Information and Communications Technology as a technological area is described in
Technology in the New Zealand Curriculum (1995) as
….systems that enable the collection, structuring, manipulation, retrieval, and
communication of information in various forms. This includes audio and graphical
communications, the use of electronic networks, and interactive multimedia (TNZC 1995).
Whilst this definition appears somewhat limited in its view of the diversity of this
area, when viewed in conjunction with the aim of the curriculum, namely to develop
technological literacy through the three strands of Technological Knowledge and
Understanding, Technological Capability, and Technology and Society (TNZC 1995) it
clearly provides a context for students to investigate the nature of, and opportunities for,
information systems, and how they are designed to meet specific needs within the
community. This paper outlines the experience of such an approach utilising the Teaching
and Planning with ICT module (904.701) of the Bachelor of Education (Teaching)
programme at the Auckland College of Education.
Why the module Teaching and Planning with ICT?

Teaching and Planning with ICT is a third year optional module in the BEd (Tchg) degree,
and was chosen for this exercise as it allowed students to engage indepth with an area of
investigation or skill development considered to be of importance to their personal
professional development as beginning teachers. The flexible structure of the module
allowed for the adoption of a 'project' approach, whereby students were able to select
their own context for investigation, and integrate their use of computers within an
information skills framework. The adoption of such an approach provided students with
98
Exploring Information and Communications Technology as a Technological Area
opportunities to work collaboratively, and engage in greater depth with longer term,
more complex information problems, with a 'clear, real world connection' (Penuel &
Means 1999).
Within this context, such a connection has been viewed by some researchers (for
example: Collins, Hammond & Wellington 1997; Eisenberg & Johnson 1996) as being
critical to the development and long-term retention of both technical and process
knowledge and skills.
The potential also existed, by adopting a project-based approach, to radically change
the relationship between teacher and student from one characterised by transmissive
approaches (as previously was the case in this paper) to a more student-centred,
facilitatory, or 'capable peer' structure in which student knowledge development was
scaffolded by the lecturer or other capable peer (Vygotsky 1978). By modelling a project
approach in this integrated programme, and utilising these strategies, it was anticipated
that students would be able to see the value of applying these to their classroom
practices.
From a course delivery perspective, the flexibility inherent in the project-based
strategy also lent itself to the adoption of a co-constructivist approach to the
development of knowledge and skills. As each student entered into a 'learning contract'
with the course lecturer in which they were required to outline their task brief,
specifications, and plan of action in relation to their selected project and context, specific
skills and knowledge were able to be taught on a 'needs' or 'just in time basis'. According
to research (for example, Eisenberg & Johnson 1996; Ivers & Barron 1998) a base of
prerequisite skill needs to be developed prior to the commencement of a project, but
task-specific skills should be taught when and where they are needed, in order to enhance
'skill transfer and the ability to apply skills from situation to situation' (Eisenberg &
Johnson 1996, p.2).
Implementation of the programme

Project brief, specifications and time allocation
The semester 1 module: Teaching and Planning with ICT, commenced in February 2002 and
ran through to June 2002. The following is a description and analysis of the programme,
and details the manner in which the course progressed, as well as discussing issues that
arose. Data was collected through analysis of the students' reflective logs, informal
interviews, and some completed projects.
The first stage of implementation involved the redesigning of the course content and
major assessment task to incorporate the project. In order to leave it as open as possible
for students to select a context of relevance and interest to them, this task was written as
a brief, comprising a task definition and set of essential specifications.
Assessment task 2
Research, define, conceptualise and develop to final prototype stage either a CD-ROM
based multimedia information resource, or an Internet website, designed to meet an
information need or problem identified within a selected business, community group or organisation.
99
st
Compulsory specifications
Your CD or website must:
• contain data that is accurate, relevant and presented in an appropriate form
• be designed appropriate to the intended use, audience, and/or purpose (i.e. fit for
purpose)
• be designed to enable easy access to data and information (i.e. user friendly)
• be designed taking into account generally accepted design conventions for this type of
media (e.g. consistent 'look and feel')
• be planned taking into account multiple navigation pathways (e.g. storyboarded) (ACE
2002, 904.701 Course outline, p.7).
Time allocation
The module was scheduled to run for three hour blocks of face-to-face teaching, once a
week for 14 weeks. It was felt desirable that this situation was modified to allow for a
'blocking' of time into full day sessions once every two weeks. This allowed students the
opportunity to engage with their projects in depth, and over a sustained period, with
plenty of opportunity to develop the necessary skills and knowledge over a broad base to
enable a quality production. Having two weeks between the sessions allowed students
plenty of time to undertake the necessary research, data gathering and analysis,
interviewing, video and digital camera work etc, so that their on campus workshop time
was optimised with designing and assembling their end products.
Introducing the project

This component of the module was introduced to the students at the commencement of
the paper, even though the project time allocation did not commence until the fifth
session (i.e. after 12 hours course time). The following concepts were introduced to the
whole class using a combination of lecture and scenario-based workshops. These were
deemed necessary for students to understand the potential (and limitations) of the
available hardware and software, and also their basic function.
Concepts introduced to the students in the first four sessions included:
• What is multimedia?
• Planning multimedia projects (using graphic organisers such as Inspiration, and
planning and developing storyboards)
• An introduction to multimedia and web authoring software: e.g. Hyperstudio,
Illuminatus, Pagemill, FirstPage, Claris Homepage
• Using an information skills framework as a structuring tool
• Identifying suitable contexts for projects.
Range of projects selected

Most students identified contexts for this task within their immediate community, with
many choosing to work with a community group, sporting club or organisation with
100
which they had a personal association or affiliation.

The range of projects selected included:
• A website for a 'cottage' industry producing designer Teddy Bears
• A school website designed to inform parents/community of the role of the school and
the nature of school programmes
• An interactive CD-ROM of FAQs for the local Citizens' Advice Bureau
• A CD-ROM resource for schools informing of the work of the Kiwi Recovery
Programme
• A self-directed music tutorial programme for a local music school.
Phase 1
Developing the brief and specifications
After the initial introductory phase, students organised themselves into small working
groups. They then set to write a task brief for their project, customising the more generic
framework provided into a specific outline, matched to the requirements of their
particular project. From this point the students generated a set of task specifications, which
detailed the specific qualities, features and level of performance they considered essential
for their final product. The brief and specifications were developed after considerable
consultation with the client, and after they had firstly gained a good understanding of the
nature of their client's technological practice.
A typical brief with specifications was:
Context
The Whangarei Citizens' Advice bureau is a voluntary group set up to help provide
free advice to people on a range of matters relating to personal or community issues.
Often the time of front desk personnel can be taken up answering a narrow range of
basic questions, which effectively takes their time away from dealing with more
critical and important issues. The need is for a piece of self-directed software on a
PC, capable of providing answers to these basic questions.
Task brief
Research, design and produce a stand alone multimedia presentation for the
Whangarei Citizens' Advice Bureau that can be used by visitors to the bureau as a
'first point of contact' resource, to help answer most frequently asked questions.
Specifications
The presentation must:
• be able to be used by visitors with little or no experience in using computers
• provide answers to questions frequently asked of desk staff by visitors to the
centre
101
st
• be robust enough to be used in a kiosk context by multiple users each day

• inform the user of the range of activities undertaken by the bureau
• be interesting in layout and design, easy to navigate quickly to the appropriate
answer, and consistent with the bureau's branding guidelines.
Phase 2
Research and data gathering
Following the sign off of the brief, students then arranged for time to be spent working
with their clients, developing knowledge of their practice, and gathering data (text,
graphical, video, audio) which could be used in their prototype. This phase of the
programme lasted for approximately another six hours (2 class sessions), plus additional
out of class time. In practice, many groups of students worked with their clients for
prolonged periods, well in excess of the allocated course time, so that they could gather a
wide range of data useful for their projects. Following this phase, students revisited their
brief to take into account new understandings gained from the time spent with their
clients, and modified and refined this accordingly. They then developed a plan of action,
usually in the form of an iterative flowchart, which detailed their probable pathway from
the analysis of data stage through to the final prototype production.
Phase 3
Making sense of the data
After the students returned to College, they set about arranging, analysing, and
summarising the data they had gathered from their clients, in terms of the key message/s
and purpose/s for the information resource. In almost every instance, groups returned
with far too much information, and needed to spend considerable time working their
way through this, sorting out the useful from the not so useful, constantly referencing
their task brief and specifications as they did so to ensure compliance. They then set
about developing a draft concept map using Inspiration, which clearly identified the key
ideas they thought were relevant, and the relationships between them. This was shared
with their client and modified according to their feedback, before being further
developed into a draft storyboard containing the specific information (textual, graphical
etc) that was to be included on their final CD or website. Following feedback from their
clients and subsequent modification, the students had a final working outline and were
ready to develop their product.
Phase 4
Developing the product
It was necessary at this stage to carry out a half-session review of material covered in
sessions 3 and 4, to 'remind' the students about the capabilities of the software packages
they had at their disposal, and to provide some entry points in translating their
102
storyboard plan into a multimedia format. On reflection, it was too great a length of time
between the initial workshops in the earlier sessions, and when the students were
expected to apply their understanding. In stating this however, without presenting them
with an outline of the basic concepts and software capabilities early on, they would have
had little understanding of the type of data to collect when with their clients, and the
manner in which it could be used. In future, the introductory session will only deal at a
conceptual level with the software, with the technical aspects of construction left to
when students have completed their research and have actual data to work with.
Additional discussion also took place regarding the nature and characteristics of good
multimedia and website design, and the need to ensure a professional product at the end
of the process. An audioconference was held with a local design shop, DigiPrint and
Dezign, with discussion focussing particularly on layout and the use of colour, and the
need to maintain consistency throughout. Other design resources were located on the
web and these were captured onto our local server using the HTTrack offline browsing
program, and students were able to refer to these throughout the subsequent
development phase.
The actual development phase lasted a total of 5 sessions (15 hours) which was 6
hours more than anticipated. Groups of students had specific needs during this time, and
the skills were taught on a 'just in time' basis. Some of the most common needs were:
• Digitalling editing video, and importing this into the authoring packages
• Importing CD sound
• Editing scanned images
• Setting up internal and external hyperlinks
• Developing custom buttons
• Manipulation and layering of text and graphics.
The workshop sessions during which the students worked on their projects were
structured informally, with some students doing most of the basic work at home on their
own PC, electing to use the College facilities only to complete the more specialised tasks
such as video and audio editing. These students saved their edited files onto CDRs and
CDRWs and then took them home to import.
At one point during the development phase (for most, this was the end of session 10)
students were required to make a brief oral progress report to their client and show them
their progress to date. They were expected to take account of feedback from their client
and make changes to their stack or site to reflect this. For many this was simply a
validation exercise and confirmed the interpretation they had placed on the collected
data, but for one group it meant a major redesign of a website to more accurately reflect
the needs and culture of the school it was representing.
Discussion
This was the first occasion that most, if not all students had attempted multimedia and
web authoring, and the first time it had been undertaken as part of this paper. The
exercise clearly demonstrated the benefits of utilising an information problem-solving
103
st
approach in conjunction with multimedia development, whilst at the same time revealed
a number of issues which need to be taken into account when attempting such a
programme. These will now be discussed.
Firstly, it was apparent throughout this paper that the students were highly motivated
and very keen to achieve as good a result as possible for their client. They displayed high
levels of task application, and many groups would have spent at least twice the number
of allocated course hours in the preparation of their end product. However, this did not
necessarily result in a superior output, as for many they were starting from no knowledge
base and had to master the technical aspects of software (and in some cases hardware)
operation before they were even able to commence. Associated with this aspect, there
was a definite shift towards a more co-operative environment within the group,
represented by the prevalence of peer tutoring and co-operative problem-solving, as
students shared difficulties they were having and solutions they found had worked for
them. Parallels were drawn by many students between this experience and classroom
practice, particularly in terms of facilitating the learning environment and making life
easier for the teacher.
The process of technical skill development was reflected upon by some students as
being one of the most positive aspects of their work in this paper. They felt the
prolonged period of time allocated to the project, and the need to really get to know the
software in depth, allowed them the opportunity to develop strategies that could be
transferred across other applications, and served them better than the shallow,
uncontextualised, 'smorgasbord' approach of previous papers.
Many students recognised and appreciated the 'cognitive challenge' presented by this
task, not only in terms of technical and problem-solving skill development, but also in
sorting and prioritising information, and planning/designing their presentation to meet
the needs of a third party. The consultative process was an essential part of this, with
some groups realising that what they interpreted as important information was not
particularly important to their client, and design/technical features that they liked (e.g.:
animation) others felt detracted from the overall impact of their product. This made
them realise that the values they subscribe to greatly influenced the choices they made in
relation to their product content and design, with some commenting on how this was
reflective of software design generally.
The self-efficacy gained from this exercise was also rated highly by a number of
students. For most it was the first time they had attempted anything like this, and it made
them realise that undertaking such an activity with a class of children, perhaps based on
recording learning from a topic or unit, was a distinct possibility. Issues such as managing
access to one or two computers in a classroom were raised as being possible barriers to
this, but as one student identified, this issue was as much to do with teaching style and
pedagogy as it was to do with resource availability or computer/student ratio.
The exercise also revealed a number of issues for the students in terms of time
management, and their estimation of the time that it would take them to complete the
various phases. Some groups failed to realise what was involved in undertaking a task of
this magnitude, or they overestimated their technical understanding of the software,
leading to some last minute 'cramming' or compromise of the quality of the final product
104
in order to meet cut-off dates. In spite of the use of Gateways as management tools
(Compton & Harwood 1999), some groups found they ran considerably over time or
were not able to incorporate some desired features or information in their final
prototype. Some also found that this exercise revealed limitations in their researching
ability, both technical skill in using resources such as the Web, and also in conducting
interviews or observations with their clients- knowing what sort of question to ask to get
the information they needed.
From a technical management perspective, the module also highlighted the
limitations that can be placed on what is possible by the equipment one has access to.
Although our computer room has relatively new hardware, the level of specification on
these machines is minimal, with most computers only having 64MB of RAM. This
proved to be a major problem for some students wishing to use video clips and high
resolution images in their stacks, with hardware failures due to lack of memory being a
frustratingly regular occurrence.
Summary and conclusion

From preliminary analysis of the reflective logs, and informal comments made by the
students, it is apparent that this module was both popular and valuable, by modelling an
approach to integrating ICT with Technology Education, and promoting a base of
information and technical skills from which the students could make direct links to
classroom practice.
Perhaps one of the most valuable aspects from my perspective, was the level of self-
belief and positive attitude generated in the students – most now firmly believe that they
can manage a learning activity such as this in a classroom, and they can see huge benefits
for their students in terms of social skills, motivation, and cognition. In particular they
could see how technical and information-skill development can be utilised within their
own technological practice (Compton & Harwood 1999). From a professional viewpoint,
this exercise has also been valuable. It has provided me with an opportunity to exercise
social-constructivist teaching approaches, which up until this module have been much
talked about, but little demonstrated. It has also provided me with an opportunity to
validate and acknowledge student capabilities in a way not previously possible, and to
explore a new, exciting, and potentially valuable area of educational computer use.
References
Auckland College of Education 2001, Course Outline: 904.701 – Teaching and Learning with Information
and Communications Technology, Auckland. N.Z.
Collins, J, Hammond, M & Wellington, J 1997, Teaching and learning with multimedia, Biddles
Ltd, UK.
Compton, V J & Harwood, C D 1999b, 'TEALS Research Project: From directions
to classroom practice', Paper presented at the 30th Australasian Science Education Research
Association Conference (ASERA), Rotorua, New Zealand.
Eisenberg, M & Johnson, D 1996, 'Computer skills for information problem-solving: Learning and
teaching technology in context', ERIC Clearinghouse no: ED392463, [WWW document], URL
http://www.alumrock.k12.ca.us/multimedia/big6.htm
105
st
Ivers, S & Barron A1998, Designing, producing, and assessing multimedia projects in education, Libraries
Unlimited Inc., Englewood, Colorado.
Ministry of Education 1993, The New Zealand Curriculum Framework, Learning Media Ltd.,
Wellington, New Zealand.
Penuel, W R & Means, B 1999, 'Observing classroom processes in project-based learning using
multimedia: A tool for evaluators', Centre for Technology in Learning. SRI International, [WWW
document], URL
http://www.ed.gov/Technology/TechConf/1999/whitepapers/paper3.html
Vygotsky, L S 1978, (ed. M Cole), Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes, Harvard
University Press, Cambridge, MA.
106
Theme-based Instruction Design is
Centered on Technology
Rong-Jang Fang, Tung-Chung Tsai
National Taitung Teachers College, Taiwan
T
he field of 'technology' is unfamiliar to elementary school teachers in Taiwan. It is a whole
new teaching field to them, yet it has been taught in developed countries for years. In this
forum, 'life technology' courses have been extended to elementary school stage, and the
name is changed to 'technology'; it is a big step for public education. This study focuses on the
technology field in the nine-year curriculum, maps a education model based on technology, select
technology topics suitable for elementary schools, and develop teaching activities that can
enhance students' creativity for the purpose of improving and promoting technology teaching. The
purpose of this study includes: 1) understand the practice of technology education in developed
countries; 2) discuss relevant concepts and literature on elementary school students' creativity
development; 3) discuss teaching model based on technology and strategy to develop their
creativity; 4) develop suitable technology topics and activities for elementary school students. To
fulfil the purpose, the research structure is shown below:
Concept of Teaching Fields of learning for nine-year curriculum
course of
integration creativity Natural and life
technology
Tech-
Integrated Strategy of nology
teaching creativity
model with teaching Literature
technology
as core
Selection
Integrated Technology
teaching model theme with
with technology technology
as core to as core
develop
creativity
Select theme for technology teaching Little Prince for fifth grade
Develop teaching Teachers' manual for Issues on

content for technology teaching
technology teaching teaching experimentations
Figure 1
Research structure of study
107
st
Technology education in elementary school

in developed countries
Technology education courses in elementary school in developed countries shows: 1)
guided by ability standard; 2) stress the connection with life experience; 3) strengthen
course, content, continuity, and order; 4) develop design and problem solving skills.
Relevant concepts on development of creativity

Technology is a discipline on use of materials, tools, resources, and creativity to solve
actual problems. Thus, the main task of technology education is to cultivate students'
knowledge in technology to solve problems of the present and the future, thus problem
solving ability is the intent and content of technology and technology education. To
strengthen students' creativity thinking ability and balanced development in knowledge,
skills, and attitude, 'learning by doing with thinking in core' should be emphasised. Thus,
teaching activities designed for elementary school students should be based on creativity
development concepts, and the following should be noticed: 1) pay attention to students'
participatory experience; 2) collaborate with students' maturity and use simple tools or
materials to teach; 3) create game-like learning environment; 4) encourage students to
think creatively. In general, technology education courses are intended to fulfil students'
knowledge on technology and utilisation of knowledge, creativity, tools and materials,
and encourage them to explore technology and problems derived in order to meet the
demand of life in a technology society. Thus, teaching method should be focused on
problem-solving strategies, and use inter-discipline connection.
Course integration with technology in core

Design of course integration starts with course topics in the core, and includes concept,
generalisation, principles, skills, value, event, and location. With rich content, the cross
field can be core themes of course integration. Use more distinctive and abstract subject
as the core, and call it conceptual theme; course integration in this study is based on a
conceptual theme.
'Conceptual' themes define clear concept as the core, integrate relevant 'facts' to lead
conception and memorised 'facts' to higher level of learning, such as, understanding of
concept and creation of principle. 'Concept' means 'ability to use words or symbols to
present high level of abstract meanings', such as 'dependent', 'cultural migration', and
'cause and effect'. 'Concept' means knowledge structure that is at a higher level as fact,
and able to name facts of same category. The highest level of concept is timeless,
popular, and abstract.
Design of course integration based on 'Main concept' includes:
1. Aim at guiding students' thinking to a higher level, thus, in addition to course
content, process skills should be included in interrelated connection.
2. All disciplines share similar basic ideas, yet in unique subject and knowledge system,
they hold special meanings. If not proficient, disparity between understanding and
practice might occur. Though the purpose of course integration is to break the
boundaries between subjects and avoid division of knowledge, complete and
108
Theme-based Instruction Design is Centered on Technology
Systematic learning of a concept or knowledge is still valuable and should be not

eliminated. Of course, same concept in different subjects can be used as core theme
and integrate course content.
3. Concepts, generalisations and principles are important learning content. In terms of
learning functions, concepts and generalisations are basic learning and the foundation
for structuring big idea and discussing problems. They can be used to compile facts,
conclude learning content, and organise them effectively; they cannot be overlooked.
4. Concept is the bridge between fields, thesis, generalisation, and thinking levels. Use
concept as the core, knowledge in single field can be integrated. If one concept is
shared in different subjects, then it can be used as the foundation to cross-field
integration. For example, the concept of 'cycle' can be integrated in 'cycle of water' in
physics and 'water cycle' in geography.
Teaching model with technology as core and strategy

on creativity development
Integrated teaching model with technology as core
The teaching model discussed in this study includes six stages: in main activity initial
stage, teachers guide students to select technology topic, then through introduction and
exploration stage to complete homework on technology theme.
The following teaching activity is done by students proposing solutions in groups;
they determine the solution and confirm the feasibility of the solution. The final teaching
activity is evaluation of the solution proposed to know the actual effect of the solution
and whether the learning goal has been reached.
Strategy on creativity development
The strategy on creativity development discussed in this study is based on creative
problem solving proposed by S. J. Parnes (1967). The strategy includes stages of finding
problem, finding facts, finding problem, finding idea, finding solution, seek for
acceptance and take actions.
The use of creative problem solving on technology theme teaching model is shown
below.
TEACHING STRATEGY CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING
TEACHING STAGES
FINDING FINDING FINDING FINDING FINDING SEEK FOR TAKE
PROBLEM FACTS PROBLEM IDEA SOLUTION ACCEPTANCE ACTIONS
Selection of technology 9 9 9
theme
Introduction stage 9
Exploration stage 9 9 9
Proposing solution stage 9 9 9
Action stage 9
Evaluation stage 9 9 9
(new challenge)
109
st
Design of teaching activities

Teaching activities proposed by this study are shown below:
Theme: Adventure of Little Prince (hot balloon)
Relevant concept fields:
Literature: Story of Little Prince
Social studies: History of hot balloon, social impact, usage in life, environmental
problems
Math: Calculation, weight comparison
Nature: Weather, seasons (directions), float, heat concepts
Technology: Transportation, production,
communication (connection, information)
Information: Collection and organisation of information
Conclusion
Integration model of conceptual theme can provide elementary school nine-year
curriculum with reference on natural and life technology learning, and be extended to
middle school curriculum. The current curriculum designed for middle school has an
emphasis on the division of subjects. In the future, a conceptual theme integrated model
can be used. Though this study has design integrated teaching model, further research
should be conducted to prove the effect of this teaching model.
110
Theme-based Instruction Design is Centered on Technology
Field of natural science Field of literature

Organize Ask
Origin of
Difference main questions
heat
Change of of density points Story
density Weight
resistance plot Listening
Concept of to the
Currency
heat Concept of Summarize story
of heat
floating power main points
Concept of hot Volume

Difference in balloon of air
air pressure
Description Field of math
of direction Numerical
Change of Change of Comparison
weather seasonal wind process
of area and
Use of volume
calculator
Calculate of
numbers Ask
Theme: questions
Field of social studies Adventure
Calculation
of Little
Social issue of area and Comparison
History Prince
of hot volume of weight
balloon
Usage in
Social life Field of technology
impact Restriction
on usage
Material
Environmental weight Communication Common
issues technology usage
Material
feature
Restriction
Selection of Hot balloon Transportation on usage
Material materials function technology
usage Common
Making of Procedures Determine usage
Determine Style hot balloon Process process
size design
Determine Evaluation
Determine Making of ideas Simplify
idea
volume methods process
Look Order of
Design Weighted
techniques ideas
procedures scores
Change
techniques Extension
Sample
techniques
techniques
Figure 2
Flow chart of teaching activities
111
Improving Students' ICT Use:
The LDCT at Burleigh Heads State School
Glenn Finger
School of Education and Professional Studies
Gold Coast Campus, Griffith University
Nigel Baker, Debbie Nagel, Kerry Rarere
Burleigh Heads State School
L
earning and Development Centres – Learning Technology (LDCT's) have been established
by Education Queensland to enhance the professional development of teachers in
integrating information and communications technologies (ICT) in their curriculum
programs. This paper, following an articulation of the principles underpinning the operation of the
LDCT's, reports research findings obtained from an investigation of student outcomes of Year 5, 6
and Year 7 students at the LDCT established at Burleigh Heads State School. A framework of the
ways in which ICT might be used in student learning was conceptualised in terms of two
categories – Learning for Areas and Learning through Areas. Within those major organising
categories, additional areas, which informed those categories, were identified to create a
Learning for Technology Student Rubric and a Learning through Technology Student Rubric.
Data were obtained through the use of those rubrics as well as through interviews with teachers
and students. The improved use of ICT by students is reported.
Introduction
During the last 20 years school education systems throughout Australia have formulated
and embarked upon a range of policies and initiatives aimed at enhancing student
learning through the integration of information and communication technologies (ICTs).
As summarised in the recently published report Making Better Connections: Models of Teacher
Professional Development for the Integration of Information and Communication Technology into
Classroom Practice (DEST 2001) are the defined goals, collaboratively developed by
Australian education systems (see DEST 2001, p.11; DETYA 2000), which focus on
students and schools using ICTs. Similarly, the MCEETYA Information and
Communication Technologies in Schools Taskforce, which was established in July 2001,
within its terms of reference, aims to provide leadership to the Australian education
community in the effective use of ICTs (MCEETYA 2002).
Within the context of heightened systemic ICT initiatives throughout the Australian States
and Territories, Education Queensland has commenced Education and Training Reforms for
the Future (ETRF) (The State of Queensland 2002) with ICTs for Learning projects. ICTs are
one of the three major components of the ETRF with the Queensland Government
committing $23 million in addition to the existing $36.4 funding for 2002–2003 and a further
112
Improving Students' ICT Use: The LDCT at Burleigh Heads State School
$35 million will be made available in 2003–2004 to improve ICT access and ICT skills of
students and teachers (The State of Queensland 2002, p.4). Eight systemic projects to
support ICT's for Learning are outlined (The State of Queensland 2002, pp.34–37) -
School ICT Profile Project, Performance Measures Project, Systemic ICT Procurement
and Service Delivery Project, ICT Support Project, Online Examples of ICT Curriculum
Integration, Community Access to ICTs in Schools, Learning and Development Centres
(Learning Technology), and The Learning Place. This paper focuses on an investigation
of student outcomes of Year 5, 6, and Year 7 students at the LDCT, which is one of
those eight initiatives, established at Burleigh Heads State School.
The LDCT at Burleigh Heads State School

The LDCT was established at Burleigh Heads State School during 2000 by Education
Queensland to "provide localised and sustainable professional learning opportunities for
teachers through the delivery of programs that are designed to meet the needs of the
teachers" (Education Queensland 2001). The LDCT's, which are located in school
settings, provide face-to-face sessions for teachers that include exemplars of classroom
practice (Education Queensland 2001). This paper provides insights into the use of ICTs
by students in Years 5, 6 and 7 at the Burleigh Heads State School LDCT throughout
2001. In establishing the LDCT, additional resources were acquired including an
additional computer room to accommodate the Practicum participants to be invited
from other schools, the provision of additional ICT resources for the teachers and the
classrooms involved in the project, and a Co-ordinator for the LDCT was appointed
with key roles in planning and conducting the practicums and liasing with classes at
Burleigh Heads State School (Finger et al 2002, p.3).
Through the establishment of the LDCT at Burleigh Heads State School the
computer to student ratio in Years 5, 6 and 7 increased from one computer for every 5.4
students to one computer for every 3.6 students.
Data collection and the development of the mapping instrument

At the commencement of the 2001 school year, it was decided a research project would
be undertaken with the students and teachers of the Years 5, 6 and 7 classes to map the
ICT use by students and use this as a measure of the extent to which their teachers had
integrated the use of ICT in their curriculum programs. While numerous studies were
examined in a search for instruments to use in the mapping process, the work by Atkin
(1997), in her use of two major categories - Learning For Areas and Learning Through Areas,
was referred to after a conceptual framework of the ways in which ICT might be used in
student learning was developed using Inspiration software by the Co-ordinator with key
teachers. Within those major organising categories, additional areas which informed
those categories were identified to create a Learning For Technology Student Rubric and a
Learning Through Technology Student Rubric (see Finger et al 2002, pp.4–5). The rubrics were
administered to each student in Years 5, 6 and 7 in March/ April 2001 and the process
was repeated in November 2001, to enable comparisons of the two sets of data.
In addition to the administration of the student rubrics, data were collected through
interviews with two focus students, two focus teachers involved in the LDCT, and the
113
st
LDCT Co-ordinator. This paper also refers to relevant aspects of Student Satisfaction Survey
data gained by Education Queensland as part of its performance measurement processes.
Results
The student rubrics – A summary
As displayed in Table 1 below, overall increases in the use of ICT in Learning for Technology
were reported by Year 5 students (22.76%), Year 6 students (30.41%) and by Year 7
students (10.91%). Similarly, overall increases in the use of ICT for Learning Through
Technology were reported by Year 5 students (14.03%), Year 6 students (28.27%) and by
Year 7 students (14.46%).
Table 1
Mapping the use of ICT by year 5, 6 and 7 students
YEAR LEARNING LEARNING OVERALL LEARNING LEARNING OVERALL
LEVEL FOR FOR INCREASE THROUGH THROUGH INCREASE
TECHNOLOGY TECHNOLOGY (DECREASE) TECHNOLOGY TECHNOLOGY (DECREASE)
AREAS AREAS FROM AREAS AREAS FROM
(APRIL/MAY (NOV. 2001) APRIL/MAY (APRIL/MAY (NOV. 2001) APRIL/MAY
2001) UNTIL NOV. 2001) UNTIL NOV.
5 38.88% 61.64% 22.76% 44.56% 58.59% 14.03%
6 42.25% 72.66% 30.41% 40.78% 69.05% 28.27%
7 54.39% 65.30% 10.91% 48.81% 63.27% 14.46%
More specific data analysis of dimensions contained in the rubrics and reported
elsewhere (see Finger et al 2002, pp.5–10) generally showed substantial increases in ICT
use by students. For example, after approximately 6 months of being immersed in the
enhanced ICT integration environment in their classrooms, strong use of ICT was
reported by Year 5, 6 and 7 students in their being comfortable in using ICT, in
identifying the purpose for using ICT, being confident when faced with a new situation
when using ICT, choosing to use ICT to help them do their work, using ICT by
themselves, using ICT when accessing information, and for applying previous knowledge
of using software. However, while improved levels of use of ICT for communication
purposes occurred, this use of ICT remained lower relative to other dimensions of ICT
use by students.
Focus students – Mapping ICT use and student perspectives

Two focus students were interviewed in November and their individual profiles were
mapped (see Table 2 below) using the student rubrics to further illuminate student use of
ICT and to further illustrate the usefulness of the rubrics. The students are referred to as
JA and CR respectively. JA is a female, Year 6 student who is considered a very good
student by her teacher, had used computers 'a lot', and had only used the Internet 'a
little', while CR is also a female Year 6 student who is receiving learning support, and had
little or no background to using computers prior to her involvement in the enhanced
ICT provisions afforded by the LDCT.
114
Table 2
Mapping the progress of the use of ICT for JA and CR
Learning for Technology

LEARNING FOR AREAS BIT BYTE KILOBYTE MEGABYTE GIGABYTE
Skills
Accessing Information JA* CR* CR** JA**
Communication JA* CR* CR** JA**
Peer Tutoring JA* CR* CR** JA**
Attitudes
Comfortable With Use JA* CR* CR** JA**
Independence CR* CR** JA* JA**
Experiences
Applying Previous Knowledge CR* CR** JA* JA**
Choosing To Use ICT JA* CR* CR** JA**
Confidence CR* JA* CR** JA**
Identifying Purpose CR* JA* CR** JA**
Learning Through Technology

LEARNING THROUGH BIT BYTE KILOBYTE MEGABYTE GIGABYTE
AREAS
Better Access to Information
Critical Literacy CR* CR** JA* JA**
Enhanced Communication
Cooperation CR* JA* JA** CR**
Global Community CR* JA* CR** JA**
Increased Ownership
Enhanced Care CR* JA* CR** JA**
Extended Depth of Presentation CR* CR** JA* JA**
Ownership of Learning CR* JA* CR** JA**
Rich Experiences and Expression
Authentic Uses JA* CR* CR** JA**
Experience with HOTS CR* JA* CR** JA**
Experimentation CR* JA* CR** JA**
Problem Solving CR* JA* CR** JA**
Motivation
Enthusiasm JA* CR* CR** JA**
Equality CR* CR** JA* JA**
Learning For The Future JA* CR* CR** JA**
Peer Modelling/Respect CR* JA* CR** JA**
Legend: JA* - JA March/April JA** - JA November
CR* - CR March/April CR** - CR November
115
st
Follow-up interviews were conducted with JA and CR in November. Both students

enthusiastically advocated their love of using the computers, their teachers, the Co-
ordinator, other teachers and staff who interacted with them in their projects and the
improved interest they had developed for school during the year. The following
summary presented in Table 3 captures the major messages from the students
interviewed.
Table 3
Major messages from students interviewed
KEY MESSAGES EXAMPLES OF STUDENTS' STATEMENTS
If we hadn't been involved in this project, we JA: We wouldn't know any different. But now I use the
wouldn't have known what we were missing out computers to do so many things like for communication,
on in using ICT. reading, animations, sound, movies, CD's, and
graphics. You can't do this without computers. But if
you don't know, then you don't know what you don't
know.
Now that we know what ICT can be used for, if CR: If we had the computers taken away I'd be
we had the computers taken away or we had to complaining to the Principal. I'd be up there straight
go back to 'old ways' we'd jump up and down. away.
JA: I like using the Internet and all the different
software. I'd be frustrated if I had to publish something
and I knew what I could, say, do with the computers
and I had to use a pencil only.
We like doing original ideas of our own. Even CR: You don't know what other people will come up
though we might have the same projects to do, with.
our work is different from everybody else's.
Using the Internet has opened up new worlds for JA: We use the Internet for research… Internet sites…
us. we have been looking at the Marie Celeste.
CR: We had this ransom message about Hipi, which
came by email from another country. We had to find out
who had kidnapped Hipi.
We love to share our work with other people. JA: It's great doing school work now as so many people
get to see our work through using ICT. Before, only the
teacher and I saw it and then it got thrown away.
CR: I tell Mum all this stuff that I'm doing. She says,
"Wow!" and smiles at me. Because I've had trouble
learning things before, I somehow seem to love doing
all these things now and telling people about it.
We don't mind doing things out of school time… CR: You just get so involved. It's better than doing
we often don't want to stop work…
This is going to help us in life. JA: … computers are everywhere now…
Student satisfaction data

As advised in the previous section, relevant data from Education Queensland Student
Satisfaction Survey conducted with the Burleigh Heads State School students were
examined. As displayed in Table 4 below, increases in student satisfaction from 2000 to
2001 were recorded in relation to satisfaction "with the computer skills you have learnt at
school" and "with the way you use computers for learning at school". Those increases
are consistent with the findings reported earlier gained from the student rubrics for
116
Learning for Technology and Learning Through Technology. For all three items, the means for
student data from Burleigh Heads State School were higher than the 'State' and 'like
schools' means. There was a decrease reported in the level of student satisfaction with
"how easy it is to get a computer for learning when you need to". Given that the ratio of
computers to students had improved and with a ratio of 1:3.6 access should have
improved, one might speculate that student expectations for access might have risen.
Table 4
Student satisfaction survey data
RELATED ITEM ON THE MEANS FOR 2000 MEANS FOR PERCENTAGE PERCENTAGE
SATISFACTION SURVEY DATA 2001 OF STUDENTS OF STUDENTS
SATISFIED 2000 SATISFIED
2001
S112 – with the computer School: 2.95 School: 3.12* 70.9% 73.1%*
skills you have learnt at State: 2.77 State: 2.84
school?
Like Schools: 2.85 Like Schools: 2.84
S130 – with the way you School: 2.97 School: 3.24* 69.8% 79.9%*
use computers for learning State: 2.77 State: 2.83
at school?
S163 – with how easy it is School: 2.66 School: 2.74* 58.9% 58%
to get a computer for State: 2.45 State: 2.51
learning when you need to?
* These school data showed an increase in levels of satisfaction recorded a year earlier.
Teacher and LDCT Co-ordinator perspectives

The LDCT Co-ordinator and two focus teachers were interviewed to examine the
planned outcomes of the project, and their perceptions of major learnings and
challenges. The teachers identified the following as outcomes of the project:
• Enhance independent learning of the students,
• Provide professional development for teachers within Burleigh Heads State School and
from other schools,
• Provide ideas and opportunities to change the way they teach, and
• Skill the students more in the use of ICT.
The LDCT Co-ordinator identified the following outcomes of the project:
• Meet the aims/planned outcomes of the LDCT with 4 main outcomes to be developed
• an understanding of constructivist classroom practice
• the role of educational technology in supporting effective learning and teaching
• strategies to integrate educational technology into classroom practice
• a range of applications of educational technology to support a student centred
constructivist approach to teaching and learning,
117
st
• Teachers will be encouraged to consider the ways in which they might apply their
practicum learnings to their own contexts and have to demonstrate this through the
development of a project for implementation in their classroom/school, and/or the
development of a presentation on their practicum experience, and
• People coming to the practicums will be able to see things happening in the real
world… visit normal classrooms… see a range of strategies… a mix of constructivist
and instructivist strategies.
The major learnings and challenges reported by the teachers were that:
• They haven't felt like they were on show,
• Continuing to develop our understanding of higher order thinking skills and critical
literacy,
• Skilling the children to work in teams,
• Clientele were seen as a challenge as many children have been diagnosed as having
special needs, some behaviour management problems, learning difficulties,
• The move from text materials in books to screen and multimedia, wider range of
sources, and
• Teachers reported enthusiastically their observations of children going further with the
software than they'd expected, using the thinking skills taught, students who often got
little work done being more involved, motivation of students is higher, and improved
visual literacy skills of students.
The major learnings and challenges reported by the Co-ordinator were that he was:
• Assisting teachers who had a poor self-image of themselves in terms of what they can
do with the technology,
• Helping teachers to become 'switched on',
• Catering for all levels of teachers in the practicums,
• Conscious of the money being paid for the practicum and the accompanying
accountability: e.g. approximately $840 per teacher = $150 for 3 days + $690 for 3
TRS days. That is, for a 10 teacher 3 day practicum the cost is approximately $8 400,
and
• Major challenge is the follow-up and keeping in touch - as more teachers become
involved there becomes more to keep in touch with.
Conclusion and suggestions for further research

In conclusion, the evidence provided in this report strongly indicates that, throughout
2001, positive outcomes have occurred for teachers and students. The instrument in the
form of Student Rubrics for recording Learning for Technology and Learning through
Technology was found to be effective for mapping the ICT use by students. Further
research is now being conducted focussing on changed teacher practice through action
research with two of the teachers at the LDCT, and an examination is being conducted
118
into the transfer of the teachers' practicum professional development at the LDCT to
their own school settings after they have participated in the practicum. Considerable
ongoing research is required to add to our knowledge about effective professional
development for teachers in integrating ICTs.
References
Atkin, J 1997, 'Why use information technology?', Apple Innovative Technology Schools Conference, 1997.
Department of Education Training and Youth Affairs (DETYA) May 2001, 'Information and
communication technology for teaching and learning', [WWW document], retrieved 20 March
2002, URL http://www.detya.gov.au/schools/publications/indexs.htm
Department of Education and Science (DEST) 2001, Making better connections: Models of teacher
professional development for the integration of information and communication technology into classroom practice,
Goanna Print, Canberra. [WWW document], retrieved 6 September 2002, URL
http://www.dest.gov.au/schools/publications/2002/MBC.pdf
Education Queensland 2001, Learning and development centres, [WWW document], retrieved 10
December 2001, URL http://education.qld.gov.au/learning_ent/ldf/ldc/ldc_overview.html
Finger, G, Baker, N, Nagel, D & Rarare, K 2002, Mapping ICT Use by Students: The Learning and
Development Centre (LDCT) at Burleigh Heads State School, Paper presented at Linking
Learners Australian Computers in Education Conference, 11–13 July 2002, Hobart, Tasmania, [WWW
document], URL http://www.tasite.edu.au/acec2002
MCEETYA 2002, Information and Communication Technologies in Schools Taskforce, [WWW document],
retrieved 26 August 2002, URL http://www.curriculum.edu.au/mceetya/taskfrce/task223.htm
The State of Queensland 2002, Queensland the Smart State Education and Training Reforms for the Future
ICTs for Learning School Information Kit 2002–2003, [WWW document], retrieved 6 September
2002, URL http://www.education.qld.gov.au/ictsforlearning
119
Teaching Technology – Design Briefs and
Rich Tasks: Contradictions and Challenges
Facing Future Teachers
Glenn Finger
School of Education and Professional Studies
Gold Coast Campus, Griffith University
David Adams-Jones, Chris Vickers
St Francis Xavier School
T
he teaching of Technology as a Key Learning Area in Queensland schools will become the
focus for teacher education and professional development during the next decade as a
new Technology syllabus is implemented in education systems in Queensland. Prior to the
launch of that syllabus, there has never been an official Technology curriculum for Queensland
primary schools. In addition, this will take place within a context of Queensland State Education
2010 (QSE-2010) which provides a "blueprint for the future of state education in Queensland…
[and] … is the key to delivering our vision of the Smart State… " (Bligh 2002). Thus, teacher
education institutions in Queensland and schools are faced with enabling teachers to effectively
implement a new Technology syllabus as well as embracing the principles of Education
Queensland's New Basics framework which provides a suite of Rich Tasks. This paper explores
the concepts of Design Briefs contained in the Queensland School Curriculum Council's new
Years 1–10 Technology syllabus and Education Queensland's Rich Tasks and the implications
this holds for conducting effective teacher education programs in Technology education. The
intention is not to argue which of the two orientations is the better approach, but examines,
through a case study of a school-University partnership in delivering a course for student
teachers undertaking primary teacher education, the contradictions and the challenges facing
those future teachers of technology education.
Introduction
Until recently, teachers in Queensland primary schools have not had any formal syllabus
for teaching technology. Thus, teachers are faced with the emergence of a new
curriculum are in the form of Technology as a Key Learning Area (KLA). At the same
time, Education Queensland has conceptualised the New Basics Project occurring within
the context of Queensland State Education (QSE-2010) which provides a "blueprint for
the future of state education in Queensland… [and]…is the key to delivering our vision
of the Smart State… " (Bligh 2002). This paper does not examine which of the two
orientations is the better approach, but flags the challenge for teacher education
institutions in Queensland and schools faced with enabling teachers to effectively
implement a new Technology syllabus as well as embracing the principles of Education
120
Teaching Technology – Design Briefs and Rich Tasks
Queensland's New Basics framework which provides a suite of Rich Tasks.

Thus, this paper explores the concepts of Design Briefs contained in the Queensland
Studies Authority's new Years 1–10 Technology syllabus and Education Queensland's
Rich Tasks and the implications this holds for conducting effective teacher education
programs in Technology education. The paper concludes with a case study of a
University-School partnership in delivering a course for student teachers undertaking
primary teacher education. In particular, the case study highlights the advantages which
University-School partnerships can provide in terms of engaging student teachers and
teachers in the sharing of current trends and initiatives.
New technology syllabus for Queensland schools – Design briefs

and design challenges
The newly formed Queensland Studies Authority (QSA) established under the Education
(Queensland Studies Authority) Act 2002 has "portfolio-wide responsibilities for the
development, review and approval of pre-school guidelines and syllabuses for years 1–12,
as well as the development of professional resources for teachers to support the
implementation of relevant guidelines and syllabuses" (QSA 2002a). Those
responsibilities include the design, development and publishing of a Years 1 to 10
Technology Key Learning Area (KLA) syllabus, sourcebooks and initial in-service
materials for use in Queensland schools from 2002 (QSA 2002b). That project began in
January 1998, under the auspices of the former Queensland School Curriculum Council,
and has moved through trial and pilot phases. Descriptions of the project can be found
elsewhere (QSA 2000b) and the Technology Years 1 to 10 Syllabus has been developed
and approved (QSA 2000c).
Integral to the syllabus is the concept of Design Briefs (see Technology Years 1 – 10
Syllabus, pp.6, 45) and Design Challenges (see Technology Years 1 –10 Syllabus, pp.2, 5, 6, 7,
9, 10, 11, 14, 15, 16 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 37). For example, in the Technology Practice
strand, "Production procedures can be identified, described and managed when making
products that meet design challenges" and the syllabus indicates that
"The implicit purpose of 'working technologically' is the design and development of
products that enable people to meet their needs and wants and to capitalise on
opportunities" (QSA 2002c, p.1).
Design challenges are defined as "situations, problems or tasks that have a
technology demand – that is, they are challenges requiring students to make cognitive
and practical responses that draw on their technology knowledge, practices and
dispositions" (Queensland School Curriculum Council 2002, p.2). Examples of design
challenges include:
• Design a safer transport vehicle for students which overcomes the injury risks
presented by current bicycle designs,
• Design and construct a classroom of the future.
The KLA of technology is expected to contribute to attributes of the lifelong learner;
viz. A knowledgeable person with deep understanding, a complex thinker, an active
investigator, a creative person, an effective communicator, a participant in an
121
st
interdependent world, and a reflective and self-directed learner. Furthermore, the

Technology KLA promotes cross-curricular priorities of literacy, numeracy, lifeskills and
a futures perspective. For example, in terms of a futures perspective planning, teachers
are encouraged in their planning, implementation and assessment to adopt a futures
perspective through a consideration of the effects of technological developments on
individuals, communities and environments.
Education Queensland's New Basics Project – Rich Tasks

The New Basics is described as "futures-oriented categories for organising curriculum"
(Education Queensland Nov. 2000, p.1). According to Education Queensland, they
provide a means for dealing with enormous economic, social and cultural change. Thus,
we are seen to be living in 'new times' characterised by globalisation, the shift towards
local service-based economies, new and constantly changing technologies, complex
transformations in cultural and social relationships, fluid demographics, and a sense of
uncertainty about the future (Education Queensland Nov. 2000, p.1). This is consistent
with the Australian Council of Deans of Education (ACDE) (October 2001), in
presenting a charter for change in NEW LEARNING A Charter for Australian Education,
identified three shifts, in the conditions of technology, the conditions of commerce and
the conditions of culture. The ACDE (October 2001, p.33) suggest that the market
capitalisation of today's organisations are determined by technology (e.g. as direct means
of production, as an internal systems filter and communications medium, as an
information conduit to markets); commercial processes (e.g. business systems, winning
employee buy-in at the level of work teams and corporate culture); and culture (e.g.
branding, customer relationships, commodity-aesthetics, the integrity of the product and
the ability to tailor or customise products to meet the needs of diverse niche markets
etc.). The analysis undertaken by the ACDE here concludes that:
"These are all knowledge things, relationship things, things of human rather than fixed capital.
Most importantly, they are all things that are made by learning. Learning has become pivotal to
the whole economy. And, for the learning which is now required, the old education simply
won't do. The new economy requires new persons: persons who can work flexibly with
changing technologies; persons who can work effectively in the new relationship-focused
commercial environment; and people who are able to work within an open organisational
culture and across diverse cultural settings" (ACDE October 2001, p.33).
In comparison to the eight KLA's, there are four New Basics organisers oriented
towards researching, understanding, and coming to grips with the new economic, cultural
and social conditions – Life Pathways and Social Futures, Multiliteracies and
Communications Media, Active Citizenship, and Environments and Technologies. It's
claimed that "together they describe the interactive requirements of new life worlds and
futures orientations" (Queensland State Education 2010, p.2). The New Basics requires
the adoption of Productive Pedagogies and urges shifts in pedagogy. Moreover, there is a
Queensland model of rich tasks (see Education Queensland 2000, New Basics – The Why,
What, How and When of Rich Tasks) which sees Rich Tasks as:
"a culminating performance or demonstration or product that is purposeful and models a
life role. It presents substantive, real problems to solve and engages learners in forms of
pragmatic social action that have real value in the world. The problems require identification,
122
analysis and resolution, and require students to analyse, theorise and engage intellectually
with the world. In this way, tasks connect to the world outside the classroom. As well as
having this connectedness, the tasks are also rich in their application: they represent an
educational outcome of demonstrable and substantial intellectual and educational value.
And, to be truly rich, a task must be transdisciplinary".
There are some powerful underlying understandings here which go beyond the scope
of this paper. However, it's important to understand that the Rich Task requires
transdisciplinary learnings which utilise practices and skills across disciplines while
retaining the integrity of the disciplines. This differs from crosscurricular or thematic
approaches. In summary, a Rich Task is an integrated intellectual and linguistic, social
and cultural practice, represents an educational outcome of demonstrable and substantive
intellectual substance and educational value, is transdisciplinary, draws on a range of
operational fields of knowledge, engages knowledges and skills from at least two of the
New Basics clusters, is problem-based, connects to the world beyond the classroom, has
face value for educators, parents and community stakeholders, has sufficient intellectual,
cognitive and developmental depth and breadth to guide curriculum planning across a
significant span of schooling, enables flexibility for schools to address the local context,
and has reasonable workload expectations for teachers. An example of a Rich Task is:
Year 6 Rich Task – Design, Make and Display a Product. Students will design, or
improve the design of, a purposeful product, and make the product or a working
model or prototype. As part of a public display promoting their product, they will
flesh out a (restricted) marketing plan and explore the suitability of materials for mass
manufacture.
Design briefs and Rich Tasks – Contradictions and the challenges

Several challenges emerge from the new and differing concepts of Design Briefs and
Rich Tasks. Firstly, practising teachers are presented with new curriculum frameworks
and demands which have more differences than similarities. Some schools are adopting
KLA's and thus have an outcomes model, others are New Basics trial schools. Anecdotal
evidence suggests that many schools are becoming aware of both approaches and some
hybrid approaches are evolving. For example, Productive Pedagogies inservice programs
are being presented to teachers in many schools, and those teachers are becoming aware
of Rich Tasks. A growing awareness is also occurring among teachers about the
imminent Years 1–10 Technology Syllabus, as well as many schools undertaking
outcomes-based planning in KLA's already being implemented such as Science. Teachers
find themselves confronted with contradicting claims for the ways in which curriculum,
assessment and pedagogy should occur. Do we plan for Design Challenges or for Rich
Tasks? How do we assess and report learning outcomes?
Secondly, preservice teacher education programs need to address the challenges
provided by this new environment as many tertiary institutions have conceptualised their
teacher education programs around the KLA's such as Griffith University's Bachelor of
Education (Primary). Student teachers are being exposed to a more diverse set of
contexts in their practicum settings. Moreover, questions arise about the relevance of
'academic' courses in curriculum within a rapidly changing educational environment. The
123
st
challenge also for 'academics' is how to effectively integrate the essential, theoretical
components of courses with the curriculum renewal occurring in schools and education
systems. These implications for teacher education to address these challenges require
conversations between Universities, schools and education systems.
University-school partnerships – A case study

A tentative solution to deal with the challenges posed by systemic changes in curriculum
and, in particular, the tensions which exist between a University-led Bachelor of
Education (Primary) degree organised around the Key Learning Areas and the
emergence of the New Basics Project is to ensure that the University-School partnerships
are built strongly at two levels;
1. People and Professional Development, and
2. Curriculum.
People
We argue that much greater potential is provided by engaging school-based people in
teacher education. Those people have a mutual obligation of providing advice to
University about course content and delivery as well as growing professionally through a
reciprocal sharing of information and ideas by the relevant University academics.
Therefore, the design and conduct of courses is seen as a worthwhile professional
development opportunity by lecturers, tutors and school-based contacts.
Curriculum
In these new times of New Learning (ACDE 2001), new approaches to curriculum are
being demanded and introduced. Effective sharing of knowledge about these curriculum
developments is essential.
Further modifications of a Technology Education course for primary teacher
education which was reported earlier (see Finger 2000) were made to enable students to
be exposed to the new curriculum developments through utilising University-school
links. In particular, a tutor was appointed due to her working in a New Basics school,
and another tutor was an Educational Adviser involved in conducting Productive
Pedagogies inservice programs with teachers. Both tutors provided advice to the Course
Convenor, and other members of the teaching team. Within the parameters of the
University course requirements, the teaching team, consisting of teachers, consulted and
planned the course in ways which attempted to inject the current developments. As a
result, students have gained some understandings of Design Challenges, New Basics,
Rich Tasks and Productive Pedagogies.
While the course is still yet to be completed this semester, evaluations by students
reflect the benefits of University-School partnerships. The following examples indicate
the positive aspects in terms of 'at the chalkface', environment, resources, course
structure, assessment, and student growth.
124
At the chalkface
The 'at the chalkface' comments emphasised the credibility which students perceived that
the tutors had because they were 'actual teachers'. Comments included:
• People who are teachers
• Sharing of information between student and teacher
• Positive relationships
• Getting to know and share
• Philosophy and effective pedagogy
• Supporting and acting notion of life long learning
• Students fears and or perceptions can be broken down.
Environment
There were perceived advantages associated with the environment affordances of the
school settings. For example, students cited the greater availability of parking when
compared with parking problems at University, and immersion in 'real classrooms'.
Examples of comments included:
• Environment colourful and relaxing
• Real teachers real environment
• How classrooms have changed and what changes they will make with their new ideas
• Learning centres.
Resources
Clearly, students identified the exposure to resources in the school settings as positives.
The consensus among students was that they would love to spend more time in school
settings with hands on activities involving the use of resources, such as digital camera,
different software and exposure to resources available in the schools. Comments
included:
• Teachers as a resource
• Time as a resource
• Examining software and computers
• Teacher programs
• Play with computers
• Schools as a resource, library, classrooms, staff rooms.
Course structure
There were strong evaluations suggesting that the tutorials were well designed in terms of
gaining understandings of teaching technology. Together with positive evaluations of the
125
st
course in general, the course structure was seen as being important.

• Most productive of all tutorials I am involved with. We actually do – therefore we understand
• Relevance to now and the future
• Fills in the gaps
• Walk the walk and talk the talk
• Delivery of course / program
• Humour and story telling
• Personal development with students
• Win Win scenario – relationships
• Course suggestions - computer time, observing classes, more time in classrooms and an open door when
the course finished the learning continued.
Assessment
Supporting the Course Design evaluations were comments relating to the integral design
of assessment. For example, the following comment highlighted the effective design of
the Design Brief assessment students were required to undertake:
• Assessment of design brief was great and relevant! To finally be able to work on assessments that
relates directly to the teaching profession is a relief!
Student Growth
The links between the University coursework and the journey from student teacher to
teacher were made more explicit according to some students. The University-school links
were seen by those students to facilitate the transition between theory and practice.
• My understanding of the subject and confidence to take it into the classroom has increased
dramatically. Thank you.
Conclusion
This paper has highlighted challenges for teachers and teacher education institutions in
Queensland with the introduction of a new Technology syllabus and associated materials,
together with the introduction of the New Basics Project. Specifically, the concepts of
Design Challenges and Rich Tasks present students teachers and teachers with new and
conflicting approaches to curriculum, pedagogy and assessment. The challenge for
teacher education institutions is how to adequately immerse students in these new times.
A tentative solution was presented in terms of capitalising on University-school
partnerships in designing and implementing a University course in Technology
Education.
126
References
Australian Council of Deans of Education October 2001, NEW LEARNING A Charter for
Australian Education, [WWW document], retrieved 9 September 2002, URL
http://acde.edu.au/assets/pdf/CharterforAustralianEducation.pdf
Bligh, A 2002, 'A message from the Minister for Education, Anna Bligh MP', in Education
Queensland 2002, Destination 2010 The draft action plan to implement Queensland State
Education – 2010, [WWW document], retrieved 11 September 2002, URL
http://education.qld.gov.au/corporate/qse2010/pdf/draft-action-2010
Education Queensland 2000, November, New Basics – Curriculum Organisers, [WWW document],
retrieved 9 September 2002, URL
http://education.qld.gov.au/corporate/newbasics/html/curric-org/curricorg.html
Education Queensland 2001, New Basics – The Why, What, How and When of Rich Tasks, [WWW
document], retrieved 11 September 2002, URL
http://education.qld.gov.au/corporate/newbasics/pdfs/richtasksbklet
Finger, G 2000, 'The design challenge – Designing an effective preservice teacher education in
technology', Paper presented at the 1st Biennial International Conference on Technology in
Education Research Improving practice through research: Improving research through practice, 7–9
December 2000. Gold Coast: Technology Education Research Unit, Faculty of Education,
Griffith University.
Queensland State Education 2010 2001, New Basics Project. Theory Into Practice, [WWW document],
retrieved 11 September 2002, URL
http://education.qld.gov.au/corporate/newbasics/pdfs/nbasics.pdf
Queensland School Curriculum Council 2002, 'Learners and learning in technology, Initial In-
service Materials', Unpublished draft materials: Brisbane.
Queensland Studies Authority 2002a, About us, [WWW document], retrieved 11 September 2002,
URL http://www.qsa.qld.edu.au/AboutUs/index.htm
Queensland Studies Authority 2002b, Technology Project Overview, [WWW document], retrieved 10
September 2002, URL http://www.qsa.qld.edu.au/yrs1_10/kla/technology/overview.html
Queensland Studies Authority 2000c, Technology Syllabus, [WWW document], retrieved 10
September 2002, URL http://www.qsa.qld.edu.au/yrs1_10/kla/technology/syllabus.html
127
The Relationship Between Out of Context
Assessment Tasks in Technology Education
and that of the Same Task Embedded in
Authentic Classroom Technological Practice
Wendy Fox-Turnbull
Christchurch College of Education, New Zealand
A
ssessment of technology should be holistic. Students involved in holistic technological
practice need to develop an understanding of technological practice outside the classroom
and participate in tasks set as close as practicable to actual technological practice.
Technological practice is the process of problem solving to meet identified needs, involving the
contribution of three aspects; cultural, organisational and technical. The assessment of
technological practice should also be authentic and an integral part of the students' technological
practice. Assessment of technology education should not involve out-of-context, unsighted tasks
often attributed to traditional forms of assessment. The New Zealand National Education
Monitoring Project (NEMP) uses out-of context tasks to assess levels of achievement of children
in Year 4 and Year 8 and I argue that this does not give an accurate indication of achievement
levels of the children assessed. My research is in progress and is an investigation into this issue.
Introduction
The focus for this research has been the selection and use of one technology task
administered to Year 4 children in the NEMP Aspects of Technology 2000 (Crooks &
Flockton 2001). It is argued that the achievement levels of the children can be improved
if a task is a part of the technological practice (in-context) related to the field of study
apparent in the task rather than a previously unsighted 'out-of context' task. It is also
debated that for teachers to be able to plan and implement a unit of work that is based
on authentic technological practice they must have a good understanding of the
conceptual, procedural, technical and society knowledge relevant to the practice.
Rationale
In 1997 I facilitated a Ministry of Education technology of education contract. This
involved leading teachers in their professional development in technology education.
During this time an issue arose with the teachers about the nature of authenticity and
how to best produce relevant, authentic programmes of work for children. This
instigated further research by me and led to the publication of an article 'The Place of
Authenticity in Technology in the New Zealand Curriculum' (Turnbull 2002).
In 2000 I was invited to be a member of the National Education Monitoring Project
128
The Relationship Between 'Out of Context' and 'In Context' Assessment Tasks
(NEMP) advisory panel for technology education. The panel was asked to discuss and
select suitable tasks from a range presented by the NEMP team. I was surprised not so
much at the nature of the tasks but the way in which they were presented and
administered to children. It seemed to contradict all that I had read while researching my
article. This instigated my curiosity as to whether the context of the task given to
children could in fact influence achievement levels when assessing technology education.
Influences on students' learning in technology education

The foci of this study are two factors, which influence the quality of the achievement of
children in technology education. The first factor is the relevance or authenticity of the
task in relationship to the children. Authentic technological practice should reflect
technological practice of the real world. Tasks should also be within the realm of possible
use or future use for the children within their cultural and environment sphere.
The second factor is based on Learning in Technology Education (LITE) research
from the University of Waikato (Moreland, Jones & Chambers 2001), which clearly
indicates that teacher understanding of technology and teacher knowledge of the
technological practice engaged by the students, influences the quality of learning that
occurs for the students.
In this study I investigated the relationship between the context of an assessment task
and Year 4 children's ability to demonstrate what they know and can do in technology
education. I did this by comparing and contrasting the results of the same NEMP task
administered using the same guidelines in two different contexts: one as an 'out-of
context' previously unsighted task and the other as a part of authentic technological
practice ('in-context'). The project also allowed children to demonstrate their ability to
design solutions to meet identified needs in technology education and allowed me to
ascertain how a technology education unit, based on authentic practice including
conceptual, procedural and societal knowledge (Moreland et al 2001), improved child
performance.
Authentic assessment
Authentic assessment is an assessment opportunity that is a part of the identified
technological practice required to meet an identified need. Technology in the New
Zealand curriculum states
Assessment of technology education is more than the assessment of the individual
components: rather the whole task or outcome should be evaluated. Emphasis on a narrow
component or testing outside the context of learning does not enable reliable judgments to
be made. Nor do single-focus standard assessment tasks, designed to rank or assess students
in relation to levels, meet the purpose outlined above (Ministry of Education 1995, p.24).
The aim of assessment is to educate and improve student performance and teaching
(Freeman 1998; Wiggins 1998). Assessment should be designed to teach, not just to
measure; by revealing to the students what worthy adult work looks like (authentic tasks).
Performance tasks need to be realistic and credible which in turn engages the students.
Assessment needs to be open with clearly stated criteria and/or standards, which are
known to the students and their teachers. Assessment should also provide rich useful
129
st
feedback to the students and their teachers. (Wiggins 1998). Assessment must be overt to
students. Learning objectives must have clearly stated assessment criteria and be shared
with the students (Compton & Harwood 1999; Sutton 1995).
Authentic tasks
The Technology in the New Zealand Curriculum states quite clearly, in several places, that
technology education for students needs to be authentic. Authentic practice actually
happens at two levels. The first is real to children's existing or possible future lives. The
second level is real to technological practice, reflecting the practice of practitioners as
much as is practicable in the classroom situation (Hennessy & Murphy 1999).
Technological practice involves the contribution of three aspects, cultural, organisational
and technical, (Pacey 1983) and knowledge in four domains; procedural, conceptual,
societal and technical (Moreland et al 2001) to the process of problem solving to meet
identified needs.
Technology in the New Zealand curriculum

Technology education in New Zealand is defined as a creative and purposeful activity
aimed at meeting needs and opportunities through the development of products, systems
and environments. Knowledge, skills and resources are combined to help solve practical
problems within social contexts (Ministry of Education 1995). Its aim is to enable
students to develop technological literacy through the development of technological
knowledge and understanding, technological capability and an understanding and
awareness of the relationship between technology and society (Ministry of Education
1995).
The New Zealand Technology Curriculum Statement (Ministry of Education 1995)
requires teachers to teach technology within a framework of strands, technological areas
and contexts. These are interwoven and linked to the final outcomes through planned
technological practice.
Technological practice
There are two models of technological practice that I think are evident in the philosophy
of Technology in the New Zealand Curriculum. Pacey's model of technological practice (Figure
1) identifies three aspects with links to the three strands in Technology in the New Zealand
Curriculum (1983, cited in Burns 1997). Gawith's (1996) model of technology practice
(Figure 2) situates the technologist or technology team within the purposeful action of
technological development.
The Cultural Aspect includes such things as goals, values and ethical codes and
beliefs in the process, awareness and creativity. There are very close links here to Strand
C, Technology and Society in Technology in the New Zealand Curriculum (Ministry of
Education 1995). The Organisational Aspect includes economic and industrial activity,
user and consumer feedback and opinions and trade unions. The Technical Aspect
includes knowledge, skills and techniques, tools, machinery, chemicals, liveware (living
organisms used in technological process), resources products and waste. The latter
aspects have links to all three strands.
130
Gawith's model offers an holistic approach to technological practice. Gawith

indicates that all technological practice takes place within a social context. This is clearly
stated in Technology in the New Zealand Curriculum (Ministry of Education 1995). The
definition of technology includes "Technological practice takes place in and is influenced
by, social contexts" (Ministry of Education 1995, p.6).
Cultural Organisational
Aspect Aspect
TECHNOLOGY
PRACTICE
General
meaning of Restricted
technology view of
technology
Technical
Aspect
Figure 1
Pacey's model of technological practice (1983)
Technologist
Work Environment or Technology
Team
Organisation Information Resources
Knowledge
Society
Society
Purposeful Action
Techniques
Figure 2
Gawith's Model of Technology Practice (1999)
131
st
Clearly both models recognise there is more to technological practice than just the
physical skills of planning and making. Knowledge and understanding of organisation,
resources, existing information and technologies, and societal influences are significant.
Units of work in technology education in New Zealand typically cover learning
experiences from all three strands Technological Knowing and Understanding, Strand A;
Technology and Society, Strand C and Strand B, Technological Capability (Ministry of
Education 1995). This encompasses the underlying theoretical philosophy of Technology in
the New Zealand Curriculum, that technological practice is holistic and must reflect
authentic technological practice and be within the learners' possible current or future
field of knowledge.
More recent research is focused on the classroom delivery and assessment of
technology. The Learning in Technology Education (LITE) research (Moreland et al
2001) was pivotal in developing my understanding of the necessity for teachers to have
specific conceptual and procedural knowledge within the identified technological practice
and how this knowledge is used to plan, implement and assess quality programmes of
work in technology education.
Issues of assessment
Assessment and monitoring of children's progress is primarily aimed at improving
learning and teaching. Assessment in technology is of value when it enables students to
be immersed in authentic technological practice (Turnbull 2002). It also involves the four
domains of knowledge- societal, conceptual, procedural and technical identified by LITE
research carried out by Jones and Moreland (2001). Learning is of most value when all
aspects are included. For example "Activity is said to be authentic if it is (i) coherent and
personally meaningful and (ii) purposeful within a social framework –the ordinary
practices of culture" (Hennessy & Murphy 1999, p.8). An important message about the
nature of activities that children undertake is that authentic learning engages children and
encourages learning (Hennessy & Murphy 1999; Rogoff 1990; Smith 1999).
Kimbell (1997) identifies one of the key issues of assessment in technology
education. Fundamental are the processes of design and development rather than a body
of knowledge and skills as in other curriculum areas. Practical knowledge and skills
enhance this process but assessment of students' capability in design and develop
tangible outcomes to meet identified needs is much more complex than the assessment
of their knowledge and skills. Technology education is leading the field in process-based
assessment (Kimbell 1997).
The context for study

The National Education Monitoring Project
The National Education Monitoring Project (NEMP) commenced in New Zealand in
1993 with the task of assessing and reporting achievement of primary school aged
children. The purpose of national monitoring is to provide information so that patterns
of performance can be recognised, successes celebrated and desirable changes to practice
and resources identified and implemented (Crooks & Flockton 2001). NEMP provides a
132
national "snapshot" of children's knowledge, skills and motivation, and provides a way to
identify which aspects are improving, staying constant, or declining' (Crooks & Flockton
2001, p.5). Two levels, Years 4 and 8 (8–9 and 11 to 13 years) are assessed in all
curriculum areas over a four-year cycle. Technology was first assessed in 1996 and
aspects of technology were assessed in 2000 (Crooks & Flockton 2001). Children are
assessed through a range of 'out-of-context' tasks, presented to them by trained
administrators. It is the nature of the administration of the tasks in technology education
that draws my concern. I question whether the data gathered actually offers a fair
indication of achievement levels of the children assessed because of the out-of-context
nature of the tasks.
The project
A three staged approach was used in this research. The Stage One involved the
identification of the research schools and professional development for the selected six
teachers exploring Learning in Technology Education (LITE) (Jones & Moreland 2001)
research and unit planning strategies. In Stage Two a selected task was administered to
some children as 'out-of-context' task. A co-operatively planned unit of work,
incorporating the task was then taught in each of the six classes of Year Four children.
During the unit the task was again administered to children as an integral part of the unit
('in-context' task). Stage Three involved the analysis of the differences in achievement in
'out-of-context' task and that, which is embedded, in authentic technological practice (in-
context), thus identifying impacts of authentic practice on achievement levels.
The results show that the children who attempted the task as an 'in-context' task as a
part of their technological practice achieved better than those who completed the task as
a previously unsighted 'out-of context' task did. My findings demonstrate that in order to
gain a realistic understanding of the levels of achievement in technology education
through assessment of technological outcomes, these outcomes should be an integral
part of authentic technological practice. I would also argue that for teachers to plan units
based in technological practice they need to have sound technological knowledge.
Method
I restricted the population to all primary school in Christchurch and Kaiapoi to keep
travel costs to a minimum. I selected the schools by taking the first two schools who
agreed to participate in each of the three socio-economic (SES) bands. The Ministry of
Education in New Zealand categorises schools and bases funding and support on the
SES index. The NEMP 2000 results indicate that the school's SES (Socio-Economic)
index influenced results (Crooks & Flockton 2001). These findings from NEMP justified
the use of stratified sampling.
I split the schools into two groups. Half the schools, one from each SES group I
administered the 'out-of context' task before the unit was taught in the classroom, these
schools were Group One schools. The remaining schools (Group Two) did not
experience the task as an 'out-of-context' task. The six teachers and I then delivered the
same set of learning experiences to all children. All classes were involved in the 'in-
context' task, which was a part of the unit and the students' technological practice. There
133
st
were 17 children in the 'out-of-context' task group and there were 36 children in the 'in-
context' task group.
In their research Moreland, Jones and Chambers (2000) also identify that effective
teaching in technology is positively influenced by the development of a knowledge base
for teachers. Teachers selected in the project were involved in professional development.
This was my intervention and used current research in unit planning and assessment in
technology education research. I also provided opportunity for the teachers to
experience the selected task; we then co-operatively planned the unit. This included the
knowledge identification in the four domains (Moreland et al 2000). The writing of
learning experiences, outcomes and assessment criteria was based on the relevant
The task for this study

I took the 'Help Me Peel' task from NEMP 2000 Aspects of Technology (Crooks &
Flockton 2001). It shows a girl with a broken arm trying to peel a potato and asked the
children to plan an aid to help a one handed person peel a potato.
Figure 3
Help Me Peel instruction card provided by NEMP for this study
Learning experiences in the unit

During the unit the children participated in a series of learning experiences that reflected
activities that could be undertaken in the real practice of a person developing aids for
people with disabilities. These included such things as peeling potatoes, listening to an
arm amputee talk about the frustrations of being one-handed, discussing who and why
134
people have one arm, investigating existing aids on the market and suitable materials for
aids. Before planning their aid the children identified necessary and desirable criteria for
it. To do this they needed to recall learning from the above learning experiences. The
children then sketched two or three initial ideas and selected one they intended to make.
They then wrote why they selected their option and justified the selection to a teacher or
a group of peers, clearly stating reasons for selection of one over other designs. The
selected idea was fully develop into an annotated plan of aid, including size, materials
used and explanation as to how it makes it easier to peel a potato ('in-context' task). The
children then continued on to make a cardboard mock-up of their design, they evaluated
and modified their designs if necessary and constructed the aid from their plans.
The planning task was assessed using the following aspects and criteria. The most
desirable criteria are on the left and least desirable on the right for each aspect.
Table 4
Aspects and criteria used for assessment of the planning task
Aspect Criteria
most desirable least desirable
Quality of the Clearly Probably Possibly Not

Solution Workable Workable Workable Workable
Quality of plan/ Detailed Rudimentary No Solution
diagram/ picture /Plan
independent of
its workability
Quality of Detailed Rudimentary No
Explanation Explanation
Nature of the Holds Holds aid still Holds Machine Person No
Solution Potato still Peeler still Helping solution
Results
The results and discussion about the total scores for each child and school are given
below. Each criterion in each aspect had a score attributed to it. This enabled me to
calculate a total score for each child. Scores for each school in both the 'out-of-context'
and 'in-context' task were averaged (Table 5). This section also discusses the results of
each of the four aspects, which are given as a percentage of children who scored in each
criterion (Tables 6–9).
In the 'out-of-context' task School A scored an average of 10.3 points; School C, 3.6
and School E, 4.3. In the 'in-context' task School A moved up to an average to 14.6,
School C 14.3 and School E, 15. The Group Two average scores were School B, 10;
School D, 17 and School F, 14.5. The average scores for 'in-context' task are significantly
higher than that of the 'out-of-context' task. This indicates that achievement levels
improved when the task was an authentic part of practice. Below are the results in each
of the aspects assessed.
135
st
Table 5
Total score for individual children and average total score for each school
'OUT-OF- 'IN-
CONTEXT CONTEXT
' '
Schools School A School C School E School A School B School C School D School E School F
Children Aimee 4 Callum 4 Jolane 2 Franciose 17 Willem 11 Courtney 17 Matthew 17 James 15 Stacey 8
Bridget 8 Billy 3 James 8 Meisha 16 Jason 10 Adam 11 Adam 16 Susie 9 Jonty 17
Brittany 15 Kirsten 5 Hayley 10 Aimee 11 George 11 Ezra 17 Georgia 24 Nanami 17 Jacob 17
Anna 19 Alex 3 Javarna 2 Georgia 10 William 2 Billy 16 Karwing 17 Renee 16 Georgia 16
Antonia 10 Courtney 3 Shakira 2 Brittany 17 Dylan 9 Callum 15 Holly 12 Toni 16 Sarah 11
Annabel 6 Peter Absent Samantha 2 Laura 17 Sam 17 Ashley 11 Cara 16 Oshiarne 17 Jordon 17
Average 10.3 3.6 4.3 14.6 10 14.5 17 15 14.5
Score
Quality of the idea/ solution
Table 6
The results of the 'out-of-context' and 'in-context' task
in percentage of children who scored in each criteria
CRITERIA CLEARLY PROBABLY POSSIBLY NOT
WORKABLE WORKABLE WORKABLE WORKABLE
'out-of-context' 18 6 29 47
'in-context' 67 22 8 3
There is obviously a big shift here between the 'out-of-context' task and the 'in-unit'
task. Almost half of the children the children in the 'out-of-context' task presented a
solution that was unworkable. These children clearly struggled with this task in out-of-
context situation.
During the teaching in the unit the children were exposed to a number of different
aids that one handed people use. Vaughan, the one-handed interviewee shared a number
of the aids he used to help complete everyday tasks. Another activity the children were
required to do was to look at pictures of a number of aids. The realisation that there are
people out in the real world who actually require aids to help them do everyday tasks and
that aids are actually made for these people had an impact of the solutions offered by the
children.
The task became authentic at the children's level as they realised that anyone could
become one-handed at any time and that people do actually design aids to help one-
handed people. By making use of a deliberate social context (Hennessy 1993) the activity
became more relevant and meaningful. This also adds strength to the need to include the
social context within technological development. There needs to be recognition that
technology is socially constructed and has huge consequences for the quality of life.
136
Quality of the plan
Table 7
CRITERIA DETAILED RUDIMENTARY NO SOLUTION / PLAN /
EXPLANATION
'out-of-context' 0 100 0
'in-context' 67 33 0
This planning criterion was totally independent from the feasibility of the plan
offered. In the aspect in the 'out-of-context' task 100% of responses were rudimentary
while two thirds of children in the 'in-context' group completed detailed plans. This
could be explained in several ways. Detailed plans were required to list measurements or
note the materials used in the design. One of the unit activities was an investigation into
a range of materials. The children scrubbed, folded, slid across a bench and tore selected
materials to test them for desirability. Children also sketched three initial design ideas and
discussed theses with their peers or an adult so that by the time they planned the 'in-
context' task they had sketched and verbalised ideas and selected a final idea based on the
feedback they received. Procedural knowledge (McCormick 1997) could explain the
increased achievement. The children were aware that their plans were to help them move
through the design process of developing an aid. McCormick (1993) identified that
procedural knowledge is a major component in successful learning in technology.
Quality of the explanation
Table 8
CRITERIA DETAILED RUDIMENTARY NO EXPLANATION
'out-of-context' 18 82 0
'in-context' 75 25 0
In the 'out-of-context' task only 18% of children presented a detailed explanation and
82% were of rudimentary quality. Approximately three-quarters of all 'in-context'
children completed a detailed explanation. The detailed explanation needed to expand
the information given in the plan and it required discussion about how the design would
achieve the required purpose. I believe that by having completed the children completing
the 'in-context' task were more confident that they knew what they were going to design
and why. Identification of the criteria needed for a successful aid is clearly reflected in
137
st
the children's written explanations in the 'in-context' task (spelling edited by the
researcher where necessary).
It holds the potato by wedging it in (Billy, School C)
It makes it easier because the potato doesn't move and the board (doesn't move).
(Oshiarne, School E)
The potato is hold still. You will not need to bend down to peel the potato.
(Matthew, School D)
The plastic matting is to make it stick to the table and the other plastic matting to make the
potato stay still. (Cara, School D)
It makes it easier to peel the potato because the potato stays still in the hole and the suction
pad keeps the wood still. The Vivac keeps the aid clean while not used. The aid can be
cleaned with water. You can put it away. (Laura, School A)
You can stick the potato on the nails and the plastic matting because it will stop the wood
from moving. (Jordon, School F)
You put the potato on the nails and it makes it stable. (Willem, School B).
The nature of the solution
Table 9
The results of the 'out-of-context' and 'in-context' task in
percentage of children who scored in each criteria
CRITERIA HOLDS HOLDS HOLDS MACHINE PERSON NO
POTATO AID PEELER HELPING SOLUTION
STILL STILL STILL
'out-of- 33 12 0 18 6 47
context'
'in-context' 86 69 3 3 0 3
In this aspect unlike any of the others the children were able to score in more than
one category. In the 'out-of-context' task 33% of responses indicated a way of holding
the potato still, 12% indicated a way of holding the aid still with 47% of responses not
offering a workable solution. Nearly all the children in the 'in-context' group identified a
way of holding the potato and over two thirds identified a way of stabilising the design.
Once again this can be explained by the 'in-context' exposure to existing aids and a range
of investigated materials. Clearly the learning experiences modelled in authentic
technological practice that took place between the 'out-of-context' task and the 'in-
context' task allowed the children to improve achievement in planning technological
solutions to meet identified needs. Constructivist theory (Maddux & Cummings 1999)
describes how knowledge frameworks are built up, tested and altered as new knowledge
comes to light. Children are motivated when they can see the relevance of and or/ need
for their work (Hennessy & Murphy 1999; Hill & Smith 1998). The clear differences
between the nature of the solution in the 'out-of-context' task and the 'in-context' task
138
indicate that these children built the frameworks constructed during their authentic
practice and because they could see relevance for their work.
One way of illustrating the difference authentic technological practice made was by
comparing an 'out-of-context' task with an 'in-context' task. Brittany, School A, was
selected to do the task both times. She scored maximum points for the 'Quality of the
Solution' aspect in both the 'out-of-context' task and the 'in-context' task. By comparing
the two we are able to see the influence her technological practice had on her ability to
design a suitable practical solution to the identified problem.
Figure 4
On the left is Brittany's 'out-of-context' plan and on the right is her 'in-context' plan
Her 'out-of-context' plan shows a cup stuck to the wall. The high score in this aspect
is attributed to the fact that her plan mentions holding the potato and the aid still.
Brittany was the top scorer in the 'out-of-context' task. It is clear her solution shows
insight into the requirements needed to peel a potato one-handed but she appears not to
have had the knowledge or experience to plan a more practical solution e.g. suction cups
rather than sticking tape to secure the aid to the wall. There are a number of features of
Brittany's design that are common to both her plans. These include having the potato
sitting within walls- in a cup in the 'out-of-context' task and in a wooden box for the 'in-
context' task. Both mention securing the aid to the wall, in the pre- unit task tape is used
and in the 'in-context' task a suction cup is used. Brittany's 'in-context' task is much more
practical and a more specific solution than that offered in the 'out-of-context' task.
Teacher knowledge
When teachers have a deeper understanding to the knowledge necessary for
technological practice they are better equipped to direct students along a pathway to
developing a successful technological outcome (Moreland et al 2001). The teachers on
this project were introduced to the four knowledge domains identified as necessary to
technological practice. Jones and Moreland (2001) found that working across all four
139
st
domains enhance children's learning. The children involved in this project experienced all
four knowledge domains. The children's achievement in the planning task (Strand B) was
enhanced by the technological practice that preceded it. This involved learning in all four
domains and in Strands A and C and a little in Strand B. In all aspects assessed the
children from the 'in-context' task performed considerably better than those doing the
'out-of-context' task.
Conclusion
Assessment in technology education should be a normal part of the students'
technological practice, which in turn should be modelled on authentic technological
practice. Assessment should be formative. Students need to be able to see the relevance
to it and it should inform their practice. There is very clear evidence in this study that
assessment, which is a part of authentic technological practice, gives a better indication
and understanding of children's achievement in technology than assessment tasks that
are out-of context.
In order to achieve authentic technological practice in the classroom teachers need to
plan units or programmes of work within a framework of sound technological
knowledge. It is acknowledged that students' technological practice can never be totally
the same as that in the field but with a sound theoretical and practical knowledge and
careful planning teachers can improve achievement levels of their students. Assessment
activities must be planned to be an integral part of student technological practice so that
it furthers students learning and increases their likelihood of developing successful
technological outcomes.
References
Compton, V & Harwood C 1999, 'TEALS Research Project starting points and future directions',
Paper presented at the Telecom Technology Education Conference, King's College, Auckland, 14–16
April.
Crooks, T & Flockton, L 2001, Aspects of technology assessment results 2000, Dunedin: Educational
Assessment Research Unit, University of Otago.
Freeman, R L R 1998, Planning and implementing assessment, Kogan Page Limited, London.
Hennessy, S & Murphy, P 1999, 'The Potential for collaborative problem solving in design and
technology', International Journal of Technology and Design Education, vol.9, no.1, pp.1–36.
Hill, A M & Smith, H A 1998, 'Practice meets theory in technology education: A case of authentic
learning in a high school setting', Journal of Technology, vol.9, no.2.
Jones, A & Moreland, J 2001, 'Frameworks and cognitive tools for enhancing practicing teachers'
pedagogical content knowledge', Paper presented at the ASERA, Sydney, 11–14 July.
Kimbell, R 1997, Assessing technology international trends in curriculum and assessment, Open University
Press, Buckingham.
Maddux, C D & Cummings, R 1999, 'Constructivism: has the term outlived its usefulness?',
Computers in Schools, vol.15, no.s 3/4, pp.5–20.
Moreland, J, Jones, A & Chambers, M 2000, 'From formative to summative strategies in
technology education', Conference Paper, Waikato University, Hamilton.
140
Moreland, J, Jones, A & Chambers, M 2001, 'Enhancing student learning in technology through
teacher technological literacy', Paper presented at the Technology Education New Zealand, A
celebration, a challenge, and the future, Wellington, 1–3 October
Pacey, A 1983, The culture of technology, Blackwell, Oxford.
Rogoff, B 1990, Apprenticeship in thinking: cognitive development in social context, Oxford University Press,
New York.
Smith, N 1999, 'Pathways to technological literacy', Conference proceedings, Paper presented at
the Telecom Technology Education Conference, Auckland, April 14–16.
Sutton, R 1995, Assessment for learning, RS Publications, Salford.
Turnbull, W 2002, 'The place of authenticity in technology in the New Zealand curriculum',
International Journal of Technology and Design Education, vol.12, pp.23–40.
Wiggins, G 1998, Educative assessment: Designing assessment to inform and improve student performance,
Jossey-Bass Inc, San Francisco.
141
What Teachers Really Know About
Technology When They Claim
They Don't Know?
Ian S. Ginns, Christine V. McDonald, Campbell J. McRobbie
Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane
Sarah J. Stein
The University of Queensland, Brisbane
M
any experienced primary school teachers have expressed a low level of confidence in
their ability to teach technology, which has been attributed to limited understandings of
technology content, processes and skills. The discourse and actions of four Year 7
teachers were observed as they engaged in an intensive inservice program prior to implementing
a technology unit of work in their respective classrooms. Data sources included teacher
interviews; survey instrument results; artefacts produced by the teachers during the inservice
program; video recordings of classroom interactions; and teachers' written reflections. The
findings indicate that the teachers possessed understandings of useful technology content and
processes that appeared to refute their initial claims that they did not know any technology. The
teachers also drew upon a range of sources of information, including past experience, when
probed about these understandings. These understandings and sources of information represent
a sound platform for teaching technology. Therefore, appropriate inservice opportunities must be
provided for teachers that will enable them to become aware of their own understandings and
organise those understandings into a coherent whole. This is an essential task if we are to
enhance teachers' confidence to teach technology in primary schools.
Introduction
The importance of providing students with opportunities for participation in meaningful
learning experiences in design and technology has been expressed in a number of
documents worldwide (e.g. American Association for the Advancement of Science
(AAAS) 1993; Curriculum Corporation 1994a, b). Similarly, the Queensland Schools
Curriculum Council in the new Years 1 to 10 Technology syllabus (QSCC 2002)
advocates that students should engage in meaningful learning experiences that will enable
them to demonstrate their achievement of learning outcomes associated with
understandings of design and technology concepts. These concepts may be embedded in
understandings of the nature of materials and how the materials can be manipulated;
principles underpinning the design and operation of technological artefacts; systems and
their configuration and operation; and how information from a variety of sources can
inform their technological thinking and activity.
142
What Teachers Really Know About Technology When They Claim They Don't Know?
Much thought has been directed towards defining and/or describing understandings
of design and technology concepts (Bennett 1996; Levinson, Murphy & McCormick
1997; Gustafson et al 1998; Twyford & Järvinen 2000). McCormick (1997) asserts that
concept knowledge in design and technology may be difficult to define because of the
use of personal knowledge in the design processes. Design and technology concepts may
be underpinned by science related concepts, for example, in the work of Gustafson,
Rowell and Rose (1998) where students added a heavy base to a model tower thus
making it more stable because of its lower centre of gravity. When selecting materials for
a particular task, students may have to know, or find out about, the "functional" properties
of materials such as strength, flexibility, conductivity, and durability (Cajas 2001). A
definitive framework of technology knowledge types was proposed by Faulkner (1994).
The dimensions of knowing she derived from studies of technological development such
as industrial innovation were: (a) knowledge related to the natural world (e.g. scientific,
mathematical and engineering concepts and theory; knowledge of materials), (b)
knowledge related to design practice (e.g. design criteria and specifications; operating
principles), (c) knowledge related to experimental research and design (e.g. experimental
and testing procedures; collection and analysis of test data), (d) knowledge related to final
products (e.g. operating performance of components and materials), and (e) knowledge
related to knowledge itself (e.g. location of knowledge sources; technological discourse;
learning from successful problem solving).
An understanding of design and technology concepts is important for the many and
diverse settings and activities likely to be established by teachers when the new
Technology syllabus is fully implemented in Queensland schools. Therefore, the notion
of a technology knowledge base for teachers is crucial for effective teaching, learning and
assessment in technology (Jones, Moreland & Chambers 2001). They developed a
planning format for teachers that assisted in the identification of specific concepts
required by teachers in different technology areas. An important prerequisite for better
teaching of design and technology is that teachers should possess an understanding of
the technology concepts that students are likely to acquire as a result of engagement in
technological activity and thinking (Lewis 1999).
We concur with views that teachers play a pivotal role in design and technology
classrooms and teachers should possess a sound technology knowledge base. This paper
reports an analysis of the discourse and actions of upper primary school teachers as they
engaged in an intensive inservice program prior to the implementation of a technology
unit of work in their classrooms. The aim of the study was to document the teachers'
beginning and emerging understandings of technology concepts as they worked with the
researchers on the project. A potential outcome from the study is the development of
effective professional development programs that would enable teachers, grappling with
technology for the first time, to become aware of their own understandings and organise
those understandings into a coherent whole.
Methodology and data analysis

An interpretive methodology was adopted for this study in order to analyse the
participants' activities and the meanings and intentions they attached to those activities
143
st
(Guba & Lincoln 1989). The design, data collection and analysis and interpretation were
guided by principles of quality inquiry (Guba & Lincoln 1989) and interpretive research
(Erickson 1998).
Participants
The study was conducted in two Year 7 double classrooms in a large Brisbane state
primary school. The participants were the students and respective teachers in the four
classes occupying the two classrooms.
The study of the four experienced primary school teachers, Geraldine, Katrina,
Robyn, and Martyn (all pseudonyms), took place over a three-month period. The school
had an enrolment of approximately 800 children in Years 1 to 7. Each teacher allocated
typically one to two hours per week to science. Technology, as a curriculum area, was
unfamiliar to them and they were not fully aware of the ramifications of the intended
introduction of the new technology syllabus into all Queensland schools in 2002.
All four teachers were highly experienced with each having completed in excess of
ten years teaching in upper primary school classes. Martyn had recently resumed his
teaching career after approximately seventeen years out of the profession.
The context
Outside researchers (CVM; SJS; ISG) worked with the four teachers as they introduced
technology into their classrooms, and to document the development of understandings
of the teachers along the way. The researchers visited the teachers and their classes for
each component lesson of a technology unit of work planned by the teachers in
collaboration with the researchers, thus ensuring that professional contact was consistent
and continual (Guba & Lincoln 1989).
It has been recommended that professional development in the area of technology
should include reflection on one's own and others' conceptions of technology, on
pedagogical knowledge and upon technological practices (Jones, Mather & Carr 1995).
The teachers initially worked with the researchers in an intensive three-day professional
development program in order to establish a platform for the development and
implementation of the technology unit of work for the Year 7 students. Subsequently,
collaborative discussions and planning of technology lessons occurred. The teachers
were encouraged to reflect on their developing thoughts about technology content,
technology education, and technology practice at the planning meetings. The intention of
the researchers was to provide and interpret information, and to assist with the supply of
materials and consumables where necessary.
Collaborative discussions and planning of units and lessons were facilitated by the
extended nature of the study. This allowed the teachers to ask questions, plan
accordingly, enact the plans, review their actions, and plan for subsequent action. The
continuous process of analysis and reflection meant that all participants, including the
researchers, were, as a group, able to contribute to an ongoing process of planning,
action and reflection.
144
The intensive professional development program

Initial experiences in the professional development program were designed to immerse
the teachers into technology content, processes and activity through engagement in
structured tasks. The experiences included (a) testing and describing the properties of
materials, such as strength, (b) constructing an artefact, A Breathing System, based on a
prescribed design from Primary Investigations (Australian Academy of Science 1994), and
(c) strengthening an object made out of four identical, wooden pop sticks joined together
with pins to make a stable, square frame. The immersion tasks enabled the teachers to
think, and share ideas and expertise about material properties, observe how components
interacted in a system, and grapple with the problem of how to increase the stability of
an artefact. The teachers worked in pairs throughout the entire program
In the second session of the program, the teachers were requested to design,
construct, and test an ice block container to keep an ice block in solid form for a period
of one hour. The teachers were able to use materials at hand (e.g. Styrofoam, cardboard,
glue, and stickytape), and tools such as scissors and cutting knives. They were also asked
to design and construct a bridge to carry a load of 1 kg out of materials that were feasible
for use in the classroom, in their free time before the next session.
The third session commenced with a review of the operating performance of the
teachers' ice block containers and the bridges each one had constructed. The review was
followed by engagement in structured activities in which scientific principles that might
underpin the design and construction of an effective ice block container were then
explored. The activities included, the ball and ring experiment, measuring the heat
conductivity of metals; observing convection currents in water and what happens when
hot and cold water is mixed in different ways; observing radiation from a tungsten lamp;
testing the insulation properties of cloth, styrofoam, and bubble wrap; and testing the
absorption and/or reflection properties of a variety of materials placed in direct sunlight.
The data collected from the activities were reviewed and the scientific principles drawn
out through analysis and discussion.
The final activity in the third session was a planning meeting in which the teachers
and researchers analysed the program thus far and how the program could be capitalised
on to maximise the benefits for students in the respective classrooms. The core
components of the professional development program formed the technology unit of
work, i.e., the immersion activities, building a bridge, the ice block container activity, and
the science principles activities.
After an extensive debate, the teachers' themselves decided that the culminating
activity for the technology unit of work should be the design and construction of a
container that would keep food warm for a period of two hours. It was envisaged that a
possible scenario might be transporting the food to a picnic area, therefore, ensuring that
other design factors would need to be taken into account such as the strength of the
container, and the addition of secure handles for carrying the container and food. The
researchers' original suggestion that the culminating activity should involve students
designing a sauna for a house was evaluated by the teachers and eventually discarded for
an activity that they believed would have more relevance for the students, hence, their
decision in favour of a hot food container.
145
st
Data sources
The Attitudes and Perceptions about Technology survey (Rennie & Jarvis 1996) was
completed by the four teachers to gain an overview of their views about Diversity of
Technology, Technology as a Design Process, Interest in Technology and Social Aspects
of Technology (scales of the instrument). They also completed an open-ended
writing/drawing task on "What technology means to me," and a picture quiz as used by
Rennie and Jarvis (1996). The teachers were then interviewed as a group about their
perceptions of technology and technology education, their respective experiential
backgrounds, both professional and personal, and finally they were asked to think aloud
about how they would make the interview room (a class withdrawal room) more
comfortable for students in the hot summer months. These initial group interview was
video and audiotaped.
The intensive professional development program involved data collection as the
teachers engaged with the various aspects of the program. Data were derived from field
notes based on observations of the teachers as they interacted with each other, and with
the researchers during the program. Drawings and notes recorded by each teacher, and
their reflections on the activities in the professional development program were
collected. Video and audiotaping of the actions and transactions of the teachers were
conducted throughout the program.
During the implementation of the technology unit of work, the main thrust of data
collection was directed towards observations of students' actions and discourse as they
worked through the various phases of the unit. However, data were collected about the
teachers as they interacted with the students on an individual basis, worked with groups,
or intervened when they thought whole class strategies were appropriate, and when
discussions were held with the researchers. The methods for collecting data related to the
teachers included video and audiotaping interactions and practical activity, and the
compilation of field notes. A follow-up group interview was undertaken with the
teachers after the completion of the technology unit of work. The interview was also
video and audiotaped.
Data analysis
All transactions and interviews with the teachers were transcribed for analysis. The focus
of the analysis was directed towards identifying teachers' understandings, and application
of those understandings of technology content, processes and skills.
As the conceptual and process understandings associated with technology are not
well defined and may be drawn from a range of sources, the data were analysed for
instances where teachers' understandings of content, processes and skills were evident.
Instances of understandings that emerged during the intensive professional development
program and the planning and implementation of the technology unit of work, and the
sources of information that underpinned, or could be linked with those understandings,
were sought.
Each week, the research team analysed and reviewed the data and developed
emerging assertions, which guided further data collection, thus following a hermeneutic
cycle (Guba & Lincoln 1989). Where necessary, incidents or data sources were clarified
146
with the teachers before the following weeks lessons by informal discussions with
individuals or the group as a whole.
Findings and discussion

The discussion will focus mainly on the data collected during the initial interviews and
the intensive professional development program. Evidence is drawn from videotapes,
audiotapes, and field notes.
The first interview

In the initial interview, the responses of the teachers to the question, "What does
technology mean to you?" encompassed mainly the production and use of artefacts.
Katrina Methods of doing, making, creating, designing.
Martyn Means by which the world has developed better ways of doing things more
effectively and efficiently.
Robyn I just associated it with the classrooms…technology in the classroom is just
the way we use computers, and design, and solve problems within our
classroom.
Gilda It's the means by which many things in the world are created and used and
operate.
When asked to comment if technology had a definable content, Robyn referred to
skills and progression in skills but did not "know about content." Others suggested that
the content was what you wanted to make it, already prescribed in the relevant syllabus,
or dependent on the teacher's professional judgement. The teachers described activities
already completed during the year that they believed might be deemed as teaching
technology. These activities included work on electricity and basic circuitry,
programmable Lego exercises, PowerPoint presentations, and designing and producing a
brochure. The Lego exercises were seen to be new and different, PowerPoint was "just
learning how to do it" (Robyn), and the electricity was designed to "teach them the
basics" (Gilda).
Prior experiences and tacit knowledge were drawn upon when the teachers were
asked to think aloud about how to make the class withdrawal room more comfortable
for students in summer. Ideas such as opening all the windows and louvres, turning on
the overhead fans, removing panels and replacing with windows, and air conditioning the
room were proposed. When asked if they knew how air conditioners worked limited
understandings were evident, for example, a motor was needed, "something to do with
water" (Katrina), and "Something about a thermostat" (Martyn). Their ideas about air
conditioners appeared to be sourced from, e.g. experience, talking to other people,
having air conditioners/evaporative coolers of their own at home, brochures, watching
things, and television advertisements. Naïve views of the general principles of heat
transfer were expressed with some knowing that hot air rises because it is stated in the
science syllabus but were unable to elaborate on this concept when probed further.
Similarly, the teachers were able to name insulating materials that could be added to the
structure of the room without explaining how insulators worked.
147
st
The intensive professional development program

Engagement in the immersion activities generated much discussion. Both working pairs
grappled with controlling variables as they tested the relative strengths of four different
fibres. Should the fibres be of the same length at the start of the experiment, how should
we add the masses to the fibres, are the fibres the same thickness, and how long should
we wait before adding additional masses? Predictions were proposed "This is polycotton
so one would imagine it would not be as strong (as polysilk)" (Katrina). As they
processed the results, questions were posed about the nature of the materials, an example
of which is shown in the following exchange.
Martyn (Noting that polyester fibre was stronger than cotton) Can they make a really
strong cotton that would be as strong as the polyester?
Gilda They could make it stronger by putting more fibres into…more fibres in.
Robyn noted that the strongest fibres were manmade and the information obtained
from testing the materials helped her to conclude "Depending on where you'd use these
cottons, it would help you in your choice of what (cotton) you were going to use."
Katrina observed that "The very fact that they're (synthetic threads) manmade, they're
probably designed to be strong".
During the immersion activities, each teacher drew on everyday examples to help
them solve problems. For example, when testing the fibres they used knowledge from
scouting activities, making and using clothes, teaching a unit on chemicals earlier in the
year, and sails on yachts. The teachers were able to describe the interacting parts of a
model breathing system constructed out of a plastic tumbler, a straw, and balloons. Gilda
summed up the scientific principle used to explain the operation of lungs as follows
"When you move that (pull the diaphragm out), you're creating a bigger space for the air
to flow into, so you're changing the air pressure on the balloon (lung)". One teacher
(Gilda) possessed informed views about strengthening the four pop sticks joined
together in a square frame having completed a similar activity several years ago. All four
teachers related the activity to experiences such as building a house frame, and building a
deck. For the bridge building activity, ideas were obtained from spouses, friends and
included using rolled up paper for the pylons and/or the decks of the bridge. Katrina
noted that her bridge, which was based on paper folded into a concertina shape, did
incorporate the concept of triangles incorporated in strengthening the square frame, as
"They're the most rigid shape".
Both groups decided to construct their ice block cooler out of polystyrene. Katrina
and Robyn wrapped their ice block in moistened newspaper with Robyn remembering
that, as a child, she used to carry ice blocks home in newspaper. In spite of this
background experience there were no clear reasons espoused for wetting the paper. They
placed the wrapped ice block in a polystyrene box, filled the box with Styrofoam balls,
and sealed all joins with masking tape. Martyn and Gilda placed one Styrofoam cup
inside another to leave an air gap between the two cups. A second similar pair of cups
was constructed and refrigerated water placed in the inner cup. Both sets were covered
with stretched balloon after adding the ice blocks. No clear reasons were given for the air
gap in the first container and/or the use of water in the second container. The teachers
148
drew on knowledge from their colleagues, spouses, prior college experiences; and the
examination of everyday artefacts, for example, eskies, coolers, drink holders and ice
bricks. Polystyrene was the material of choice for both pairs but they could not explain
why this material might work in terms of minimising heat transfer.
When exploring a series of activities in which scientific principles related to heat
transfer were emphasised, some naïve understandings were expressed. For example,
most thought that cold can be transferred, for instance, a cold glass cools down a drink.
However, there were some surprises. Gilda and Martyn discussed ways of cooling hot
liquids by placing them in wide mouth containers, and how some types of baking dishes
might break if cooled too rapidly. Gilda, in particular, on observing that a balloon placed
over the mouth of a heated, conical flask containing water inflates, stated "hot air rises
and expands". She also concluded, when analysing the results from measuring the heat
conductivity of metals, that "Copper is a good conductor of heat," and also linked the
results with the performance of stainless steel cooking utensils with copper bases. One of
the researchers introduced the notion of movement of particles to scaffold teachers'
conceptualisation of what happens during the transfer of heat energy. Gilda was able to
connect the difference between hot and cold (e.g. placing something in a refrigerator)
with "Getting less movement, less vibration, that's where you get the contraction,"
linking this conclusion to the ball and ring experiment they had completed. Katrina also
grasped the usefulness of Styrofoam beer holders by stating "They're not to keep the
cold in the bottle, they are to keep the heat from coming into the bottle from your
hand". The remaining activities in this third session included periods where the teachers
were challenged to reflect on their observations and attempt to develop explanations for
the phenomena observed. Scaffolding of ideas was also conducted during the periods of
reflection.
The technology unit of work
As indicated previously, the core components of the intensive professional development
program formed the technology unit of work with the culminating activity of designing
and constructing a container that would keep food warm for a period of two hours. The
container had to be capable of being transported to another location. During the unit of
work, the teachers fostered an environment where students, in groups of three, could
actively engage with the tasks, take design and planning risks, and work at their own pace
within flexible time guidelines. The teachers actively encouraged self-direction, and
within group and intergroup discussions and questioning.
Final interview
In the final group interview, after the completion of the technology unit of work, the
teachers indicated that the students enjoyed the activities, particularly because of the
hands-on aspect. They also found that they didn't have to 'feed' the students with a lot of
information because they were highly motivated and anxious to proceed with the entire
unit. They believed collectively that the students learned a lot and enjoyed having the
additional people (the researchers) in the classrooms to work with the students and with
whom they could discuss their own ideas. Implementing the unit continuously over three
weeks was of benefit rather than one learning experience per week over a longer period
149
st
of time. All four teachers felt more confident to teach the unit because of the
professional development program, the fact that the researchers were available to
provide support through content backup, if and when required, and helping them to
scaffold students' understandings on several occasions. The teachers appeared to have
more informed understandings of technology concepts and processes, and scientific
principles underpinning the technology unit of work. Yet they continued to claim that
they needed more technological/scientific knowledge to successfully teach the unit. This
feeling was summed up in the Gilda's statement "Probably the only concern I had was
whether at times I was really feeding them what was correct, and I hope I really did get
this bit of information right". They also exhibited more comprehensive views of
technology at the conclusion of the study.
Conclusions
The findings from the initial interview and the professional development program
indicate that the teachers did possess understandings of useful technology content and
processes for the particular technology unit of work implemented. These understandings
appeared to refute their initial claims that they did not know any technology. The
teachers also drew upon a range of sources of information, including past experience,
when probed about these understandings. The interview and professional development
program enabled teachers to become aware of their understandings and share those
understandings with each other. Although the understandings appeared to be discrete
and not highly interconnected, we suggest that those understandings and sources of
information represented a sound platform for the technology content and processes
embodied in the unit of work.
We have advocated that teachers must attempt to capitalise on opportunities for
fostering students' learning and assessment in technology education (Stein, McRobbie &
Ginns 2002) when 'teachable moments' arise. Similarly, inservice providers must also
capitalise on opportunities for fostering teachers' learning that arise in professional
development programs. Our professional development program was embedded in a
research study of teachers and their students and we may have missed opportunities to
scaffold effectively teachers' understandings of technology concepts. However, we
believe that probing prior understandings as occurred in the group interview and
working intensively with teachers in focused activities in the professional development
program was of benefit to the teachers. With the observations for our research study
directed mainly at the students during the implementation of the technology unit, close
monitoring of teachers was not feasible. More intensive and responsive monitoring and
support may have enhanced their understandings as the unit progressed. Ideally, a
planning format for teachers that assists in the identification of specific concepts
required by teachers in different technology areas (Jones, Moreland & Chambers 2001)
could be integrated with a professional development program of the kind described in
this paper. It is essential that we help teachers organise their understandings into a
coherent whole. A useful start is to assist them to recognise that they have existing
understandings of useful technology content and processes into order to help build their
confidence to teach technology in their own classrooms.
150
References
American Association for the Advancement of Science 1993, Benchmarks for science literacy: Project
2061, Oxford University Press, New York, NY.
Australian Academy of Science 1994, Primary investigations–Teachers' Resource Book 5,
Australian Academy of Science, Canberra.
Bennett, R 1996, 'An investigation into some Key Stage 2 children's learning of foundation
concepts associated with geared mechanisms', Journal of Design and Technology Education, vol.1,
no.3, pp.218–229.
Cajas, F 2001, 'The science/technology interaction: Implications for science literacy', Journal of
Research in Science Teaching, vol.38, no.7, pp.715–729.
Curriculum Corporation 1994a, A statement on technology for Australian schools, Author, Carlton, Vic.
Curriculum Corporation 1994b, Technology – A curriculum profile for Australian schools, Author,
Carlton, Vic.
Erickson, F 1998, 'Qualitative research methods for science education', in International handbook of
science education (Part 2), eds B J Fraser & K G Tobin, Kluwer Academic Publishing, Dordrecht,
Netherlands, pp.1155–1173.
Faulkner, W 1994, 'Conceptualising knowledge used in innovation: A second look at the science-
technology distinction and industrial innovation', Science Technology & Human Values, vol.19,
pp.425–458.
Guba, E & Lincoln, Y 1989, Fourth generation evaluation, Sage, Beverley Hills, CA.
Gustafson, B J, Rowell, P M & Rose, D P 1998, April, 'Elementary children's conceptions of
structural stability: A three year study', Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National
Association for Research in Science Teaching, San Diego, CA.
Jones, A, Mather, V & Carr, M 1995, Issues in the practice of technology education, Centre for Science,
Mathematics and Technology Education Research, University of Waikato, Hamilton, NZ.
Jones, A, Moreland, J & Chambers, M 2001, March, 'Enhancing student learning in technology
through enhancing teacher technological literacy', Paper presented at the annual meeting of the
National Association for Research in Science Teaching, St Louis, MO.
Levinson, R, Murphy, P & McCormick, R 1997, 'Science and technology concepts in a design
and technology project: A pilot study', Research in Science and Technology Education, vol.15, no.2,
pp.235–255.
Lewis, T 1999, 'Research in technology education: Some areas of need', Journal of Technology Education,
vol.10, no.2, pp.41–56.
McCormick, R 1997, 'Conceptual and procedural knowledge', International Journal of Technology and
Queensland School Curriculum Council 2002, Technology: Years 1 to 10 syllabus, Queensland School
Curriculum Council, Brisbane.
Stein, S J, McRobbie, C J & Ginns, I S 2002, 'Implications of missed opportunities for learning and
assessment in technology education', Teaching and Teacher Education, vol.18, no.1, pp.35–49.
Twyford, J & Järvinen, E-M 2000, 'The formation of children's technological concepts: A study of
what it means to do technology from a child's perspective', Journal of Technology Education, vol.12,
no.1, pp.32–48.
151
Implementing Technology Education in a
High School: A Case Study
Christopher Hamilton
Cannon Hill College
Howard Middleton
T
his paper discusses the results of a study of the factors, which enhanced or hindered the
implementation of technology education into one Queensland secondary school. A case
study research methodology was used. The results of the study revealed that the
experience of the site was very similar to that of schools in other countries and Australian states
who have already proceeded in this direction. It showed that the implementation of technology
education is enhanced by access to and participation in quality inservice training; appropriate
facilities and equipment; support from the school's administration; adequate budget for continual
improvements to the facilities and equipment purchases; active marketing and promotion of the
subject to students, other teaching staff, school administration and the wider school community;
and involvement of the teachers in the development of curriculum. It also identify some additional
factors that were not a major focus of previous research in this area, in particular the impact that
the personal qualities of the teachers have on the effectiveness (or perceived effectiveness) of
the implementation. Strong leadership was identified as a key factor in the continuing success
and improvement in technology education in the school studied.
Introduction
The study reported in this paper was undertaken in 2001 and examined the
implementation of technology education into one independent secondary school in
Queensland. The specific focus of the investigation was the factors that enhanced or
hindered this process in a school that is considered to have had a reasonable measure of
success in implementing technology education programs.
Internationally, technology education is emerging as an essential part of the general
education of all students, as it is aimed at the development of problem-solving and
critical thinking skills, specifically in the ability to develop and use new technologies.
Those skills and abilities are recognised as essential in today's workforce and society. It is
not only about understanding today's technologies but equipping students to be able to
utilise emerging technologies in the future.
The contribution of technology education was formally recognised in Australia in
April 1989 when the Australian Education Council agreed to a statement, known as the
Hobart Declaration, which recognised eight national key learning areas (KLAs) which all
students must undertake during their compulsory schooling years (Years 1–10).
152
Implementing Technology Education in a High School: A Case Study
Technology Education is one of these eight KLAs. To implement this agreement, the
Queensland School Curriculum Council released the draft Years 1–10 Syllabus-in-
Development for Technology during term 4 1999, for a trial period in selected
Queensland schools. In addition, the Queensland Board of Senior Secondary School
Studies developed and released the first senior Technology Studies Syllabus in 1992 and a
revised version in 1999. One of the main departments implementing the subject is the
manual arts department in secondary schools.
The implementation of the technology syllabus in Queensland schools represents the
largest change to occur in the technology area in this state. This raises two issues. The
first is concerned with ways to facilitate a successful change. The second is concerned
with the nature of the syllabus implemented, with the desire of progressive practitioners
that it be implemented as a dynamic area of study.
Literature review
Technology education is concept and process-based, as opposed to the fact-based
manual/industrial arts subject areas. It requires technology students to work through
problems as opposed to the 'copy-me' manual arts. This distinction is important because
of the rapidity of change in today's society. Specific skills quickly become unusable and
irrelevant as new, more advanced machinery is produced. The implementation of a
technology education curriculum has significant implications for teachers, students and
the school administration. These changes include the philosophy underpinning the area,
the teaching strategies and assessment mechanisms used.
As a minimum an 'ideal' technology education program would be one that:
• highlights social/cultural impacts of technology (Foster 1994b)
• develops problem-solving skills and abilities to integrate systems of technology
(Daugherty & Boser 1993; Wright 1991; Foster 1994b)
• uses group-based activities and the develops communication skills (Conte & Weber
1999; Edmison, Henak, Scanlin, Schwaller & Smallwood 1991; Wright 1991)
• forms part of general education of all students and grade levels (Breckon 1998;
Gibson 1991)
• uses an interdisciplinary approach (cross- curricula potential) (Conte et al 1999).
The implementation of technology education into secondary schools is a complex
process which is impacted on (positively and negatively) by a variety of factors. . The
results revealed that their experience was very similar to that of schools in other
countries and Australian states who have already proceeded in this direction. That is,
implementation is enhanced by:
• access to and participation in quality inservice training (Rogers & Mahler 1994;
Weissglass 1991; Warner 1995a; Compton et al 1998)
• appropriate facilities and equipment (Sharpe 1996; Linnell 1992; Bussey, Dormody &
Van Leeuwen 2000)
153
st
• support from the school's administration (Hill, Weiklein & Daugherty 1996; Sharpe
1996; Oats 1991; Clark 1989)
• adequate budget for continual improvements to the facilities and equipment purchases
(Hill et al 1996; Oats 1991)
• active marketing and promotion of the subject to students, other teaching staff,
school administration and the wider school community (Sharpe 1996; Benzie 1997;
Johnson 1997; Wright & Custer 1998)
• involvement of the teachers in the development of curriculum (Rogers et al 1994,
Sharpe 1996; Bussey et al 2000). The more participatory the process the more likely it
will be accepted by the teaching staff and implemented.
Sharpe recognised that many of these factors are inter-related (Sharpe 1996). That is,
they impact on each other. For example, a supportive school administration makes
access to required resources easier.
During the past ten years the philosophy, curricula, and methodologies used to guide
technology education have changed more dramatically then they have in the preceding
one hundred years (Daugherty et al 1993; Waetjen 1994). It is evident that as the field of
technology education continues to evolve and its unique mission to provide relevant and
meaningful learning experiences which enhance higher-order thinking skills, is gradually
becoming clearer (Johnson, in Hill et al 1996).
Methodology
An evaluative case study methodology was selected for this study as it enabled the
identification of factors which help or hinder the implementation of technology
education, and make judgements as to their importance at the site studied.
The case can be defined in various ways, depending on the focus and approach
adopted by the researcher (Stake 1994). Merriam asserts that the "focus of research in a
case study is on one unit of analysis. There may be numerous events, participants, or
phases of a process subsumed under the unit" (Merriam 1988, p.46). In the study
discussed, the case (unit of analysis) is a co-educational independent secondary college,
and within it the teachers, facilities and administrators will be investigated.
Figure 1 depicts the research design. It shows the logical flow from the preliminary
activities that initiated the study and the development of the preliminary conceptual
model through data collection and analysis, refinement of the conceptual model,
articulation of a set of working hypotheses, and collection and analysis of data.
Data was collected from three primary sources:
• documentary evidence consisting of primary source material related to the
implementation of technology education at the Queensland secondary school studied
• semi-structured interviews with participants who were involved in the implementation
of technology education within the College
• observations of the technology education activities at the College.
154
Figure 1
Research design
155
st
Factors affecting implementation of technology education

Figure 2
156
The study's three data collection techniques offered complementary perspectives on

the implementation of technology education at the College. Each technique collected
different types of information, each of which had a special utility for the research. A
primary concern for the data collection was to develop a data repository upon which the
researcher could answer the study's research question.
Pattern-matching logic was used to analyse the data. This involved identifying
common patterns across the data sources. The empirical data from the case was then
compared with the predicted ones identified in the preliminary conceptual model (Yin
1994). The identification of patterns enables causal inferences to be drawn. Merriam
(2000) also refers to this as the constant comparative method.
Results
The results of the study revealed that the experience of the site was very similar to that of
schools in other countries and Australian states who have already proceeded in this
direction. The study showed that the implementation of technology education is
enhanced by:
• access to and participation in quality inservice training
• appropriate facilities and equipment
• support from the school's administration
• adequate budget for continual improvements to the facilities and equipment purchases
• active marketing and promotion of the subject to students, other teaching staff, school
administration and the wider school community
• involvement of the teachers in the development of curriculum.
However, some additional factors, not previously a major focus of research in this
area, were revealed. The primary factor identified was the impact that the personal
qualities of the teachers had on the effectiveness (or perceived effectiveness) of the
implementation. The teacher's passion was a key to getting technology education
established within the College, however, it was identified that passion was not enough to
drive continual improvement.
Strong leadership was identified as a key factor in the continuing success and
improvement in technology education in the College. Due to the significant budgetary
demand of the area and its need to 'compete' with traditional curriculum areas, it was
identified that a good leader is required. A good leader was defined as a person who is
able to understand and work within the political and budgetary framework of a school to
ensure that the future needs of the area are addressed. In addition, the leader was seen as
one who is able to develop and work towards achieving a common shared vision for the
area and one who is able to mentor and ensure the continual improvement of the
teaching staff. This was identified as lacking in consistency throughout the
implementation of technology education at the College.
The other additional factors identified included:
• the frequency that the work programs are reviewed. Frequent review was identified as
important in ensuring the program remains focused on the technology process (rather
157
st
than the product); relevant and of interest to the students; and the program continues
to deliver the desired learning outcomes for technology education.
• inclusion of technology education in the school's strategic plan, thus ensuring
technology education remains a growth priority for the school. Inclusion of
technology education in a school's strategic plan ensures that the required
improvements/enhancement to facilities and other equipment purchases are
included in the school's long-term budgeting and planning framework.
• a prolonged focus on the marketing and promotion of the area to ensure the students,
parents and wider school community understand and value the contribution of
technology education to all students' education. An extended focus ensures that
developments in the area are promoted. This assists in acquiring and sustaining broad
support for technology education at the school.
• participation of the teaching staff in networking opportunities to facilitate the sharing
of ideas and projects/problems which are able to achieve the desired learning
outcomes. This includes sharing design briefs, assessment tools and effective teaching
strategies. Effective implementation and the achievement of the desired learning
outcomes are essential to continued success of this subject area. Technology education
and technology educators can only benefit from sharing of knowledge, information
and ideas.
• school administrators sharing the vision for the technology education program with
the teaching staff. This ensures commitment to the continual improvement of the
technology education area.
A conceptual model (see Figure 2) was developed which showed the relationship
between the factors identified with sufficient emphasis placed on the personal factors
related to the teachers and the administration.
Conclusion
The results of this study, which relate one school's experience, contributes to knowledge
in a number of key areas for curriculum implementation, especially in relation to
technology education. It contributes further information on the implementation of
technology education in Australia, specifically Queensland. As revealed in the literature
review, there was an information base over a number of years available on the transition
from traditional industrial arts to technology education in north America (and to a lesser
degree other countries), but limited information is available on the Australian context.
The conceptual model, developed as a result of this study, identifies the key factors
which influence the implementation of technology education into a Queensland
secondary school. The model conceptualises the relationship between these factors and
also identifies that technology education operates in a framework of continual
improvement. This model could be used by technology educationists, curriculum
developers and school administrators to assist in the planning and evaluation of the
implementation of technology education, and continual improvement of this area in
other sites in Queensland and beyond.
158
The study identified that for technology education, and potentially other curriculum
areas, to be implemented successfully into secondary schools, staff need to be actively
involved in the development of the curriculum and the implementation process. It also
identified that a support network or system including the provision of reference
materials, professional development opportunities (including inservice) and access to
'experts' in the field, is essential. These are captured in the theoretical model developed.
It has also shown that the implementation of a new curriculum requires planning and
time, and this needs to be considered and allowed for.
References
Benzie, P 1997, 'Clarifying the technology picture', Journal of the Industrial Technology and Design
Teachers' Association Inc., vol.35, no.4.
Breckon, A M 1998, 'National curriculum review in design and technology education', The Journal of
Design and Technology Education, vol.3, no.2.
Bussey, J M, Dormody, T J & Van Leeuwen, D 2000, 'Some factors predicting the adoption of
technology education in New Mexico public schools', Journal of Technology Education, vol.12, no.1
Clark, A C, Weing, R E 1999, 'Identification of quality characteristics for technology education
programs: a North Carolina case study', Journal of Technology Education, vol.11, no.1.
Compton, V & Jones, A 1998, 'Reflecting on teacher development in technology education: implications
for future programmes', International Journal of Technology and Design Education, vol.8, no.2.
Conte, A E & Weber, R E 1999, 'Is technology the "best hope" for teaching students about
mathematics and science?', The Technology Teacher, September.
Daugherty, M & Boser, R 1993, 'The recruitment imperative: replacement or displacement', The
Technology Teacher, vol.52, no.7.
Edmison, D A, Henak, R, Scanlin, D, Schwaller, A E & Smallwood, J 1991, Delivery systems; teaching
strategies for technology education, International Technology Education Association, Reston.
Foster, P N 1994a, 'Technology education: AKA industrial arts', Journal of Technology Education, vol.5, no.2.
Gibson, J W 1991, 'Curriculum for the 1990's', Australian Council for Education Through Technology,
vol.7, no.2.
Hill R B, Wicklein, R C & Daugherty, M K 1996, 'Technology education in transition: Perceptions
of technology education teachers, administrators and guidance counselors, Journal of Industrial
Teacher Education, vol.33, no.3.
Johnson, R 1997, 'What sells technology education?', Tech Directions: Linking Education to Industry,
March.
Linnell, C C 1992, 'Concerns of technology education teachers regarding curriculum change', The
Journal of Episilon Pi Tau, vol.34, no.3.
Merriam, S B 1988, Case study research in education, Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco.
Merriam, S B 2000, Qualitative research and case study applications in education, Jossey-Bass Inc., San
Francisco.
Oats, M M 1991, 'A progress report on the transition from industrial arts to technology education',
Journal of Industrial Teacher Education, vol.28, no.2.
Queensland Board of Senior Secondary School Studies 1999, Technology Studies Senior Syllabus,
Queensland Board of Senior Secondary School Studies.
Queensland School Curriculum Council 1999, 'Technology: Years 1–10 Syllabus-in-Development
Trial, Draft..
159
st
Rogers G E & Mahler, M 1994, 'Non-acceptance of technology education by teachers in the field',
The Journal of Technology Studies, vol.20, no.1.
Sharpe, D B 1996, 'Out with the old and in with the new', The Journal of Design and Technology
Education, vol.1, no.1.
Stake, R E 1994, 'Case studies', in Handbook of qualitative research, eds N K Denzin & Y S Lincoln,
Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks.
Waetjen, W B 1994, 'Managing the future of technology education', Education Through Technology,
vol.9, no.1.
Warner, N 1995a, 'Senior policy officer report', Industrial Technology and Design Teachers' Association
Inc., vol.33, no.1.
Wright M & Custer, R 1998, 'Why they enjoy teaching: The motivation of outstanding technology
teachers', Journal of Technology Education, vol.9, no.2.
Wright, T 1991, ' "A timely fellow…" excerpts from a seminar given by Professor Tom Wright of
Ball State University', Australian Council for Education Through Technology, vol.7, no.2.
Yin, R K 1994, Case study research: Design and methods (2nd edn), Sage Publications, London.
160
The Implementation of the Technology
Curriculum in New Zealand: The Results of
National School Sampling Study
Ann Harlow, Alister Jones, Bronwen Cowie
Centre for Science and Technology Education Research
University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand
T
his paper describes the results of a national study to investigate the implementation of the
technology curriculum in New Zealand Schools from years 1–13. The investigation of the
implementation of technology is part of a larger study being undertaken nationally in all
curriculum areas (National Schools Sampling Study) to explore the effectiveness of the
curriculum in practice and how the results might inform future developments. The questionnaires
were distributed to over 10% of New Zealand schools and 851 responses were obtained to the
technology questionnaire. The key findings indicate that the most primary school teachers are
aiming for curriculum coverage, have moderate levels of confidence but are concerned about
curriculum overcrowding. Year 7 and 8 teachers are mainly concerned about assessment,
whereas secondary school teachers are constrained by existing structure in schools.
Introduction
This paper discusses the results of a national study into the implementation of the
technology curriculum (the full report to the Ministry of Education may be viewed on
the government website (http://www.minedu.govt.nz/document). First we discuss the
development and introduction of the technology curriculum into schools over the last
ten years.
The development and introduction of the technology curriculum

New Zealand under went major curriculum reforms in the early 1990's (Bell, Jones &
Carr 1995). The development of a national curriculum in technology was part of this
reform. There had been a growing dissatisfaction with the curriculum, assessment and
qualifications during the 1970's and 1980's in New Zealand. Calls were being made for
the curriculum to be responsive to the country's needs for people highly skilled in science
and technology. The general aims of technology education in Technology in the New
Zealand Curriculum (Ministry of Education 1995) were to develop: technological
knowledge and understanding; an understanding and awareness of the interrelationship
between technology and society; technological capability.
As part of an educational review process a Ministerial Task Group Reviewing Science
and Technology Education was set up jointly by the Minister of Education and the
161
st
Minister of Research, Science and Technology, in June 1991, and which reported in 1992
(Ministry of Research, Science and Technology 1992). Early on, the Task Group
addressed the concern that education was seen by students as providing information
which was often of little relevance to their lives, and which was seen as important for
passing examinations rather than informing the life of students. Problem solving skills
and communication skills were seen as being neglected in favour of the acquisition of
knowledge (Bell, Jones & Carr 1995). This view of the Task Group was strongly
supported from research consisting of a series of in-depth interviews with representatives
of 36 enterprises with reputations for innovation and/or the successful application of
technological processes. Those skills frequently mentioned were communication skills,
problem-solving skills, and the ability to work in teams rather than as individuals. In
addition, the research revealed a strong desire for learning in science and technology to
occur in contexts which were significant for New Zealand including agriculture and
horticulture. Some of the recommendations from the task group concerning technology
education, were that:
• the importance of teaching and assessing interpersonal, communication and broadly-
based practical skills should be recognised;
• the curriculum should define a broad range of knowledge and skills which would be
recognised by assessment procedures developed for the curriculum;
• a technology curriculum be developed as an area in its own right, although they noted
confusion over its definition;
• there be adequate teacher training and resourcing for technology education;
• technology curricula should not be imported from overseas;
• the inclusiveness of technology education be emphasised including, Maori input and
the use of Maori language.
The New Zealand Curriculum Framework requires that all national curriculum
statements in the essential learning areas specify clear learning outcomes against which
students' achievements can be assessed. These learning outcomes or objectives must be
defined over eight progressive levels and be grouped in a number of strands. In addition,
the framework requires that its principles must be reflected in the learning area
documents. These principles relate to learning and achievement, development of school
programmes and aspects of social justice and equity. Each strand in a curriculum has a
list of achievement aims and is divided into eight levels of 'achievement objectives',
which aim to describe the progression of learning from year 1 to year 13. A draft
technology curriculum statement was trialled in schools during 1994. This provided
teachers and others to respond to the draft statement. The responses generally indicated
that teachers were supportive of the general structure and philosophy of the document.
However, there was a need to reduce the number of objectives and strands given the
number of other curriculum documents that teachers were dealing with. The final
statement was released in October 1995 and full implementation occurred in 1999. The
curriculum stocktake project in 2001 provides an opportunity for teachers who have
been involved in implementing technology in the New Zealand curriculum to share their
162
The Implementation of the Technology Curriculum in New Zealand
experiences. The results allow reflection on early recommendations and will influence
future policy on curriculum.
Curriculum stocktake and national school sampling study

The Ministry of Education is currently undertaking a curriculum stocktake in all
curriculum areas including science and technology. Technology was evaluated in
2001–2002 and science will be undertaken mid to late 2002. The structure of the
National School Sampling Study encompasses focus groups, national questionnaires and
case studies. In this paper we will discuss the results of the national questionnaire on the
technology curriculum. The format of the sampling process is the same for all curriculum
areas. The Ministry of Education brief was to draw up a sample of ten percent of all
types of New Zealand schools, state, private and integrated. There are about 2900
schools in New Zealand. Two hundred and sixty-nine schools sent returns.
Method
The content of the questionnaire came from three major sources. First, the first report
(June 2001) of this National Schools Sampling Survey outlined how teachers, at a series
of teacher focus groups, talked about their curriculum experiences which enabled the
research team to identify important issues. Second, the questions posed by the Ministry
of Education in the Request for Proposals were considered, and third, the views of
subject experts were sought. Questions were included that were quantifiable and would
provide 'broad-sweep' information, and there were questions that gave teachers the
chance to elaborate their views and ideas. A rolling series of pilot studies of draft
questionnaires were carried out with: subject experts at the School of Education; teachers
in nearby schools; and subject association teachers in technology. When the drafts were
at the stage where they included more items than could be included in the final version, a
process of interaction with the Ministry of Education began. The interaction identified
items that were, by negotiation, amended or deleted, and in a few cases new items
written. Further pilot work took place. In readiness for data entry and analysis the
research project team prepared the questionnaire for the statistical package SPSS.
Qualitative data from free-response questions were coded into categories, based on a
sub-sample of 500 for technology. Frequencies and ratios were calculated, but reporting
these data was designed to highlight particular trends and weighting to bring out the
main categories being given by teachers. For each open-response question, all comments
were studied to identify these categories and assign responses to them.
Results of the national questionnaires

The major content of this paper is the results of the questionnaire designed to investigate
teachers' experiences in teaching from the New Zealand technology curriculum
statement. The response rates for the first round of questionnaires were high, with an
average of 64% schools returning questionnaires. 851 teachers from a wide variety of
schools completed the technology questionnaire. The analysis of quantitative data is
based on the total number of technology questionnaires returned (n=851). Qualitative
data have been reported from a smaller sub-sample (n=500). Overall, the results provide
163
st
a broad sweep of information about teachers' experiences, and the general impression is
that most teachers are reasonably positive about teaching from the curriculum statement.
However, there are variations between teachers in different kinds of schools and within
school types, and especially between primary and secondary teachers which need to be
considered by policy makers. In order to find out how useful teachers had found the
technology curriculum statement the questions asked of teachers were framed around the
structure of the statement, covering areas such as the structure of the curriculum, the
support and professional development for technology teachers, assessment and reporting
issues and strategies for curriculum implementation.
Curriculum structure
A comprehensive curriculum statement sets out the requirements of technology
programmes in schools from year 1 to year 13. Teachers were asked how useful this had
been. There was a general degree of satisfaction with the curriculum statement in that
only one third of teachers (33%) wanted to make changes. The largest group who wanted
to make changes to the structure/organisation of the curriculum statement were
secondary year 9–15 teachers (50%). The most popular changes would be 'making it
more simple to understand' and 'including better developed learning and assessment
examples'.
The technology curriculum statement has been of most help in planning, gaining an
overview of the progression of key technological ideas, achieving consistent
understanding of the curriculum levels and in assessing student achievement. Over 40%
of primary teachers found the curriculum statement always or sometimes helpful in
planning their classroom programmes, whereas only 27% of secondary teachers found
this aspect of the statement particularly helpful. Approximately half of all teachers
sometimes found the curriculum statement helpful in gaining an overview of the
progression of key ideas. Fewer secondary teachers than primary teachers said they
always found this to be the case. Primary teachers appeared to have used the curriculum
statement for guidance on curriculum levels more than secondary teachers, of whom
40% said that they not very often or rarely referred to the curriculum statement for
guidance on levels. There were similarities in the responses from primary and secondary
teachers to the question about assessing student achievement–approximately 60% of
teachers across all school types had found the curriculum statement always or sometimes
helpful in this area. The statement had been least helpful in meeting the needs of Mäori
students and in communicating student achievement to teachers at other schools. Overall
the results show that primary teachers found the curriculum statement more helpful than
secondary teachers. Some simplification of the document could lead to greater use being
made of this resource.
Assessment and reporting issues

Although 70% of teachers found the curriculum statement to be always or sometimes
helpful in assessing achievement, some reported having difficulties with assessment in
technology. The most popular way of assessing student learning in technology was the
use of 'practical tasks', however there was some lack of agreement/guidance on what to
164
assess and the feeling that there was too much paperwork for the required assessment.
Large classes, the 'time' factor, and establishing level accuracy, were also issues, but noted
by less than 20% of the sub-sample (n=500). Assessment issues were different in the
different types of school. Secondary teachers were more concerned with the amount of
paperwork required than teachers in other schools and were influenced by national
qualification requirements. One issue that was frequently reported by intermediate
specialist technology teachers at the year 7 and 8 level was that of large classes. They
often had many client schools and saw large numbers of students each week so had
difficulty assessing achievement objectives for each student. At the primary level teachers
were concerned about finding appropriate forms of assessment for the junior years and
felt that they needed more guidance, both in planning and in assessment. Teachers were
using the curriculum statement to guide them in their assessment of student
achievement, but depending on the type of school taught in, there are assessment issues
which need to be addressed.
Support and professional development

With the introduction of the technology curriculum, an extensive programme of
professional development was offered to teachers. In addition the Ministry of Education
has published various resources to assist teachers in their implementation of the
technology curriculum. 'Classroom Practice in Years 1–8' is especially popular–these
publications were most widely used by primary school teachers. When asked 'In what
ways have you found these publications helpful?' teachers in the sub-sample responded
that they had used them mainly for getting ideas for teaching units and for seeing
relevant examples of work (42%). Other questions about support materials revealed that
teachers were mainly concerned with gaining access to 'practical ideas' to use in their
technology teaching.
Nearly three-quarters of the teachers (73%) had received professional development in
technology -more secondary and intermediate than primary. 'Other teachers in the
school' had been the most useful source of knowledge to almost 50% of teachers–
particularly secondary teachers, who also mentioned teachers in other schools. Advisors
(40%) were considered useful, particularly by composite area and correspondence
schools. Many teachers in composite /restricted composite schools (private
schools/middle schools) (69%) had found University or College of Education lecturers
helpful, and this was not because they were all beginning teachers (over half of these
teachers had been teaching for more than 15 years). For 75% of teachers in the sub-
sample (n=500), professional development had been helpful. 28% had found it had given
them a depth of knowledge and ideas so that they could plan and implement the
technology curriculum.
Professional development had helped many teachers to gain confidence–it was seen
as an important factor by 46% of teachers. Across all school types two thirds of teachers
expressed a medium level of confidence in teaching technology (66%) and one fifth a
high level of confidence (22%) (n=851) Teaching experience was found to be the major
factor contributing to this level of confidence (60%). Teachers were most interested in
receiving professional development in the specific technological areas. Information on
165
st
planning and teaching skills was requested and they were also interested in knowing more
about progression, assessment and reporting achievement.
Strategies for implementation

According to 88% of all teachers surveyed, all students up to and including year 10 in
their school studied technology. The majority of teachers (64%) considered that the
technology curriculum should be compulsory for all students to the end of year 10, as it
provided students with important life skills, for example communication and problem-
solving skills. The findings revealed that just as the curriculum statement sets out
different ways of approaching the teaching of technology in schools, technology was
indeed being implemented in different ways, mainly dependant on the type of school.
Over 60% of schools were integrating technology with other learning areas. This was
particularly evident in primary schools (71%), where teachers teach all curriculum areas -
they tended to integrate technology into languages and science. Intermediate school
classroom teachers also integrated technology with other learning areas (51%), whereas
specialist technology teachers at this level taught technology in blocks or modules.
Secondary school technology teachers taught technology in blocks or modules or as a
new subject with its own timetable slots. Some secondary schools integrated technology
with other learning areas (47%). Intermediate and secondary schools integrated
technology into home economics and workshop technology. Teachers detailed a wide
range of approaches that had been successful in their teaching of technology. These
included: choosing topics of relevance to students; practical, hands-on learning activities;
a 'problem-solving approach' and group or co-operative learning approaches. Teachers
tended to favour a student-centred approach to teaching technology. The 'problem
solving approach' was listed by some teachers (21%) as being successful in their teaching
of technology. Many teachers responding to the question listed several effective
strategies, for example:
New rooms and facilities; additional staffing especially for IT; willingness of teachers to
change teaching styles and methods of assessment; design briefs which allow for both
genders and all abilities to reach their full potential; use of computers to allow for research,
design and other applications for the success of project work (secondary teacher).
There are seven technological areas in which students are expected to carry out their
technological activities and teachers are expected to develop learning approaches and
technological activities within the technological areas which will best help their students
achieve the objectives of the curriculum. Materials technology and food technology were
reported to be the most widely taught technological areas in New Zealand schools, which
could be explained by the fact that the previous home economics and workshop
materials curricula were replaced by the technology curriculum. All other technological
areas were being taught in schools, with biotechnology the least widely taught. Generally
speaking, primary school teachers covered all the technological areas in their teaching.
Fewer teachers at intermediate schools taught electronics and control technology, and
food technology; perhaps because these areas were often covered by specialist
technology teachers. At secondary level, biotechnology seemed to be the least frequently
covered. Overall it appears that apart from the traditional technological areas of food and
166
materials technology, secondary schools have not developed courses in other

technological areas to the same extent as in primary schools.
The challenges for technology teachers

The general impression from the findings was that technology was being implemented
across all school types and at all levels. However, on looking more closely at the three
main school systems, primary, intermediate and secondary, it was clear that the
challenges of the curriculum at each level were different. Teachers were asked to list the
three major challenges they had faced in implementing the technology curriculum, and of
the sub-sample n=500:
• The prime concern of teachers has been the difficulty of resourcing the equipment
needed to implement the technology curriculum (50%);
• What was termed a 'crowded curriculum' was found to be a major challenge for 32%
of all teachers, in particular the primary teachers;
• Teachers expressed the need for up-skilling or professional development in technology
education (22%);
• Understanding the curriculum was one of the major challenges for 22% of all teachers.
Primary school (year 1–8) teachers

Primary school teachers reported a moderate level of confidence (70%) in teaching
technology and appeared to be well on the way to providing technological activities for
their pupils in many of the technological areas. They asked for more support, in the form
of practical ideas and nearly 60% of primary teachers said that a major challenge was the
difficulty they had with resourcing and equipment. Their second major concern (32%)
was how to fit technology into an overcrowded curriculum. As teachers who teach all
areas of the national curriculum, primary teachers reported overcoming this to a certain
extent by integrating technology with other subject areas. In many primary schools,
teachers were expected to cover all technological areas over a period of two to three
years. Primary teachers often used observation and interviews to assess student learning
in technology. At the primary level teachers were concerned about finding appropriate
forms of assessment for the junior years and felt that they needed more guidance, both in
planning and in assessment:
Intermediate teachers (year 7–8) teachers
Intermediate school teachers fall into two distinct groups – specialist technology teachers
of subjects such as materials technology, food technology and biotechnology, and
classroom teachers who teach all areas of the national curriculum. The specialist
technology teachers have had to up-skill from the traditional subject areas of cooking,
sewing and woodwork/metalwork to one or a combination of the technological areas.
They said that they found it difficult to incorporate the traditional skills that were an
essential part of how they used to teach prior to the technology curriculum. They
continue, on the whole, to work out of poor facilities not specifically designed for the
technology curriculum, and they work with outdated equipment. They tend to teach large
classes over short periods of time and as a result 14% of the sub-sample (n=500),
167
st
reported having concerns about how to make assessment manageable. Specialist

technology teachers perceived barriers to involving experts from the community in
technology programmes as they were restricted by timetabling and class size. In some
intermediate schools (43%) where there were previously 'manual training centres',
technology teachers were relied upon to ensure coverage of the technology curriculum;
in other schools the load was shared between the technology and the classroom teachers
(20%). Intermediate classroom teachers taught technology as units or integrated with
other subjects. In those intermediate schools where there was no specialist technology
teaching in the field, biotechnology and electronics and control technology posed the
most difficulties for classroom teachers. Intermediate teachers used a wide variety of
assessment methods, including pre-test/post-tests, products, practical tasks, peer
assessment, observation and school exemplars.
Secondary (year 7–15 and year 9–15) teachers
Although many secondary school teachers have new facilities in which to work, they
have had difficulties with establishing technology in their schools either because of
timetable constraints, management decisions or lack of enthusiasm on the part of former
home economics and wood/metal teachers. 53% of secondary year 9–15 teachers placed
more emphasis on Strand B – technological capability. Concerns about the level of
student knowledge and skill to be able to cope with requirements of the curriculum were
expressed by 31% of secondary teachers. Biotechnology was the only technological area
that secondary schools did not cover so well. Students at this level were expected to be
involved in all technological areas over the two-year period for years 9 and 10. Secondary
teachers reported integrating technology with other subjects – home economics or
workshop technology, teaching it as a new subject with its own timetable, or if a
specialist technology teacher – in blocks. In some secondary schools, technology was
treated as a 'core subject'. Secondary teachers most often used products, practical tasks,
observation and school exemplars in the assessment of technology.
Summary
The findings from the study offer interesting insights into how teachers have
implemented this part of the New Zealand curriculum framework. There was a general
degree of satisfaction with the curriculum statement that had been most helpful to
teachers in their planning, gaining an overview of key technological ideas, and achieving
consistent understanding of the curriculum levels. Teachers were using the curriculum
statement to guide them in their assessment of student achievement, but primary
teachers in particular expressed a need for more guidance. Some intermediate teachers
had problems with applying assessment criteria to the large numbers of students passing
through their classes, and secondary teachers were grappling with the introduction of
new national qualification requirements.
Nearly three quarters of the teachers had received professional development which
had helped them to gain confidence in teaching technology. Teaching experience was
found to be the major factor contributing to a medium level of confidence reported by
66% of teachers. Teachers had found support materials that gave them access to
'practical ideas' were the most useful. They were interested in receiving professional
168
development in the specific technological areas and requested more information on

progression, assessment and reporting achievement.
Teachers felt that technology should be compulsory up to the end of year 10 as it
provided students with important life skills. Over 60% of schools were integrating
technology with other learning areas, however secondary schools tended to teach
technology in blocks or modules. Teachers favoured a student-centred approach to
teaching technology and generally speaking were covering all the technological areas over
a period of two years, although secondary schools had not developed courses in all the
areas to the same extent as primary schools had.
Conclusion
Resourcing the equipment needed to implement the technology curriculum is a major
challenge to many New Zealand teachers. Primary teachers in particular have found the
'crowded curriculum' a challenge, and there are still teachers who feel the need for
professional development in technology education.
Technology teachers have had to adapt more than in any other curriculum area to
new ways of teaching and new areas of learning. They have found the subject challenging
yet have taken technology in their stride, and believe in the value of the subject for their
students. The technology curriculum has clearly established itself in the culture of New
Zealand schools.
References
Bell, B, Jones A & Carr, M 1995, 'The development of the recent national New Zealand science
curriculum', Studies in Science Education, vol.26, pp.73–105.
Jones, A (in press), 'The development of the New Zealand technology curriculum', International
Journal of Technology and Design Education.
McGee, C, Cowie, B, Jones, A et al 2001, Curriculum Stocktake: National School Sampling Study –
Milestone 1: Report on National Teacher Focus Groups, School of Education, The University of
Waikato.
McGee, C, Jones, A, Bishop, R et al 2002, Teachers' experiences in curriculum implementation: General
curriculum, mathematics and technology, School of Education, The University of Waikato.
Ministry of Research, Science and Technology 1992, Charting the Course: The report of the Ministerial
task group into Science and Technology Education, Government Printer, Wellington.
169
Sustainable Technology Learning by
Theatre-Playing
Wolfgang Haupt, Jürgen Wehling, Thomas Langkau
University of Essen, D-45117 Essen, Germany
A
t the University of Essen a project for sustainable technology teaching (and learning)
has been installed. In this project, teacher students teach technical contents in the
grades 1 to 7. Since it is known that sustainable teaching (and learning) is enhanced by
teaching (and learning) in interdisciplinary projects, technological contents were integrated in
such interdisciplinary projects. To achieve interdisciplinarity and to focus on the desired
objectives in these projects, specifically written theatreplays to be performed by the kids, are
integrated in the projects. In the theatreplays, technological contents are embedded and dealt
with in their specific historical, scientific, economical a.s.o. backgrounds. In addition to that, music
(singing and dancing) and arts (painting) play important roles in performing the theatreplays. A
large number of theatreplays has been tested in the schools and the student activity has been
evaluated, showing that important aspects of sustainable learning are achieved.
Introduction
At the University of Essen we are engaged in Technology teacher education for the
Primary, Secondary 1 and Secondary 2 level since 1973 (Haupt & Sanfleber 1976).
During this time concepts for technology teaching have changed. For the Primary
level it is clear by now that to achieve sustainable learning the topic to be taught must be
dealt with in "interdisciplinary manner". For example when teaching basics of control
technology the teacher could try to install an aquarium in the class room for this purpose,
thereby dealing with the temperature control technology in the aquarium. But naturally
he can not neglect the fishes, the plants (biology), the water quality (chemics), the optical
properties of the water (physics) and the interactions between these aspects a.s.o. This is
quite obvious since the kids will ask questions about these things too and not only about
the temperature control technology.
To achieve sustainable learning the topic must also be dealt with "hands-on", which
means that the kids must have the opportunity to do something themselves. For example
they should have the opportunity to build, construct or do experiments themselves when
installing the aquarium. Last but not least it is quite clear that the topic itself must be
interesting to the kids (Langkau & Haupt 2001).
Technology teaching concept

So technical objects, procedures and methods must be taught together with their
physical, chemical, biological a.s.o. aspects. But in addition to that technology has,
170
Sustainable Technology Learning by Theatre-Playing
according to our concept of technology teaching (Theuerkauf et al 1996), a specific

aspect which is typical for all technical objects and is well known to everybody. This is
the interaction between technology and society: Technical objects, methods and
procedures are influenced by demands of the society but also on the other hand society
is influenced by technology. Take for example a car: It's size, the number of seats, the
number of headlights, their height above ground, backlights a.s.o. are consequences of
the demands of society. From a mainly technical point of view a car could look quite
different. This interaction between society and technology has also to be dealt with in
technology education to understand our nowadays technical world, in specific cases it
can even be helpful to understand how technical things have developed in interaction
between technology and society. This means that also historical aspects are important in
understanding technology.
Theatreplays for sustainable technology learning

To achieve sustainable technology learning now means: the topics of technology courses
according to our concept of technology learning must be selected such that the kids are
interested in the topics, the topics must be dealt with in an interdisciplinary manner and
the kids must have the opportunity to do something themselves (hands-on).
About fifteen years ago we had the idea that these demands could very well be
fulfilled by playing theatre with the kids, the plays dealing with technological problems.
Talking with teachers strengthened our believe in the idea and so we started constructing
theatreplays for this purpose. I say "constructing" because the teachers had given us a
number of criteria the theatreplays had to fulfil so they could be of use for kids of age 6
to 12. These criteria are as follows:
Content: - The content should be interesting to the kids.
- The content should not be "too simple" or just a short joke or something like
that.
- Teachers will need many theatreplays with many topics so they can select the
one he (or she) just needs for his (her) kids.
- There should be theatreplays with the same topics but for kids of different age
(s. o.).
Language: - The language must be simple (but not too simple), but it should not be "street
language".
- The kids should have the opportunity to enlarge their vocabulary.
- The sentences should be short (7 - 10 words).
- The text a player has to speak should not be longer than 3 sentences at a time.
Music and - Should be integrated in the theatreplay, but its use should be flexible (short,
dance: long, very long).
Time - 15 - 30 minutes, depending on the age of the kids. It should be flexible, for
length: example by using or not music and dance.
Structure: - The play should have a clear structure, for example: different acts should contain
different aspects of the main topic.
Number of - It should be easily possible to add or take away or combine roles.
players: - There should be many easily learnable roles but also a few difficult ones.
171
st
According to these criteria at first only a few plays were constructed and given to the
interested teachers. Our primary teacher students had the opportunity to work in groups
of 3 - 4 with the teachers in the classrooms in practicing the play and in the performance.
It turned out that the theatreplays were considered a big success by the kids, the students
and the teachers (Haupt 1998; Haupt & Lindemann 1999). So more plays were
constructed. After two years a publisher got interested in the plays. Up to now about 30
plays are published, partly as books, partly as CD-ROMs (Haupt 1993-1997; Haupt 1999-
2001; Haupt 1999). The books and CD-ROMs contain not only the text for the plays but
in addition hints for teachers, for example suggestions for the stage settings, casting,
suggestions for preparing costumes, photos and videos of the play (CD-ROMs only).
The teachers can make use of these hints but naturally they also can change everything,
even re-write the text with the help of the kids completely. We do not include the text of
a play, even not a part in this paper because it would take too much space. To those who
are interested I can give copies of a few plays which we have translated. Furthermore I
will show here a short part of a video of a play but regrettably it is only in German.
The tables 1 - 4 at the end of this paper give a list of all plays which are published up
to now or are planned to be published. In the tables the theatreplays are arranged
according to their main topics. Also included is information about the technical (or
physical, geographical or historical) contents they are dealing with. When preparing the
things necessary for the performances, for example requisites, pictures and stage settings,
costumes a.s.o. many technical skills can be practised (tool handling, measuring, drawing
a.s.o.). This naturally is independent of the content of the plays.
80
60
40
20
0
before afterwards
% >0
social behaviour creativity

ability to act self-consciousness
concentration
172
Sustainable Technology Learning by Theatre-Playing
Evaluation
It's quite clear that it is difficult to evaluate the "sustainablility" of the learning
process which is initiated by the theatreplaying. What we have done is the following: We
asked the students about their experiences when working with the kids and the teachers
on the theatreplays. The results of two of the questions asked are shown in the preceding
diagram (Haupt 1998). The question we asked before the work in the class was "What do
you think in what areas can theatreplaying help the kids to develop their personality?"
The question after the work with the class was "In what areas did the theatreplaying help
the kids to develop their personality?". The diagram shows that except in one area the
effect of theatreplaying on the kids personality was larger than the students had thought
it would be.
References
Haupt, W & Sanfleber, H 1976, 'Ansatz zu einer Didaktik der Technik für den Technik-unterricht
in der Sekundarstufe II (differenzierte gymnasiale Oberstufe)', in: Technik als Schulfach, Wolf
Traebert & Heinz-Rudi Spiegel, VDI-Verlag GmbH Düsseldorf.
Theuerkauf, W F, Haupt, W, Wagener, W & Weiner, A 1996, 'Technology education in Germany's
Gymnasia', in Technology education, innovation and management, eds K Langer, M Metzinger & D
Wahl, D Springer, Heidelberg.
Haupt, W 1993–1997, Kinder spielen Theater, (A series of 18 theatre plays for kids with photos and hints for
teachers.), Kamp-Schulbuchverlag Postfach 103222 D-40023 Düsseldorf.
E-mail: vertrieb@kamp-verlag.de
Haupt, W 1998, Abschlussbericht zum Leuchtturmprojekt: Verbesserung des Praxisbezuges im
Lehramtsstudiengang Primarstufe, Lernbereich Naturwissenschaft/Technik.
Haupt, W 1999, Geschichten vom Kleinen Igel. (14 theatre plays for kids in one book without hints for teachers),
Kamp-Schulbuchverlag.
Haupt, W & Lindemann, H. 1999, Abschlussbericht zum Leuchtturmprojekt: Ver-besserung des
Praxisbezuges im Lehramtsstudiengang Primarstufe, Lernbereich Naturwissenschaft/Technik.
Haupt, W 1999–2001, Wir spielen Theater". (A series of 11 theatre plays for kids with photos and hints for
teachers, 5 as books, 6 as CD-ROMs with videos), Neckar-Verlag GmbH D-78045 Villingen-
Schwenningen E-mail: service@neckar-verlag.de
Langkau, T & Haupt, W 2001, 'Nachhaltige Umwelterziehung mit fächerübergreifenden
Theaterprojekten', in: Bildung für nachhaltige Entwicklung als Herausforderung für die Lehrerausbildung,
eds Christa Henze & Reinhold E Lob Schneider Verlag Hohengeren GmbH.
173
Table 1
Theatreplays for the 1st and 2nd grades arranged according to the main topics of the plays
(Explanations to the abbreviations can be found in Table 4)
FRIENDSHIP / INVENTIONS & OTHER CULTURES RESPECT FOR AGAINST REALISATION OF OTHERS
PARTNERSHIP DISCOVERIES THE NATURAL VIOLENCE AND DREAMS / HOPE
ENVIRONMENT WAR
The nicest thing in the The creation of men Great imagination Birds of passage I'ld like so much to be The paradise / The
world with different colour / (A story of the little (A story of the little a king! horizon
(A story of the little How the moon got on hedgehog and the little hedgehog and the little (A story of the little (A story of the little
hedgehog and the little the sky hedgehogess) hedgehogess) hedgehog and the little hedgehog and the little
hedgehogess) firing ceramics, basic animals hedgehogess) hedgehogess)
animals and birds astronomy CD NV animals, pirates animals, affection, love /
Book NV Book Kamp How the milky way got Book NV basic geography,
Shadow-jumping The pond on the sky / How the The dream objectives in live
(A story of the little fishes, basic optics flowers came back to (A story of the little Book Kamp, IBK
hedgehog and the little IBK the earth hedgehog and the little The blue flower
hedgehogess) basic astronomy, plants, hedgehogess) animals, flowers,
light-rays and shadows production of honey balloon flying buoyancy thinking about oneself
I am so sad! Book Kamp The colourful bird / and one's roots
(A story of the little Starjourney IBK
hedgehog and the little (A story of the little Sheep on your left
hedgehogess) hedgehog and the little optimistic and
animals and birds hedgehogess) pessimistic view of the
Let's take a walk animals, basic world
together geography, ships/ basic IBK
(A story of the little astronomy
hedgehog and the little Book Kamp, IBK
hedgehogess)
animals of the forest
The happy moment
animals
IBK
Table 2
Theatreplays for the 3rd and 4th grades arranged according to the main topics of the plays
FRIENDSHIP / INVENTIONS & OTHER CULTURES RESPECT FOR AGAINST REALISATION OF OTHERS
PARTNERSHIP DISCOVERIES THE NATURAL VIOLENCE AND DREAMS / HOPE
ENVIRONMENT WAR
Fairytale world Columbus discovers The indians and the The indians and the The demon The knight's wife Islands of horror
(A story of the little America smoking ghost fire-horse (A story from old times) social structure at hunger, exploitation,
hedgehog and the little history of discoveries, geography, history, geography, history, Pirates and merchants medieval times, castle suppression, ships,
hedgehogess) world as a sphere steam engine steam engine (building), navigation
(A story from hanse- monastery life
Book Kamp, IBK Book Kamp Book Kamp CD NV times) IBK
A hall full of gold as The big bow ships buoyancy, The adventure
ransom ecology, basic buildings (towers), (A story of the little
history of the discovery geography, basic social structure in the hedgehog and the little
of Peru, Inka culture astronomy, temperature middle age hedgehogess)
Book Kamp measurement Book Kamp humanity
IBK A German boy in a IBK
Roman town The voyage
roman technics, cities, humility, basic
buildings, amphitheatre, geography, map
bath, a.s.o. making, printing, basic
Book Kamp optics (technology), ship
The long voyage of building
Ulf, the viking boy IBK
life, social structure of When pleasure
the vikings, ships, changes to slavery
navigation addiction
Book Kamp
Table 3
Theatreplays for the 5th to 8th grades arranged according to the main topics of the plays
FRIENDSHIP / INVENTIONS & OTHER RESPECT FOR AGAINST REALISATION OF OTHERS
PARTNERSHIP DISCOVERIES CULTURES THE NATURAL VIOLENCE AND DREAMS / HOPE
ENVIRONMENT WAR
The first railway in The labyrinth
Germany death of young people,
steam engine and love
related physics and CD NV
technics f.e.
transmission The heart of sailors
The first balloon ride (First story of a pilot)
buoyancy, flying Under the nice surface
technics of the ocean
The invention of (Second story of a pilot)
book-printing The white sail
casting metals, (Third story of a pilot)
pressure paper-making death
CD NV The pearl merchant
The building of a (First story of a
pyramid merchant)
building, technics and The porcelain
procedures, social merchant
structure, religion
(Second story of a
A voyage to other merchant)
planetary systems
The silk merchant
basic rocket
(Third story of a
technology, basic
merchant)
astronomy
The invention of
writing
writing materials
Table 4
Other theatreplays (not arranged to specific topics)
SPECIAL OCCASIONS BIBLICAL STORIES FAIRYTALE / MYTHS STORIES FROM LITERATURE
Recollection and hope The creation of the world / The tower of Sindbad Münchhausen's journey to
can be played at the end of primary school- Babylon (Thousand and one night) Konstantinopel
time (beginning with 1st grade) (beginning with 3rd grade) (beginning with 3rd grade)
(4th grade), Book NV CD NV Book Kamp Book Kamp
The Christmas story Noah's ark The flying carpet Eulenspiegel makes fun of the tailors /
(1st to 4th grade), Book NV, Book Kamp (beginning with 3rd grade) (Thousand and one night) Eulenspiegel makes fun of the
I am so excited! Four stories of creation professors
(beginning with 4th grade)
can be played for the kids entering school (beginning with 5th grade) (beginning with 2nd grade)
Book Kamp
for the first time Book Kamp
(1st to 4th grade), CD NV The "Schildbürger" build a town hall /
The first day in school The "Schildbürger" buy a "mouse-dog"
(1st to 4th grade), Book Kamp (beginning with 1st grade)
I come from ... Book Kamp
different countries introduce themselves
(beginning with 3rd grade)
Explanations to the abbreviations: Adresses:
Book Kamp Neckar-Verlag GmbH
Published as a book by Kamp. It contains the text of the theatreplay, hints for teachers and photos. 78008 Villingen-Schwenningen
IBK (Igelband Kamp) Postfach 1820
Tel. 07721/8987-0
Book published by Kamp with 14 theatreplays about the little hedgehog and the little hedgehogess.
Kamp Schulbuchverlag GmbH & Co. KG
Book NV
Postfach 103222
Published by Neckar-Verlag. It contains the text of the theatreplay, hints for teachers and photos. 40023 Düsseldorf
CD NV Am Wehrhahn 100
Published as CD-ROM by Neckar-Verlag. It contains the text of the theatreplay, hints for teachers, photos and a video of the play. 40211 Düsseldorf
Tel. 0211/17711-102
Walking the Minefield: Technology Research
in a New Zealand Intermediate School
Fiona Haynes
Christchurch College of Education
A
n Intermediate School Principal wanted research undertaken on how well Technology was
being taught in his school, and whether some of the fundamental principles, on which the
learning was based, could be transferred into other subjects. He approached the
Christchurch College of Education to find someone to undertake this research. I agreed to do
that. In this paper I report on the following matters:
• What was observed.

• The ethical dilemmas and difficulties that arose in undertaking this research.
• Solutions.
Introduction
The Ministry of Education placed the onus on schools to introduce the new Technology
curriculum area. Yes, they did put teacher development in place. Yes, teachers from most
schools did attend professional development sessions. However the training dealt mainly
with what a unit of work in technology was – a basic level of implementation – not how
it was to be implemented across all levels of a school. For principals this would take time
to address. Was progression in technology taking place and how could they show it?
Fragmented learning in technology was taking place in individual classrooms. "In
1998, teachers had developed reasonably consistent concepts of technology and they
demonstrated a sound understanding of primary pedagogical knowledge" (Jones &
Moreland 2001, p.21). In Primary classrooms from Year 1 to 6 there were signs that
technology was beginning to flourish. It was at the Year 7 and 8 level, where schools had
traditionally sent students to 'manual training', that the classroom teacher handed over
their responsibility to the specialist teacher sure that the curriculum was being addressed.
This was not always successful. Some specialist teachers proved slow to change,
continuing a traditional approach. The result was that the changes that made the new
curriculum effective were often absent.
In implementing technology some schools made an effort to address the problems by
introducing new programmes that excluded specialist teachers, some excluded classroom
teachers, others developed partnerships between the classroom teachers and the
specialist teachers. The Principal of the school in this study had introduced partnerships
between classroom teachers and specialist teachers. I shall explain the development of
178
Walking the Minefield: Technology Research in a New Zealand Intermediate School
the research project that arose from his request to evaluate the technology programmes.
The minefield
I was struck by how much developing a programme for a new subject was like
negotiating a minefield. The curriculum document contained the basic area to be
negotiated (the parameters), and it also contained a 'sketch map' of the approximate
extent of the minefield. The dilemmas that presented themselves were - the types of
'mines' that could be met, where they were, how big the explosion was likely to be, and
what would be the fallout. This analogy was further highlighted by the attempt to
establish a research project that would give results that would assist in improving the
school's programmes. It was possible to map the various mines that presented
themselves as I attempted to document the process undertaken.
The lack of specific detail for implementation by the Ministry of Education

The methodology appears obvious but doubts surfacing.
The Technology Teachers' perceptions
The Classroom Teachers' perceptions of their role in the programmes
The Principal's perceptions of what the programmes entailed
A Possible Solution
Ministry's
level of
direction
Methodology 1
2
Principal's
perceptions Technology
5 Teachers'
perceptions
Classroom
3
teachers'
perceptions
4
Action
Research
6
Figure 1
The research minefield: A series of problems encountered and the implications to the research
179
st
Historical background
A brief historical background on education in New Zealand may set Technology's
introduction into the curriculum in its correct context. Primary schools had never
provided teaching containing aspects of technological skills between Years One and Six.
Only at Years Seven and Eight were students sent to 'Manual Training'; 'Cooking and
Sewing' for girls, and 'Metalwork and Woodwork' for boys. In 1984 minor changes were
made with the introduction of 'Home Economics' and 'Workshop Craft' syllabi. The
introduction of the Technology curriculum was set to change this. The approach
suggested was that Technology Education should gradually increase throughout the
primary years culminating in specialisation at the senior levels of secondary school (Jones
1992d).
The pedagogy for technology is based on these essential elements:
• Problem solving
• Integrating diverse subject knowledge
• Developing skills of collaboration and co-operation.
• Constructivist principles.
Mine No.1 – The Ministry of Education's implementation information

In 1998 the Ministry of Education's 'Implementing Technology in New Zealand Schools
invited schools to develop programmes by beginning 'a journey into uncharted territory'
(Education 1998, p.5).
The implementation process was addressed in generalist terms, such as:
• The support and involvement of the principal and senior management;
• The appointment of key teachers or co-ordinators with recognised status;
• Shared understandings of technology and technology education across the school;
Exemplars of units attempted at individual schools were included and suggestions of
co-operative planning given. However what many schools felt they needed was a detailed
map.
While in recent years, there has been a move to encourage further academic
development of principals and teachers, research shows that many curriculum decisions
are not made as the result of theoretical reading, but are based on day to day experiential
learning. Hughes (1985) casts doubt on the value of experience alone as a guide to action,
and Bush (1995) concludes that a reflective practitioner '… incorporates both good
experience and a distillation of theoretical models based on wide reading and discussion
with both academics and fellow practitioners' (Bush 1995, p.154). This vision of the
reflective practitioner would certainly have helped in the development of a school's
approach to technology. However, as Deardon (1984, p.4) points out 'teachers
commonly regard theory with a varying mixture of respect and suspicion: respect because
it is thought of as difficult, and suspicion because its bearings are unclear on the detailed
decision as to what to do next Monday morning'.
180
The technology curriculum at AIS

As Technology becomes established in the classroom it has become increasingly
apparent that it is directed towards the development of multiple intelligence and critical
thinking (Bloom 1956; Costa 1991; Costa & Garmston 1994; Fogarty & Bellanca 1991).
(Students) intuitively ask for the reasons why. They naturally experiment to seek answers to
the how. By providing them with experiential background in the reasoning processes, kids
(sic) will continue that quest for discovery of the whys and hows. We can add new
dimensions to their repertoire of possibilities (Fogarty & Bellanca 1991, p.6).
The Principal's particular interest lay in a thematic approach to learning. Technology
Education provided an opportunity for this with its links to constructivism, multiple
intelligences and critical thinking. The Principal, like Fogarty, believes 'themes ignite
learning for students, and provide highly visible, all-encompassing umbrellas for
curriculum and instruction' (Fogarty & Bellanca 1995, p.87).
At AIS the traditional areas of Wood, Metal, Clothing and Home Economics are
available. It should be noted that changes to the format of the programmes offered at
these times have been adapted to meet some aspects of the technology curriculum. The
technology teachers have taken on new materials and approaches to teaching. The
timetable also includes an extra allocation (to each 'House' of three classes), of two hours
a week over a four-week period to implement their own 'themed' unit of learning in
Technology. Known as 'Extra Tech,' it has proven popular.
Mine No.2 – Methodology

Why a mine? At first the evaluation appeared to be a straightforward case of developing
an approach that would give a clear picture of what was happening in Technology
Education at AIS. I arranged to spend time investigating the programmes and
interviewing the staff. The Principal set out his reasons for the evaluation. Discussion
included a timetable for meeting the staff, interviews, observations, of how I saw the
evaluation proceeding, and the production of a written report for the Principal and the
Board of Trustees.
The Principal expressed his belief that aspects of technology education, which were
brought to the fore by the introduction of a thematic approach, could be adapted to be
implemented across all subject areas. It was to examine the effectiveness of these aspects
in action that he required an independent observer to document.
The evaluator begins a study with a given direction, be it from the decision makers or
the participants in the study, and this direction can require that the evaluation either takes
into account the views of all or only some participants. It will be presented to those who
commissioned the evaluation and in some cases this will not be passed on to those who
actually are working within the programmes (MacDonald 1987). Later approaches
ensured that this managerial tendency did not continue with findings reported in a form
which would be inclusive of all involved in the evaluation. I was reminded of this when
some of the later mines became evident.
Evaluators, however have other freedoms. The evaluator tries to collect multiple
perspectives, even if they do not agree with each other (Kemmis & Stake 1988). A study
that seeks answers to a situation without placing it firmly in its setting or context ignores
181
st
social influences. Each school has its own context or milieu that should be considered in
packaging an evaluation study. Kemmis and Stake (1988, p.12) give some insight on this
point:
Curriculum evaluation must take into account the diversity of understanding and values
perspectives present in a curriculum and curriculum work and attempt to locate them against
a backdrop of cultural, social and economic structures, individual biographies, and history.
Some evaluations are commissioned to become a means for extending state or managerial
control. From another perspective it can be a tool for identifying and interpreting patterns
of control. A further definition can be evaluation as a critical force contributing to the
improvement of curriculum. In this case one must be sure that one understands just what
improvement should mean in this context.
It is not unusual for a study to transform into something else in the course of its life
and this was no exception. The direction began to change as a result of emerging
perceptions: those of the technology teachers, the classroom staff, and of the principal
emerged as being in total opposition to each other. Mines number three and four were
beginning to be plotted on the sketch map.
Mine No.3 – The technology teachers' perceptions

Perceptions are often a problem when establishing something new or a attempting
research project. Regardless of the time taken to explain the reasons for either, people
will base their reactions on what they view is likely to affect them either directly or
indirectly. Perceptions of in-service teachers, pre-service teacher, the public, school
students and boards of trustees have affected the establishment of the Technology
curriculum. (Campbell, McRobbie, Ginns & Stein 2000; Jones & Carr 1992; Mather &
Jones 1995) " No teacher had a broad view of technology which emphasised the three
possible main themes of technology education, that is, technological knowledge and
understanding, technology and society and technological capability (Mather & Jones
1995, p.2).
At AIS the technology staff were able to show an insight into the capability strand of
Technology and in most classrooms an attempt was being made to include the
knowledge and understanding strand. In only one classroom was the third strand,
technology and society, evident in the work displayed and in observed sessions. One
teacher had a broader view having some personal experience of technology from an
outside source. However this lack of evidence of all three strands being covered was part
of the perception dilemma.
Teachers' Perceptions were highlighted as:
1. Their task was to teach strand B – Capability experiences and basic skills
2. Classroom teachers would teach Strand A – Knowledge and Understanding, and
Strand C – Technology and Society
3. Further there was concern about the directions that the research was likely to take.
They saw it as a potential mine set to blow up with consequences for their jobs.
I would like to address each of these in turn.
182
1. Perceptions of the importance of capability

While all teachers had made considerable changes to their approach to teaching in their
classrooms, the emphasis in most was still on completing practical solutions to a design
brief. Some initial discussion on factors that could affect choice of materials, equipment,
ingredients, size and shape were of a basic knowledge building nature. However any
information of a potential research nature tended to be provided to the students rather
than them being asked to investigate it themselves. It must be noted that this was based
on the teachers' past experience that the majority of students would not complete this if
it was set for homework.
The technology curriculum states Capability as covering the following aspects:
• identifying needs and opportunities and
• a: generating, selecting, developing, and adapting appropriate solutions;
b: managing time, and human and physical resources, to produce technological
outcomes—products, systems, and environments;
c: presenting and promoting ideas, strategies, and outcomes;
d: evaluating designs, strategies, and outcomes.
In the majority of the Technology rooms the item had already been decided on by
the teachers, either the technology teacher in the traditional class, or a group of both
Technology and classroom teachers for the 'Extra Tech' projects. For the latter the
theme was set first then a range of items related to the theme was decided upon,
dependant on the technology teacher's skills, equipment and interests. It was clear that
the emphasis had changed away from the 'follow me' approach of the old manual
classroom to those requiring students to have design input. In all technology classrooms
time was spent on drawing some design ideas. The number of drawings and depth of
design decision making varied from room to room. However there was no evidence of
the students having to consider producing their own plan of actions that they may have
to take in completing the work. Presenting and evaluation was confined to the final
product and little importance was placed on the student taking note of or understanding
the process.
The dominant factor, in both traditional classes and the 'Extra Tech' classes, was that
a significant amount of time was spent on manufacture of the item.
2. Perceptions of the classroom teachers' role
The technology teachers were strongly of the opinion that the classroom teacher should
have a role in ensuring that the other strands of the curriculum were addressed. With
their role being confined to hands on activities they had expectations of other projects
that covered theoretical examination of technologies being covered in the classroom. It
was expressed by one teacher (T5) that it could be integrated with other subjects and
cover modern technologies such as investigation of cellphones and other 'hi-tech' items.
It is significant that this technology teacher holds this view in 2001. It appears to create a
distinction between the technology room, often producing artefacts at a 'Low-tech' level,
from those viewed as being 'Hi-tech' and the domain of the classroom teacher. This was
not the majority view, however it does echo a perception found in early studies of
teacher perceptions.
183
st
Mather and Jones (1995, p.2) reported " Teachers concepts of technology education
were influenced by their past experiences both in and out of school, for example music,
computing, art, and sport. Other teachers were influenced by past careers, and tended to
have an emphasis on "hi-tech" artefacts as tools in their view of technology."
3. Concerns over the outcomes of the research
This issue was one that was significant in developing a new approach to the research. It
did not surface until approximately two months into the observations and interviews.
The technology teachers expressed some misgivings about how the outcomes of the
research would be used. Discussion on a presentation of the findings being given to the
Board of Trustees raised the issue of whether it was intended to use the information
generated to make recommendations that all technology in the school be changed to
reflect the 'Extra Tech' programme. Technology teachers pointed out the ways in which
they felt this would effect them.
a. the majority of their work-loading came from the traditional classes
b. the classes would all be composite groups from three classes
c. the lack of notice about themes would cause problems with supply of materials
d. the themes did not always fall into use of traditional materials and equipment causing
problems with skills teaching
e. the classroom teachers did not always have themes suitable to give a spread of items
to be made in each discipline causing numbers to be uneven across the technology
rooms
f. A lack of background information by the groups of students coming into the
technology rooms led to less than satisfactory solutions in terms of both design and
standard of manufacture.
The concern that caused the most worry was a possible reduction in work hours required
and the consequent reduction in need for all of the existing teachers.
The technology teachers had been given a detailed outline of the research project
before it began. However the implications of the study had not occurred to them until this
point. As Cohen et al (2001) point out "achieving good will and co-operation is especially
important where the proposed research extends over a period of time: …perhaps in the
case of an ethnographic study, months or years where longitudinal research is involved"
(Cohen et al 2001, p.56). Further they warn that it is essential in research to preserve the
dignity of subjects involved in research. As suggested by Cohen et al I began to consider
the "welfare of my subjects" and "be on the alert for alternative techniques should the ones
they are employing prove controversial" (Cohen et al 2001, p.58).
Mine No 4 – The classroom teachers' perceptions

Teachers at Year 7 and 8 level have regarded the time that students spend in 'Manual
training' to be their time for marking, preparation for other lessons, or catching up on
administrative requirements. The introduction of the Technology curriculum intended
this distancing of on practical activities from the daily routines of the classroom. The
inclusion of the two strands covering knowledge and understanding, and the societal
184
implications of technologies ensured that any technological project had an 'intellectual' or

research base to inform the development of a practical solution. In many Intermediate
schools, and for Year 7 and 8 classes at full primary schools, the tendency has been for
the traditional time allocation given to 'Manual' to be automatically transferred to
teaching Technology. This has led to a presumption that the technology teachers will
teach all aspects of technology. This presumption has been the result of
misunderstanding at two levels. The first by the senior management and classroom
teachers that technology was being covered in all aspects by the technology staff, and the
second by technology staff, that they were still to focus on the capability (practical)
strand.
At AIS the classroom teachers sent their classes to the traditional classes at the
designated time and had no input into what the class was working on. In the 'Extra-Tech
programme they were given a timetabled slot during one of the four terms in the long
term planning at the beginning of the year. While they did record this in their workbooks
it was generally unusual for any advanced planning on the theme or projected content
until approximately 2 weeks before the slot was due. Each of the 'Houses' that I
observed did not organise to meet with the technology teachers before that two week
period and the meetings consisted of a 25 to 35 minute period before school on one
occasion.
There were two dominant views among the classroom teachers within the project.
1. They would work with the Technology teachers to set the theme and to hear what it
was that the technology teachers proposed each group to make. They would then
divide the ±90 students between the five Technology teachers. The students would
be sent to the Technology rooms four Tuesday mornings for two hours.
2. The teachers would work with the Technology teachers on the theme and have some
input into the type of item each group would make. The classroom teachers would
also take a group and make an item. This approach would reduce the number of
students each teacher worked with and meant that a wider range of choices was
available for the students.
Whichever group the classroom teachers fell into it became obvious that they did not
designate any further classroom time, outside of the two hours per week, to the
development of relevant knowledge of the overall project or for background knowledge
of each group's items. This led to a breakdown in projects where the items were intended
to come together to provide a final presentation for the overall theme.
For example:
'Red' House
Project: The Biscuit Project
Design Brief: Design a healthy biscuit that will appeal to teenagers, package and
market it.
Outcome: Each group designed and made their items in isolation - due to a lack of liaison.
The presentation illustrated this when only one out of the 6 groups (3 students from
each group to a room) had any correlation in the colours, slogans, biscuit, name,
185
st
container size and sign. This group had made time at interval and lunch to discuss their
work, not organised by any teacher but the result of interest. This was not the only
thematic project that showed signs of insufficient co-operation between classroom and
technology rooms. It should be mentioned at this point that it was not a problem of
teachers being uncooperative, rather of being of misunderstanding of the need for truly
co-operative planning. The students were given an interesting them and number of
appealing items to design and make. However the richness of the experience was
transitory, in other words the students would not understand the significance of what
they were learning. They would remember the item and not the knowledge gained
through the processes involved.
There were several concerns about the planning and process. Most were caused by
the classroom teachers' lack of understanding of the holistic nature of technology
practice. Moreland and Jones (2000) found that many teachers using a thematic approach
make assumptions that the conceptual knowledge acquired by students in other parts of
the curriculum will be transferred during the technology tasks. They state that when
teachers do not intervene to help students to make links between existing knowledge and
the process they are involved in many students are unable to use it in their designs. "An
understanding of transfer issues ensured that he moved to bridge the students gaps and
his formative interactions with the students assisted them in solving the technology task"
(Moreland & Jones 2000, p.296).
Themes were being provided without thought to the background knowledge or
scaffolding that would be required to give the students a chance to gain technological
knowledge.
• There was no correlation of information between groups during the process.
• There was no structured process to the project.
• The students lacked basic knowledge of procedures, concepts, societal aspects and
skills that could have given them an ability to make a success of their item.
I relate this planning problem to those faced by pre-service teachers. They have a
more tentative understanding of each curriculum area, and planning units is a matter of
remembering all the different aspects that need to be considered for whatever subject
they are working on. Most classroom teachers of some experience arrive at the stage at
which they are familiar with planning and reduce this to a few basic lines, relying on past
units and experience to make decisions.
However in Technology, and particularly Technology that is split between the
classroom and contributing specialist teachers, there is a call for a new approach to
planning, and this is not an ingrained habit. "There is a need to plan in some detail until
the process becomes an ingrained professional habit" (McGee & Taylor 2001, p.170). A
new approach, and willingness to become a detailed planner, is required to provide
purposeful experiences across the diverse areas encompassed by the theme.
The teachers have had little exposure to the literature that underpins the technology
curriculum. While some were aware of terms such as: problem-solving, collaborative and
co-operative learning, experiential learning, constructivism, multiple intelligences and
critical thinking there was no linking of any directly to approaches to technology.
186
Mine No.5 – The Principal's perceptions of the programmes

The perceptions of the technology and the classroom teachers had been interesting and
caused me to question my methodology in this project. Was it the best approach? Did
evaluation lead to information that was useful in making change? Was it my role to make
change? Was it a researcher's role to point out problems with what was being taught
without offering solutions? Were there implications for teachers' jobs from what I was to
report? Was a written report the best culmination of this project, if it was to be presented
to the Board of Trustees? To what uses could the results of the research be put?
I decided to consult the Principal on what he hoped to gain from the project before
proceeding further. I felt that I needed to know the following:
• That the original statement on the reasons for commissioning the project was correct
and the project was not to be used out of context in its presentation to the Board
• The Principal's understanding of what was happening in the 'Extra Tech' programme
• Whether the Principal wanted to know if the programmes were not performing in
accordance with the guidelines of the Technology curriculum
• What the Principal would like to happen if this were the case
• Whether the Principal would be open to suggestions of another possible approach to
the whole project.
Since 1989 when "Tomorrow's Schools" was introduced it has been mandatory for
New Zealand schools to have a mission statement. However a vision is not always a
vision shared (Sergiovanni 1995). Although teachers at AIS had subscribed to 'Extra
Tech', their interpretation was very different from the Principal's vision. As stated earlier
the observed projects had been assorted in their themes and in the ways that the
classroom teachers had approached them. Significantly none had shown a depth of
knowledge being developed by the students, or transition of that knowledge between
subjects.
The Principal saw each project as a shared responsibility of the teachers and that
classroom time would be devoted to extending the themes addressed by the time in the
Technology rooms. He envisaged some enhancement of learning in the other subject
areas by this collaboration between the experiential and the traditional classroom
approaches to learning. This was not evident in the observed cases, as the teachers did
not regard it as part of the process.
Rosenholtz (1984) identifies isolation as one of the major impediments to school
improvement. "Teachers come to believe that they alone are responsible for running
their classrooms and that to seek advise or assistance from their colleagues constitutes an
open admission of incompetence" (Rosenholtz 1984, p.4). In this case the isolation is in
terms of a communication breakdown between Principal and Teachers. Each group of
teachers thinks that they are approaching 'Extra Tech' as intended, without being aware
of how other groups have proceeded, and in turn all are not aware of the principal's
vision of 'Extra-Tech'. It became obvious that to achieve the gains in learning that the
Principal envisaged it would be necessary to examine ways in which the 'Extra Tech'
programme could be restructured.
187
st
I suggested that an action research project involving a small team of teachers

interested in developing their Technology programmes further would be of more
assistance in raising the standards by providing exemplars of successful units of work for
'Extra Tech'. The Principal saw this as a favourable approach as it would mean that the
school would end up with a team of teachers whose depth of knowledge would then be
able to be passed on to others already in the school and new staff as they arrived. He
agreed to approach some House groups to find one that would be prepared to become
involved.
A possible solution
While the action research could be approached in a number of ways, I felt that a
cognitive apprenticeship model (Brown, Collins & Duguid 1989) that imbeds learning in
activity and makes deliberated use of the social and physical context could be
incorporated into an action research project. This theory underpinning the technology
curriculum would be a practical approach to including the teachers in the research. The
approach involves a major presence of the teacher (main researcher) in the beginning of
the learning process, providing information, readings, ideas, techniques, strategies, and
content. The teacher (main researcher) gradually withdraws from the dominant position
in the team as the students (classroom teachers) become familiar with the processes and
take over. The Researcher becomes facilitator, coach and observer. In this way it would
become the teachers' project and it would continue after my withdrawal.
A House of three teachers took up the challenge. This group was ideal in their
diversity of experience and subject interests. In addition to a desire to provide better
technology experiences two were lead teachers, one in Science the other in Music. One
had been through the Christchurch College Education Pre Service programme and had
taken three years of Technology Education studies. One had attended Ministry of
Education implementation workshops, and the last in the group had no technology
experience at all. An ideal group to work with. The Action Research is another story in
itself.
Conclusions
This research provided a range of information. However it was important to consider
what the project was intended to give to the school. As a research, or evaluation exercise
it was interesting to examine the Technology programmes. The report would have
revealed a wide range of factors about those programmes and its presentation to the
Board of Trustees would be an acceptable outcome. Further it is likely that this report
would have been acted on. However in my opinion it could have reflected on the
teachers and by definition, on the Principal. As a researcher it important to consider the
participants dignity and the ethics of producing information that may give an unrealistic
impression of what is taking place within an institution. In this case, I gave a verbal
report to the Principal, about the perceptions of the staff on the possible outcomes of a
report to the Board of Trustees. A positive solution was made for a further project that
would be of practical assistance for the school, in terms of teacher development and
programme improvement. This has led to a very successful Action Research Project.
188
References
Bloom, B S 1956, Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals, Longmans,
Green, New York.
Brown, J S, Collins, A & Duguid, P 1989, 'Situated cognition and the culture of learning',
Educational Researcher, vol.18, no.1, pp.32–42.
Bush, T 1995, Theories of educational management (2nd edn) Paul Chapman, London.
Campbell, J, McRobbie, I, Ginns, S & Stein, S J 2000, 'Preservice primary teachers' thinking about
technology and technology education', International Journal of Technology and Design Education,
vol.10, pp.81–101.
Cohen, L, Manion, L & Morrison, K 2001, Research Methods in Education (5th edn), Routledge
Falmer, London.
Costa, A 1991, Developing minds, Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development,
Alexandria, VA.
Costa, A L & Garmston, R L 1994, Cognitive coaching: A foundation for Renaissance schools, Christopher-
Gordon Publishers, Norwood, Mass.
Deardon, R F 1984, Theory and practice in education, Routledge and Keenan Paul, London.
Education, M. o 1998, Implementing technology into New Zealand schools, Learning Media, Wellington.
Fogarty, R & Bellanca, J 1991, Patterns for thinking: Patterns for transfer, Hawker Brownlow Education,
Australia.
Fogarty, R. & Bellanca, J 1995, Multiple intelligences: A collection, Hawker Brownlow Education,
Cheltenham, Vic.
Hughes, M G 1985, 'Theory and practice in educational management', in Managing education: The
system and the institution, eds M Hughes, P Ribbons & H Thomsa, Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
London.
Jones, A 1992d, 'Strategies for implementation of technology education in schools (at the school
level)', unpublished No.4, Ministry of Education, Wellington.
Jones, A & Moreland, J 2001, 'Frameworks and cognitive tools for enhancing praticing teachers''
pedagogical content knowledge', Paper presented at the Australian Science Education Research,
Sydney, Australia, 11–14 July.
Jones, A T & Carr, M 1992, 'Teachers perceptions of technology education: Implications for
curriculum innovation', Research in Science Education, vol.22, pp.230–239.
Kemmis, S & Stake, R E 1988, Evaluating curriculum, Deakin University Press, Geelong, Vic.
MacDonald, B 1987, Research and action in the context of policing, Centre for Applied Research in
Education, University of East Anglia, Norwich.
Mather, V & Jones, A 1995, 'Focusing on technology education: The effect of concepts on
practice', SET: Research Education for Teachers, vol.2, no.9.
McGee, J & Taylor, M 2001, 'Planning for effective teaching and learning, in The professional practice
of teaching (2nd edn), eds C McGee & D Fraser, Dunmore Press Limited, Palmerston North,
pp.154–175.
Moreland, J & Jones, A 2000, 'Emerging assessment practices in an emergent curriculum: implications
for technology', International Journal of Technology and Design Education, vol.10, pp.283–305.
Rosenholtz, S 1984, Politcal myths about educational reform: Lessons from research on teaching, Education
Commision of the States, Denver, CO.
Sergiovanni, T 1995, The principalship: A reflective practice perspective, Allyn & Bacon, Needham Hgts, M.A.
189
A Strategic Framework for
Research in Technology Education
Marie Hoepfl
Appalachian State University
T
he United States serves as a microcosm that reflects the diversity of approaches to
teaching technology on the international stage, ranging from traditional industrial arts to
established design and technology emphases. Increasingly, technological literacy is being
approached in an integrated fashion, blurring the boundaries between technology and other
subjects. This brings to the forefront the question "What is the unique contribution provided by
technology education?" The answers to this question have implications for curriculum design,
implementation, and evaluation. The purpose of this paper is to: (a) examine key findings from
previous analyses of research in technology education; (b) illustrate, through selected examples,
the current status of research; and (c) propose a strategic framework for future research.
Introduction
Technology education in the United States is at an interesting crossroads with the release
of the Standards for Technological Literacy (ITEA 2000) and high-profile support for the
imperative of addressing technological literacy K-12 (Pearson & Young 2002). At the
same time, the capacity of technology education programs to respond to this imperative
is being called into question. The U.S. serves as a microcosm that reflects the diversity of
approaches to teaching technology on the international stage, ranging from traditional
industrial arts to established design and technology emphases. Increasingly, technological
literacy is being approached in an integrated fashion, blurring the boundaries between
technology and science, in particular, and between technology and other subjects,
including mathematics, social studies, and the arts in addition. This brings to the
forefront the question "What is the unique contribution provided by technology
education?" The answers to this question have implications for curriculum design,
implementation, and evaluation.
The purpose of this paper is to: (a) examine key findings from previous analyses of
research in technology education; (b) illustrate, through selected examples, the current
status of research; and (c) propose a strategic framework for future research.
Previous analyses of research

Reed (2001) has created a useful research tool that identifies all of the master's theses and
doctoral dissertations related to the fields of industrial arts, manual training, technology,
industrial technology, and vocational education. The Technology Education Graduate Research
Database draws upon a variety of sources, including Dissertation Abstracts International,
190
A Strategic Framework for Research in Technology Education
to present what appears to be a fairly comprehensive listing of university-based research

over a 108-year period (1892–2000). Titles, authors, publication dates and, where
possible, UMI accession numbers are provided for over 5,200 research reports. The
information has been disseminated in two ways. A pdf version of the entire report is
available through the Council on Technology Teacher Education (CTTE) web site. More
importantly, a fully searchable database of this material is also provided.
The database shows that the number of theses and dissertations in fields related to
technology education reached its heyday in the period between 1965 and 1980. During
that 15-year span, the number of studies averaged near 200 per year. By contrast, during
the past decade the average has been well under 50 (Reed 2001).
For purposes of this presentation, I examined all of the listings contained in Reed's
database for the years 1992–2000, and attempted to identify those studies that focused
on technology education-related topics. These titles were then grouped according to the
topical descriptors used by Zuga in her earlier analysis of the research literature (Zuga
1994). Zuga focused on research that had primarily been completed in the United States.
Unlike Reed, she also included published research reports for a five-year period by
conducting a page-by-page scan of six journals. Her Review and Synthesis of the Research
Literature included 220 research reports, and reached the conclusion that "technology
education researchers are stuck on first base in the hypothetical-deductive research
loop"—conducting predominantly quantitative research that is descriptive in nature (p.7).
Zuga organised the research reports she examined into seven topical categories.
Table 1 lists those categories, along with the percentage of the reports from the Zuga
(1994) study found in each category and an estimate of the percentage in each category
from Reed's (2001) database for the years 1992–2000. A shortcoming of this comparison
is the fact that Reed's database does not include published research other than theses and
dissertations.
Table 1
Comparison of the number of studies by topical category in the Zuga (1994)
and Reed (2001) analyses of research in technology education
TOPICS STUDIED PERCENTAGE PERCENTAGE TOTAL
BY CATEGORY BY CATEGORY STUDIES BY
(ZUGA) (REED) CATEGORY
(REED)
Curriculum status 12% 6% 8
Curriculum development 29% 14% 17
Curriculum change 9% 16% 19
Professional Development 12% 11% 13
Instruction 18% 8% 10
Effectiveness 13% 12% 15
Attitudes (includes perceptions about) 7% 8% 10
Cognition* (includes tech literacy) 10% 12
Special needs* 5% 6
Other* (includes history, policy) 13% 16
Note. * denotes topical category not included in Zuga's analysis
191
st
Zuga (1994) offered a clear challenge to researchers: to "demonstrate the inherent

value of technology education" (p.64). Few studies in her review attempted to examine
the effectiveness of technology education in helping students understand the content,
skills, and strategies associated with technological competence. Part of the problem with
effective implementation of technology education, she suggested, was the lack of
innovative materials. Curriculum development-focused research that relies on task
analysis or Delphi studies to identify content, as has frequently been the case, leads to
curricula that are more vocational in nature. Studies that focused on curriculum and
instruction found that, in spite of the stated goals of technology education and even
teachers' apparent commitment to those goals, the enacted curriculum was still largely
traditional and skills oriented (Zuga 1994). There is little evidence to suggest that
practices in the U.S. have changed significantly in the decade since the Zuga analysis was
conducted. In any case, her challenge to researchers to uncover technology education's
unique contributions, and the best ways to facilitate them, remains.
The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) sponsored
a five-year study that took an in-depth look at 23 innovative curriculum reform efforts in
a total of 13 different OECD member nations. The study culminated in the publication
of Changing the Subject: Innovations in Science, Mathematics and Technology Education (Black &
Atkins 1996). Using a case study methodology, the researchers were able to take an in-
depth look at the process of curricular reform and its outcomes in a variety of contexts,
and to derive some cross-case observations that have proved useful in the development
of this paper.
The OECD report identifies three broad categories of change that are present in
nearly all the reform projects studied. They place a growing emphasis on (a) the use of
practical work for engaging students, (b) interdisciplinary connections, and (c) the
characteristic ways of knowing about the world from the perspective of practice within
the discipline (Black & Atkins 1996). Three countries—Australia, Scotland, and the
Netherlands—were highlighted in the report as having taken this focus on practical work
to a more definitive level than other countries, in that they have adopted national
curriculum objectives for technology as a distinct course of study.
The features of design activities are similar to those identified for reform curricula by
Black and Atkins (Crismond 2001). Crismond further illustrates the similarities by
offering the following description of the features of a pedagogically sound design task:
Good design challenges involve authentic hands-on tasks made from familiar and easy-to-
work materials using known fabrication skills, and possessing clearly defined outcomes that
allow for multiple solution pathways. Good design tasks promote student-centered,
collaborative work and higher-order thinking, and allow for multiple design iterations to
improve the product, with clear links to [a] limited number of science and engineering
concepts. (adapted from Crismond 2001, pp.793–794).
Because of this parallelism, when educators speak about reform curricula in
technology education, they are typically referring to educational experiences that use both
design and interdisciplinarity as central components of their structure.
This paper provides my own version of an analysis of research in technology
education. The material contained here is more selective (or perhaps idiosyncratic) than
192
previous analyses. More than anything, this paper is designed to further the discussion
about research in technology, by proposing a strategic framework that might be used to
design productive investigations that help us answer some persistent questions.
A strategic framework for research in technology education

A number of writers have, over the years, identified research gaps within the field of
technology education (e.g. Waetjen 1992; Custer 1997; etc.). There is no shortage of
compelling questions to be asked within the field of education, in general, and the
discipline of technology, in particular. However, I attempt here to identify and discuss
what I perceive to be the more fundamental questions, and place them within a
framework that can provide the basis for a discipline-wide, strategic research agenda.
This type of approach is important for a number of reasons. First, it can maximise the
efforts of the limited number of researchers, and research dollars, that are devoted to
research in technology education. Second, if answers to fundamental questions regarding
curriculum, pedagogy, and learning are uncovered, we can then more fruitfully expand
our efforts to improve and promote the study of technology.
The proposed framework consists of three themes that currently compete for
dominance within the broad arena that will here be termed technological studies. These
are: (a) the Skills Development Conundrum, (b) the Process of Design, and (c) the
Science/Technology Interface (Sci/Tech). The phrase "skills development conundrum"
refers to the long-standing dichotomy between those industrial or technology educators
who emphasise the acquisition of discrete technical skills as an end, and those who
emphasise a more broad-based awareness or literacy about the technological world and
its characteristics (see, for example, Colleli, n.d.). In spite of the growing acceptance of a
process orientation and critical literacy approach in technology, the conundrum is little
closer to being solved.
Design, which carries its own conceptual and procedural body of knowledge, is a
well-accepted component of the technology curriculum in many countries, including the
United States and Australia. Understanding of the design process and the capacity to
carry out design activities figure prominently in the Standards for Technological Literacy,
which now drive curriculum reform efforts in the United States (and potentially beyond,
as they are translated into languages other than English). Evidence presented in this
paper suggests that some of the most sophisticated technology education research
completed to date has centered on design. However, significant questions remain.
Finally, delineating the interface between science and technology has gained a new
urgency as science reform efforts that promote hands-on, technology-oriented activities
become more widespread. Myriad questions surround this interface, not the least of
which is the degree to which science and technology should be demarcated or,
conversely, integrated to achieve the most positive outcomes for students.
To create the proposed framework, each of these themes is then examined in the
context of four strands, including: (a) teachers, (b) students, (c) content, and (d)
assessment. The result is the creation of 12 cells that make up the strategic research
matrix. Overarching research questions are suggested within each cell, along with
selected examples from the literature that demonstrate the need for further research.
193
st
Figure 1 provides a graphic depiction of the framework.
STRANDS:
THEMES: TEACHERS STUDENTS ASSESSMENT CONTENT
Skills Development
Conundrum
Design
Science/
Technology Interface
Figure 1
Themes and strands within the proposed strategic
framework for research in technology education
Identifying research questions

This section of the paper will examine each "cell" of the framework based on what is
currently known or suggested by selected research literature, and propose sample
questions that need to be addressed by future research (Figures 2 through 5). Obviously,
additional questions could be added to each cell. The belief is that by approaching
research strategically—that is, making concerted efforts to fully examine specific
components of the technology education enterprise—we stand a greater chance of
uncovering data that can truly inform practice.
Teacher preparation & the skills development conundrum

According to Schoenfeld (1999), a central issue for education researchers is the
development of "theories and models of acting-in-context" (p.6). That is, what
knowledge and actions constitute effective teaching within a discipline? What forms of
professional development of teachers best help them acquire effective teaching
strategies?
Black and Atkins (1996) report that when technology was introduced as a standard
school subject in the Netherlands, it was with the goal of familiarising students with
aspects of technology necessary for the understanding of a technological culture,
including knowledge about matter, energy, and information, and developing their ability
to produce technology. The enacted curriculum was quite different from the intended,
however. Researchers found that teachers continued to "emphasise skills like technical
drawing, producing pieces of work, and other manual proficiencies, and often justified
their practice by claiming that their students were less interested in the theoretical than
the practical aspect of technology" (Black & Atkins 1999, p. 58). Similar hesitation to
break free from traditional teaching roles is evident among teachers in many locations.
Wilson, Floden and Ferrini-Mundy (2001) conducted an analysis of over 50 research
studies focused on teacher preparation. They concluded that subject matter preparation
is important to classroom teaching performance, but that there is little solid data on the
194
types and amount of content-specific coursework needed. A comprehensive content

background alone is not sufficient to prepare individuals for the role of classroom
teaching. In spite of the fact that new requirements are routinely applied to teacher
education programs, there is little clear evidence linking specific components of teacher
preparation programs with subsequent effective practice.
There appears to be in Australia, as well as in the United States, a similarly uneasy
relationship between technology education and vocational education. Technology
educators often shun vocational education as being too narrowly defined and too
outdated. Ironically, the broader skills being promoted in technology education, such as
problem solving, collaboration, systems thinking, and so on, are increasingly identified by
employers as being the skills they seek in employees. As Middleton (2001) suggests, a
complementary relationship must be struck between technology and vocational
education.
Teacher preparation & design

Technology education is considerably different from the handicrafts-oriented subject
it supercedes. More intensive involvement with the content is one aim of promoting the
use of design activity in technology education. However, the alternative teaching
methods associated with design activity
often take teachers far beyond their traditional and familiar roles and practices; and they
raise some difficult questions. How can teachers dare to risk of their professional persona,
that sense of their own identity in which both institutional authority and expertise as
physicist, mathematician, or whatever play so large a part? How can they be sure that what is
to be learned is indeed learned? For what can they be held accountable? What authorises
these practices? Where will they find a satisfactory alternative to the security of the text?
(Black & Atkins 1996, p.121).
The development of technology education as an interdisciplinary subject designed to
develop students' capacity for solving complex, practical problems "presents a
formidable agenda":
The many demands that these educational aims place on teachers can become an almost
impossible burden…. The formulation of any well-defined philosophy of technology
education can only be set out in new and unfamiliar terms and calls for new types of learning
for which the basis, in both research and practice, hardly exists. Under the weight of these
problems practice can easily regress to exercises of more limited and manageable scope,
based on the very traditions and experiences of the past that innovations are trying to
replace or transcend (Black & Atkins 1996, p.88).
Kolodner (in press) and colleagues, through their work with the NSF-funded Learning
by Design (LBD) Project, have found that the most effective way to prepare teachers to
teach from a design perspective is to have them experience the instructional materials
just as the students would. The biggest difficulty the LBD teachers have encountered is
the need to change the way they exert control in their classrooms. No matter how
appealing curriculum models may appear to be, teachers are unlikely to adopt them
unless they can see the models translated into everyday practice. They need concrete
examples that illustrate what reform strategies look like in practice, to derive a sense of
confidence that success is achievable (Black & Wiliam 2001).
195
st
Crismond (2002) is developing a set of web-based professional development

materials for teachers through his NSF-funded Science by Design project. The video
vignettes included in Crismond's materials illustrate and analyse design instruction in
both technology and science classrooms. One line of inquiry that has emerged from the
project is to compare what three science and three technology teachers using the same
model parachute design task with students. Preliminary data suggest that their
approaches differ in interesting ways (David Crismond, personal communication,
January 17 2002).
Experiences that can help teachers capitalise on the power of design tasks to
reinforce concept learning are necessary to move them beyond a too-rigid reliance on set
design process models. McCormick (1999) and others have noted the pitfalls of trying to
force students to fit their design experiences into the categories included in a design
portfolio. In many cases, students find themselves filling in the portfolio after the fact,
struggling to account for steps that they never followed. To prepare teachers for effective
implementation of design activities, they must experience the design process first hand
(Benenson & Piggett, in press).
Teachers also benefit from instruction in the use of formative assessment strategies
that help them better understand the learning taking place in their classrooms. For
example, Jane (2001) describes the use of stimulated recall in primary classrooms. In
stimulated recall, students are asked to view videotapes of themselves working on a
design task, and describe what they were thinking at the time. This is one example of a
research technique that instructors could use to better understand student thinking and
to modify instruction based on that knowledge.
Teacher preparation & the sci/tech interface

The value of an integrated curriculum is highly touted. Many view technology as an
inherently interdisciplinary field of study. However, there is a "dearth of models of
successful inter-disciplinary classroom work" (Black & Atkins 1996, p.141), even for the
seemingly tightly linked subjects of science and technology. It is clear that teachers on
both sides of the sci/tech interface feel concern about their proposed new roles as
collaborators and curriculum integrators. Technology educators are worried that
technology will get subsumed by science and that important features will be lost. Science
educators worry that the proposed content additions will take away from what they
already teach, and require them to teach unfamiliar content in an inferior way (Barak &
Raz 2000). In Barak and Raz's view, the promise of sci/tech integration "remains an
unrealised goal" (p.28).
Satchwell and Loepp (in press) describe their NSF-funded Integrated Mathematics, Science,
and Technology (IMaST) curriculum development project for grades six, seven, and eight.
They note that one of the significant barriers to implementation of an integrated curriculum
is the fact that mathematics teachers, and to some extent science teachers, are unfamiliar
with the demands of ordering and organising tools and consumable materials. Because of
this, they encountered resistance from some participating teachers to actually engage
students in hands-on activities. Additionally, they found that classroom management skills
of teachers unaccustomed to open-ended, hands-on tasks had to be addressed.
196
Reports on the implementation of technology education in the Netherlands indicate

that integration efforts can fall short due to teacher attitudes and perceptions of
inadequacy. Former industrial arts-oriented teachers sometimes doubt their capacity to
teach new and unfamiliar material (Black & Atkins 1996), and as a result remain
committed to outmoded curriculum models. On the other hand, collaborations with
teachers from mathematics and science has, in some cases, had the benefit of raising the
stature of technology teachers, who have risen into new levels of leadership and visibility
(Barak & Raz 2000; Burghardt & Hacker, in press).
Barak and Raz (2000) conducted a three-year study involving use of a hot air balloon
project taught collaboratively by teams of science and technology teachers at several
schools in northern Israel. A central question that guided the research was to what extent
a long-term interdisciplinary program could promote collaboration, professional growth,
and acceptance among science and technology teachers. One key finding of their
research was that "not one teacher in the eight schools was able to take on the entire
project single-handedly" (p.39). They discovered that some teachers were not sufficiently
conversant with important concepts even within their own content domain. However,
some engaging examples of professional growth as a result of the yearlong collaborative
experiences were reported.
Collaboration requires stability in staffing if it is to be sustained over the long term, as
well as continuing professional development and commitment from school
administrators. In the absence of any of these factors, integration efforts may quickly
break down. The challenge that results is to either build integrated content and skills into
the instructional materials themselves, or to identify strategies for maintaining
collaboration in the face of inevitable staff turnover. It is little wonder that few successful
examples exist, because what is essentially called for is a complete reorganisation of
traditional roles and teaching structures.
Beyond questions about teacher preparation, when and how to best integrate
content, and how to facilitate collaboration is the question of efficacy. Does the highly
touted strategy of integration contribute to student learning? Lawrenz, Huffman, and
Lavoie (2001) conducted a six-year, in-depth study of science education reform that
included a cross-site comparison of students who participated in reform efforts and
students at the same schools who had not. They also examined the long-term effects of
the reform efforts. Their findings suggest a weak relationship between classroom
teaching strategies, including inquiry-based learning, and student achievement. Students
who participated in reform efforts for two consecutive years showed slightly greater
gains. The researchers found that "non-reform" students actually performed somewhat
better on multiple-choice tests, while reform students did slightly better on laboratory
investigations. They also found that student achievement in classrooms with teachers
who had used the reform curriculum for longer periods of time had more positive gains.
In spite of the fact that teachers in all sites studies received the same materials, it became
clear that there was wide variation between the intended curriculum they all received and
the actual, or enacted, curriculum. Factors related to the teachers' beliefs, attitudes, and
abilities were considered to play a critical role in curricular implementation.
197
st
Students and the skills development conundrum

The ultimate question for any educational endeavour is how learning can best be
facilitated. Research may focus on preparation of teachers, characteristics of learning
contexts, the effectiveness of various instructional strategies, and so on, but in the end
what we really want to know is how learning occurs and the extent to which learning has
occurred. Education research attempts to build theoretical understandings of learning,
and then to apply those understandings to teaching practice.
STRANDS: TEACHERS & TEACHER PREPARATION

THEMES:
Q. What prerequisite skills are essential to success in the technology
education classroom?
Skills Development
Conundrum Q. How can teachers successfully transition from traditional, skills-
oriented instruction to a reformed, broad-based instruction geared
toward technological literacy?
Q. What kind of training is required to successfully facilitate design
activities?
Design
Q. How can learning in a design-based classroom be assured for
students of all ability levels?
Q. What content is best covered by science, what by technology?
Science/ Are separate subjects and/or separate teachers needed?
Technology Interface Q. What factors are necessary for effective and lasting collaboration
between science and technology educators (and others)?
Figure 2
Overarching questions for research on the preparation of technology teachers
Schoenfeld (1999) identifies a number of arenas for theoretical development within

education research. He suggests that it is both possible and important to conduct
theoretical work that links theory and practice. One particular area of emphasis would be
to develop "theories and models of competence in various content areas" (p.6). Gains in
understanding about discipline-specific professional practices in mathematics and
science, for example, have led to the design of recent curriculum reforms in those fields.
For technology, the central issue of what it means to be competent within the intellectual
discipline remains unclear. Moreover, when we speak about technologists, to whom do
we refer? Technicians, engineers, architects, industrial designers, all or none of the
above? Until we can better articulate what it means to think and act like a "technologist",
we will be handicapped by weak theories of learning to guide research and practice.
The unanswered subtext to this question—the conundrum—is how critically manual
skills figure in the role of the technologist. Ability to understand, manipulate, and shape
materials has long been the hallmark of technology education. Pride in skill and technical
prowess threaten to get lost in the demands of the broad-based technology curriculum
being promoted today, which has little room for extended involvement and practice
using specific technical skills. Yet will essential features of what it means to be
technologically competent be lost in the process?
198
Verillon (1999) makes an interesting case for research focused on cognition in the
context of technology, saying it is an area largely untapped in the psychological research
literature. "If 'epistemic transformation'—the alteration of the world for the purpose of
generating knowledge—has been thoroughly researched in psychology, such is not the
case concerning 'pragmatic transformation' in which knowledge is put to use for the
purpose of altering the world" (p.121). Investigations in this research arena would
provide key components to the overarching question of what the unique contributions of
technology are, or might be.
Another key question identified by Schoenfeld (1999) relates to the issue of learning
transfer. That is, under what circumstances do people identify connections between
previously acquired knowledge and novel situations? If a student can successfully apply
knowledge in a new situation, we can say that learning has occurred. However, will we be
able to recognise transfer if we see it? Learning transfer may not follow pre-determined
or expected paths. The research challenge, then, is to identify what connections are
made, and what triggers them.
Students & design

Schoenfeld (1999) relates his own experiences as a mathematician-turned-
mathematics educator. His career transition came about, he says, when he felt
intellectually challenged by the difficulties associated with teaching students to be
effective mathematics problem solvers. Attempts to teach students the problem solving
strategies used by mathematicians proved unsuccessful. Over time, Schoenfeld changed
his instructional focus from "prescriptive managerial strategies" that students sometimes
applied unproductively, to a more generic approach that encouraged self-monitoring of
process and product (p.10). Similar, careful development of instruction to build design-
based problem solving abilities must occur in technology education classrooms to help
students move beyond the oftentimes simplistic application of design models that
stresses following the steps.
The Children Designing and Engineering (CD&E) project, housed at the College of New
Jersey, is an NSF-funded instructional materials development project that has produced a
set of learning units that introduce elementary students to the design process using a
variety of workplace scenarios. Learning activities are mapped to content standards for
technology, mathematics, and science. With these materials, as with other design
activities, there are obvious questions about the most effective sequence and strategies
for introducing new concepts. Although both teachers and students who have used these
materials are generally enthusiastic and report that learning of science concepts did occur,
there is a need for performance data that can be used to compare outcomes with and
without the intervention (participation in the design activities), including data to support
the teachers' assertions that CD&E students will have more lasting learning (Hutchinson,
in press).
Crismond's research on naïve, novice, and expert designers illustrates the care with
which studies of design capability must be designed. In his study, 16 pairs of designers
were selected to represent three levels of design experience. Subjects were divided into
same-gender pairs and asked to engage in two-hour "investigate and redesign" (I&R)
199
st
tasks involving simple machines. In phase one, they were instructed to "mess about with
products" that use simple machines in a variety of configurations, including jar openers
and nutcrackers. Next, they were asked to explain how the devices work. In phase three,
the subjects engaged in "design experiments" in which their goal was to identify features
of an "ideal" device to perform the function at hand. This included having subjects
propose steps in a product comparison, much like those presented in Consumer Reports.
Finally, subjects were asked to redesign the devices. Data collected included videotape
recordings of all sessions, along with notes and sketches produced by the subjects. The
actions and reasoning used by naïve, novice, and expert designers were then examined
using rating protocols applied by pairs of scorers (Crismond 2001).
Crismond (2001) recognises the constraints imposed by the small number of subjects
and tasks in this study, rendering it impossible to derive statistically significant findings.
One interesting observation that Crismond does draw from his data relates to the
differences in the ability of subjects to make connections between the I&R tasks and
science concepts. The expert designers in his study "made far more vertical connections"
than did the naïve and novice designers (p.817). The implication is that non-expert
designers require far more scaffolding through direct questioning from the teacher in
order to make connections between the task and applicable science or technology
concepts.
Fritz (1999) pursued a somewhat similar line of study. She compared two groups of
12-14 year old Australian students who had participated in the Minister's Young
Designers Awards (MYDA), to see if differences could be found between the MYDA
award winners and non-award winners. MYDA award-winning students, in contrast to
the general population of student participants, identified acquisition of transferable
knowledge and management skills as the most important outcomes of their participation.
Non-award winners identified manual/mechanical skills as their primary benefit. Fritz
concluded, "as the extent of guidance by the teacher increased, skill acquisition and safety
awareness by the students decreased, as did the transferable skills learnt" (p.321).
From the perspective of determining the "value added" benefits of design instruction,
a legitimate question is whether competence with the design process, in and of itself, has
a long-term benefit. Or, is the value of design simply its potential capacity to help
students' concept acquisition and ability to examine technological artifacts critically?
Although design briefs have become "standard fare in K-12 technology education…the
evidence about the effectiveness of their inclusion in the curriculum and the exact
manner in which they operate to improve students' understanding, dispositions, and
skills is still admittedly slim" (Cheek 2000a, p. 15).
Students & the sci/tech interface

The relationship between science education and technology education has become a
more prominent component of the education research agenda in recent years. As has
been suggested, there are a number of questions that surround this interface, including
200
the degree to which technology activities help students understand science, and vice
versa.
The NSF-funded IMaST project was field-tested in multiple school sites across
several states within the U.S. Data were collected from students in six of these sites,
comparing scores on sub-tests from the Third International Mathematics and Science
Study (TIMSS). Scores of students who participated in the integrated curriculum project
were compared with students who received traditional (segregated) instruction in the
same schools. Results from these comparisons and other measures, such as student
transition from the integrated middle school program to traditional high school
programs, are promising. That is, on most measures examined, the IMaST students
performed at least as well as, and in some cases better than, students who received
traditional instruction (Satchwell & Loepp, in press).
Fourth grade students in seven of the eight classroom groups that participated in the
NSF-funded Integrating Mathematics, Science, and Technology in the Elementary
Schools (MSTe) Project in New York received standardised state tests scores in
mathematics and science that were higher than their school and district averages
(Burghardt & Hacker, in press). In another study, Barak, Waks, and Doppelt (2000)
examined the ability of technology activities to contribute to learning and motivation
among low-achieving high school students. In their view, the lateral thinking that is
characteristic in technology can provide important creative outlets for weaker students
that are not evident in science classrooms. By fostering creative thinking through
technology studies, students can become more excited, and thus more motivated, about
learning. The study followed two groups of students with past difficulties and failures in
school, each for a period of two years, to determine the perceived benefits of engaging in
technology education. Based on data collected through classroom observations and
information from both students and their parents, the researchers found a significant
increase in student self-efficacy, which in turn led to higher levels of achievement. An
important feature of this research is its attempt to determine, through a variety of data
collection strategies, what happens inside the "black box" of the classroom (Black &
Wiliam 2001). Such long-term, focused research in classroom settings is critical if we
hope to tease out the effects, and effectiveness, of technology education.
STRANDS: STUDENTS
THEMES:
Skills Development Q. What constitutes technological literacy? What technical skills, at
Conundrum what level of proficiency, are required?
Q. What kinds of design strategies and challenges are appropriate for
Design students at the elementary, middle, secondary, and postsecondary
levels?
Q. Can students differentiate between science concepts and processes
Science/ and technology concepts and processes?
Technology Interface Q. Can students apply the "language of the discipline" in science and
technology?
Figure 3
Overarching questions for research on student learning in technology
201
st
Assessment & the skills development conundrum

Assessments are, ostensibly, based on the degree to which students meet the stated goals
of instruction. For meaningful assessment to occur, at least two things must be present:
(a) a clear identification of the knowledge and skills desired, and (b) a data collection tool
that accurately measures the degree of competence in relation to those desired attributes.
In reality, these two prerequisites can be difficult to achieve. First of all, education goals
must be identified on the macro level (resulting in documents like the national
standards). Second, the goals must be translated into practice on a micro, or
classroom/student level. Which particular knowledge and skills from within the broad
categories identified in standards documents should be included? That is the question
that plagues test developers.
The question is easy to answer when one takes a vocational perspective. We simply
ask employers in the particular skill area what specific performance tasks are desirable,
and then observe students performing those tasks. Competence is readily determined,
even though the tests themselves, if conducted on a large scale, are expensive and subject
to questions about reliability and representativeness (Hoepfl 2000). However, if one
attempts to dig beyond manual skill acquisition,
there are a host of serious questions regarding how well a student's performance on any
performance task or collection of tasks reflects that student's understanding of that content.
The kinds of theories of competence that have emerged in the past few decades have a very
different epistemological grounding than the kind of trait psychology that gave rise to the
current psychometric notions of 'reliability' and 'validity.' Those concepts as presently
defined are of little or no use, and they need to be re-thought (Schoenfeld 1999, p.12).
Furthermore, if educators hope to achieve a climate in which teacher assessments of
student work are considered legitimate, we need to pursue comparative studies that
examine the degree of congruence between teachers' assessments of student work and
student scores on external examinations (Black & Wiliam 2001).
Assessment & design

The education system is not currently structured to favour deep learning of skills or
content. Design approaches necessarily mean that breadth of content coverage will be
compromised (Kolodner, in press). Pellegrino (2002) has pointed out that, unless
assessment tools are aligned with the kinds of teaching strategies recommended in the
reform literature, it will be difficult to garner school district and parent support for the
new approaches. Thus we face a crippling dilemma: how to reconcile the high interest in
engaging students through new kinds of experiences with the unrelenting demands for
one-shot, easy to administer tests that certify competence. This is, of course, probably an
unreachable goal. As Black and Atkins (1996) note, "we can only obtain a reliable
measure…of subject competence over several tasks, and this is probably impracticable for an
external examination" (p.114).
On the other hand, it may be possible to combine classroom-level and external
assessments in such a way that adequate feedback about students and methods at the
classroom level is gained, yet the purposes of external assessments are also met. By
testing different parts of a curriculum with different groups of students and then
202
combining scores, we can gain an overall impression about curriculum approaches that
will be useful for guiding education policy. The National Assessment of Educational
Progress (NAEP) conducted in the U.S. is a good example of how this strategy can be
applied.
Assessment & the sci/tech interface

Currently, no widely used assessments of technological literacy exist, although there are
fairly sophisticated instruments used to assess scientific literacy (Cheek 2000b). The
challenge of creating effective instruments for judging competence in an area with strong
content and process components has already been touched upon. Intuitively, one would
suppose that some type of performance assessment is necessary, yet this may not be true.
Clearly, significant work remains to be done in the area of assessing technological
literacy.
Beyond the question of how we might best measure technological literacy are the
mechanics of assessing performance skills. Satchwell and Loepp (in press) encountered
some resistance to their IMaST curriculum project from science and mathematics
teachers who were accustomed to determining student progress on the basis of
worksheets and objective tests, and had no familiarity with grading project work.
Ultimately, studies about the effects of integrating content that "go beyond the simple
test and retest comparison" (Keeves 1999, p.37) are needed.
STRANDS: ASSESSMENT
THEMES:
Q. What kinds of performance assessments accurately test skill
Skills Development
acquisition? Are there valid and reliable methods for conducting skill
Conundrum
assessments on a large scale?
Q. What instruments or strategies can be used to reliably assess
student ability to apply the design process?
Design Q. Should assessments examine whether and how design models are
applied? What data should be examined to determine design
capability?
Q. What forms of assessment can be used to determine levels of
Science/ understanding within science, technology, and other subjects?
Technology Interface Q. What instructional strategies lead to deeper understanding and
better retention of concepts?
Figure 4
Overarching questions for research on assessment of technological literacy and capability
Content & the skills development conundrum

The fundamental question underlying any curriculum effort is what broader societal goals
it should serve. This is not a question to be answered through research; rather, it flows
from the larger values of the society. This is the type of foundational discussion that
occurs when high-profile content standards are developed (e.g. the Standards for
203
st
Technological Literacy), yet is little explored outside such efforts. For instance, Black and
Atkins (1996) describe the situation in Scotland: "There was no definitive, or even
accepted, concept of technology education, so teachers and educators could not be sure of
priorities. Was it more important for students to learn new skills for their own sake, or to
reflect on broader design aims and carefully evaluate each piece of their work?" (Black &
Atkins 1996, p.76).
Similarly, Middleton (2001) notes that in spite of a clear mandate for technology as a
Key Learning Area in Australian schools, both the general public and some technology
educators are hard pressed to describe what technology education is, or what its goals
are. "For example, many [technology education professionals] are not able to explain a
significance for the area other than in terms of providing an orientation to a future
career" (p.7). In Australia, this may be compounded by the fact that a number of
relatively diverse fields are included under the umbrella of technology.
Petrina (2000) challenges the entire notion of technological literacy, which he believes
is (and has been) situated in a context of "competitive supremacy and conservative
politics" (p. 181). "Technological literacy is represented as a universal construct with
power to maintain the competitive supremacy of enfranchised countries and somehow
uplift the competitiveness of the disenfranchised" (p.190), a notion he rejects as
unachievable. Instead, he proposes a goal of "technological sensibility" (p.195), which
refers to the capacity to form critical judgments about technological practice, with an eye
toward ecological sustainability, political equality, and human dignity. Obviously, such a
focus would lend a very different flavour to any instructional experiences designed. A
question that is perhaps researchable is the degree to which multiple interpretations of
learning standards still enable the achievement of those standards. And even this would
not address the issue of whether or not there is general agreement with the standards.
Content & design

Work being conducted through the previously mentioned Learning By Design (LBD)
project is focused on helping middle school students gain understanding of science
content and practices by engaging in design challenges. The LBD approach makes use of
a ritualised set of practices, including initial observations called "messing about," public
"whiteboarding" sessions to compare notes about what was observed, designing and
running experiments to find out more about the topic at hand, design/redesign of a
solution, and "gallery walks" in which groups are required to present their designs. These
ritualised practices also include support mechanisms, such as the "design rules of
thumb," that help guide students through the desired set of actions (Kolodner, in press).
The highly structured format used by LBD differs from the design processes typically
used in technology education in that the design process skills themselves are an explicit
and critical component of the learning goals. By contrast, in technology education the
artifacts that result from design activity are often the primary focus. Data collected to
date shows that LBD students outperform non-LBD students in their ability to design
experiments, gather data, and collaborate with others (Kolodner, in press). Additional
questions arise: To what degree is it satisfactory to focus on investigation and design
skills as the target content? Is there agreement among science educators and/or scientists
204
that the ritualised process skills used in LBD are representative of practice in the field?
To the extent that technology education is defined by its emphasis on design, what then
distinguishes it from science instruction that focuses on design? Are there unique
contributions to be made by technology?
The NSF-funded City Technology project, which resulted in the publication of a series
of design-oriented activity resource books for the elementary grades (Benenson &
Neujahr 2002), focused on the use of everyday artifacts and design problems. Project
directors believed that neither computers, which are difficult to understand beyond the
level of use, nor unnecessarily complex—but popular—technologies such as bridges and
robots, were right for their purposes. Instead, the City Technology project used
commonplace and accessible objects such as kitchen implements, scissors, map symbols,
and so on to illustrate the fundamental concepts that form the basis of more complex
technologies (Benenson & Piggett, in press). Identification of problems with everyday
technologies triggers the process of design. Benenson and Piggett believe that it's
difficult to distinguish between design (technology) and inquiry (science), because there
are many overlapping processes used by each, including data collection, analysis, testing,
presentation of ideas, and more.
Questions remain about the essential features of design models that should be used
in technology classrooms, and the extent to which the technology education curriculum
should emphasise the design orientation.
Content & the sci/tech interface

As early as 1971, UNESCO was calling for a greater emphasis on the study of
technology, recognising the importance of technological understanding to employment,
personal autonomy, and participation in decisions that impact society. Since no
mechanisms were in place to introduce technology into secondary schools, several
options were identified, including integration of technology studies into existing science
courses or introduction of a new subject: technology. UNESCO endorsed the creation of
comprehensive, integrated science and technology courses (Method 1999). The mandate
for inclusion of technology within the science education community in the United States
extends at least as far back as the early 1980s (Cheek 2000b), and continues apace.
Maley (1990) believed that "it is impossible to teach anything to a substantial degree
within a single academic discipline." In his view, the technology education lab should be
the locus of activity, "since it is a natural setting for the integration of math, science,
geography, history, environmental studies, economics, other social studies, and so forth"
(p. 19). However, in the United States the most frequently pursued efforts at integration
focus on the interface between technology, science, and mathematics. One should
probably not underestimate the influence of the NSF in promoting this triad. One must
also recognise that the NSF interest in technology derives from congressional mandates
that reflect the goal of economic supremacy described by Petrina (2000). For this reason,
it is important to consider the broader kinds of curricular integration envisioned by
Maley (1990) as the curriculum content for technology education evolves.
As mathematics and science curricula become increasingly activity based, there is a
fear among some technology educators that the aims of technology education will get
205
st
lost in the crowd. It can be increasingly difficult to convince others—and perhaps even
ourselves—that " 'technology as a school subject should not be regarded as a derivative
of other school subjects'" (Black & Atkins 1996, p.54).
STRANDS: ASSESSMENT
THEMES:
Q. What manipulative skills are essential for technological capability?
Q. What is the optimal mix of manipulative skills and broad-based
Skills Development
literacy skills?
Conundrum
Q. Can content standards be effectively met through divergent
pathways?
Q. What are the critical features of design models?
Design Q. What is the optimal mix of design-oriented and other instructional
strategies?
Q. To what extent should we integrate, or distinguish between, science
Science/ and technology content and processes?
Technology Interface Q. How and when is it best to introduce content from the respective
disciplines?
Figure 5
Overarching questions for research on content in technology education curricula
The debate over what content should be taught where and by who must not
overshadow the key message, which is that technological contexts do provide rich
opportunities for learning. Waks (1994) uses this analogy to describe the relationship
between science and technology: "Ignoring science when teaching technology is like
building a house without a foundation. Ignoring technology when teaching sciences is
like establishing the foundations… without demonstrating what a useful building it could
be" (p.64). Burghardt and Hacker (in press) found as a result of their large-scale teacher
enhancement project for elementary teachers that it's necessary to develop materials that
make the mathematics and science connections explicit. The use of design challenges as a
key strategy provides, in their view, an important way to achieve integration of learning.
Recommendations for future practice

"One of the most troubling aspects of this report has been the great difficulty in obtaining quantitative
impact data on these varied efforts. Many organisations have been engaged in efforts to promote
technological literacy over multiple years with seemingly no real interest in evaluating the sustained impact
of their efforts. In other cases, we suspect that there may be data but it is not readily available on websites
or in institutional publications that are easy to obtain" (Cheek 2000b, p.39).
In the United States, three primary obstacles contribute to the lack of sustained
research in technology education: (a) the small number of researchers in the technology
education community, (b) the lack of what might be termed a "research culture" in
technology education, and (c) a lack of money. According to Schoenfeld (1999), the
amount of money contributed by the United States government annually to support
education research is approximately $30 million, or about .01 percent of the federal
206
education budget. Recent federal education legislation emphasises the use of

"scientifically based research" to make policy decisions, but no promise of funding
accompanies this demand.
From my perspective, another obstacle is the limited number of classrooms across
the United States that have truly been reformed. Lack of solid curriculum models, inertia
stemming from allegiance to traditional practice, inconsistent messages from teacher
educators, and more, all contribute to the challenge of adoption. Change theorists
suggest that innovations need to reach the 15% of teachers who actively seek out and
adopt new ideas, as well as the next 20% of teachers who are open-minded but less self-
driven. Together, this 35% of the population can provide the critical mass needed to
change an entire educational system (Black & Atkins 1996). We have not yet reached this
critical mass.
Funded research and development projects

Large-scale, funded projects such as those supported by the NSF provide unique
opportunities to answer some of the persistent questions identified in this paper, but
only if they are structured properly from the start. That is, the entire design and
implementation of these projects must be guided by a methodology that is informed by
the existing research base. This methodology would help insure that significant questions
are asked; that all data collection opportunities are taken; that data is analysed; and that
results are disseminated. The following quote expresses this imperative well:
[You must] place your work in a wider map or framework, so that you can begin to think
about the ecology of your innovation…. [You need to be] clear about your starting point,
and the scope and the limits of what you intend…. What do you assume about present
practice in classrooms? And what—in precise terms—would a classroom look like when
your project had achieved it aims in full? (Black & Atkins 1996, p.190).
Researchers must also take care to ask the right questions. Pellegrino (2002) notes,
for example, that questions about which teaching methodologies are "best" will not lead
to useful answers. Asking which methodologies are best in particular contexts and to achieve
particular goals, on the other hand, will provide more meaningful answers. This example
illustrates the importance of discourse within a community, through which researchers
can contribute to one another's research, and the importance of expanding that
community beyond one's own discipline.
Thinking strategically about research

Crismond (2002) approaches the problem of limited research in technology education by
posing a design brief, in which the challenge is to design and carry out high impact
research. He identifies the following constraints: (a) Build upon prior research and
findings, (b) Generate evidence to last 20 years, (c) Impact the field, (d) Make links to
related fields (cognitive science, engineering), and (e) Build upon strong model cases. At
first glance, this might seem like a tongue-in-cheek proposal, yet it provides a simple road
map for achieving more effective research.
By positioning research within a strategic framework such as the one proposed here,
we expand the likelihood that research will be productive and that different types of
207
st
research will be stimulated. "Multiple studies could collectively paint a more satisfactory
picture…if they were designed to generate complementary databases and were carefully
synthesised" (Weiss et al 2002, p.83). A strategic framework might also help to prevent
superficial research that does not contribute to our overall understanding of the unique
contributions made by technology education.
Individually, and as mentors to new generations of technology educators, we must
commit to the task of promoting and carrying out research. By building a core of
researchers we can influence the development of an overall culture that supports
research, and thus have greater hope of answering the persistent questions that remain.
References
Barak, M & Raz, E 2000, 'Hot-air balloons: Project-centered study as a bridge between science and
technology education', Science Education, vol.84, no.1, pp.27–42.
Barak, M, Waks, S & Doppelt, Y 2000, 'Majoring in technology studies at high school and fostering
learning', Learning Environments Research, vol.3, pp.135–158.
Benenson, G & Neujahr, J 2002, Stuff that works!, Heinemann, Portsmouth, NH.
Benenson, G & Piggott, F (in press), 'Introducing technology as a school subject: A collaborative
design challenge for educators', Journal of Industrial Teacher Education.
Black, P & Atkins, J M 1996, Changing the subject: Innovations in science, mathematics and technology
education, Routledge, London.
Black, P & Wiliam, D 2001, Inside the Black Box: Raising Standards Through Classroom Assessment,
Report prepared for the Assessment Group of the British Educational Research Association,
November 6.
Burghardt, D & Hacker, M (in press), 'Large-scale teacher enhancement projects focusing on
technology education', Journal of Industrial Teacher Education.
Cheek, D W 2000a, 'Cognitive psychology and technology education', Paper prepared for the
National Academy of Engineering Committee on Technological Literacy, July 2000.
Cheek, D W 2000b, 'An overview of efforts at promoting technological literacy in the United
States', Paper prepared for the National Academy of Engineering Committee on Technological Literacy,
October 2000.
Colleli, L (n.d.) Technology education: A primer, International Technology Education Association,
Reston, VA.
Crismond, D 2001, 'Learning and using science ideas when doing investigate-and-redesign tasks: A
study of naïve, novice, and expert designers doing constrained and scaffolded design work',
Journal of Research in Science Teaching, vol.38, no.7, pp.791–820.
Crismond, D 2002, March, 'Draft of a design brief for research in tech education', Paper presented
at the 64th annual conference of the International Technology Education Association, Columbus, OH.
Custer, R 1997, 'Identifying research topics', Journal of Industrial Teacher Education, vol.34, no.3, pp.3–5.
Fritz, A 1999, 'A comparative study of design and technology students and the winners of the
Minister's Young Designer's Awards', in Proceedings of the 1998 International Working
Seminar of Scholars for Technology Education, International perspectives on technological education:
Outcomes and futures, eds W Theuerkauf & M Dyrenfurth, Braunschweig/Ames, pp.321–328.
Hoepfl, M 2000, 'Large-scale authentic assessments', in Using authentic assessment in vocational education,
ed. R Custer, R, Columbus, OH, pp.49–67, ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and
Vocational Education.
208
Hutchinson, P (in press), 'Children designing and engineering: Contextual learning units in primary
design and technology', Journal of Industrial Teacher Education.
International Technology Education Association 2000, Standards for technological literacy: Content for the
study of technology', Author, Reston, VA.
Jane, B 2001, 'Stimulated recall as a technique for understanding students' thinking in technology
studies', Paper presented at the 63rd Annual Conference of the International Technology Education
Association, Columbus, OH.
Keeves, J P 1999, 'Research in mathematics education in Australia: What it was – what it is – what
it might be', in Making the difference, eds J Truran & K Truran, The Mathematics Education
Research Group of Australasia Incorporated, Sydney, N.S.W., pp.29–39.
Kolodner, J (in press), 'Facilitating the learning of design practices: Lessons learned from an
inquiry into science education', Journal of Industrial Teacher Education.
Lawrenz, F, Huffman, D & Lavoie, B 2001, February, Evaluating the long term effects of teacher
enhancement', [WWW document], retrieved May 24 2002, URL
http://www.education.umn.edu/CAREI/Programs/SSC/LongTermFeb01_Report.pdf
Maley, D 1990, 'Identifying skills and attitudes technology educators must now possess', School
Shop/Tech Directions, vol.50, no.1, pp.19–21.
Method, F 1999, 'The global significance of technology education', in International perspectives on
technological education: Outcomes and futures, Proceedings of the 1998 International Working Seminar of
Scholars for Technology Education, eds W Theuerkauf & M Dyrenfurth, Braunschweig/Ames,
pp.28–30.
McCormick, R 1999, 'Theoretical and empirical issues of technology education research', Proceedings
of the AAAS Technology Education Research Conference, [WWW document], retrieved July 28 2002,
URL http://www.project2061.org/meetings/technology/mccormick/mccormick.htm
Middleton, H 2001, 'Technology education in Australia: Basic standard or standard basic?', Paper
presented at the Technical Foundation of America International Technology Education Forum,
Stockholm, Sweden.
Pearson, G & Young, A T (eds) 2002, Technically speaking: Why all Americans need to know more about
technology, National Academies Press, Washington, DC.
Pellegrino, J 2002, 'Understanding how students learn and inferring what they know: Implications
for the design of curriculum, instruction and assessment', Paper presented at the NSF
Instructional Materials Development Conference, Reston, VA, February.
Petrina, S 2000, 'The politics of technological literacy', International Journal of Technology and Design
Reed, P 2001, The technology education graduate research database 1892–2000, CTTE Monograph #17,
[WWW document], retrieved August 12 2002, URL
http://www.teched.vt.edu/ctte/ImagesPDFs/Mono17GradResearchDatabase.pdf
Satchwell, R & Loepp, F (in press), 'Designing and implementing an integrated mathematics,
science, and technology curriculum for the middle school', Journal of Industrial Teacher Education,
vol.39, no.3.
Schoenfeld, A 1999, 'Looking toward the 21st Century: Challenges of educational theory and
practice', Educational Researcher, vol.28, no.7, pp.4–14.
Verillon, P 1999, 'Instruments and cognition: Piaget and Vygotsky revisited in search of a learning
model for technology education', in Proceedings of the 1998 International Working Seminar of Scholars
for Technology Education. International perspectives on technological education: Outcomes and futures, eds
W Theuerkauf & M Dyrenfurth, Braunschweig/Ames, pp.118–126.
209
st
Waetjen, W B 1992, 'Shaping the future of a profession', in Camelback Symposium: A compilation of

papers', International Technology Education Association, Reston, VA.
Waks, S 1994, 'Science-technology dimensions in physics education: Prospects and impact', Physics
Weiss, I, Knapp, M, Hollweg, K & Burrill, G (eds) 2002, Investigating the influence of standards: A
framework for research in mathematics, science, and technology education, National Academy Press,
Washington, DC.
Wilson, S, Floden, R & Ferrini-Mundy, J 2001, Teacher preparation research: Current knowledge, gaps, and
recommendations, University of Washington Center for the Study of Teaching and Policy,
February.
Zuga, K 1994, Implementing technology education: A review and synthesis of the research literature', Information
Series No. 356, Columbus, OH: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational
Education.
210
Educational Reform
and the
Technology Education Curriculum in
Taiwan's Primary Schools
Chia-Sen Jimmy Huang
National Taichung Teachers College, Taiwan
T
he introduction of the study of technology education in primary schools represents one of
the most exciting and important developments in Taiwan's education over the last 20
years. At present, the people in Taiwan are again paying attention to the curriculum reform
for grades 1–9. The newly revised national curriculum, were put into effect in 2001, emphasises
curricular coherence and integration as well as more school-based development and
management. Although the predecessors, entitled "handicraft," "industrial arts," etc., existed in
schools for around 100 years. Technology education in Taiwan is a new area that has evolved
from its predecessors. Presently called "fine arts and technology education" is integrated with arts
at primary school level. In the new national curriculum, standards for grades 1–9, renamed as
"curriculum syllabi". There are seven learning areas in the new national curriculum. Technology
education is expected to unify with science, and is also renamed as " science and living
technology " at the primary and secondary school levels. This study is to articulate the species of
2001 national curriculum of technology education at Taiwan's primary school levels. Literature
review and the report of Ministry of Education in Taiwan formulate the research basis of this
study. Accordingly, a brief development of reform, curricular goals, contents, the outlines of
implementation, and the characteristics, vision and challenges of the new curriculum are
introduced. Finally, the authors will offer some instructional strategies and designs for the learning
area of "science and living technology" in primary schools.
Introduction
Taiwan discontinued martial law in 1987, and since then has experienced rapid political,
economic, social and cultural change and growth. In 1993, the Ministry of Education
proposed a new curriculum standard for primary schools to prepare students to be
futuristic, internationalised, integrated, life-oriented, humanised and flexible citizens in
the 21st century (Ministry of Education 1993). At present, the people in Taiwan are again
paying attention to the curriculum reform for grades 1–9. The newly revised national
curriculum, anticipated to be put into effect in 2001, emphasises curricular coherence
and integration as well as more school-based development and management (Ministry of
Education 2001). All this indicates that Taiwan has been and continues to be involved in
fundamental and significant educational reform.
The educational system and the concept of education in Taiwan were mainly
influenced by the United States. When one traces it back in history, one discovers that
211
st
U.S. technology education developed from craft education in Europe. Russian manual
training and the Sloyd system of northern Europe were two important influences which
had a major effect on the American handicraft education movement. In addition,
Jackson Mill proposed a technology curriculum that sought to encompass an entire
technology education system (Tseng & Fang 1999). Therefore, to make some conclusion
on the nature and characteristics of technology education in Taiwan, we need to know
more about how technology education developed in Europe. Due to the U.K. has made
many contributions to the development of technology education in Europe, the
experiences of the U.K. will help us understand both the sources and the present status
of the situation that exists in Taiwan. This study used some experiences of design and
technology in the U.K. for the support of implementing living technology in Taiwan.
Purposes of the study

In order to conduct this study, the following purposes were analysed:
• To explore primary technology education development in Taiwan
• To explore primary technology education objectives in Taiwan
• To explore primary technology education content in Taiwan
• To explore primary technology education regarding instructional evaluation in Taiwan
• To propose some suggestions for the concerned and involved administrators in
Taiwan.
Primary technology education development

In Taiwan, before 2001 all curriculum standards were regulated by the central
government. All levels of instruction followed these curriculum standards. Teachers can
only make choices on instructional methods and supplementary materials. Primary
schools in Taiwan are divided into three levels: low (1st & 2nd grades), middle (3rd & 4th
grades), and high (5th & 6th grades). Students' ages are between six and twelve years old.
At present, the new 2002 national curriculum syllabi was established. There are seven
learning areas in the national curriculum: languages, mathematics, science and living
technology, arts and the humanities, social studies, health and physical education, and
comprehensive activities. Also there are six learning topics which are suggested to
integrate and connect the above seven learning areas-gender, environmental protection,
computer science, home economics, human rights, and career development. The learning
sessions are divided into area learning sessions and flexible learning sessions. The flexible
learning sessions can be arranged according to the school-based development.
Technology education in Taiwan is a new area that is called "Living Technology". Before
the new 2002 national curriculum, technology education is usually integrated with fine
arts and no technology is taught. Now technology education in Taiwan is expected to
unify with science at the primary and secondary school levels. Also technology education
of low level at primary schools in Taiwan is called "Life" that is integrated with social
studies, science and arts and the humanities. Taiwan's primary teachers also can make
212
Educational Reform and the Technology Education Curriculum in Taiwan's Primary Schools
choices on instructional methods and supplementary materials. By the way, the primary
teachers need to match and design the courses according to both school-based
development and students' interest for their teaching.
Primary technology education objectives

In 1968, Taiwan implemented its nine-year compulsory education plan. Its primary
curriculum standard divided "Arts and Crafts" into three parts: "work", "fine arts", and
"crafts". In 1975, the Ministry of Education revised the primary curriculum standard and
combined the above parts into one as "Arts and Crafts". In 1993, again the primary
curriculum standard was revised and the course objectives and the course content was
greatly changed. At this stage, the "Arts and Crafts" course has focused on the following
three major areas of development: the presentation field, the appreciation field, and the
life implementation field. This curriculum standard emphasised the application of
materials and create as well as presentation abilities. In the "Arts and Crafts" course,
students come to appreciate the arts through activities. They also were given the
opportunity to discover the connection between art and both technology and the
appreciation of beauty. The new 2002 national curriculum syllabi were set up five main
goals as follows: the humanism, the integrated abilities, the democratic education, the
lifelong learning, and international and local perspectives of culture. In response to the
curriculum reform, the present primary curriculum syllabi emphasised curricular
coherence and integration as well as more school-based development and more student-
experienced. Therefore the Ministry of Education described ten basic learning abilities as
follows: the individual potential, the creation and appreciation, the communication, the
career planning, the concerning society, the international perspective, the organisation,
the technology, the exploration and research, and the problem-solving. Under the new
2002 curriculum syllabi, the goals of science and living technology (SLT) learning area is
to assist students: (1) to cultivate the enthusiasm and the interest of exploring science
and to have a habit of active learning, (2) to learn the basic knowledge and the exploring
ways of science and technology, and to be able to apply them to the daily lives, (3) to
cultivate the attitudes of protecting environment, treasuring resources, and respecting
life, (4) to cultivate the abilities of communicating, cooperating, and treating people
harmoniously, (5) to cultivate the potentials of independent thinking, problem-solving,
and the creativity, and (6)to explore and observe the relationship between human beings
and technology (Ministry of Education 2001).
Design and technology in the U.K. emphasises the student's design and hands-on
activities, as well as recognition abilities. It provides students with true learning-for-life
skills. Therefore, students are ready for the world of work in the future (Benson 1994).
Living technology in Taiwan emphasises an affective domain and the enhanced appraisal
abilities. The new 2002 national curriculum specially emphasises the application of daily
lives for student's learning abilities. Of the two countries, it is the U.K. that places the
greatest amount of attention on technological design. It also stresses the accurate and
effective completion of work. Taiwan, however, tries to put its emphasis on among
student's learning abilities, the enjoyment of the process, and how to apply their abilities
to daily lives.
213
Table 1
The content of science and living technology from grades 1-9
INDICATORS 11. THE SKILLS I2. THE I3. THE I4. THE I5. THE I6. THE I7. THE I8. DESIGN
OF PROCESS KNOWLEDGE ESSENCE DEVELOPMENT ATTITUDES KNOWLEDGE APPLICATION AND
OF SCIENCE OF SCIENCE OF OF SCIENCE AND SKILLS OF SCIENCE PRODUCTION
STATEMENTS OF AND TECHNOLOGY OF THINKING
ATTAINMENT TECHNOLOGY
SI 1 Observation Knowledge level Essence of Like to explore Creative thinking
technology
KS1(2).KS2(1) KS1(2).KS2(1) KS1(2) KS1(0).KS2(2) KS1(2).KS2(0) KS1(2).KS2(2) KS1(2) KS1(0)
KS3(3).KS4(3) KS3(1).KS4(2) KS2(3) KS3(2).KS4(3) KS3(0).KS4(0) KS3(3).KS4(2) KS2(3) KS2(0)
SI 2 Comparison and Know the animals KS3(5) Evolution of Discover the Problem-solving KS3(4) KS3(4)
classification and plants to be KS4(8) technology interest KS4(6) KS4(6)
seen frequently
KS1(2).KS2(4) KS1(1).KS2(0) KS1(0).KS2(0) KS1(0).KS2(3) KS1(3).KS2(2)
SI 3 Organisation and Phenomena and Technology and Deliberate and Comprehensive
connection the observation of society exact thinking
phenomenal
change
SI 4 Induction and Know the Seek for truth and Inferential thinking
inference technological exactness
products to be
used frequently
KS1(2).KS2(2) KS1(1).KS2(0) KS1(0).KS2(0) KS1(0).KS2(0)
KS3(4).KS4(4) KS3(0).KS4(0) KS3(0).KS4(3) KS3(0).KS4(2)
Table 1 (continued)
SI 5 Communication Know the matter Critical thinking
KS1(3).KS2(3) KS1(0).KS2(2) KS1(0).KS2(1)
KS3(5).KS4(6) KS3(4).KS4(6) KS3(1).KS4(1)
SI 6 Know the
environment
KS1(0).KS2(2)
KS3(4).KS4(4)
SI 7 Know the
interaction
KS1(0).KS2(1)
KS3(5).KS4(8)
SI 8 Know the growth of
animals and plants
KS1(0).KS2(2)
KS3(0).KS4(0)
SI 9 Know the
technology to be
seen frequently
KS1(0).KS2(2)
KS3(3).KS4(9)
SI 10 Know the ecology
of animals and
plants
KS1(0).KS2(0)
KS3(4).KS4(0)
Table 1 (continued)
SI 11 Know the
physiology of
animals and plants
KS1(0).KS2(0)
KS3(0).KS4(2)
The spectacles of
SI 12 energy
KS1(0).KS2(0)
KS3(0).KS4(1)
Reorganisation and
SI 13 balance
KS1(0).KS2(0)
KS3(0).KS4(3)
st nd rd th th th th th
Note: KS1 =1 and 2 grades ; KS2 = 3 and 4 grades; KS3 = 5 and 6 grades; KS4 = 7 to 9 grades
Integration of Academic and Extra-Curricular Technology Education
Primary technology education content

Science and living technology course in Taiwan includes eight indicators of learning
abilities and the total of 233 statements of attainment (see Table 1). Primary living
technology course includes four indicators of learning abilities and the 45 statements of
attainment as follows:
1. the indicator of the skills of process – includes 5 sub-indicators such as observation,
comparison and classification, organisation and connection, induction and inference,
and communication that has the total of 24 statements of attainment.
2. the indicator of the knowledge of technology includes – 3 sub-indicators such as
knowledge level, know the technological products to be used frequently, and know
the technology to be seen frequently that has the total of 6 statements of attainment.
3. the indicator of the development of technology – includes 2 sub-indicators such as
essence of technology, and technology and society that has the total of 5 statements
of attainment.
4. the indicator of the knowledge and skills of thinking – includes 3 sub-indicators such
as creative thinking, problem-solving, and critical thinking that has the total of 10
statements of attainment.
From Table 1, we know Taiwan's design and production regarding technology
education starts from junior high schools. Taiwan views technology as having a
tremendous impact on our daily lives. But in depth of content, Taiwan places more
emphasis on life application, especially in the areas of creativity and beauty in fine arts.
Now in Taiwan, many technology education researchers emphasise on cultivating the
abilities of creativity for students' learning in schools. It is a good challenge for primary
school teachers to add design process and to find some strategies for their teaching in
order to increase students' creativity in Taiwan.
Instructional evaluation on primary technology education

Technology education in the U.K. includes many forms of evaluation. Its national
standard is outlined in the level descriptions. The most important objectives are to
develop students' understanding of knowledge development, making techniques, design
methodology, quality assurance and safety habits. Each level of evaluation is based on
design, processes of making, and the finished product. Evaluation is also based on written
reports, oral presentations, questionnaires, and discussion. Furthermore, besides the
instructor's evaluation, there can be both peer and self-evaluation (SCAA & ACAC 1995).
Teachers play an important role in Taiwan's evaluation system. The process includes
formative and summative evaluation. Besides the project itself, learning attitudes and
cognitive abilities are important. The process of evaluation includes the following:
observation, interviews, grading, recording, testing, discussion, questionnaire, reports,
answer questions, attitude measurement, and aesthetic judgment. The main purpose is to
let instructional activities achieve the educational goals.
In the U.K. summative evaluation is used to achieve certain educational levels. The
Department of Education and Science (DES 1995) were struggling to develop
217
Learning in Technology Education: Challenges for the 21st Century
assessment instrument, such as the Assessment of Performance Unit and the National
Curriculum Assessment, for 5 to 15 years old, and it also were seeking information about
the success of this new curriculum discipline (Kimbell 2001). The system values
individual evaluation. Further, their design and technology course values formative
assessment. The system in Taiwan puts less emphasis on individual difference and as
objectives are often vague, this encourages teachers to put more emphasis on summative
evaluation rather than formative evaluation. The British system encourages students to
be involved in project discussions. This provides more opportunities for creative
thinking. Taiwan has been limited its small classroom spaces, overload of students, and
has not been able to pay attention to individual difference. Thus, formative evaluation is
more difficult for primary teachers to use in Taiwan.
Conclusions
After the Industrial Revolution, design becomes a very important factor in industrial
production. This caused the U.K. to change its education and manufacturing systems.
Curricular content also changed such as the inclusion of design and technology and this
is helping to maintain Britain's leading position in the industrial world. Taiwan based on
traditional Chinese culture, which relies heavily on literature, history and philosophy. Its
educational system puts theoretical things first and practical things second. Therefore, at
the primary level, the curriculum emphasises mostly recognition and calculation.
Fortunately, the new 2002 national curriculum in Taiwan puts the related technologies
and applications into its curriculum objectives and content.
The above discussion has shown differences between Taiwan and the U.K. in terms
of development, objectives, content, and instructional evaluation regarding their primary
technology education. The U.K. system traditionally respects student's creativity and the
teacher's guidance. Generally speaking, several advantages of the U.K. system are listed
below:
1. Design ability is a very important skill.
2. Students have a chance to work on their projects and think through problems from a
variety angles.
3. The U. K. involves students in the design and making process.
4. There are eight different level descriptions in the system which students can achieve
but the system also provides flexibility for teachers.
5. Teachers can introduce different activities and forms of learning into their classes.
6. At the end of key stage 4, national examinations play an important role by tracking
student's achievement.
7. The inclusion of place, quality, health and safety are established as important content
items.
8. There are several professional publication company to support the textbooks,
websites, and the related instructional material.
218
Compared to the advantages of the U.K. system, Taiwan also has some features
which are listed below:
1. Students are usually confined to an assembly project, so that they do not need to
think deeply, and there are many restrictions that reduce their creativity.
2. There are eight indicators of learning abilities and the total of 233 statements of
attainments for students to achieve but also provide flexibility for teachers.
3. Teachers can introduce different activities and forms of learning into their classes.
4. There is no any national examination for living technology course.
5. The inclusion of place, quality, health and safety are established as important content
items.
6. There are several professional publication companies to support the textbooks,
websites, and the related instructional material.
Suggestions for the future

Some suggestions for Taiwan's educational system can be drawn from the above
conclusions as follows:
1. The course content of "Living Technology" in Taiwan can be added the following
categories: technology and life, information and communication, construction and
manufacturing, and energy and transportation.
2. Clear objectives make the U.K. technology education a successful story. Teachers can
easily process their instruction through summative evaluation. There are many
possible ways to improve technology education, and this research would like to
suggest that administrators improve their curricular standards and implement more
formative evaluation.
3. Design abilities and problem-solving skills are important elements of the U.K.
educational system. These kinds of experiences are those which Taiwan's primary
students desperately need.
4. Taiwan teachers colleges should provide a graduate level training course for living
technology. Furthermore, it should be a required course for all primary teachers.
5. At the primary level, living technology is only a small part of national curriculum in
Taiwan. The best solution is to establish a national examination for Taiwan's
administrators and parents to emphasise the instruction of "Living Technology".
References
Benson, C 1994, 'Design and technology education in England and Wales', Paper presented at the
1994 International Conference on Technology Education, Taipei & Kaohsiung, Taiwan, May 16–21.
DES 1995, Design and technology in the national curriculum, Department of Education and Science,
London.
Ministry of Education 1993, The national curriculum standard, Taipei, Taiwan.
Ministry of Education 2001, The nine-year integrated curriculum syllabi on the learning area of science and
living technology, Taipei, Taiwan.
219
School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA) & Assessment and Curriculum Authority
for Wales (ACAC) 1995, Design and technology: The new requirements (Key Stage 1 & 2), SCAA &
ACAC, London.
Tseng, K H & Fang, R J 1999, 'A comparison of elementary school technology education in
Taiwan and the United Kingdom', Paper presented at the First International Primary Design and
Technology Conference, Birmingham, England.
Kimbell, R 2001, 'Design and technology in UK schools: Design thinking, curriculum, and the
impact of new technologies', Paper presented at the 4th International Conference on Technology
Education in the Asia-Pacific Region, Daejon, Korea, October 30–November 2.
220
Integration of Academic and
Extra-Curricular Technology Education in
One School System Near Lake Biwa, Japan
Yasumasa Itakura
Shiga University, Otsu, Japan
T
he view that technology education (TE) is important in the 21st Century is well known. It
takes responsibility to co-ordinate the capability and the consequence of accelerating
technological changes. Technology affects the quality of life of all people in the world.
Educational reform is necessary to ensure equality of technological literacy. For this purpose a
World Common Core Curriculum of TE (WCCC-TE) as general education is proposed here based
on an experience of the TE near Lake Biwa, Japan. It is expected that the WCCC-TE could be
achieved through collaboration and co-operation among all educators in the world. The WCCC-
TE consists of two main subjects: understanding technological processes and evaluating
technological consequences. Learning technological processes can further understanding of
technology in perspective with the ability to evaluate related ethical considerations. Accordingly,
the public can participate in the societal decisions concerning technological issues based on their
ethical considerations.
Introduction
Many educators have pointed out the importance of technology education (TE) in the
21st Century. Technology is developing rapidly and is utilised in many aspects of human
life. Technology affects the present quality of life, and the impact is likely to be even
greater as time goes on. However, a major consequence of accelerating technological
change is to accentuate differences in levels of technological ability and understanding.
This gap is widening between the knowledge, capability, and confidence of the average
Citizen and that of the inventors, researchers, and implementers who continually
revolutionise the technological world (ITEA 1996 & 2000). The widening of the gap is
also revealed between the advanced countries and the developing ones. To reduce the
gap, the general public must obtain technological literacy. To accomplish this, requires
equal TE learning for all persons.
Although TE has been promoted and developed in many countries, the curricula, the
contents, and the time spent differ. For example, TE is one of the subjects taught in
Japanese schools; but the time spent is very short, five hours per week during the school
year, and only in junior high school. Many teachers of the TE near Lake Biwa, Japan
strive for technological literacy despite the limited school hours allocated to the subject.
Similar efforts have been done in another region or country. In consequence of the
efforts, the gap has been reduced in individual regions or countries, but reducing the gap
among regions or countries still poses a difficult problem.
221
USE OF FIRE A.D. 1800 1900 2000
primitive skillful scientific science-oriented

technology technology technology technology
simple tools
tools and materials
(hunting machines and energy

society) (agriculture society) systems and
(industrial society) information
(information
society)
Figure 1
A historical view of technology (modified from Itakura 1995)
To solve it, a world common core curriculum of TE (WCCC-TE) was proposed by

the author based on an experience in one school system near Lake Biwa (Itakura 1995).
Although the contents, the educational materials and techniques, and the school hours of
TE in each region or country would be different, the core curriculum would be common
for all. Therefore, the WCCC-TE must be conducted as part of general education with
collaboration and co-operation among all educators in the world. Based on the common
core, TE can be reconstructed by adding complementary curricula that allow varieties for
each region or country. The integrated TE program would maintain an equal level of
technology literacy and provide the high quality of life that can support safety and peace
of mind.
This paper describes an idea for WCCC-TE based on consideration of technology
progress and the fundamentals of TE.
Progress in technology
As technology has developed as part of human activity, the use of fire could be said to be
its origin. The history of technology may be summarised in the development of tools,
machines, and systems, as well as materials, energy, and information. With technological
change, society has evolved through hunting, agriculture, industry, and information
societies, as shown in Figure 1 (modified from Itakura 1995). Technology progresses in
historical sequence: primitive technology, skilled technology, scientific technology, and
science-oriented technology. Although the name has varied throughout history, the
foundation of technology has continued as basic skill, principle process, and basic
concept.
Computer and communication technology have developed significantly and have
provided new and useful possibilities in modern life. Among these are affluent
information expressed by multimedia and widespread communication. Many persons
around the world can communicate with each other almost simultaneously. Thus, the
222
concept of cyber space has been added to real space. In real space basic food, clothing,
and shelter are provided. Modern science-oriented technology involves a complex
combination of technologies in real and cyber space. This technology has a complex and
multi layered compositions that permit deeper relationships in human life.
Such complex technology as information technology, life science-oriented
technology, or environmental technology is related strongly to human life. Life science-
oriented technology involves human beings directly. Sometimes the technology is useful
to escape death, but it throws some doubts on genetic issues. Similarly, many problems
concerned with environmental issues call for technological solutions. Environmental
technology has to contribute directly to solve the problems. Human beings should have a
good relationship with technology. For this purpose, we need technology ethics as well
as engineering ethics. Engineering ethics is the responsibility of engineers for their
products (Luegenbiehl 1996). Technology ethics means that the public develops the
ability to apply a set of moral principles in understanding and evaluating of technology.
By obtaining this ability, the public can participate in societal decisions concerned with
technological issues.
Fundamentals of TE
Many educators describe TE. For example, Dr. J. Lee says that technology is a core subject
in school curricula that offers problem-solving capability to all students (Lee 2001). The
author has proposed the aims of TE as follows (Itakura 1997 & 2001):
(1) to succeed the technology and to create a new one,
(2) to promote creative persons with high technological literacy,
(3) to understand and appreciate technology in daily life, and
(4) to participate in societal decisions concerned with technological issues.
Numbers 1 and 2 relate to technological ability for both the public and the specialists.
On the other hand, numbers 3 and 4 are given considerable weight in general education.
To realise these aims the contents of TE must include learning about nature,
knowledge of technological materials and skills, understanding the process of technology
through practical training of production, establishing the concept of technology, and
evaluating the consequences of technology in human life. It is very important in TE to
organise the curriculum so it offers a perspective of technology to the public (Reeve 2001).
The ITEA report (ITEA 1996) describes technological literacy in a manner similar to the
author's viewpoint:
Technological literacy is much more than just knowledge about computers and their
application. It involves a vision where each Citizen has a degree of knowledge about the
nature, behaviour, power, and consequences of technology from a broad perspective.
Inherently, it involves educational programs where learners become engaged in critical
thinking as they design and develop products, systems, and environments to solve practical
problems. In summary, technological literacy is the ability to use, manage, and understand
technology.
TE provides two abilities: one is to make, use and manage technology, and the other is to
evaluate the technological consequences.
223
Core curriculum
Based on the fundamentals of TE, the core TE curriculum is constructed by
experiencing and understanding the technology process and evaluating the technological
consequences.
The process of technology experienced by the teachers near Lake Biwa is
summarised in Figure 2. This may be an example of the core to confirm the organising
structure from primary to secondary school. The structure puts an emphasis on human
development in primary school and it shifts gradually to technology literacy. Many
educators of TE have pointed out the importance of technology processes in the TE
curriculum. For example, Dr. R. Kimbell said that the essence of the technology process
equals design and technology (Kimbell 2001). Learning about the technology process
first promotes understanding of technological materials and skills systematically and,
second, provides a total perspective of technology. The perspective of technology
provides an ability of technological evaluation. Experiments of the technological
evaluation are accumulated and then the accumulation leads the technological evaluation
to a higher level. Consequently, the public acquires technology ethics to participate in
decisions concerned with technological issues in their society.
Primary school:
The aim is to take pleasure in working with elementary concepts.
INTRODUCTION – IDEA – DRAWING – WORKING –
USAGE/CLEARING
Junior high school:
The aim is to take pleasure in fundamental design and production.
INTRODUCTION – PRE-WORKING – PLAN – DESIGN – DRAWING –
PRODUCING – REUSE/CLEARING – EVALUATION
Senior high school:

The aim is to take pleasure in creative design and production.
INTRODUCTION – PLAN – DESIGN – DRAWING – SIMULATION –
PRODUCING – RECYCLE/CLEARING – TOTAL EVALUATION
Figure 2
Technology process as an example of the core curriculum
Complements of the core

The TE curriculum consists of the core curriculum and the complementary curricula.
The core would be common in the world. On the other hand, the complementary
curricula are different in every country or region and have many types of materials and
handicraft skills based on the life style and culture of the individual one. Figure 3 shows a
relationship between the core curriculum and the complementary curricula in each
224
country or region. The TE-curriculum should have a structure. A teacher or an

educational association has to construct an integrated TE-curriculum and must provide a
suitable learning process in the classroom.
It need scarcely be said that TE is an important subject in school education. While
TE in school offers fundamentals and principals, TE in regional society offers many
practical applications and opportunities for some types of co-operation in activities based
on technological knowledge and skills obtained in school. This combination in both
school and regional society plays a key role in the integrated TE of the modern high-
technology age. Because modern technology is utilised widely in daily life, many people
need to understand and learn its contents from basis to application and from primitive to
high technology as mentioned above.
Country or
Region A
Core Country or
curriculum Region B
Country or
Region C
Complementary
curricula
Figure 3
Relationship between the core curriculum and the complementary curricula
There are many examples of regional TE. One, the crewless solar-boat competition
(CSBC) that has been held by the author's group to increase technological literacy
through the design, construction, and racing of handmade model boats propelled only by
solar generated electric power (Itakura 2001). The two major sub-competitions are the
novice and advanced technology groups in the CSBC. The novice category includes small
and simple boats, while the advanced category has big boats that are autonomously
controlled. The competition opens every year at the beginning of August around the
lakeshore of Lake Biwa, the largest lake in Japan.
All participants from children to adults have enjoyed not only building the boats but
also the outdoor competition. Handicraft classes have also been offered to help participants
225
build their boats. They develop skills to make their boats while they enjoy handicrafts.
The handicraft class is very important and effective to introduce people to new
technology and to give them the opportunity to experience the pleasure of handicrafts.
The CSBS offers another recreation activity as well as handicrafts (Itakura &
Yamawaki 2001). Lakeshore recreation creates a familiar relationship between human
beings and nature. All children and adults who are interested in lake environments can
participate comfortably in many activities around the lakeshore. The solar powered boat
competition offers two functions: to appreciate the need to conserve lake environments
and to promote the achievement of handicrafts.
The integrated TE has many functions and contents like this. Many complementary
curricula may support the effort to accomplish integrated TE in school and in the region.
Conclusion
A world common core curriculum of TE is necessary to understand the acceleration of
technological change, to reduce the gap in the technological ability of the public, and to
obtain the benefits of technological consequence in the world with weakening inequality.
Accordingly, the public can participate in decision making concerned with technological
issues in a society that supports a safe life and peace of mind.
Based on the core curriculum, a practical TE curricular structure may be constructed
in addition to the complementary curricula. Great variety of integrated TE is possible in
regional societies as well as in school. Enlargement of learning fields, increases in friends
learning together, widening learning contents, and enrichment of educational materials
and methods are being realised in regional education like the example of the CSBC.
Children may be interested initially in technology through such an activity and then may
learn progressively in school. Integrated TE makes possible multilateral and multifarious
development based on the core curriculum.
Acknowledgement
The author thanks many teachers near Lake Biwa, Japan for their useful discussion based
on their excellent experiences.
References
Itakura, Y 1995, 'A proposal for a world core curriculum in technology education'', in Technology
Education in School around Asian Countries, eds J Lee & S Murata, Proc. 1st International Conference on
Technology Education (ICTE), Shiga University, Otsu, Japan, 27–30 September, pp.55–58.
Itakura, Y 1997, Technology education for 21st century: Curriculum and contents of 21 century's education,
pp.161–173. Japanese Council of Science, Nishiazabu 3-24-20, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan, 106-
0031, (In Japanese).
Itakura, Y 2001, 'An attempt at technology education in a regional society: A crewless solar-boat
competition', in New Paradigm of Technology Education in the Information Age; Proc. 4 th ICTE,
Daejeon, Republic of Korea, eds C Y Ryu & S Yi, Korean Technology Education Association,
Daejeon, Republic of Korea, 30 Oct–2 Nov. 2001, pp.58–63.
Itakura, Y & Yamawaki, H 2001, 'Crewless solar boat contest: one of lakeshore recreation activities
for access to clear water, clean energy, and fine handicraft', Proc. 9th Inter. Conf. on Conservation and
Management of Lakes; at Otsu, Japan, 11–16 Nov., 2001, Session 1, pp.239–242.
226
ITEA 1996, Technology for all American, ITEA (International Technology Education Association),
1914 Association Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191, USA, pp.1–11.
ITEA 2000, Standards for technological literacy, ITEA (International Technology Education
Association), 1914 Association Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191, USA, pp.1–4.
Kimbell, R. 2001, 'Design and technology in UK schools: Design thinking, curriculum, and the
Impact of new technologies', in: New Paradigm of Technology Education in the Information Age; Proc. 4
th ICTE, Daejeon, Republic of Korea, eds C Y Ryu & S Yi, Korean Technology Education
Association, Daejeon, Republic of Korea, 30 Oct.–2 Nov. 2001, pp.58–63.
Lee, J W 2001, 'Technology education for the 21st Century and the third Millennium', in: eds C Y
Ryu & S Yi New Paradigm of Technology Education in the Information Age; Proc. 4 th ICTE,
Daejeon, Republic of Korea, Korean Technology Education Association, Daejeon, Republic
of Korea, 30 Oct.–2 Nov. 2001, pp.58–63
Luegenbiehl, H C 1996, 'Engineering ethics education in the US: Aiming for professional
autonomy', EAJ Information, no.61, pp.14–22.
Reeve, M A 2001, 'Developing standards-based technology education curriculum', in: New Paradigm
of Technology Education in the Information Age Proc. of 4 th ICTE, eds C Y Ryu & S Yi, Daejeon,
Republic of Korea, Korean Technology Education Association, Daejeon, Republic of Korea.,
30 Oct.–2 Nov. 2001, pp.91–107.
227
Narratives in Technology Education
Beverley Jane
Deakin University, Melbourne
I
n this paper 'narrative' is considered as a research method for learning in technology. The
excitement generated when Primary Technology Education students present their community
projects to their peers indicates that students' stories can provide valuable insights into
learning in technology. These stories engaged our emotions as well as our minds. The
community project assessment task requires students to identify, design and produce authentic
technological products for clients in their community. Students formulate their own design brief in
order to meet the client's needs. It is the client who evaluates the finished product to determine if
it works effectively and satisfies the criteria. The context, need and the related technological
activities are critical factors in the community project. Dewey (1977) recognised the importance of
experience and emphasised that the 'quality' of the experience is paramount. Students chose a
variety of formats to tell their stories. Some students included a videotape of their involvement in
a technological process. The two examples described in this paper show that the stories students
tell reflect their understanding of technological practice. Furthermore student narratives in
technology can be motivational for their peers.
Introduction
The aim of this paper is to show how narrative or story can be an effective way for
students to communicate their intentions and involvement in technological projects. I
argue that narrative can be used as a research tool to identify students' understanding of a
technological process. Furthermore students' stories can a have a motivating influence on
their peers and enhance their perceptions of technology education.
The narrative mode

Journal keeping or diaries are popular ways of telling our own stories. There are whole
sections in bookshops devoted to biographies and autobiographies. People are interested
in one another's stories and can learn from reading descriptions of real life experiences.
The content of these stories covers a wide range; from the life-changing experience or
success story, through to the mundane, normal, everyday life story that many people can
readily identify with. However, 'normal' for one person may be perceived differently by
someone else. Such differences can be even more pronounced when the writer and
reader have different cultural backgrounds and are bound by cultural protocols. Reading
about life in a different culture from one's own may lead to a greater tolerance of these
differences. When we read both happy and sad stories these engage our emotions and
can have a lasting effect on how we view life and other people. We are not restricted to
'reading' narratives. Many of the best stories are told through film, television, videotape
and DVD.
228
Narrative or story as a research method

Narratives of many kinds are being explored as an educational tool. Narrative is regarded
as a way of opening up, and revealing, values and attitudes and how these shape our
lives. The telling of a story communicates these attitudes about life. MacIntyre (1981)
contends that actions become intelligible when human beings talk about their intentions.
Currently there is new interest in narrative that is seen as a way of integrating the inner
voice and the voice of reason (termed 'passionate reason' by Ruddick 1984). Stories
express, and give shape to, the otherwise untold part of 'our lives'. Storytelling can be a
powerful way of communicating as Anderson and Foley reveal.
The stories we tell, whether human or divine, mythic or parabolic, order experiences,
construct meaning, and build community. The most compelling reason why stories have
such power to engage us is the narrative form of human existence itself. Human
experience is structured in time and narrative. The narrative mode, more than other
forms of self-reporting, serves to foster the sense of movement and process in individual
and communal life (Anderson & Foley 1998, p.3).
Stories are not merely told or heard but are created. This means that we can use them
to construct meaning and to communicate ourselves to others. "When the aim of
storytelling is to interact with others and identify common ground, stories have the
potential to build authentic communities of shared meaning and values" (Anderson &
Foley 1998, p.7). For Connelly and Clandinin (1990, p.2) the study of narrative is the
study of the ways humans experience the world and "translates into the view that
education is the construction and reconstruction of personal and social stories; teachers
and learners are storytellers and characters in their own and other's stories". Also in the
context of education Gough (2001, p.109) argues that "much of what we (collectively
and individually) claim to 'know' in or about education comes from telling each other
stories of educational experience". Novak extends the boundaries and contends that
story is method, and its function is to articulate a change in experience. Storytelling can
be quite complex because "it is never 'only a story', but comprises both the narrative
content and the interpretive process incorporated into it" Northup (1997, p.75). Self-
narration is a creative and selective process as Kirby describes.
To narrate experience is to re-figure it, to tell it in a certain way, and often for a
certain end. Self-narration is a creative-interpretive act. Narration both excludes certain
phenomena and dwells on others; it is unavoidably selective. This selectivity is clearly
manifested at the level of practical action. (Kirby 1991, p.47)
Analysis in narrative research tries to tell the narrative as the participants tell the
story. Braud and Anderson (1998, p.279) contend that "Following the story line with all
its variants is essential to the analysis". Witherall and Noddings (1991, p.280) highlight
the value of stories in research "Stories are powerful research tools. They can provide us
with a picture of real people in real situations, struggling with real problems".
Community project: An 'authentic' task in technology education

The context of the narratives in this paper is a 'community project' assessment task in a
core unit on Primary Technology Education for final year pre-service teachers.
Technology is a real life enterprise and technological investigations are never 'value-free'.
229
st
They are based on "real life needs immersed in contexts of not only technical, economic
and political constraints, but also social, cultural, human and environmental concerns
where consideration to the question "Whose need?" is addressed" (Hill, in press). The
community project task requires each student to identify, design and produce an
'authentic' technological product for a person (client) in the community. The client
evaluates the finished product to determine how effectively the product works and if it
meets the need or solves the problem. What makes this task authentic is that students
have to negotiate the project with a client in their local community. As part of the
investigating phase students are required to discuss their design sketches with their client.
Students keep a 'process diary' in which they record all original ideas, sketches and
designs. Students are encouraged to use digital/video cameras to capture a visual record
of their involvement in a technological process. Students make presentations to their
tutorial group showing their completed projects, photographs, design sketches and
models. The following assessment sheet is used for peer assessment purposes.
Table 1
Community project assessment criteria
CRITERIA HIGH MEDIUM LOW
Design brief outlining
authentic task
Evidence of communication
and negotiation with client
Product that responds to the
design brief
Quality of product
Presentation of product
Evidence of all phases of the
design/technology process
Refer to Table 2 at the end of this paper for a list of some of the community projects
completed by Primary Technology Education students in 2001.
One of the strengths of the community project as a learning experience is that it
involves an 'authentic' technological task. From a situated cognition perspective
McCormick, Murphy, Hennessy and Davidson (1996 a, b) highlight the value of 'authentic'
activities and stress the importance of:
The process of enculturation, where the learner is increasingly participating in authentic
activities…. Thus learning technology is to learn to participate in the communities of
practice of technologists (McCormick et al 1996a, p.4).
In the community project task the product must 'solve a problem' or 'meet a need' of
a person in the student's community. This person becomes the client in the project.
Communication between the client and the student is essential in all phases of the
technological process if the product is to be satisfactory. Although Dewey (1977)
recognised the importance of experience he emphasised that it is the 'quality' of the
experience that is paramount. As part of the assessment for this task students are
230
required to present their completed community projects to their peers. They are
encouraged to make their presentations using a variety of formats. Most students choose
to support their talks with photographs, a few use PowerPoint presentations while some
show videotapes of themselves creating their products. These presentations reveal that
quality products are produced, and there is enthusiastic participation by the student
audience. These stories engage our emotions as well as our minds, and provide
memorable experiences of technology education. The students' stories about their
community projects reveal their perceptions of the nature of technology education. Two
examples of students' stories are described below.
Example 1: David's story of his community project – a dish stacker

This particular student, David, chose to tell his story with accompanying videotape of
himself and his client. The videotape clearly indicated David's understanding of
technological practice. The client who requested David's services was his 64-year-old
father who suffers from asthma. He lives by himself and needs considerable assistance in
the home, but any assistance must not compromise his independence. Despite his poor
health John still completes normal household chores such as vacuuming, washing clothes
and doing the dishes. The chore he dislikes most is dishwashing. He does not own a
dishwasher and dish stacking is his main problem.
I don't mind doing the dishes, I just wish I had somewhere to stack them. They are always
breaking because I can't seem to stack them properly (Caldwell, J 2001, personal
communication 25 September).
David began his presentation by asking his peers to put up their hands if they have a
dishwasher at home. He then turned on the videotape showing the client (John) defining
his problem and describing the specifications for the required 'dish stacker'. John
identified that the dish stacker needed to hold (at any given time) at least:
• 4 plates
• Cutlery
• 2 glasses
• 2 mugs.
John also requested a number of design specifications that he felt would result in a more
effective dish stacker. He wanted the dish stacker to be:
• Designed so the dishes dry quickly
• Durable
• Water resistant
• Aesthetically pleasing
• Made out of recycled products.
In the video David chose not to include the investigating phase where he tested the
different materials. Although he did include an account of this phase in his written
report. When David told his story he focused on the production phase of the project.
231
st
The video shows him with his safety spectacles on engaged in:
• Washing the materials.
• Marking and measuring the small punnet container and cutting it.
• Drilling holes in the large salad container, the small punnet container, and the large
punnet container.
• Inserting and securing the rivets.
• Inserting the doorstop/rake.
• Contacting the dish stacker.
The dish stacker met almost every criterion. It was made entirely of recycled
products. The material – plastic - is both durable and water resistant; and its design
enables the water to drain away quickly. However, the product is not particularly
aesthetically pleasing. The story ends with the client evaluating the completed product.
What do you expect? It can't be both recycled and look great. Don't worry it's perfect.
(Caldwell, J. 2001, personal communication 25 September).
David's storytelling was humorous, included music and was relevant for the audience.
The technological task and the client were the main focus of David's video program that
was five minutes duration, well within the time frame for each presentation.
Example 2: Project with the caring community – a plate support

Mary (pseudonym) who works part time as a personal care attendant decided to make a
specialised support equipment for one of the people she cares for. Initially she talked to
several clients about their needs. However her initial idea stemmed from her own
personal observations of Gary (pseudonym). During meal times Gary found his plate
awkward to manage and he struggled to keep it on his wheelchair tray. Gary's disability
meant that he did not have full use of his limbs and he was without speech. After
interviewing Garry using a questionnaire made up of closed questions Mary drew some
initial design sketches for a plate support and "in consultation with Gary's co-ordinator
and other carers, we talked about some of the design possibilities" (Mary). She surveyed
different foam types and then decided to use a medium density foam as the material. It
had a low springback effect yet offered a reasonable level of support. The plastic
covering used was strong, soft, waterproof and fire resistant. Furthermore it was
antistatic and remained supple even after repeated washing. Mary chose one design and
then made the tray support that she trialed with a non-slip mat placed underneath it.
Gary is much happier now that he uses his new plate support and the carers are amazed
at its effectiveness. Mary's reflections included:
Although I took into consideration the thickness of the foam, making sure it wasn't too
thick, and therefore too high for him to use I did not realise how much the new height of
the plate support would help him. Gary appeared more comfortable with it at the new
height, it did not seem to hinder him, but made eating 'look' much easier.
Two peer assessment reports were "the client's requirements were clearly identified
and the final product responded directly to the client's needs. The technology employed
was very appropriate in both process and materials" and "the design brief was set for a
232
real purpose and it is good to see how a simple technological design can make such a
difference for someone in need. The communication/investigation with the client was
very well done (especially with his limited communication skills). The presentation was
very interesting and detailed".
Students' stories as motivators

Witherall and Noddings remind us that teaching is a public and private activity that calls
on both narrative and analytic ways of knowing. The power of narrative is that it gives an
individual a voice that can be located in a social context. We can learn from stories.
More important, we come to understand – ourselves, others, and even the subjects we teach
and learn. Stories engage us. Sometimes stories introduce us in an entertaining way to new
material, and sometimes they grab our attention and are likely to keep it as they move into
more abstract material (Witherall & Noddings 1991, p.279).
This was the case with both stories described above. David's videotape was
entertaining and immediately caught our attention and held our interest throughout his
presentation. Mary's vivid account of her caring approach towards her client touched our
emotions. When telling their stories both students set out to explain their involvement in
designing and testing their technological products. Stories can help students to further
develop understanding in technology education by making the phases of a technological
process more explicit and accessible. It was clearly evident that the students learnt from
creating their stories which supports the view held by Witherall and Noddings (1991, p.279)
"what is only dimly perceived at the level of principle may become more vivid and
affectively powerful in the concrete. We learn by both hearing and telling stories".
Following each student's presentation there was an opportunity for their peers to ask
questions, allowing a dialogue among participants to occur. Because these stories linked
our thoughts and emotions they were motivational. Tickle (1991) calls for a systematic
study of the emotional aspects of teacher's thinking and learning, contending that it
should be analysed further. This paper has shown that students' stories can be motivators
because they engage our thoughts and feelings.
Conclusion
Stories are powerful in portraying students' experiences of their involvement in authentic
technological tasks. Each student has his/her own story to tell about the community
project learning experience. The 'power of story' became apparent by observing the
students' reactions to one another's perspectives. This paper has shown that when
students narrate their stories about their involvement in their community projects these
narratives can be motivational for the audience and can lead to a better understanding of
References
Anderson, H & Foley, E 1998, Mighty stories, dangerous rituals: Weaving together the human and the divine,
Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
Braud, W & Anderson, R 1998, Transpersonal research methods for the Social Science: Honoring human
experience, Sage Publications, London.
233
st
Connelly, F M & Clandinin, J D 1990, 'Stories of experience and narrative inquiry', Educational
Researcher, vol.19, no.5, pp.2–14.
Dewey, J 1977, Experience and Education (20th printing), MacMillan Collier, New York.
Gough, N 2001, 'Learning from disgrace: A troubling narrative for South African Curriculum
work', Perspectives in Education, vol.19, no.1, pp.107–126.
Hill, A (in press), Linking with the caring community.
Kirby, A 1991, Narrative and the self, Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis.
MacIntyre, A 1981, After virtue, Notre Dame University Press, Notre Dame, IN.
McCormick, R, Murphy, P, Hennessy, S & Davidson, M 1996a, 'Research on student learning of
designing and problem solving in technology activity in schools in England', Paper presented
to the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, 8–12 April, New York.
McCormick, R, Murphy, P, Hennessy, S & Davidson, M 1996b, 'Problem solving in science and
technology', Paper presented to the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research
Association, 8–12 April, New York.
Northup L A 1997, Ritualising women, The Pilgrim Press, Cleveland.
Novak, M 1975, 'Story and experience', in Religion as story, ed. J Wiggins, University Press of
America, Lanham, Md, pp.175–178.
Ruddick, S 1984, 'New combinations: Learning from Virginia Woolf', in Between women, eds C
Asher, L De Salvor & S Ruddick, Boston: Beacon Press, pp. 137–159.
Tickle, L 1991, 'New teachers and the emotions of learning', Cambridge Journal of Education, vol.21,
no.3, pp.319–330.
Witherell, C & Noddings, N 1991, Stories lives tell: Narrative and dialogue in education, Teachers College
Press, Columbia University, New York.
Table 2
Examples of primary technology education community projects 2001
Sapling guards Monitor's panel and stand Cat feeder
Wheelchair cushion & cover Container for change table Dog/cat door
Table top for art use Memories of life album Bird feeder
Ramp to assist dog Quilt for the homeless Toy box
Pen holder Production display Cushion covers
Balancing parrot Piano foot stool Bath book rest
Monitor board Nesting box for lovebirds Candles
Car bumper protector Hope tree Banner
Child tidy traveller Computer desk Pool rack
Lampshade Swimming bag Dice
Shoe stand Chicken enclosure Compost bin
Business cards Board for childcare centre Bookstand
Tubs for classroom Card holder Website
Monitor's panel and stand Chinese dragon head music storage shelves
Bath book rest Dog kennel desk organiser Video cabinet
Mexican pinata Car marker Bathstand
Kitchen shelf Callisthenics rod holder Coffee table
Wobble board bags for church fete
234
Computer-Based Assessment: Its Use and
Effects on Student Learning
Judith Kearney
Margaret Fletcher
Brendan Bartlett
Griffith University
C
omputer-based assessment (CBA) has practical and economical benefits in that it allows
testing of a large student cohort with the facility of automated marking of responses. In
2001, we incorporated CBA as a means of promoting and measuring student
understanding of course content. While anecdotal information suggested that student learning
was enhanced and results showed that learning had occurred, the learning processes promoted
by this technology needed explanation. We have tried to do this. In 2002, over 300 students in
their second year of teacher education participated in formative and summative CBA while
undertaking an English course. Data were collected to track learning pathways and effects on
learning outcomes. Surveys, monitoring of student use of technology, and interviews provided
data sources. Of particular interest were the ways in which students used on-line discussion
group to engage in learning.
Introduction
The use of computer-based assessment (CBA) as a summative tool has both practical
and economical benefits in that it allows testing of a large student cohort with the facility
of automated marking of responses (Charman 1999; Zakrzewski & Bull 1998). In
addition, pedagogical advantages have been suggested. These include: immediacy of
feedback to students and staff; repeatability of tests consisting of randomly-generated
test items; reliability and equity of computer-marked assessment; flexibility in terms of
time and place of assessment; and, responsibility for own learning and test taking
(Charman 1999).
Student response to CBA, as a summative tool, has been mixed and clearly associates
with individual differences associated with computer experience, computer anxiety and
computer attitudes (McDonald 2002). Many students have described CBA as less
threatening than conventional examinations (Bocij & Greasley 1999); others have
reported enhanced levels of motivation and confidence (Thelwall 1999). However, this
same level of enthusiasm for CBA has not been shown by students who are computer-
anxious or less experienced with technology (Brosnan 1999).
The benefits of formative assessment have been well documented (Yorke 2001). In
addition to these benefits, formative CBA provides flexible and self-paced learning with
immediate feedback. Much of the research has looked primarily at student attitudes to
235
formative CBA, with its effects on student-learning remaining comparatively under-

researched and under-theorised (Bocij & Greasley 1999; Charman & Elmes 1998). It is
important to identify the learning that is promoted by this technology and to explain the
learning processes involved. Of particular interest is the role of asynchronous on-line
collaboration involving text-based discussion as a feature of the learning process.
On-line discussion promotes thinking and facilitates socially negotiated meaning. Its
effectiveness has been contributed to the nature of on-line written discourse as
compared to oral discourse and formal written discourse (Lapadat 2000). Unlike oral
discourse, on-line written discourse has permanency that allows continued reflection on
the comments of others. Unlike formal written discourse, the student is not required to
use precise terminology and phrasing when using the forum. Ideas can be edited before
being submitted. In addition, asynchronity allows students to contribute ideas without
constraints of time.
While the potential of on-line discussion is apparent, the medium is not without its
problems. Comments can be trivial and, therefore, time wasting for students who read
them (Klemm 2000). Messages are public and permanent. According to Hammond
(2000), this causes reluctance on the part of some students who are unwilling to expose
their ideas to public scrutiny and are uncomfortable at not being able to retract what they
have written. Learners who focus on these constraints are unlikely to participate in on-
line discussion.
Background
In 2001, we introduced formative CBA as a means of promoting and measuring student
understanding of English grammar. For a period of four weeks, students were able to
access an electronic quiz consisting of 40 randomly-generated assessment items drawn
from a bank of 65 items. Students attempted the quiz as often as necessary. On each
attempt a result was provided. Questions that were answered incorrectly were identified
and relevant sections of text, associated with errors, were nominated for review. Student
achievement of a threshold mark of 85% was a pre-requisite for passing the course.
In 2002, we re-introduced formative CBA, again in relation to students' learning of
English Grammar. This time, the item bank was increased to 200 items and students'
summative performance on the quiz was assigned a weighting of 20% of marks for the
course. As students participated in formative CBA, data were collected in the form of
surveys, interviews, forum discussion and CBA statistical information.
Method
Data collection
During the first week of the course, all students completed a survey which provided a
profile of their beliefs about learning and themselves as learners. On completion of the
tenth week, students completed a similar survey which contained additional questions
relating to use of formative CBA. In both surveys, students responded to a series of
statements that required responses with a response range that varied from 'strongly agree'
to 'strongly disagree'. Results of both surveys were compared.
236
Computer-Based Assessment: Its Use and Effects on Student Learning
During Week 12, results of the Week 10 survey were shared with students. Students
were invited to comment on trends that had been observed using a discussion forum on
the course website. There were 107 contributions posted. Of these, 28 were posted
anonymously. These data were analysed for common and repeated themes. About the
same time, twelve students were interviewed by an independent researcher about their
experience with formative CBA. Participation at all phases was voluntary and students'
identities remained anonymous. Data were used to explain trends observed in the survey
data.
Participants
The 340 students in this study were completing a second year course of a Bachelor of
Education (Primary) program across two campuses of a large university. Female students
comprised about 82 percent of the group with almost half of the group aged below 20
years. Twenty students participated in the on-line discussion forum. The number of
students posting anonymous messages is unknown. Twelve students were interviewed.
They were selected randomly from the course database, their participation was voluntary
and their identities remained anonymous. Interviewees from both campuses were
representative of the wider population of students in the course.
Results
Learning pathways: Independent or collaborative?
70
In d e p e n d e n t
C o l la b o r a t i v e l y
60
50
Percent (%)
40
30
20
10
0
SA A N D DS
Figure 1
Comparison of students' selection of learning pathways
Most students were confident working independently and in small groups, with levels
of confidence relatively stable between Week 1 and Week 10. A preference for working
independently is evident in Figure 1. This trend was supported in forum discussion
237
where there was a pattern of resistance to group work. A typical comment was:
I prefer to work independently simply because I can guide my own learning, study the way I
want to and I don't have commitments of meeting people at certain times. I also find that
studying in groups can often be a time waster as people start to talk and lose focus on the
topic of study! (I found this from personal experience!)
In fact, the practice of working collaboratively on the summative quiz became a
contentious issue on the forum:
Date: Thu May 9 2002 11:09 am Author: Anonymous Subject: Re: Fair learning!
I hate to sound slack but as we were able to take the quiz at home people are able to have
books and friends there to help, while some people did the test unaided. I consider this
unfair.
Date: Fri May 10 2002 8:50 am Author: Anonymous Subject: Re: Fair learning!
Everyone has a choice how they take the test you know. With a friend, by yourself, with
textbooks or without that choice was yours to make so there is little point in complaining
about the fairness of it now. You made a choice based on weeks of practice. Get over it.
Date: Sat May 11 2002 2:25 pm Author: Anonymous Subject: Re: Fair learning!
Yes i also agree, there was no rules saying that u couldn't use textbooks, friends or other
means to answer the questions correctly! If u wanted to do the questions alone and by
yourself, that was a choice u made. In fact working with friends to answer the questions
was actually a way of re-learning the grammar terms, through student to student language.
Approximately 80% of students acknowledged that the flexible learning approach

associated with the quiz suited their situation and almost 74% agreed or strongly agreed
that they mainly accessed the formative quiz independently at home. As indicated in the
following forum contribution, this decision associated with ease of access:
Date: Mon May 6 2002 4:13 pm Subject: Re: Using the quiz at home
I did it at home for 3 reasons, none of them to do with 'learning partnerships'

1- I could access the quiz quicker, it loaded heaps faster than at uni
2 - I was guaranteed the use of a computer
3 - I could do the quiz at midnight if I wanted to
A typical process followed by students is described by one of the interviewees:

I practised it more than 20 times but less than 30 times. Each time I practised it I printed it
out and I looked up my answers and the stuff that I wasn't sure about I'd take notes on that
topic (I:4)
238
Learning pathways: Face-to-face or on-line?

As shown in Figure 2, students' confidence using technology increased slightly.
60
W eek 1 W eek 10
50
40
Percent (%)
30
20
10
0
SA A N D DS
Figure 2
Student response to the statement, "I am confident using technology", at Week 1 and Week 10
In line with current research (McDonald 2002), high levels of anxiety were seen as
problematic for students when they worked with CBA. Some students internalised the
source of anxiety, acknowledging a lack of competence:
Date: Mon May 6 2002 8:16 pm Subject: Re: Using technology
… not being a wiz at the computer I also have to agree that when a problem arose I did
not have the skills that a more competent computer user would have to troubleshoot the
dilemma. That caused no end of stress.
Others externalised the source of anxiety:
Date: Mon May 6 2002 4:06 pm Subject: Re: Using technology
I don't think it is the lack of computer literacy that may disadvantage some people, rather
the actual computer itself having a problem when the pressure is on. Whether it be time-
outs, disconnecting, overall quiz glitches or whatever... that's what stressed me out the
most - not ME doing the quiz, but can my computer do it? We have confidence USING
technology, but not always confidence IN it.
239
Table 1
Levels of agreement/disagreement with statements about using the electronic forum
Strongly agree/ Neither agree Neither agree
Agree (%) nor disagree (%) nor disagree (%)
I used the electronic forum as an observer to 47 25 28
understand about English grammar
I used the electronic forum as a participant to 29 31 39
understand about English grammar
Findings indicated (see Table 1) that 29% of students contributed to website forums
while almost half participated as 'lurkers', that is, they participated through observation.
Seven of the twelve students interviewed participated in either role for various purposes:
"Generally I used it when I couldn't understand something. I'd just put a question on the
web, 'Please, I don't understand. Can you tell me…and someone would come along and
comment…. I find them more useful when the lecturers or tutors are making comments
because a lot of people will go there just to see what they say." (I:2)
"I used it to see what people were and weren't understanding." (I:10)
Both contributors and lurkers, however, seemed most interested in contributions
from lecturers and tutors:
"When you see the lecturer's name you automatically look at that first." (I:7)
"It's good when you see the lecturer make comments….you find out how to go about
something properly rather than getting four or five different opinions that might be wrong."
(I:10)
Learning outcomes – surface or deep?

Biggs (1993) made the distinction between surface learning and deep learning. With
surface learning, information is memorised while meaning is ignored. It is illustrated in
the following statement:
I ended up doing it 42 times but that defeated the purpose really because most of the
answers I ended up getting because I memorised them (I:6)
With deep learning, meaning is cumulative as the learner organises and structures content
into a more coherent whole. This type of learning was described also:
Date: Mon May 6 2002 11:01 am Subject Re: Flexible learning
I felt that the quiz actually made me think. Because I was drawing on my knowledge every
time I took the test I had to revisit what I had learnt. I found myself thinking, WOW i
know this when in a non-flexible exam i feel always unsure. I think this is due to being
able to practise and practise using the information and not just using it once and
forgetting it.
240
Conclusion
CBA offers students new opportunities to further their learning. Yet, educators need to
proceed with caution especially when formative and summative CBA rely on randomly-
generated items from a shared source. We have two concerns. First, our research
suggests that surface learning is encouraged. Second, we do not know whose work has
achieved the summative result? Reversion to a summative assessment involving paper-
and-pencil would provide a solution to both concerns.
On-line discussion appears to provide a worthwhile learning experience for many
students. However, there are questions to be answered, especially in relation to the role
of educators. What do we do to help lurkers contribute to discussion? How do we
facilitate student-centred learning when students value a teacher-directed discussion?
Clearly, there is further need to explore the learning pathways associated with CBA in
order to optimise learning outcomes for both students and educators.
References
Biggs, J & Moore, P 1993, The process of learning (3rd edn), Prentice Hall, New York.
Bocij, P & Greasley, A 1999, 'Can computer-based testing achieve quality and efficiency in
assessment?', International Journal of Educational Technology, vol.1, pp.1–16.
Brosnan, M 1999, 'Computer anxiety in students: Should computer-based assessment be used at
all?', in Computer-assisted assessment in higher education, eds S Brown, P Race & J Bull, Kogan Page,
Birmingham, pp.47–54.
Charman, D 1999, 'Issues and impacts of using computer-based assessments (CBAs) for formative
assessment', in Computer-assisted assessment in higher education, eds S Brown, P Race & J Bull,
Kogan Page, Birmingham, pp.89–101.
Charman, D & Elmes, S 1998, 'A computer-based formative assessment strategy for a basic statistics
module in Geography', Journal of Geography in Higher Education, vol.22, no.3, pp.381–385.
Hammond, M 2000, 'Communication within on-line forums: the opportunities, the constraints and
the value of a communicative approach', Computers and Education, vol.35, pp.251–262.
Klemm, W R 2000, What's wrong with on-line discussions and how to fix it. ED 448755.
Lapadat, J 2000, 'Teaching on-line: Breaking new ground in collaborative thinking', Paper
presented at the Annual Conference of the Canadian Society for the Study of Education Congress of the
Social Sciences and Humanities, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, 24–27 May. ED443420.
McDonald, A 2002, 'The impact of individual differences on the equivalence of computer-based and
paper-and-pencil educational assessments', Computers and Education, vol.39, no.3, pp.299–312.
McKenzie, W & Murphy, D 2000, 'I hope this goes somewhere: Evaluation of an on-line
discussion group', Australian Journal of Educational Technlogy, vol.16, no.3, pp.239–257.
O'Reilly, M & Morgan, C 1999, 'On-line assessment: creating communities and opportunities', in
Computer-assisted assessment in higher education, eds S Brown, P Race & J Bull, Kogan Page,
Thellwall, M 1999, 'Open access randomly generated tests: Assessment to drive learning', in
Computer-assisted assessment in higher education, eds S Brown, P Race & J Bull, Kogan Page,
241
Yorke, M 2001, 'Formative assessment and its relevance to retention', Higher Education Research &
Development, vol.20, no.2, pp.115–126.
Zakrzewski, S & Bull, J 1998, 'The mass implementation and evaluation of computer-based
assessments', Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, vol.28, no.2, pp.141–152.
242
Hedgehogs, Foxes, Crows, and Other
'Intelligent' Beings: Explorations of the
Relationship Between Multiple Intelligence
Theory and Design and Technology
Steve Keirl
University of South Australia
F
or almost two decades, Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences (MI) has been in
the public arena. Welcomed by educators for its erosion of the concept of a single (and
measurable) intelligence, MI theory better addresses the complexity of the human mind.
Rather than arguing conclusively for or against the recognition of, for example, design
intelligence, the paper discusses some of the issues involved in exploring any perceived
relationship between MI theory and Design and Technology.
Introduction
The paper opens with an overview of the history, and some major interpretations, of the
notion of intelligence. This provides the background to Gardner's development of his
Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Gardner 1993b & c). Description is given of what, for
Gardner, constitutes an intelligence and of the several intelligences he has nominated.
This is followed by some critiques of multiple intelligence (MI) theory. There follows an
outline of what is understood to be Design and Technology (D & T) and then a discussion
of the relationship, actual or potential, between Design and Technology and MI Theory.
Intelligence: An overview
Without presenting any detailed discussion of the ways 'intelligence' is used in lay circles,
everyday conversations, in the media or in non-psychological professional settings such
as teaching, we move forward knowing that there does not exist a concise and common
understanding of the term even amongst those on whose professional work it hinges.
One might express a cynical note of concern considering this situation is the premise of
'intelligence tests'. Indeed, Boring's (1923) definition of 'intelligence is whatever the tests
test' is popularly reported (Sternberg 1987, p.376; Heil 1995, p.411; Kornhaber &
Gardner 1995, p.109). Most recently, Gardner describes the remark as '…famous – if
irritating' (Gardner 1999c). Sternberg (1987) takes this logic further by pointing out that,
since tests differ, one is left with as many definitions as tests and, whatever that number
is, it is certainly far in excess of the number of expert opinions one might gather.
'Innumerable tests are available for measuring intelligence yet no one is quite certain of
243
what intelligence is, or even of just what it is that the available tests are measuring'
(Sternberg 1987, p.375).
Gardner has said that '(l)ike many concepts in psychology, intelligence has a long past
but a short history' and he identifies three principal controversies which have surrounded
the study of intelligence 'almost since its inception' (Gardner 1999a, p.434). First,
questions of whether intelligence is inborn, acquired, or if, and to what extent, it is a mix
of these, remain unanswered. Second is the question of whether there is a single, general,
intelligence or multiple intelligences. (The matter of hedgehogs and foxes.) The third
controversy concerns the issue of bias that has been present from the earliest Binet tests
(late 1800's in France) and, while 'considerable efforts have been evinced to eliminate'
cultural or racial bias in more recent years, there remain deep concerns about testing and
about the uses to which the results are put (Gardner 1999a, p.434). In his commentary
on Binet, Zangwill suggests that '…the recent tendency is to interpret the results of
intelligence tests with extreme caution' (Zangwill 1987, p.88). Meanwhile, Barlow has
written of intelligence as 'the art of good guesswork' and refers to the '…intellectual
revulsion against the psychometricians' simplistic arrogance in promoting the IQ as an
adequate measure of an individual's mind, and (the)…moral revulsion at the degradation
and insult to whole racial groups that has resulted from this approach. (Barlow 1987,
p.381). The moral revulsion dimension was more recently inflamed by Hernstein and
Murray (1994) who argue that unintelligent people '…are a drain on society and that
society will eventually form itself into two classes: the privileged intelligent…and (the)
increasingly underprivileged unintelligent…' (cited in Fogarty 1999, p.205).
Many current authors and researchers concerned with intelligence theory describe its
100-year-plus history, the elusiveness of definition, the enormity of the literature, and the
rapid expansion of research in the last couple of decades. Most would also agree with the
observation that, 'Almost since its inception, the study of intelligence has been
surrounded by controversy.' (Gardner 1999a, p.434). Before moving on to Gardner's
work, it should be noted that any discussion of the history of the concept of intelligence
ought ideally to include discussion of creativity – the two are interwoven though should
not be conflated (Gardner 1999c). Indeed, creativity is of optimal interest to D&T
educators. While the study of intelligence has grown for over a century, that of creativity
emerged from around the 1950's (Vernon 1970). It should also be noted that the study of
intelligence has gained much momentum from other fields of study, notably artificial
intelligence.
Gardner's background and interest in intelligence theory

Professor in Cognition and Education and Adjunct Professor of Psychology at Harvard
and of Neurology at Boston University, Gardner is an eminent scholar and prolific
author. Over many years he conducted two streams of research on cognitive and symbol-
using capacities – one with normal and gifted children, the other with adults who
suffered from brain damage. 'My effort to synthesise these two lines of work led me to
develop and introduce the theory of multiple intelligences…' (Gardner 2002). It is clear
that Gardner has had not only a genuine professional interest in neurological and
psychological understandings of human mental potential and performance but that he
244
Hedgehogs, Foxes, Crows, and Other 'Intelligent' Beings
comes to these with a genuine ethical care for the good of all. He seeks to articulate the
potential of the individual for the common good while taking the greatest of care not to
support the socially divisive ways in which this work can be (ab)used. He contends that:
…the stranglehold of the psychometricians has at last been broken. Yet (he cautions) …we
risk deciding that anything goes – that emotions, morality, creativity, must all be absorbed
into the "new (or even the New Age) intelligence". The challenge is to chart a concept of
intelligence that reflects new insights and discoveries and yet can withstand rigorous scrutiny
(Gardner 1999c).
In making his case for multiple intelligences, Gardner draws on studies of prodigies,
individuals, brain-damaged patients, idiots savant, normal children, normal adults, experts
in different lines of work, and individuals from diverse cultures. However, he also seeks
to expand the fields of cognitive and developmental psychology and to explore the
educational implications of MI theory (which he has since done in increasing depth).
Further, he aimed to '…inspire educationally oriented anthropologists…' and ('most
important') offer his work as something that would '…prove of genuine utility to those
…charged with the development of other individuals' (Gardner 1993c, pp.9–10).
Gardner's focus
One can find in Gardner's work a variety of approaches to defining intelligence
(Gardner 1993a, p.35; 1993b, p.xiv; 1999a, p.434). Perhaps the most encompassing
statement has been that '(i)ntelligence is a biopsychological potential to process
information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create
products that are of value in a culture.' (Gardner 1999b, p.34). However, definitions have
their limitations and tend not to be very practical. To this end, Gardner sets out what he
calls the 'signs' or 'criteria' of an intelligence, preferring the former term for its allusion to
the provisional nature of a 'candidate intelligence'. Before setting out his signs/criteria, it
is worth reporting his key concern about the use of the word 'intelligence'. In a pithy
'crucial' note Gardner cautions:
There is a universal human temptation to give credence to a word to which we have become
attached, perhaps because it has helped us to understand a situation better.…intelligence is
such a word; we use it so often that we have come to believe in its existence, as a genuine
tangible, measurable identity, rather than as a convenient way of labelling some phenomena
that may (but may well not) exist. The risk of reification is grave in a work of exposition…
These intelligences are fictions – at most useful fictions for discussing processes and
abilities… (Gardner; 1993c, p.69).
The signs (without any order or hierarchy) are: potential isolation by brain damage; the
existence of idiots savant, prodigies, and other exceptional individuals; an identifiable
core operation or set of operations; a distinctive developmental history, along with a
definable set of expert 'end-state' performances; an evolutionary history and evolutionary
plausibility; support from experimental psychological tasks; support from psychometric
findings; and, susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system (Gardner 1993c, pp.62–66).
The seven original candidate intelligences with their respective core operations
were: Linguistic (syntax, phonology, semantics, pragmatics); Musical (pitch, rhythm,
timbre); Logical-mathematical (number, categorisation, relations); Spatial (accurate
mental visualisation, mental transformation of images); Bodily-kinaesthetic (control of
245
one's own body, control in handling objects); Interpersonal (awareness of others'

feelings, emotions, goals, motivations), and, Intrapersonal (awareness of one's own
feelings, emotions, goals, motivations). A decade later Gardner had modified his notions
of the intrapersonal and was also considering the merits of adding a spiritual intelligence.
However, this latter he rejected but by the late 1990's he had added: Naturalist
(recognition and classification of objects in the environment). By the end of the 1990's
the case for existential intelligence – awareness of, and concern for, the fundamental
questions of existence - is under scrutiny but this does not yet seem to meet all the
criteria. This is certainly borne out in the spirit of his recent thinking where he articulates
philosophically on what he perceives to be the:
…enduring importance of two values: … Responsibility; and a Respect for Humanity. We
encourage students to carry out work, but that work needs to be good in two ways: exemplary
in quality but also responsible…The second value is an appreciation of what is special about
human beings. Human beings have done many terrible things but countless members of our
species have done wonderful things as well… (Gardner 2001).
Gardner argues that all people possess all eight intelligences, possibly more. He also
argues that people possess the intelligences in different proportions – such is the nature
of our individuality that results from the blending of hereditary and environmental
influences. One finds in Gardner's writing that essential ethical care in stressing that the
concept of MI is a proposal, an offer, and, above all, a theory - to be taken and tested,
worked and re-worked for its validity. It is 20 years since the promulgation of the
concept and there is a critical educational debate afoot. For those who subscribe to the
view that there is nothing so practical as a good theory, MI has something powerful to
offer education – not least on ethical and pedagogical grounds. The professional
psychological debate about the theory's validity continues as the research expands. In the
meantime there will continue to be no shortage of misinterpretations, bandwagons and
watered-down hobby versions for people to promote (and educators will not be innocent
of this). Gardner himself is happy that educators and others have taken up the cause but,
rightly, he will not, or cannot, pass judgement on the quality of what is on offer. He has
contributed to some texts by way of preface or occasional chapters and there are useful
publications that largely respect the integrity of his work (see e.g. Lazear 1991;
Armstrong 1994; Lazear 1994; Fogarty & Bellanca 1995). Gardner has refuted the notion
of a 'recipe' for MI education and has favoured '…an education framed in the "spirit" of
multiple intelligences' (Gardner 1993d, p.66).
Critiques of MI theory
This paper is not able to engage in a detailed critique of MI theory. However, the
following are seven key criticisms stemming largely from the professional psychology
community: i) there is difficulty in seeing how all the intelligences can meet all of the
eight criteria; ii) the nomination of the eight intelligences seems somewhat arbitrary and
therefore subjective; iii) by offering 'multiple' intelligences the word 'intelligence' is
rendered meaningless; iv) on the single versus multiple theories issue, Thurstone's
multiple factor analysis theory was based on empirical data whereas Gardner's work is
more a subjective/empirical mix (Fogarty 1999, p.200); v) 'intelligences' is just another
246
word for, traits, abilities, cognitive styles, sensitivities, skills etc rather than a clear isolated
construct. The issue is therefore a matter of semantics; vi) just because the theory offers
an ethical alternative to IQ/standardised tests does not necessarily negate the existence
of 'g' – a general factor of intelligence; and, vii) if there are eight intelligences then it must
be possible to design eight matching tests. This, argues Gardner, is to default to the
psychometricians' position on standardised testing - 'repeating the sins of intelligence
testing' (Gardner 1993b, p.xxvi). He contends that assessment that supports student
learning is far preferable to testing that is used to sort and grade students. Gardner
readily acknowledges the concerns held by many critics and he has made a variety of
responses to them (e.g. Gardner 1993b, pp.xxiii–xxvii; 1993d, pp.35–48, 1995).
The nature of design and technology education

Some brief elaboration is now necessary on what is understood to be D&T. In the
simplest of terms, technology might be taken to mean anything that the species has built
or made and design refers to the intentions and choices followed in arriving at the
technologies. It is immediately acknowledged that every noun or verb in the previous
sentence is open to debate so an amount of criticism and 'definition by default' may be
helpful. Technological activity, possibly even design activity, is by no means the privilege
of our species (the matter of the crow). Design is certainly central to the development of
technologies. In educational terms 'design' and 'technology' cannot be constrained.
Design is not mere planning, nor drawing, nor a single process – linear or cyclical, nor
'neat ideas'. Design is far from tangible. Design is both noun and verb. It is about
working with imperfect information from an uncertain starting point and without single
or 'right' answers. Design is educationally very powerful.
Technology is not mere objects, nor simply applied science, nor only computers, nor
inevitable, nor skilling alone, nor neutral - the orthodoxies of technology education (Keirl
1999). Technology is pervasive yet seemingly invisible, intimate to our very existence,
ethically problematic, values-rich not values-poor. Together, design and technology in
education provide for a current curriculum inadequacy. D&T curriculum must take a
critical, holistic and dynamic form by embracing matters of thinking, ethics, existence,
determinism and politics (see e.g. DETE 2001). The pedagogy of quality D&T could well
be the richest and most sophisticated in the curriculum. It should be noted that the
perspectives espoused here are not universally shared by Technology educators. The field
is undergoing much change at present and debates abound. Fuller accounts of these
perspectives and current D&T theorising are presented elsewhere (Cross 1995; Winner 1995;
McCormick 1999; Harrison 2000; Middleton 2000; Seemann 2000; Keirl 2001a; Keirl 2001b;
Kimbell & Perry 2001).
Multiple Intelligences and D&T

MI in D&T or D&T in MI? Is there a fit?
For a D&T educator to review Gardner's work and to encounter the following one of his
working definitions, expressions such as 'a sight for sore eyes', and 'at last, somebody
really understands', come to mind: 'An intelligence is the ability to solve problems, or to
247
create products, that are valued within one or more cultural settings – a definition that
says nothing about either the sources of these abilities or the proper means of 'testing'
them.' (Gardner 1993b, p.xiv). D&T activity is about solving certain kinds of problems
and is certainly about creating products using many abilities. The matter of evaluation,
critique or performance assessment is a part of practice too. However, Gardner is
offering an encompassing working definition and not something for any one enterprise
to covet as its own. Gardner's enlightened and ethical approach to 'intelligence' offers
huge potential for education – to liberate from the chains of disciplines and tradition as
well as to facilitate democratic and student-centred pedagogy. So it is the case with a
forward-looking technology curriculum. If design-based learning is facilitated it will be
through respecting the diverse nature of students and of learning styles. If technology
education is to be truly educative it will have a real and honest place in the curriculum -
one that is articulated through a variety of learnings rather than constrictive set-piece
pedagogies and knowledge bases (propositional, procedural, or otherwise). The
pedagogical and institutional prerequisites for quality D&T match those for ethically
defensible MI theory.
The reciprocal of this position is that MI theory is far better articulated through
holistic curriculum projects such as a comprehensive quality D&T education than
through the majority of current approaches. So far as the eight 'and a half' nominated
intelligences are concerned, the degree of match obviously hinges on the richness of
one's understanding of technology education. If it is seen as applied science then a
couple of intelligences dominate, if it is seen as computing, again a couple, if skilling then
others, and so on. If, however, one accepts a holistic and critical D&T curriculum then
the picture is different. While one or another intelligence might be less well served, the
fact is that all are served to some significant degree. It is also the case that the existential,
the 'half', could be readily articulated through quality D&T education too.
Alternatively, one might explore whether a design intelligence or a technology
intelligence could exist. The professional D&T education community could well argue
the case – especially if it enlisted the continually growing research from our counterparts
in the extensive range of professional design and professional technology fields. To argue
this position might be valid within MI theory but it would also contribute to the criticism
of MI that there are many other candidate intelligences. All that is needed is a strong
enough case to be put. This may be a goal that D&T education might seek but it is hardly
equipped to do so at the moment.
Gardner and technology: From dissonance to harmony?

However, there is another matter to consider here and it is one that interplays with the
D&T/MI relationship. It concerns Gardner's own understanding of technology, and for
that matter, of design. It is a truism that many people in learned and senior management
positions are unable to make informed judgements about anything to do with design and
technology because they have simply never had the benefit of a quality D&T education.
For the D&T education community, this phenomenon is the source of much bad
managerial and curriculum decision-making.
248
There are a few criticisms to be recorded regarding Gardner's understanding of

technology. First, his writing is a classic model of those who see technology as applied
science. All the regular symptoms are displayed: the compounding of technology with,
but always after, science; the unstated assumption that by writing 'science' the reader will
assume a subtext of 'and technology', (always after); and, the continuing discussion of
significant global technological issues – technological change, nuclear armaments, genetic
engineering, nanotechnology – under headings of 'science'.
At another level he misses the holism and pervasiveness of technologies when he
argues a 'traditional and conservative' position on education (for which, he says, "I make
no apologies"). He advocates: '…training (students) in the three basic literacies (Reading,
Writing, Calculation)…and then introducing them to the major families of disciplines:
science…; the study of art and nature…; and history and literature…' (Gardner 2001).
While this position may fit his concerns for MI theory and be admittedly a personal
position it may well beg consternation from leading curriculum thinkers.
On other points regarding the true nature of technology Gardner also uses
'technology' to refer to computers – but then he is hardly alone in this. He presents a
useful piece on 'The evolution of body skill' (Gardner 1993c, pp.216–221) in his
discussion of bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence but it fails to articulate with a contextual
discussion of tool-use technology. In a discussion of applications of spatial intelligence
(Gardner 1993c, pp.191–192) the word science dominates when the recording of data
about 'machines and organisms' is under discussion while in the same three paragraphs
engineering, architecture, and printing are cited without reference to technology. There is
an irony here when Gardner cites Ferguson: 'According to …Ferguson, many of the
problems in which scientists and engineers are engaged cannot be described in verbal
form.' (Gardner 1993c, p.191). It is doubtful that Ferguson would have juxtaposed
scientists with engineers as he has this to say:
(For) more than 350 years…promoters of the mathematical sciences have convinced their
patrons that science is the way to truth and that it is also the chief source of the progressive
inventions that have changed the material world. The myth that the knowledge incorporated
in any invention must originate in science is now accepted in Western culture as an article of
faith, and the science policies of nations rest on that faith (Ferguson 1992, p.155).
Another link occurs between Gardner and Ferguson. As an example of spatial
intelligence Gardner says. 'If one had to choose a single area to illustrate the centrality of
spatial intelligence, chess would suggest itself as a strong candidate. The ability to
anticipate moves and their consequences seems closely tied to strong imagery.' (Gardner
1993c, p.192). Meanwhile Ferguson documents numerous examples of engineers and
mechanics modelling, designing and 'building' complex machines in their 'mind's eye'
(Ferguson 1992). Such dynamic (these are not static pictures) three-dimensional
conceptualisation begs recognition in Gardner's theorising.
On a final note of concern about the lack of representation of technology or design
in Gardner's extensive writing it is disappointing to discover in his text on creativity
(Gardner 1993a) that none of the exemplars he chooses represent such fields. He
explores creativity, the study of which, he suggests, 'shadows the study of intelligence'
and presents studies of seven 'creative thinkers' from the period around the Great War.
249
The seven are Freud, Einstein, Picasso, Stravinsky, Eliot, Graham and Gandhi. There is a
paper to be written on this matter alone!
The point here is not to denigrate Gardner from a vantage point with which he is not
acquainted. The reciprocal could be said of this author's knowledge of psychological
theory. The point is to highlight two issues. The first issue is that of the invisibility of
design and technology in MI theory. While Gardner is developing a universal account of
intelligences, one way or another this must account for such existence-shaping human
activity as technology and design. If these do not qualify for intelligence status in their own
right then it will be reasonable to seek their recognition across the candidate intelligences.
The second issue concerns what is perceived to be a kind of 'Catch 22' that embroils
Gardner's thesis – the issue of what kind of curriculum framework he might better place
Frames of Mind. While MI theory has significant potential to debase the socially divisive
and iniquitous uses of single intelligence theory and its testing, and it offers a holistic
approach to understanding human potential in the individual and collectively, to try to
move forward using past, exhausted, paradigms of knowledge organisation (for example,
his 'traditional and conservative' approach) is erroneous. In fact, as new ways of
curriculum organisation emerge, it will be their very synergy with such theories as MI
that will displace the bastions of 'science', 'IQ', 'testing' and 'disciplines'. Critical and
holistic D&T, freed of its orthodoxies, will move forward in harmony with MI theory.
Neither of these can flourish in hidebound educational organisational models.
Assessment
Another paper would address the assessment issues that arise out of this discussion but
some key points ought to be noted. If one achievement of MI theory is the erosion of
the use of IQ tests for 'sorting' or 'measuring' children, there remain concerns that a
whole new suite of tests for each intelligence aren't developed and 'applied' with equally
divisive consequences. The assessment challenges embodied in D&T education are much
those of MI theory. What matters at the absolute centre is the ethical question of 'why
assess?' and ensuring that assessment assists learning. There is a long history of
prescribed bodies of knowledge and tests amounting to being 'the tail that wags the
curriculum dog'. If assessment is developed that benefits the potential of the individual
and informs the teacher of ways that the individual's learning can be enhanced then it
will be worthwhile assessment. In essence, if we teach to 'g' and measure 'g', we will be
educating in 'g'. MI theory and D&T practice are about rather more than 'g'-type notions.
Epilogue
So to the title of this paper via Ancient Greece. Gardner draws on Berlin's (1998)
analysis of the Greek poet Archilocus's distinction between the hedgehog and the fox.
(Archilocus said)…'The fox knows many things but the hedgehog knows one big thing.'
Scholars have differed about the correct interpretation of these dark words, which may
mean no more than that the fox, for all his (sic) cunning, is defeated by the hedgehog's one
defence. But, taken figuratively, the words can be made to yield a sense in which they mark
one of the deepest differences which divide writers and thinkers, and it may be, human
beings in general. For there exists a great chasm between those, on one side, who relate
250
everything to a single central vision, one system, less or more coherent or articulate…and,
on the other side, those who pursue many ends, often unrelated and even contradictory…
(Berlin 1998, p.436).
To remind us that we are not the sole technological species one might nominate the
crow, archetypal problem solver and tool designer/user. The crow is a canny bird and
legendary too. In Aesop's 'Necessity is the Mother of Invention' fable of the Crow and
the Pitcher, the crow gets life-saving water from the bottom of the pitcher by dropping
stones in to raise the water level. In a recent experiment a crow bent a piece of wire to
make a tool to retrieve food from a cylinder (BERG 2002).
We are reminded that, as humans, we are technological and we possess multiple intelligences
but it would be wise to temper our strengths with a humility towards what we have yet to
learn.
References
Armstrong, T 1994, Multiple intelligences in the classroom, Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development, Alexandria, Virginia.
Barlow, H B 1987, 'Intelligence: The art of good guesswork', in The Oxford Companion to the Mind,
ed. R. L Gregory, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Behavioural Ecology Research Group 2002, Oxford University, Tool use in corvids, [WWW
document], URL http://users.ox.ac.uk/~kgroup/tools/tools_main.html
Berlin, I 1998, 'The Hedgehog and the Fox; An essay on Tolstoy's view of history', in The proper
study of mankind: An anthology of essays, eds H Hardy & R Hauser, Pimlico, London.
Boring, E G 1923, 'Intelligence as the tests test it', New Republic, 6 June, 35, p.7.
Cross, N 1995, 'Discovering design ability', in Discovering design: Explorations in design studies, eds
R Buchanan. & V Margolin, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Department of Education, Training and Employment (DETE) 2001, South Australian Curriculum
Standards and Accountability Framework (SACSA), [WWW document], URL
http://www.sacsa.sa.edu.au
Ferguson, E 1992, Engineering and the mind's eye, The MIT Press, London.
Fogarty, G J 1999, 'Intelligence: Theories and issues', in Adult educational psychology, ed. J A Athanasou,
Social Science Press, Katoomba, Australia.
Fogarty, R & Bellanca, J (eds) 1995, Multiple intelligences: A collection, Hawker Brownlow Education,
Cheltenham, Vic.
Gardner, H 1993a, Creating minds, Basic Books, New York.
Gardner, H 1993b, 'Introduction to the Second Edition', in Frames of mind: The theory of multiple
intelligences, ed. H Gardner, Fontana, London.
Gardner, H 1993c, 'Original 1983 text', in Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences (2nd edn),
ed. H Gardner, Fontana, London.
Gardner, H 1993d, Multiple intelligences: The theory in practice, Basic Books, New York.
Gardner, H 1995, 'Reflections on multiple intelligences', Phi Delta Kappan, vol.77, no.3, pp.200–208.
Gardner, H 1999a, 'Intelligence', in The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought, eds A Bullock & S
Trombley, Harper Collins, London.
Gardner, H 1999b, Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st Century, Basic Books, New York.
Gardner, H 1999c, 'Who owns intelligence?', The Atlantic, Online edition, Feb. 1999, URL
251
http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/99feb/intel.htm
Gardner, H 2001, 'An education for the future: The foundation of science and values', Paper
presented to The Royal Symposium, Amsterdam, 13/03/2001, [WWW document], URL
http://pzweb.harvard.edu/WhatsNew/Amsterdam.htm
Gardner, H 2002, Biographical notes at Project Zero Website, [WWW document]. URL
http://pzweb/harvard.edu/Pls/HG.htm
Harrison, G 2001, The continuum of design education for engineering, Engineering Council, London.
Heil, J 1995, 'Intelligence', in The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, ed. T Honderich, Oxford
University Press, Oxford.
Hernstein, R J & Murray, C 1994, The bell curve: Intelligence and class structure in American life, Free
Press, New York.
Keirl, S 1999, 'Determining technology education: Knowing the orthodox, the interests, and the
potential', in Contesting the Curriculum, eds B Johnson & A Reid, Social Science Press, Sydney
Keirl, S 2001a, 'Citizenship education? Not without a quality technology education it isn't', in
Education Futures and New Citizenships: Proceedings of the 10th Biennial conference of the Australian
Curriculum Studies Association 2001, ed. M Brennan, ACSA, Deakin West, ACT.
Keirl, S 2001b, 'Technology education: Perpetrator of past problems or gadfly for favoured
futures?', in Education Futures and New Citizenships: Proceedings of the 10th Biennial conference of the
Australian Curriculum Studies Association 2001, ed. M Brennan, , ACSA, Deakin West, ACT.
Kimbell, R & Perry, D 2001, Design and technology in a Knowledge Economy, Engineering Council,
London.
Kornhaber, M & Gardner, H 1995, 'Varieties of excellence: Identifying and assessing children's
talents', in Multiple intelligences: A collection, eds R Fogarty. & J Bellanca, Hawker Brownlow
Education, Cheltenham, Vic.
Lazear, D 1991, Seven ways of knowing: Teaching for multiple intelligences, Skylight, Palatine, Illinois.
Lazear, D 1994, Multiple intelligence approaches to assessment: Solving the assessment conundrum, Zephyr
Press, Tucson, Arizona.
McCormick, R 1999, 'Capability lost and found? The Maurice Brown Memorial Lecture', The
Journal of Design and Technology Education, vol.4, no.1, pp.5–14, DATA, Wellesbourne, U.K.
Middleton, H 2000, 'Designing research to research design: Some methodological issues in
researching design thinking', in 1st Biennial International Conference on Technology Education 2000
Proceedings, Technology Education Research Unit, Griffith University, Qld.
Seemann, K 2000, 'Technacy education: Towards holistic pedagogy and epistemology in general and
indigenous/cross-cultural technology education', in 1st Biennial International Conference on Technology
Education 2000 Proceedings, Technology Education Research Unit, Griffith University, Qld.
Sternberg 1987, 'Intelligence', in The Oxford Companion to the Mind, ed.. R L Gregory, Oxford
Vernon, E (ed.) 1970, Creativity, Penguin, Harmondsworth, England.
Winner, L 1995, 'Political ergonomics', in Discovering design: Explorations in design studies, eds R
Buchanan & V Margolin, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Zangwill, O L 1987, 'Alfred Binet', in The Oxford Companion to the Mind, ed. R L Gregory, Oxford
252
Against the Provincialism of Customary
Existence: Issues Arising from the Interplay
of 'Essential Learnings', Design and
Technology and General Education
Steve Keirl
University of South Australia
I
ncreasingly in Australia, curriculum developments are recognising the limitations of subject-
oriented or 'learning-area' focussed organisational models and are weaving richer patterns of
curriculum design. One such recent development (SACSA 2001) requires the articulation of
five 'Essential Learnings' through the eight Learning Areas. This paper:
• provides some background to this development;
• discusses the nature of general education and D&T's role within it;
• illustrates the interwoven nature of the Learnings with D&T; and,
• critiques the issues of perceived erosion of D&T by such cross-curricular
developments and of the influences on the field's content/process debate.
Introduction
This paper cannot present the fullest of detail about the South Australian Curriculum
Standards and Accountability (SACSA) Framework (DETE 2001a & b) to which it refers.
A comprehensive understanding can only be obtained by reference to the main work.
This paper concerns itself with the relationship between one very important part of
SACSA and one very important role of Design and Technology (D&T) Education,
namely, between Essential Learnings (ELs) and D&T's role in general education.
Background to the development

SACSA was developed for implementation by the end of 2001. The curriculum offers a
framework - it is not intended as a document of prescription - for those working in
childcare centres and schools to use in their professional work. The framework is
South Australia's first coherent curriculum statement covering the Birth to Year 12
years, which are organised into four bands. Across the Bands run Learning Areas
(LAs) through which '…learners are introduced to bodies of knowledge established by
communities of scholars' (DETE 2001b, General Introduction p.25). 'Design and
Technology' has been a Learning Area from Age 3 in South Australian curriculum since
253
1995 (see, e.g. DECS 1995). As well as organising the knowledge, skills and dispositions
associated with 'bodies of knowledge' the LAs were also to adopt several key foci: on
learning, through ELs; on coherence (holistic development of learners over the years); on
Enterprise and Vocational Education (EVE) articulating seven Key Competencies
(KC's); on equity (comprising several cross-curriculum perspectives); and, on high
expectations for learners using Standards. The R-12 LAs are organised through Strands,
the fundamental concepts for which are expressed as Key Ideas. From these the
Standards (against which performance is assessed) are developed, each with associated
Examples of Evidence.
The essential learnings

SACSA takes constructivism as its theoretical basis for the conception of learning: '…the
learner is active in the process of taking in information and building knowledge and
understanding; in other words, of constructing their own learning. Learning then is the
active process of engaging in experience and its internalisation in terms of thinking. All
forms of experience can be called upon here… (DETE 2001b, General Introduction
pp.10–11). In answering the question 'What knowledge, skills and dispositions should
children and students develop within a constructivist framework?' the Framework
advances the EL's – understandings, capabilities and dispositions that are personal
qualities to be developed throughout life and which enable people to engage productively
with changing times as thoughtful, active, responsive and committed local, national and
global citizens. The EL's are not bodies of knowledge. Five have been identified and they
foster the capabilities to:
• develop the flexibility to respond to change, recognise connections with the past and
conceive solutions for preferred futures (Futures);
• develop a positive sense of self and group, accept individual and group responsibilities
and respect individual and group differences (Identity);
• work in harmony with others and for common purposes, within and across cultures
(Interdependence);
• be independent and critical thinkers, with the ability to appraise information, make
decisions, be innovative and devise creative solutions (Thinking); and,
• communicate powerfully (Communication).
Design and Technology in SACSA

From 1994, 'Technology' was consolidated across Australia as one of eight LAs with the
publication of a series of Statements and Profiles. Those for Technology Education
(AEC 1994a & b) were the subject of revision and refinement in the SACSA process.
While much of the spirit and good practice embodied in the Statement and Profile were
retained, the new structure is built around three strands expressed as verbs – Critiquing,
Designing and Making. What has been dropped includes three strands whose names,
familiar enough in Technology Education almost anywhere, are nouns – Information,
Materials and Systems. The reconceptualisation of Design and Technology draws on a
254
Against the Provincialism of Customary Existence
three-dimensioned understanding of technological literacy as an underpinning rationale.

This development attempts to construct D&T Education holistically while also matching
SACSA's overall design requirements. As will be argued, any narrow or instrumental
construction would have negated the capability of the field to contribute effectively to
the total curriculum, to the general education of all students, or to articulate the ELs.
Technological literacy can be viewed as having three dimensions, all of which are
equally valid and important. All children and students benefit from all dimensions of
technological literacy and must not be constrained in their learning to one aspect alone.
The three dimensions are:
• the operational, through which students develop skills and competencies at a technical
level, to use materials and equipment in order to make products and systems (they learn to
use and do);
• the cultural, through which students contextualise their learning in the world of designed
and made products, processes and systems. They recognise the interdependence of
technologies with people at home, in further education and training, at work and at play,
and they apply their technical learning in practical ways to realise designs and solve
practical problems (they learn through technology); and,
• the critical, through which students are empowered to take a full and critical role as
autonomous citizens in technological societies. They are able to make refined judgements
about the worth of the intentions and consequences of technological products, processes
and systems on themselves and others. They reflect on technologies and take subsequent
personal and civic action in the light of this reflection (they learn about, and to be with,
technology) (DETE 2001b, Middle Years Band pp.36–37).
General education and design and technology

It is necessary to pause here to comment on the issue of D&T's role in general
education. This is not just a matter for the framing of the paper as there are some
questions begged. For example, is D&T independent of general education? (Perhaps, an
organisational question.) Ought it to be so? (A political question.) Is D&T equipped for a
role in general education? (A policy and resource question) Thus, something must be said
to address the question of what constitutes general education while more should be said
about D&T.
To clarify what might be understood to be general education, it is possible to begin
with two simple statements. First, general education is taken here to be that education which
is delivered to all students in the compulsory years of schooling – it is general to all students and,
largely, cannot be avoided by the students. Second, there is the sense of that education
which may be general by way of its content, i.e. which is not subject-specific. Thus, in the first
sense there may be levels of literacy or social education deemed valuable to all students –
perhaps on the one hand as a right they are due and on the other hand because such
education serves some sense of a common good for a (possibly democratic) society. The
emphasised levels is used because, it could be argued, one's literacy and social education
never cease throughout life. In the second sense, literacy may again be taken as the
example but it is not seen as a 'subject' or organised body of knowledge but, rather, the
responsibility of all aspects of curriculum to support its achievement.
What, then, might be candidates for inclusion as general education under both of the
255
senses offered? The answer to this question is never as clear as first seems. For example,
literacy is one bete noire of politicians and policymakers alike yet attempts to define, let
alone, measure literacy remain, at best, elusive. Demonstrably, at least on paper, such
constructs as the SACSA ELs are considered to interweave all curriculum activity across
the compulsory years (and beyond). But there need not be anything special about
communication, futures, identity, interdependence and thinking. Even allowing for
curriculum development for 21st Century local-global contexts, why not valorise
sustainability, ethics, Esperanto, critiquing, civics or design in addition to, or instead of,
these five? There could be many others too. Nor is the issue new. General education
discourse overlaps with the discourse of liberal education. The issues are recurrent and
reflect the kinds of questions presented above – matters of education for life and society,
of curriculum requirement, of curriculum organisation and design, all pertain.
The Greeks developed a concept and practice of what they called enkyklios paideia, literally
translated as "general education". This was based on the seven liberal arts, comprising the
four areas of…knowledge which became known as the quadrivium – arithmetic, geometry,
astronomy and harmonics – and the three methods of organising and treating this content –
dialectic (or logic, rhetoric and grammar, together known as the trivium. Along with exercises
in the gymnasium this was the content of "all round" education. Of course it was served by a
preliminary sequence of mythopoeic literature and the three Rs: reading, writing and
reckoning (Bowen & Hobson 1974, p.120).
Of course, such educational provision was not universal and it was not until the late
19th Century that notions of mass education emerged. Also, the trivium had such
influence that they continued as the basis of the establishment of the earliest European
universities in the Middle Ages and well beyond to more recent times. Further, a legacy
far from unknown to our own field of technology education exists to this day. 'Because
they were held to be the means by which Man (sic) can be liberated from his limitations,
these studies, based on language and mathematics, were therefore called the liberal arts,
and this distinguished them from the "illiberal" crafts, which were the customary
activities of menial workers' (Bowen & Hobson 1974, p.4). This sense of liberation, for
example as emancipation, matters to education today. As Peters (1965) points out, liberal
education is neither synonymous with, nor interchangeable with, education. 'The demand
that education should be 'liberal' has usually been put forward as a protest against
confining what goes on to the service of some extrinsic end such as the production of
material goods or the promotion of health or empire. The mind, it is argued, should be
allowed to pursue its own bent untrammelled by such restrictions' (Peters 1965, p.101).
As is almost always the case, noted curriculum commentators rarely address our being
in the technological world – this omission is part of the inheritance of the trivium. Thus
educational writing and theorising rarely take account of either technology education or
the technological world. (This, it is always argued by this author, is an indefensible
omission from a democratic education.) Phenix (1964) posits: 'Human beings are
essentially creatures who have the power to experience meanings. Distinctively human
existence consists in a pattern of meanings. Furthermore, general education is the process of
engendering essential meanings' (Phenix 1964, p.5). However, he points to the ease with which
meaning can be…
256
…lost in an abyss of meaninglessness. The perennial threat to meaning is intensified under

the conditions of modern industrial civilisation. Four contributing factors deserve special
emphasis. The first is the spirit of criticism and scepticism… The second…is the pervasive
depersonalisation and fragmentation of life caused by the extreme specialisation of a
complex, interdependent society. The third factor is the sheer mass of cultural products,
especially knowledge, which modern man (sic) is required to assimilate. The fourth factor is
the rapid rate of change in the conditions of life, resulting in a pervasive feeling of
impermanence and insecurity (Phenix 1964, p.5).
Written almost four decades ago this extract not only illustrates the implicit presence
and latent influence of technologies in our lives but is also a broadly accurate portrayal of
our circumstances today. Phenix's landmark text sets out his argument for six realms of
meaning – symbolics, empirics, esthetics, synnoetics (relational insight or direct awareness,
ethics and synoptics (meanings that are comprehensively integrative).
If the six realms cover the range of possible meanings, they may be regarded as comprising
the basic competences that general education should develop in every person. A complete
person should be skilled in the use of speech, symbol, and gesture, factually well informed,
capable of creating and appreciating objects of esthetic significance, endowed with a rich
and disciplined life in relation to self and others, able to make wise decisions and to judge
between right and wrong, and possessed of an integral outlook. These are the aims of
general education for the development of whole persons (Phenix 1964, p.8).
Such a position offers an informative comparison with such constructs as the
essential learnings! In the same period and as a source of vigorous debate, came Hirst's
articulation of forms of knowledge – mathematics, the physical sciences, knowledge of
persons, literature and the fine arts, morals, religion, and philosophy – each grounded in
'…distinctive rational judgements (involving) elements which are irreducible to any of
the others, singly or in combination' (Hirst 1974, p.26). Hirst interrogates Phenix's work
and concludes, inter alia, that, 'Curriculum patterns, however, can be composed in
endless variety and a structure having these features may be desirable. But neither
Phenix's 'realms', nor my forms, are to be regarded as, in the first instance, providing a
pattern for curriculum units' (Hirst 1974, p.67)
These rigorous philosophical approaches to curriculum are deep, worthy and
informative. They offer valid lenses for educational theorising and do much to expose
what Peters has referred to as the 'philosophically feeble'. In a cursory look at the notion
of general education for democratic life and society, the ELs, realms of meaning, and
forms of knowledge all have something to offer. But such a general education happens,
as Apple (1979) reminds us, neither without a powerful hidden curriculum – nor a
freedom from ideology. So whatever the construct of general education, there is perhaps
a choice on the menu and whatever our selection, if it is to serve democratic life, it must
have some form of rationally defensible ethical basis. For, 'how we should live' is an
ethical question for rational resolution (Singer 1993, 1995).
None of the cited analyses explicitly recognises technology or technology education.
While these may be implicit, the very fact that they are only so is a concern for this paper.
The position could be adopted that this is the way matters should be for technology
education (as they always have been). Technology has little claim to being a Hirstian
knowledge form, it may have a defensible case as a realm of meaning, and may have an
257
ideological function in any curriculum, particularly through hidden curriculum. But such
reflections beg a clarification of what one means by technology education.
If technology 'education's' role is to be a mere functionary – as application of science,
socialisation towards keyboarding, or industry servant (qv Peters's 'service of extrinsic
ends', above) – then it is instrumental in nature and remains beyond any rationally and
ethically defensible model of a true education for democracy. In fact, it remains illiberal or
technical and quite appropriate for the 'customary activities of menial workers'. If, for
example, all four factors contributing to Phenix's 'perennial threat to meaning' are to be
countered, then technology-as-meaning and being-with technology need to be understood. If
technology is to be understood for its capacity to erode democracy (Sclove 1995;
Feenberg 1999) then a technology education capable of embracing ethics, citizenship and
democracy is necessary (Keirl 2001a, 2001b, 2002). A technology education with a rich
conceptualisation of technological literacy has a genuine claim as a player in an education
that is democratic as well as in an education for democracy. These are the reciprocals of
general education. A technology education which cannot articulate and reflect the
prerequisites of a general education cannot claim to be part of a democratic general
education. Conversely a democratic general education pre-requires a holistic, multi-
dimensioned technology education.
Design and Technology education can have a powerful role in a general education for
democracy but only if it is constructed and enacted in holistic, critical and dynamic ways.
Further, it is argued here that such a role is a rationally defensible ethical must for
democratic curriculum. An examination of the SACSA development offers some insights
into an interwoven approach, through a comprehensive technological literacy, to
articulating the essential learnings of a general education.
The capacity of D&T to articulate essential learnings

The ELs are seen in the context of changing times and children's futures, and recognise
the their need for personal resources and flexibility to adapt, transfer experiences and
knowledge, and to be able to act responsibly with regard to others. It is also important to
note that the understandings, capabilities and dispositions that are developed are
personal and intellectual qualities, not bodies of knowledge, and they are developed
throughout an individual's life and not simply arrived at in school. The full aims of D&T
are not presented here but the following notes should be contextualised against the
elaboration of technological literacy (above) and its articulation through the three strands
of critiquing, designing, and making.
Futures
Best D&T practice already embodies futures perspectives – particularly in the primary
sectors where some schools are leading futures education. Design, by its very nature, is a
matter of change from present to future – the changing of one set of circumstances into
another. A good D&T education shows students that technologies don't just happen but
are the results of the values, intentions and designs of people. In such a way they, too,
can explore ways in which their values and intentions can be turned into preferred
futures.
258
Identity
Identity is shaped by many factors – for example, by relationships with others, by culture
and by location – and the same can be said of the designed and made world. It is difficult
to deny that we are who we are by virtue of the very technologies we live with and use.
Indeed, it can be argued that we, and our behaviours, are shaped by technologies.
Learning about identity can happen through all the D&T strands – by students working
alone and in teams. The challenges of making, the development of technique, the
advocacy and defence of designs, and engagement with criticism are all powerful shapers
of identity. Designing is a learner-centred activity that valorises identity both through
ownership of learning (as self) and through the expression of student (e.g. cultural)
values in the designed work.
Interdependence
A fundamental of our lives is our interconnectedness not only with each other but also
with, and through, the designed and made world. Given the capacity of technologies to
shape our identities, it is also the case that they can bring us together as well as divide us.
Communities are about interdependence and they can be reshaped and reformed by
technologies. Amongst nations there are vast differences in technological provision –
ranging from super-abundance to life-taking scarcity. A 'critical' D&T education helps
students explore key ethical issues around 'self interest' and 'the common good'.
Thinking
We have known for some time that D&T offers a powerful education because of its
demands for multiple thinking styles. We also know that such an education has the
capacity to take as starting points the preferred thinking strengths of students and to lead
them into new realms of thought. The field is often described in terms of 'problem
solving' and considerable research has been devoted to this. It is the case that
imagination, reflection, analysis, synthesis, intuition, creativity, critiquing and many other
thinking 'genres' all have their roles in design and technological activity. Indeed, when it
comes to matters of aesthetics, ethics, and existence there is room for rich philosophical
thought which, in turn, serves in developing complex arguments to critique technologies.
Communication
Finally, D&T offers much towards students' learning about communication and, especially,
communication as empowerment. Being able to question one's own, and others', ideas and
positions is a fundamental of rich literacy. In instrumental ways, students can communicate
by drawing a plan or sending an email but it is also important that they learn to be
articulate, critical, and capable of communicating sophisticated arguments. The need to
interrogate new technologies and designs goes well beyond matters of mere information
transmission.
Commentary - influences on D&T education

By way of conclusion five scenarios are offered of the key issues that are perceived to be
at play in these kinds of curriculum developments. First, the scenario can be
259
contemplated where the emphases of LAs and Essential Learnings are reversed – with
the effect of 'rotating the matrix'. Instead of ELs being woven through Learning Areas,
the reverse could happen. Taken to one arguable conclusion the LAs could disappear.
This might seem to lead to an 'integrated curriculum' – currently thought to occur in
primary education and not in secondary – and might halt the subjectification in both
primary and secondary. Additionally, just at a time when a newly constructed,
emancipatory, values- and process-rich LA such as D&T is finding its feet, it is
abandoned because the necessary critiques of the trivium-rooted 'disciplines' demand the
LAs' dissolution. This is the 'throwing the (newborn) baby out with the bathwater'
scenario.
Second, Hirst's (1974) observations must resonate – no matter what the pattern or
organisation, there must be some logically necessary characteristics of a curriculum. It is
argued, a critical education in technology, and in design, can play a rationally defensible
ethical role in democratic general education. This cannot come from 'content' alone. The
curriculum is not the place for lumpen bodies of knowledge. Within and beyond
technology education there are blockages which deny the organic curriculum. This is the
'constipated curriculum' scenario.
Third, one might speculate that, if D&T were already well positioned to deliver the
likes of the ELs, then it would be able to articulate any similar curriculum innovation.
Given the intimate place of technology in our species' being, the educational power of
design, and the ethical necessity of critiquing, these fundamentals for life are defensible
fundamentals of democratic curriculum. Thus, does D&T see itself at all times the victim
of other curriculum bullies and orthodoxies (Keirl 1999) or is D&T itself of such a design
that it readily embraces and, better, leads curriculum innovation? This is the 'lead-rather-
than-follow' scenario.
The fourth issue concerns 'the orthodoxy of the incomprehensible' (Keirl 1999) –
namely, the claim that trying to understand or frame technology is simply beyond us,
individually or collectively, or, worse, that we shouldn't bother. When claims are made
that matters seem complex or beyond understanding then the superficial and the
'philosophically feeble' prevail. This need not be the case. It is the very richness of
design, of technology and of critiquing that both beg and offer a key role in democratic
global curriculum. This is the 'sense-making' scenario.
The fifth and final issue concerns the prior four. It is the 'scenario of holism' and can
be viewed in two ways – seeing the whole as greater than the sum of its parts and seeing
the whole as a dynamic, not static, entity. As Phenix (1964) says:
It is not easy to sustain a sense of the whole. Many a person pursues his (sic) own limited
calling with scarcely a thought for his place in the total drama of civilised endeavour. While
he may have a vague notion of the larger context in which his contribution is made, he may
never engage in any sustained study and reflection about his relation to the entire pattern of
civilisation.
This limitation of outlook is evident even in education…Students and teachers alike are
prone to take the curriculum as they find it, as a traditional sequence of separate elements,
without ever inquiring into the comprehensive pattern within which the constituent parts are
located.
260
Since education is the means of perpetuating culture from generation to generation, it is

natural that the partiality of outlook endemic in the culture generally would be found also in
education. Yet this consequence need not follow. Indeed, the special office of education is
to widen one's view of life, to deepen insight into relationships, and to counteract the
provincialism of customary existence…(Phenix 1964, pp.3–4).
There is rampant evidence of 'provincialism of customary existence' within and
beyond technology education – the roots of the trivium, subjects, learning areas,
educational jurisdictions within and across countries, across sectors (primary, secondary
and tertiary, and, from the orthodoxies of technology. The relationships amongst the
species, society, politics, ethics and technology are complex and perpetually shifting. A
constipated curriculum cannot address this situation and throwing out D&T certainly
cannot. If the positives lie in the defence of quality D&T, curriculum leadership by D&T,
and an educational and social professional duty to make sense of D&T, then we must
know the whole and knowing the whole is about not only the advantages of the tangible
but, also, the usefulness of the intangible (Tzu 1989).
References
Apple, M W 1979, Ideology and curriculum, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London.
Australian Education Council 1994a, A statement on technology for Australian schools, Curriculum
Corporation, Carlton.
Australian Education Council 1994b, Technology – A curriculum profile for Australian schools, Curriculum
Bowen, J & Hobson, P R 1974, Theories of education: Studies of significant innovation in Western educational
thought, John Wiley & Sons, Brisbane.
Department for Education and Children's Services 1995, Foundation areas of Learning – A curriculum
framework for early childhood settings, DECS, Adelaide.
Department of Education, Training and Employment (DETE) 2001a, South Australian Curriculum
Standards and Accountability Framework, SACSA, [WWW document], URL
http://www.sacsa.sa.edu.au
Department of Education, Training and Employment (DETE), 2001b, South Australian Curriculum
Standards and Accountability Framework (Hardcopy version), DETE Publishing, Adelaide.
Feenberg, A 1999, Questioning Technology, Routledge, London.
Hirst, P H 1974, Knowledge and the curriculum: A collection of philosophical papers, Routledge and Kegan
Paul, London
Keirl, S 1999, 'Determining technology education: Knowing the orthodox, the interests, and the
potential', in Contesting the curriculum, (eds) B Johnson & A Reid, Social Science Press, Sydney.
Keirl, S 2001a, 'As if democracy mattered… design, technology and citizenship or 'Living with the
temperamental elephant'', in Design and technology educational research and curriculum development: The
emerging international research agenda, eds E W L Norman & P H Roberts, Loughborough
University, Loughborough, U.K.
Keirl, S 2001b, 'Citizenship education? Not without a quality technology education it isn't' in
Education Futures and New Citizenships: Proceedings of the 10th Biennial conference of the Australian
Curriculum Studies Association 2001, ed. M Brennan, ACSA, Deakin West, ACT.
Keirl, S 2002, 'What has ethics to do with Design and Technology education?', in Issues in design and
technology teaching, eds B Barnes, J Morley & S Sayers, Routledge, London.
261
Peters, R S 1965, 'Education as initiation', in Philosophical analysis and education, ed. R D Archambault,
Routledge and Kegan Paul, London.
Phenix, P H 1964, Realms of meaning: A philosophy of the curriculum for general education, McGraw-Hill,
New York.
Sclove, R E 1995, Democracy and technology, The Guilford Press, N.Y.
Singer, P 1993, Practical ethics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Singer, P 1995, How are we to live? Ethics in an age of self-interest, Mandarin, Port Melbourne.
Tzu, L 1989, Tao Te Ching, Shambala, Boston.
262
Significant Research Problems
Relating to Teaching
Kisilu M. Kitainge
RMIT University
I
n every teaching and learning process, there are at least six factors at play which are of
significance to the achievement of the planned ends in the classroom. These factors are:
Teacher and his/her characteristics; The students and their characteristics; The subject matter
and its characteristics; The venue and its characteristics; The method being used; The society
and the events outside school. These sub topics raised above have been analysed one by one in
that order, raising questions, suggestions and dilemmas facing Kenya now. The first two were
discussed in a more considerable depth because they are the cores in the whole business of
teaching and learning. The others are important too but limits in space would not allow their being
discussed in details. This paper is not complete without the proposals of all the members who
have heard it being presented. Those who will read it later will too be expected to think of their
individual situation and weigh out the alternatives. Proposals of the way forward should be in
each of the reader's reflection.
Introduction
The question which this paper addresses is, 'what are the issues of the research concern
as regards teaching and Learning' In addition to this question, issues relating to the
current state of affairs in Kenya and some possible ways out of situations have been
highlighted.
The teacher
The teacher is very important for the achievement of the goals set in the
teaching/learning process. Rao (1990), Bijou (1990) as quoted in Thomas (2000), and
Fieman-Nemser et al (2000) lamented that as we consider the several aspects of the
teaching-learning process, the other important partner in the teaching and learning
processes, the teacher is mostly forgotten. This is more so on the teacher's education and
training that has received some research attention, though not nearly enough considering
that the teachers behaviour is by far the most important set of the conditions influencing
learning and motivation in the classroom. They were of the view that the success of a
nation depends on the quality of its educational system. The quality of the nations
schools in turn depends on the quality of its teachers. What teachers know and can do is
the single most important factor in determining what students will have an opportunity
to learn. In view of the above voices, I have been persuaded to discuss teacher
characteristics first.
263
The teaching process has several steps, all touching on the teacher. There are
questions that teachers ask; what am I going to teach? (Curriculum); How am I going to
teach it? (Methods); How will I know if its well taught? (Assessment) and how can I
teach it better next time (Reflection, self assessment, improvement). For every teaching
task, the teacher has to provide an answer to all these questions otherwise a breakdown
in the teaching process occurs.
To be competent, successful and efficient, it's important that teachers' professional
growth is paid sufficient attention to. If teachers were wanting in efficiency, success, or
competence, then their functioning at optimum level would be affected adversely. Herbst
(1989) as quoted in Fieman-Nemser et al (2000) highlighted some issues on teacher
professional development. It says, "Historically, policy makers have not devoted enough
resources to the teacher education because they did not believe that teachers needed
specialised education" (p.738). This is a policy issue on the perception of teaching; it goes
along way in informing how teachers are prepared, where that takes place, and who is in
charge. There are stereotypes and prejudice being directed to the teacher. What has
research to indicate about this? What are the existing beliefs about the nature of teaching
and the role of teachers in society?
The teachers serve as the interpreter of educational policy, goals and objectives. They
study the policy guidelines and the syllabus to determine what to teach. He too decides
on the best way of teaching the content based on available resources and facilities. The
size of the class also determines the method applied. It is the teacher who decides the
best way of grouping the class to attain the best results. The feedback a teacher gets from
students in the teaching process serves to either strengthen the method choice or weaken
its support, paving way for change.
The teacher is also a manager. Teaching and enhancing learning are the job
descriptions. In view of this then other research areas for the teacher and his/ her
characteristics could be based on Boyett and Boyett (2000) dimensions of assessing high
performance in organisations. Their main areas are support for innovation and risk
taking, Emphasis on the improvement of personal skills, job design, role of management,
the organisational structure, flexibility, team work, dedication, rewards, access to
information, socio- technical balance, and customer relations. In the teaching
environment, research to find out how teachers measure these aspects in relation to their
job performance would enhance good-teaching outputs.
Research in these areas would seek to find out how new ideas are perceived by
teachers and the heads of institutions, developing proposals on what can be done to
allow for knowledge generations while passing across what already exists. These aspects
should be studied broadly on how they impact on teachers. For example, the
establishments should support teachers to learn new skills while they perform their
teaching duties. Training on interpersonal relations, administration and technical skills
should be availed for the teachers. Marran (1990) cited in Chauhan (1992) asked a large
group of teachers whether the personality characteristics of the teacher are more
important than any particular knowledge or set of skills that the teacher possesses in
determining success in teaching. Three out of every four (3/4), agreed with the view that
personality characteristic of teachers are more important. The teacher serves to motivate
264
Significant Research Problems Relating to Teaching
hence transform, the students from what they are to what they should be. The teacher is
a role model, parental image and the larger world representative in class.
Teachers are always placed in sensitive situations. They weigh conditions of time, the
learner, the content, the facilities and the expected goal, and making a decision on the
best combination of the prevailing alternatives. This demands wisdom and a stable
foundation of the subject matter to function from. In Kenya, teachers are not involved
enough at the policy level. An example is (Daily Nation Newspaper, July 2002) that the
secretary to the Teachers Service Commission (TSC) announced that teachers will be
hired on contract bases as opposed to the probationary then permanent and pensionable
bases. This was just announced without consultation with the teachers union. It was not
even passed by the parliament as the law demands. Such lack of involvement on the part
of the teachers at the policy level can be blamed for some failures in the Kenyan
education system.
What characteristics are assumed to be most important for an effective teacher then?
Some are warmth, justice, attitudes towards errors (own and students'), and competence.
Other assumed characteristics are enthusiasm, making eye contact while delivering
content, relating to students needs and interests, anticipating events in the classroom,
knowing how to pace a class, delivering information in concise and clear manner,
monitoring student's behaviour and response to teaching initiatives, and maintaining
class control.
On these teacher characteristics research topics that should be pursued are the
teacher personality and job performance; teacher satisfaction and job performance;
teacher education and training, and job performance. These areas should be investigated
across cultures and educational systems. The methods of measuring (devising an
operational definition) the dependent and the independent variables will be guided by the
operating conditions, the societal values and the distinct group characteristics. This then
brings about the operating base and need for treating each case on its own merit before
generalising.
The teacher and the student are taken as the interacting forces within the wider
society. The effects of the wider world should also be investigated; they too are of
significance to both the teacher and the learner. The relationship between the students'
needs, teacher's emphasis and the world of work cannot be overemphasised. Gagne and
Driscoll (1988) suggested that a good theory of teaching should be based on three
questions: i) How do teachers behave and what do they do? ii) Why do they behave in
the manner that they do? iii) What are the effects of the teachers' behaviour on the
students? These questions will always call for research because as the world changes the
answers will change, and remain a priority in education. For example, why would a
teacher in an automotive class opt to use a manufacturer's manual to teach about the fuel
system of a particular design of a vehicle and not of another?
The teacher is a sieve, a 'grading machine' and once an error is allowed into the
system, it will be transmitted exponentially. Teachers are the transformation matrices
kernels; they should be able to interact with the knowledge, information and skills at the
intimate levels if the same has to be facilitated for the students. For instance, the
automotive industry is one of the fastest moving and growing in the world. The demand
265
for beauty, style, power and speed is impacting on the trade so much. Teachers should
have access to the Internet, activities at the world of work and the facilitation to learn.
This will guard against their becoming bad teachers who are worse than no teachers at
all. The openness and free exposure required of the teachers is missing in Kenya, not
many have the access to computers leave with the Internet. A lesson I can draw for
Kenya stems from a report of the national commission on teaching and America's future
(1996) as quoted in Fieman-Nemser et al (2000), which states that what teachers know
and can do, makes the crucial difference in what they can accomplish. New courses,
tests, curriculum reforms are important starting points, but are meaningless if teachers
can not use them productively. Policies cannot improve schools without arming teachers
with knowledge, skills attitudes and support they need.
The students
Student's characteristics, which may influence learning in a teaching process, can be
grouped into two broad categories. These are personal attributes and general attributes.
The personal characteristics are:
• Age of the student: this has to do with readiness to learn, attention span, formation of
the cognitive schemas and experiences so far
• Family background: social-economic status, expectations, parenting styles, the values,
cultural emphasis, and societal demands, genetic make up and gender
• Educational background: this will include experiences in school starting the first day,
relationship with the teachers, facilities and emphasis of the school
• Health: whether challenged or not, whether there is a threat looming or not, and
whether there is assurance of good health at all times
• Attitudes: towards the teacher, the subject, the other students and schooling in general
• Attribution inclination: Student's locus of control, whether external or internal.
Student's self-concept, which one has dominance the personal or the social self-
concept.
The general attributes will encompass the demands from society and the system of
education. Many times students learn what is available and not what wished to learn. The
syllabus and clustering of subjects hinders students from getting what they need. For
example, in Kenya, power mechanics, agriculture, electricity, woodwork, home science
and others are grouped together. A student is allowed to take only one of these subjects
yet must all take two language subjects at the secondary school level. The policy does not
give freedom of choice and liberty for the students to shape their lives and career ways.
Theories of learning and education practices would both be greatly simplified if it
could be demonstrated that all learning reduces certain fundamental elements. The
attempts of psychologists (Jones 1967) to determine if this is actually the case has been
complicated by the fact that individuals differ significantly in their learning potential and
their readiness or predisposition to learn. These differences arise from variations in
intelligence and motivations; the effects of the previous experiences that facilitate or
inhibit learning, and the physical state of the learner.
266
Chauhan (1992), proposed a system of developmental task for American adolescents

and its relation to educational objectives. According to Chauhan a developmental task is
a task, which arises at or about, a certain period in the life of the individual successful
achievement of which leads to happiness and success with latter tasks. Conversely, failure
leads to unhappiness in the individual, disapproval by the society and difficult with later
tasks. He points out that any particular developmental task becomes appropriate for an
individual when one or more of the following characteristics have developed: physical
maturation- there are certain tasks which arise due to physical growth of the child
personal values, aspirations and psychological competence (Chauhan 1992).
Research on the students' personal and general attributes across cultures on academic
performance and level of readiness is of great significance to the teaching process. The
physical and psychological age should be considered. An example of the research would
be aimed at finding out if student's personal attributes have anything to do with for
example: students' ability to generalise, understand, deal with abstraction, to solve
problems, development of memory and imagination, identify with conditions and
characters in the larger world. A research should give harmonic variation if any of all
these with the time and the focus.
In Kenya, there are two distinct categories of students who bring in varying
experiences into the class, the rich and the poor. The mention of a car gearing system
triggers different thoughts in a class. To some it may imply their own cars while to others
it will mean 'those machines' owned by the rich. It then becomes hard for the teacher to
choose suitable words to explain the concept to this kind of a class. All the students have
a basic right to know about the issue of discussion but the starting points are different.
What does research say about this? What should a teacher do?
The subject
The relevance of the content being discussed plays an important role of motivating the
students towards learning it. The relationship the subject has with other subjects taught
in the school is important too- that is whether the student can transfer the knowledge to
the other subjects. The present and the perceived future demand in a particular course
affect the students' willingness to enrol. A market demand now may affect enrolments
now and in the future. For example, an advertisement for jobs in the automotive industry
may be as follows: Auto-electrics- 210 vacancies; Light Engines- 100 vacancies; Heavy
commercial vehicles- 50 vacancies; Body work- 2 vacancies. If this advert comes out
before the start of admissions, the college applications will show a related trend in the
areas. These jobs are for now but the training is for the future. This will cause a
mismatch between demand and supply of the skills if we prepare for now and not for the
future. Research should be done and reliable information availed for the students to
make informed choices.
Future prospects of the students with knowledge of the subject include how
marketable will the student be once they leave school due to their possession of the
subject content? A market survey on industry trends and employment opportunities for
the students with different skills is a priority in the teaching/learning process. The
general trend of performance in the subject may affect the new students' performance. If
267
students know that performance in a particular subject has been good, then they feel
secure and are motivated. Schools which register a high performance index for a given
subject will have the incoming students strive to maintain the trend this may find an
explanation in research.
What makes one learning task different from or more difficult than another? This
question may find its answers in educational research too. Learning tasks can be
classified as 'cognitive' - acquisition of knowledge through perception, judgement and
reason; 'affective' - learning pertaining to attitudes, feelings, emotions, or 'psychomotor' -
the learning of manipulative skills (Bloom 1976). Variation in the meaningfulness of the
material being learned may affect the students' interest in learning the material and even
their participation. Studies to establish the best content materials and sources would
transform teaching and learning in schools.
Another issue, which is guiding in the choice of the content and method, the nature
of the students. Mason (2000) there is a new critical element in the education soup is the
nature of the student body. The domain is no longer student 18–22 years of age; diversity
is now the hallmark of the educational scene. The student body is comprised of remote
students, those in employment needing professional updating, those unemployed
needing retraining, and those with time and interest to learn for its own sake. The change
of who is taught dictates a change in what is to be taught. Disappearing from the scenes
is the glory of a printed textbook, and skills associated with reading, linear build up of
knowledge and knowing, narrative approaches to understanding and concentration spans
appropriate to the medium of learning (ibid).
The new, emerging louder and sweeter rhythms are calling for skills of team working,
browsing and selecting, synthesising information and communication, and presentation
abilities. This is the need for learning how to learn appropriately in an information age.
How prepared are teachers to this kind of content demand? Research also should inform.
Teaching methods
There are various types of teaching methods. The choice of which method to use
depends on how effective, convenient, and adequate it is in passing on the required
knowledge, skills and attitudes. Availability of the required supportive materials is a guide
to choosing the teaching method. The available facilities actually guide the method to be
used in teaching. The teaching of modern fuel systems in cars in an automotive class will
demand the availability of the real system, a model of it or, at worst, chart showing the
details. Lack of electricity in some schools in Kenya makes it an uphill task to teach
about some engine management systems.
Different subjects and topics are handled best using different methods. The size of
the class is also a determinant of the method to be used for teaching. Research on
effectiveness of different methods to different sizes of class would be a priority so that
the best methods would be applied. This is so because the public address systems are
being developed and their use is not supported with empirical data. Research on different
methods and different subjects is also a priority area in the teaching process. Another
aspect is that the world is now embracing technology and the teaching field should not
be left out. However according to Rogers (1995), as cited in Wilson et al (2000) some of
268
the aspects that determine the acceptance of an innovation are simplicity, trialability,
observability, relative advantage, compatibility, and support. Research on technology
innovations and teaching should be conducted. Some of the issues to come up would be
what makes is or not acceptable, what constitutes a good innovation and the general view
of innovations' compatibility with the teaching process.
Jones (1967) reported that most teachers (then) believed that the manner in which
material is presented to the learner can have a critical effect on learning, and research
supports this view. Critics point out that teachers tend to organise learning tasks in ways
that are logical to teachers but may not be the best ways of arranging and presenting
materials to students who lack the teacher's experience. How is it today? And what are
the future trends on this issue? Only research can answer these questions.
Some questions related to reinforcement and motivation is; what stimuli will serve as
a practical and effective reinforcing agent? What is the most effective way of arranging
for the application of reinforcements? What motivates learners to joining the course?
What are the intrinsic and extrinsic motivators? What other motivation attributes are at
play? A person who joins into an automotive course to be able to conduct minor
servicing to his car is different from one who wants to get salaried employment after the
course.
The needs of the learners are very important in the choice of the methods. Flexibility
in the scheduling of the course and the mode of delivery determines who registers for it.
Mason (2000) says that there is no sector of professional life that is more susceptible to
cynical patterns, the approaches and trends in the world then education. This explains
that what is happening in the world also affects education now. Voices are now calling
for student- directed learning, interaction with other learners, and learning material. The
teachers are facilitators rather that all knowing fonts of knowledge. Research should tell
how the teachers are as adjusting to these world impulses.
Another determinant for the choice of method is the nature of the students. The
issue is now life long learning. Flexibility is key to program design and media choice. The
issues of flexibility in the teaching of hands on courses like automotive technology in a
time framed syllabus is questionable. Research should then be done to find out how
teacher based delivery modes can be modified to suit the emerging technologies.
On teaching methods, there is research on the methods of teaching exceptional
children. However there seems to be very little on the teaching of the gifted. Bijou (1990)
says that research on the students on the upper end of ability spectrum would throw light
on stimulating, encouraging and maintaining cognitive skills not ordinarily treated in
educational research for example, problem solving, and creativity behaviours. This shows
how much research there is to be done.
The venue
In this paper, the venue is the place where the teaching and learning is planned to take
place. Some of the characteristics of the venue that affect learning are: Noise (from
passing vehicles) Safety (from the fumes of running engine) congestion in class- when
the classroom has more than it was initially meant to take in; lighting within the room;
effects of reverberations; colour schemes of the classroom; temperatures and even the
269
seating arrangement in the class.

Research on the effects of each these characteristics on the teaching and learning
processes is important to education. We go to considerable pains to consider and provide
well-ventilated classrooms with good lighting and cheerful colour schemes and yet we
have scant tangible data about the effects of physical environment on learning.
In deciding the venue for teaching, consideration should be done on the required
learning technologies, to support the learning process. Wilson et al (2000) comment that
some issues of consideration in adopting new technologies are the technology's design
and usability, the fit with local culture and practices, the associated costs, and the
expected benefits of adoption. This brings about considerations based on the
technology, the consumers, and the context of use. Research will shed light on these
aspects as to how they relate with the intended goals of teaching in different cultures.
Some of the key questions would be; what conditions are favourable for what kind of
technology and in what cultural setting?
The national policy and the society in general

The national goals of education guide and give the emphasis to be put during the
teaching and learning process. Research to determine the most favourable goals for
education and best way to achieve them is priority. In many cases the personnel
concerned with the design of curriculum have very little contact with the real situation in
school. Many times, impossible ideal situations are designed for others to implement.
Research to determine the optimum participation of the implementers in the design of
curriculum and school programs for the achievement of the national goals would be a
priority in education. The other problem, which would be very significant in making
national goals what they ought to be, what can be done to have total enrolment in
schools of both boys and girls in all districts in Kenya. Total enrolment of boys and girls
may lead to having more girls in technology education programs. This is promotion of
equity in provision of national services. On the greater view, the world is getting smaller
and smaller in terms of communication systems. What is happening with the education
systems? What systems work best and under what conditions? Boundaries should mean
little to humanity; we all can learn from one another.
The school is not just an institution existing in society, it is meant to fulfil societal
needs by providing adequate and relevant education. What is happening in society affects
to a great deal the effectiveness of a school. Surely teaching and learning comes to a halt
if there are tribal clashes, break out of infectious diseases in the village, floods etc. When
the politics are riding over everything else in Kenya, the teaching and learning is affected.
Teachers are now boycotting classes in demand of their negotiated, agreed, but half way
implemented requirements (Daily Nation, 3rd Sep 2002). What research guided the
negotiations into accepting to pay? The decisions made out of political impulse are now
haunting the schools and the government alike. Where does the neutral child stand?
What psychological waves are they encountering? Who is for them and who is against
them? What are the future repercussions?
270
Conclusion
This paper is to provoke research by the new and the old alike in the teaching profession.
There is need for research in most of the teaching and learning situations. What the
ancient scholars did was noble but it is not an end, it was meant to be a beginning. Ladies
and gentlemen, it is high time that research was made a necessity for everyone in
education and not just a reserve for a few. Those who have the experience should guide
those without with patience, understanding and humility.
References
Bijou, S W 1990, 'History and educational application of Behaviourism', The encyclopaedia of human
development and education: Theory, research and studies, Pergamon press, M. T. R. Santa Barbara,
pp.68–74.
Bloom. B S 1976, Human characteristics and school learning, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Boyett, J H & J T Boyett 2000, Basic requirements for higher performance, Boyett and Associates,:
Knowledge for initiative living. 2002.
Chauhan, S S 1992, Advanced educational psychology, Vikas Publishing House PVT Ltd., New Delhi.
Feiman-Nemser, S & P J Norman 2000, 'Teacher education from initial preparation to continuing
professional development', in Routledge international companion to education, eds B Moon, S Brown
& M Ben-Peretz, Routledge, New York, pp.732–754.
Gagne, R M & M P Driscoll 1988, Essentials of learning for instruction, Prentice Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey.
Jones, J C 1967, Learning, Harcourt; Brace & World, Inc., New York.
Koul, L 1990, Methodology of educational research, Vikas Publishers, Delhi.
Mason. R 2000, 'Technology in higher education: Altering the goal posts', Routledge International
Companion to Education, eds B Moon, S Brown & M Ben-Peretz, Routledge, New York,
pp.723–731.
Nation-Team 2002, '5000 teachers Boycott classes', Daily Nation, Nairobi.
Rao, S N 1990, Educational psychology, VR Damodaran for Willey, New Delhi.
Wilson, B L Sherry et al 2000, Adoption of learning technologies in schools and universities: Handbook on
information technologies I for education and training, eds H H Adelsberger, B Colisand & J M Pawlowski,
Springer-Varlag, New York.
271
Examining Models for Implementing
Technology Education in Queensland
Primary Schools
Vicki Knopke
Queensland School Curriculum Council
T
he introduction of technology education into primary schools as a result of the Key
Learning Area initiative represents a significant educational change. The change is
significant in terms of the implications for professional development, resourcing, the
teaching/learning process and the development of appropriate models for implementing the new
curriculum. This paper presents the findings of a case study that examined a model for
implementing technology education programs within a limited number of primary schools in South
East Queensland. The study also examined the development and implementation of a teacher in-
service package and student resource material which primary school teachers could utilise to
implement technology based curriculum units in their classrooms.
Introduction
This paper provides an overview of the study which examined a model for implementing
technology education in primary school programs in Queensland. The models were
based on the development of technological literacy.
The model used conceptualised technological literacy in terms of four dimensions:
Technical; which is comprised to technical capability and proficiency, the utilisation of
technology (or design) process, and being at ease with established and emerging
technologies. The conceptual dimension defined as an understanding of the nature of
technology, its diversity of meaning and applications in our society; understanding how
things work and how solutions can be generated as well as the capacity to judge the
adequacy of propositions and solutions given an understanding of the developmental
nature of technology. The social aspect of the model encompassed a sensitivity to the
dependency of society upon technological solutions and an awareness of the influence to
technology upon a democratic society. Finally the personal dimension is bounded by a
critical capacity to assess the appropriateness of technology in a variety of settings along
with a sense of empowerment to innovate, confront and appreciate the value dependant
nature of technology in a worldview that is integrated against a background of
sustainability (Morgan, June 1994).
A teaching package was designed to provide a mechanism for enabling practicing
teachers to implement technology curriculum units in their classrooms. The subjects for
this study were primary school teachers and their respective class groups, drawn from an
272
Examining Models for Implementing Technology Education in Queensland Primary Schools
educational region covering the western side of Brisbane. Sixteen sites were utilised
during the study and seven were mapped for the final research paper. This covered a
total of 11 teachers and 303 students.
Background
This study began at a time when the national curriculum statements were being
introduced to teachers in schools in Queensland. The work role of the KLARC (Key
Learning Area Regional Co-ordinator) was to introduce The Statement on Technology for
Australian Schools, (Curriculum Corporation 1994). Associated with this document was
Technology—A Curriculum Profile for Australian Schools (Curriculum Corporation 1994). High
schools had specialist subject teachers in the areas of Agriculture, Business Studies,
Computer and Information Education, Home Economics, Media and Manual Arts who
identified with the Technology key learning area whereas primary educators had no
knowledge or background as to the specific area nor any reference points from their pre-
service training as teachers. Taylor (1993) in a submission to the Wiltshire Review
highlighted the newness of technology education P –6 and noted that it has been part of
primary schooling through art, craft, applications of natural science and social science.
He raised the issue of gender access to this key learning area and the necessity of
alterations to the pre-service training of teachers. Historically, as Taylor noted there have
been links between Science and Technology where students make observations about
interactions between the natural and the made world. Let Young People Experience the Real
World (Taylor 1993, pp.379) rather than trivialise technology activities by restricting
experiences to simulations and toy substitutes. Cosgrove (1994) writing for the
curriculum review, concludes that the major issue to be resolved is what technology
education is for.
If it is for the advancement of technological literacy of all young citizens then it will be
different from a form of technology education aimed at preparing young people for specific
vocations (Cosgrove 1994, p.68).
One of the identified difficulties was that primary education was dominated by
female teachers with a predominantly social science background. These teachers had little
scientific or technology background and hence the need for an in-service package that
would guide their development in the area of technology education.
Literature review and theoretical framework

The literature review examined the concept of technology and technological literacy and
the need to develop a working model for the implementation of technology education in
primary schools. The review highlighted research promoting constructivist teaching
methods where the child seeks the knowledge and skills that are required for a particular
task. A brief examination of technology in England and Wales, The United States, The
Netherlands and New Zealand shows the centrality of the concept of technological literacy
to technology education programs. The Wiltshire Report Recommendations (Wiltshire
1994, p.viii) and the Hobart and subsequent reaffirmation in Adelaide of the Declarations
for schooling serve to enhance calls for learning through technology in Queensland.
273
The research indicated, in the light of national and international developments, that
after examining a number of models and definitions that one model with modifications
was appropriate for the focus of this study. The theory suggested that if teachers and
practitioners in the area of technology education understood and imparted the theoretical
underpinnings of technology and its contribution to human development then the
interactions with students, in terms of the curriculum teaching units in classrooms, would
reflect this understanding and depth of knowledge.
Methodology and data analysis

Nine elements were drawn from the central question: How can technology education be
successfully implemented in Queensland primary schools?
The elements were:
(1) Knowledge of the concepts of technological literacy held by the teachers at the outset
of the study.
(2) Extent to which participating teachers gained an awareness of the concepts/
dimensions of technological literacy following the initial in-service.
(3) Extent to which participation teachers applied the concepts in developing and writing
the technology curriculum-teaching units.
(4) Extent to which participating teachers applied the concepts of technological literacy
in the classroom.
(5) Extent to which new knowledge/ awareness of Technological literacy as causative to
outcomes of the teaching unit.
(6) Students were exposed to the concepts of technological literacy within the teaching
unit.
(7) The student's exposure was associated with a heightened understanding of
Technology education.
(8) Evidence of a willingness by students to engage in technology education and
curriculum activities after the technology literacy project was complete.
(9) The concepts embodied in the study contributed to more effective learning and
teaching in the classrooms in this study.
The design
A case study methodology was used as it allowed for as many variables as possible to be
observed and subsequently analysed. This approach captured the extensive range of data
across each curriculum program in each site. Knowing that many of the outcomes would
be unpredictable it allowed the researcher to view the holistic characteristics of the
events that unfolded and for a case-by-case analysis of complexities and differences
across sites.
The study was conducted in three phases as outlined in the following table.
274
Table 1
Phases of the research study
PHASES OF THE THEORETICAL PRACTICAL
RESEARCH STUDY
Phase 1 Establish and train a group of In-service in the model of
teachers technological literacy and its four
dimensions
Principles of effective learning and
teaching
Writing of teaching units
Phase 2 Implementation of the teaching units Classroom activity
Visits and monitoring
Observations
Phase 3 Evaluation of the units and the Observation – interviews and
process feedback
Data verification and analysis
The methodology was qualitative, based on training and then implementation which
was examined using observational data such as video recordings, behavioural checklists,
work samples and interviews. The case study methodology meant that participant
observation and interviews were the chief data capture methods. These research
techniques allowed for multiple data collection methods with triangulation. Three data
gathering techniques were employed in the inquiry phase:
• Participant observation using interviewing and checklists for responses to the process
• Video taping, sound recording and field logs in the form of observational recordings/
notes
• Documented collection of outcomes, student folios, written work, and products that
were the result of the curriculum units and samples of student design solutions.
Findings
The triangulation of data was important in evaluating the outcomes of the participation
phase of the study. Data that had been collected from students was collated and analysed
to assess changes in attitudes of the participants. The data was further examined to assess
the effects of the technology education unit on participants in terms of a broadened
understanding of technology. Interviews with participating teachers and parent responses
provided additional dimensions than those reported by the teachers. The study
recognised the importance of teachers in the implementation of the technology
curriculum unit. Data collected at this stage was used to assess the dimensions of
knowledge that teachers had gained from participating in the curriculum unit. This
included knowledge of technology and the elements of technological literacy as well as
knowledge of appropriate ways to implement a technology program in their classroom.
275
In the light of the claims in the previous sections the study reported that teachers
with a greater understanding of the theoretical underpinnings of technology education
developed through the dimensions of technological literacy were able to successfully
implement a program of study and would be willing to participate in future technology
units. The constructivist method of learning enabled the teachers to become facilitators
of learning rather than imparters of knowledge. The use of outside experts in some of
the case study sites reinforced the phenomena.
Not all teachers developed skills or knowledge in technology as much as their
students were able to. Students became motivated by the activities and engaged in
making projects that exceeded the teacher's expectations of what they had previously
been capable of. In some cases the students had been exposed to the concepts of
technological literacy through the KLARC and utilised the skills of parents or experts to
progress their learning within the curriculum unit. In these cases the teacher had become
the facilitator and was not necessarily involved in every aspect of the program. This was
particularly the case where students worked with outside experts who came to the
classroom. The results that were observed were that students had benefited from the
intensity of the activity and multiple inputs.
In analysing participants understanding of the concepts embodied in the
technological literacy model, at times, the students were more able to articulate their
meaning better than the teaching staff. Only one group of students were provided with
the actual model and expected to engage directly with the terms. These students
appeared to engage in more hierarchical thinking some of which stemmed from the
concepts embodied in the model than they had prior to being provided with the model
of technological literacy.
Implications in the reported research

In conclusion the case studies revealed that if teachers and in some cases students, were
exposed to theoretical models they understood the background to the new curriculum.
The thesis suggested additions to the model in terms of literacy, active and informed
citizenship and principles of effective learning and teaching as well as social
considerations of gender when developing and implementing technology curriculum
units.
The application of an in-service model and teaching package for technology
education and technological literacy has not previously been done on a wide scale before
this study. This was the first research which overlaid Queensland Department of
Education Principles of Effective Learning and Teaching (1994) and Active and Informed
Citizenship (1993) and national principles with the notion of literacy into technology
education. Finally the research illustrated the benefits of cross curriculum learning to
primary education which could be operationalised through the Technology key learning
area. The integrative nature of this learning area was demonstrated in the variety of
topics undertaken within the sites of the case study.
Lastly the research contributes to theory by providing a measure of validation of a
theoretical model for implementing technology education programs. The study indicated
that it is possible to provide a sufficiently robust theoretical model to overcome some of
276
the barriers to implementing new programs with teachers with little prior knowledge or
orientation to the key learning area.
The methodology provided a procedure and a process that may be replicated with
other groups of teachers and their classes. It demonstrated that the pedagogy of
constructivism and the willingness to allow students to experiment, take risks in planning
projects and in the use of resources and time produced long-term results.
References
Australian Education Council (AEC) 1994, (since subsumed into MCEETYA) 1998, Hobart
Declaration on Schooling, incorporating Australia's Common and Agreed Goals for Schooling in the
Twenty-first Century, [WWW document], URL
http:/www.curriculum.edu.au/mceetya/hobdec.htm.
Cosgrove M 1994, 'Technology and applied science curriculum', Review of Queensland School
Curriculum, Wiltshire, M McMeniman & T Tolhurst, State of Queensland.
Curriculum Corporation 1994, A statement on technology for Australian Schools, Curriculum
Curriculum Corporation 1994, Technology—a curriculum profile for Australian schools, Curriculum
Department of Education, The Studies Directorate 1993, Active and informed citizenship: Information
for Teachers booklet, State of Queensland.
Department of Education Queensland 1994, Principles of effective learning and teaching, State of
Queensland.
Ministerial Council on Education, Employment Training and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA), The
Adelaide Declaration on national goals for schooling in the twenty-first century, Australian Education
Council 1999, [WWW document], URL www.curriculum.edu.au/mceetya/hobdec.htm
Morgan, K 1994, 'Technological literacy', Keynote presentation to The Australian Council through
Technology Conference, January 1994, Journal of the HEIA, vol.1, no.2, June.
Taylor A 1994, 'Technology education' 1993, in Report of the Review of the Queensland School Curriculum,
eds Wiltshire et al, pp.372–390.
Wiltshire K, McMeniman M & Tolhurst T 1994a, Shaping The Future: Report of the Review of the
Queensland School Curriculum 1994, The State of Queensland, 1994, vols 1–3.
Wiltshire K, McMeniman M & Tolhurst T 1994b, Overview: Review of the Queensland School Curriculum,
Shaping The Future, The State of Queensland.
277
Theory Meets Practice: Lecturers at a
College of Education Put Theory into
Practice when They Teach Technology
Education on a Regular Basis to
Year 7 & 8 Children
Kerry Lee
Auckland College of Education, New Zealand
O
n 8 February 1999, Technology Education became a compulsory curriculum area for all
children in New Zealand school, until the end of year 10 (Creech 1999). All curriculum
reform aims to change educational practice, for without it student learning is unlikely to
improve (Butler 1996). Unfortunately this reform and the change it invokes can be difficult to
accept. Staff in the Technology Education Centre at a New Zealand College of Education became
aware that there were few models of quality Technology Education in action for their students to
observe. When approached by a local school to set up a Technology programme for their year 7
and 8 pupils they enthusiastically went about designing and implementing such a programme. In
the process of doing this they were taken back to 'the chalk face' thus negating the oft cited
criticisms levelled at tertiary educators of 'being in ivory towers', 'not being in the real world' and
'being out of touch'. This case study follows their journey throughout the year. It records their
initial idealism, and enthusiasm, their subsequent frustration caused by 'real world' barriers, and
their final satisfaction with the end result.
Introduction
Hopkins states "teacher training institutions as organisations appear unable effectively to
manage self-initiated change" (Hopkins 1984). In New Zealand numerous politicians and
education critics have also questioned the abilities of these facilities to stay current. The
following documents a case study of a College of Education where lecturers have
initiated and successfully managed such a change.
This case study is of a partnership between a College of Education in New
Zealand, and a neighbouring school, in which the lecturers are the sole providers of
technology education for the year 7 and 8 children. In education the innovative
process brings about change in the objectives themselves. The investigation took the
form of a case study (Yin 1994).
The partnership and stakeholders' views were analysed for the researcher's master's
thesis. However this paper records only the reactions of the lecturers involved. It records
their ambitions for the programme, their frustration with barriers and their reactions to
success, while still lecturing at a tertiary level.
278
Theory Meets Practice: Lecturers at a College of Education Put Theory Into Practice
Background
In 1998 a 'full primary' school (teaching 5–12 year old children) started looking for
alternative technology education for its year 7 and 8 children. They had been unsatisfied
with an earlier provider. At the same time a neighbouring College of Education was
discussing ways of enabling it's students to witness quality technology in action. When
the school approached the college, the Head of the Centre for Technology Education
was quick to forge a partnership. Starting in the year 2000, on Wednesday mornings, 56
year 7 and 8 children walked over to the college to be taught Technology Education.
The two composite (mixed) year 7 and 8 classes were divided into 3 groups. One of
these was comprised of the year 7's and the other 2 of the year 8 children. This grouping
allowed a lower class ratio which Barlex states as being critical for success (Barlex 1994).
Six college lecturers volunteered for the programme. They were paired to maximise
their strengths. Two lecturers with science and electronic backgrounds taught electronics
and control. Two lecturers with design and materials expertise taught materials and
structures technology and two with food and biotechnology expertise taught these
technological areas. Each pair taught a series of 6-8 sessions to each group of children.
The three classes of children rotated around each of the lecturer pairs.
Methodology
This case study investigates the views of the lecturers during the first year they were
involved in the delivery of the technology programme to the year 7 and 8 children. It
records their reactions with and to the other stakeholders of the partnership. This
interaction between stakeholders 'is a salient point in the characteristics that case studies
possess' (Tellis 1997).
All meetings with lecturers to plan the programme and evaluate the progress were
taped and transcribed. At the start of the programme lecturers were given a questionnaire
to ascertain their goals and expectations from the partnership. At the end of the first 6
six weeks of the programme, they were individually interviewed. This was a semi-
structured interview to identify issues that were present at this stage. Lecturers were
asked to complete another questionnaire at the end of the programme to establish their
feelings towards the programmes success. Lecturers also volunteered to be individually
interviewed again, at this point, to consolidate the researchers views of the programme.
One lecturer kept a journal about her feelings of the success of the programme
throughout the partnership. With her permission this was used to support findings from
the other lecturers.
Expectations
Lecturers had high expectations for the programme and the partnership. They believed
the children, school, technology community, college and themselves would all benefit
from this partnership. They believed they understood the curriculum well, knew the
attributes of a good unit and how it should be delivered and hence were keen to show
others how it could be taught successfully.
The lecturers were keen to develop a role model for college students who were
having difficulty seeing quality Technology Education while on practicum. They also
279
hoped to provide a model for other provider schools to follow. Lastly the college
lecturers hoped they would personally gain from the partnership. One lecturer stated he
"was quite looking forward to getting back to working with children". A study by Wright
and Custer found that working with children was one of the most dominant reasons for
a teacher's job satisfaction (Wright & Custer 1998). Another lecturer stated he was keen
to " trial ideas which we are teaching our teachers". All staff were aware of the
importance of staying current and being perceived as being current. One lecturer stated
they wanted to "gain some credibility" another stated they wanted to "put our money
where our mouth is".
Findings
Each lecturer was presented with barriers for implementation. Some lacked funding,
others expertise or support while others were limited by time restraints. Teachers in
schools are familiar with these issues and the compromises they require. Lecturers found
swapping from 'the ideal' to reality and back again in a day very difficult. They tended to
expect the perfect situation and became frustrated when it did not occur.
The restrictions and limitations the lecturers encountered were numerous.
(1) The children who had attended another provider, the previous year, initially had
expectations of a traditional style of delivery.
(2) Dealing with poor behaviour initially proved difficult.
(3) The classroom teacher rarely reminded the children of their technology homework
or extra tasks.
(4) The lecturers had to align the college and school timetables. This meant starting late
and finishing early.
(5) Children had to be escorted from the college to the school before and after interval
and at the end of the session. This required all classes to finish at exactly the same
time even if they were half way through a task. Later this was altered and the
children stayed at the college for interval. This then meant the lecturers had to
supervise the children playing (the college did not have facilities close at hand for
this).
(6) Children frequently arrived without books or writing materials
(7) Integration of the programme into the classroom was not possible as the lecturers
had children from two different classes.
(8) The lecturers could not easily address other learning needs they identified for
example letter writing, cutting skills, spelling etc.
(9) Within half an hour of teaching the children, a lecturer could be teaching adults in
the same room. This meant not only changing delivery style but also the resources
and physical environment.
(10) Working with a lecturing partner with different teaching styles and different
expectation levels caused a few problems with one pair.
280
(11) Absences and interruptions caused one lecturer to state, "because of their broken
time with me, we didn't actually achieve what we hoped for".
(12) Poor communication between the college and school at times left lecturers waiting
for students and projects that did not arrive.
Discussion
As can be seen from Table 1 not all of the lecturers' expectations came to fruition. For
this reason they found the partnership very frustrating and sometimes difficult. Affecting
any change in the practice of teaching is not easy, but lengthy, hard and potentially
painful process (Golby & Appleby 1995).
Butler writes,
"Learning is and should be, on some occasions, a disturbing and unsettling process. If the
learning is intended to be transformational then there must be a period when the
participants are unsettled, wondering and challenged" (Butler 1996, p.275).
All the lecturers had been out of a classroom, of their own, for at least five years. In this
time they were able to maintain, update, and increase their professional knowledge about
Technology Education by attending courses, conferences and reading the latest articles.
However they could not fully apply this knowledge, without practical experience. A
person can only facilitate the learning of others if they know how to facilitate their own
learning. This learning is important and necessary to bridge the gap between theory and
practice (Jarvis, Holford & Griffin 1998). Lecturers worked very hard to try and achieve
this.
Reflections
Lecturers saw the partnership as a way to stay current and to gain some credibility
amongst practicing peers. This model could be used for other Colleges of Education or
Universities where the common criticisms are based on 'the academics know the theory
but are out of touch with reality'. This partnership model allows for those creating the
theories to also trial them with current practice.
Often practitioners are blamed for a new delivery style not working because the
philosophy was not transferred from those who conceptualised the change to those
delivering it (Fullan 1990). The model provided by this partnership, allows time for the
practice and the theory to become intertwined and thus develop into grounded theory.
Usually grounded theory originates from a practitioner with a limited theoretical
background. This model allows for an academic to be a practitioner. An implication of
this is that should these academics develop new delivery styles they will perhaps be more
'practitioner friendly'.
If success is to measured by the satisfaction of the lecturers then the programme
must be deemed successful. An indication of this is that all the lecturers volunteered for
the programme the following year.
281
Table 1
Initial lecturer expectations compared to final interview responses
GROUP INITIAL EXPECTATIONS LECTURERS' RESPONSES
College • College students witness Technology in • Few college students watched and or
action helped with lessons.
• Demonstrate to college students that • Real examples able to be given to
Technology Education is able to be college students
taught
Children • Child centred activities • Child centred activities
• Children excited about technology • Excited children
• Receive quality technology • Quality Technology Education
Education • Increased enjoyment
• Better projects
• Main beneficiaries
• Build on prior knowledge
School • Collaboratively plan activities • No collaborative planning
• Work with whole school as team • Little working with school
• Teachers establish connection with the • Small groups use College facilities later
College in year
• Collaborative link to assist with new • Only year 7/8 teacher who observed
curriculum technology was seen to improve
• Up-skill teachers in understanding understanding.
technology • Limited interaction with parents. Many
• Help with planning of Technology hours spent on web pages to achieve
• Support existing programmes within the this.
school
• Involve parents and the community
Technology • Role model for College students • Few students looking at practice
community • Role model for year 7/8 providers • Not seen as role model for other
providers
Programme • Integrate what is happening in • Not integrating into classroom.
classroom • Repetition of lessons an advantage.
• Interactive • Mixed response of achievement of
programme
Self • Gain credibility with College • Improvement in credibility with College
(College students students
lecturers) • Trial new ideas and theories • Trial new ideas and theories
• Gain experience with teaching year • Gain experience with teaching year
7/8 7/8
• Gain experience in new technological • Gain experience in new technological
area areas
• Gain experience in teaching • Gain experience in teaching Technology
Technology Education Education
• Have fun • Have fun
• Working with children • Working with children
• Be able to discuss success of new • Be able to discuss success of new ideas
ideas with classes with classes
• Gain credibility with practising teachers • Work in a 'real environment'
• Stay current • Working with others
• Practise planning and delivery ideas
• Improved collegiality within Centre
• Revisit teaching skills
• Learning through observation, talking,
and trialling
282
References
Barlex, D 1994, 'Organising project work', in Teaching Technology, ed. F Banks, Open University,
pp.124–143).
Butler, J 1996, 'Professional development: Practice as text, reflection as process, and self as locus',
Australian Journal of Education, vol.40, no.3, pp.265–283.
Creech, W 1999, 4 February, 'Official notice: National Curriculum Statement of Technology', New
Zealand Gazette, p.364.
Fullan, M 1990, 'Staff development, innovation, and institutional development', in Changing school
culture through staff development, ed. B Joyce, Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development, Alexandria, VA, pp.3–25.
Golby, M & Appleby, R 1995, 'Reflective practice through critical friendship: Some possibilities',
Cambridge Journal of Education, vol.25, no.2.
Hopkins, D 1984, 'Change and the organisational character of teacher education', Studies in Higher
Jarvis, P, Holford, J & Griffin, C 1998, 'Self-directed learning', in The theory and practice of learning,
Kogan Page, London, pp.77–87.
Robinson, I 1989, 'The empowerment paradigm for the professional development of teachers of
mathematics', in School mathematics: The challenge to change, ed. M Clements, Deakin University,
Geelong, Victoria, pp.269–283.
Tellis, W 1997, 'Application of a case study methodology', The Qualitative Report, vol.3, no.3.
Wright, M & Custer R 1998, 'Why they enjoy teaching: The motivation of outstanding technology
teachers', Journal of Technology Education, vol.9, no.2, pp.1–23.
Yin, R 1994, Case study research: Design and methods, Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA.
283
Teaching Students Creativity in Technology
Education in Taiwan
Ta-Wei Lee
Department of Industrial Technology Education
Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan
Yuh-Shan Chang
Department of Art & Technology Education
National Hualien Teachers College
T
echnology education, which evolved from Craft or Industrial Arts, is now named "Living
Technology" in the National Curriculum Standard, released in 2000, in Taiwan. To improve
students' creativity is one of the most important points in that curriculum standard. This
exploratory pilot study was intended to develop a teaching model, which was project-based,
student-based, and activity-based, to improve student's creativity in technology education. There
were six main steps in that teaching model, those were: project-selecting, brainstorming, trouble-
shooting, designing, making, and presenting. In addition, experimental activities were conducted
in National Taipei Teacher's College and National Hualien Teacher's College. The result of this
study showed that the creative thinking skills of experimented students were reinforced as well as
the awareness of technology. In this paper, teaching designs and some pictures of students' work
were included as well.
Background
In this technological era, the greater strides of the country's technological development
has been made, the greater needs and expectations of the training, recruitment, and
utilisation of creative talent would emerge. To pay more attention to training technical
manpower possessing creative ability is one of most important strategies in National
Science and Technology Development Plan (2001–2004) in Taiwan (National Science
Council 2002).
The great emphasis on creativity is put upon educational policy as well. Technology
education, which evolved from Craft in elementary school and Industrial Arts in
secondary school, is now named "Living Technology" in the National Curriculum Standard,
released in 2000, in Taiwan. The skill of appreciating, expressing, and creating is one of
Ten-Basic-Skills which are core competencies of Nine-year Joint Curriculum Guideline
(Ministry of Education, 1999). Thus, to improve students' creativity is one important
point in this educational reform.
This exploratory pilot study was intended to develop a teaching model, which was
project-based, student-based, and activity-based, to improve elementary student's
creativity in technology education. In addition, to realise the application of this model,
284
Teaching Students Creativity in Technology Education in Taiwan
experimental activities which were developed based on the model were conducted in
National Taipei Teacher's College and National Hualien Teacher's College.
A creativity teaching model

Based on a literature reviewing, there were six main stages in that teaching model, those
were: project-selecting, brainstorming, trouble-shooting, designing, making, and
presenting. To complete those six stages, eleven steps should be taken (see figure 1).
11. assessing and evaluating
10. presenting
9. making
7. teacher's guiding 8. group discussion
6. designing
5. divergent thinking
4. validating the problem
1. technology learning 2. divergent thinking training 3. operating practicing
Fig 1
Model of teaching technological creativity
1. Technology learning: Discussing knowledge related to materials, structures, and systems.

2. Divergent thinking training: Practicing thinking creatively and divergently.
3. Skill practicing: Being familiar with those materials using and tools operating, and
getting a successful hands-on experience.
4. Validating the problem: Discussing with students to formulate the problem to be solved.
5. Divergent thinking: Thinking creatively and divergently to formulate several ideas.
6. Designing: Making a plan of the figure, structure, material, and process of the products
or systems.
7. Teacher's guiding: Assisting students in solving individual problem.
8. Group discussing.
9. Making.
10. Presenting: Presenting in an unique and creative way.
11. Assessing & evaluating: Analysing the products systematically with a checklist, and
giving a whole rate to every product.
285
In creative thinking training, a "free-path-thinking" method was used to synthesises lots

of creative ideas (see Figure 2).
SKILLS TARGET OBJECTIVE
1. substitute 1. material 1. improving the processes

2. combine 2. structure 2. satisfying the consumers
3. adjust 3. figure 3. refining the environmental effect
4. enlarge 4. device
5. reduce
6. rid of
7. rearrange
Fig 2
"Free-path-thinking" in design and making
Application of the teaching model

To verify the practicability of the teaching model, theoretically, it should be taken into
experiment in classroom. This teaching model was taken into practice in "Craft" course
in National Taipei Teacher's College and National Hualien Teacher's College in Taiwan
to obtain some advanced and useful implications and recommendations.
Step 1: Discussing related technology knowledge

Those related technology knowledge were discussed, including system concept, common
structure design, air-dynamics, wind-receiver, torque, rotational speed, linkage, gear, cam,
wood, plastic, and paper. In addition, those scientific concepts, such as balancing of forces,
and the law of the conservation of energy, were also discussed to meet the 9-year-curricula
in Taiwan.
Step 2: Training student's divergent thinking skill

Two different questions were proposed one by one by the teacher each class, and
towards every question, unique and special answers were asked, written down, and
shared. Those questions were:
1. Is there any shortcoming or design fault within a desk, a telephone, a pen, an electric
light, a hat, and a bicycle? And, how would you refine it?
2. If you had a robot, what would you want it do?
3. If there were not any brooms, what should you do toward the dirty floor?
4. If anything were combined with a windmill, what should it become?
286
Step 3: Practicing operating

After the teacher's demonstration, students practiced operating a wood cutting machine, a
driller, and a saw. Completing the material processing and tool operating, a piece of work
would be finished, and the successful experience was developed as well (see Figure 3).
Fig 3
Successful experience
Step 4: Reveal the problem

The problem, creating a creative windmill, was revealed and explained.
Step 5: Divergent thinking
As the windmill turned, something special happened. Students were asked to formulate
many "ridiculous" ideas, and the most ridiculous or special was picked up. Students were
asked to written down their original idea, five special ideas, and a final idea.
Step 6: Designing, planning and making
Three or four students were organised within a group. They should be devoted into
designing the figure, materials needed, the inner structure, and the processes of their
product. Each student had to work individually and cooperatively.
Step 7: Teacher's guiding
If necessary, the teacher should give students more information of how to design the
structure, how to get materials, and how to use the machines. Nevertheless, students'
original ideas should be respected completely.
Step 8: Presentation
Every piece of work was presented creatively in ten minutes. A play, a comic dialogue, or
other special show would be encouraged in the product presentation.
Step 9: Systematic assessing and evaluating
The pictures and movies of those products were put on the website. Each student would
visit the website and assessing each product item by item. In addition, students could
address their own recommendation for anyone product on the website.
287
Results and discussion

Students' ideas which emerged among the whole learning activity were scored. The
scoring principles included:
Novelty of ideas
Scored 1: Similar with shown samples, or same as daily things, not strange at all.
Scored 2: Different, changed, beyond-imaged.
Creativity of title
Scored 1: Simply named, e.g., Pig's Ears.
Scored 2: With concrete adjective, e.g., A Big-Head-Pig.
Scored 3: With an abstract adjective, e.g., A Magic Pig.
Creativity of product
Scored 1: Formed specially, expressively. Otherwise scored 0.
Scored 1: Decorated elaborately, aesthetically. Otherwise scored 0.
Scored 1: Coloured brightly. Otherwise scored 0.
Creativity of students' ideas
Data in Table 1 describes the novelty of students' ideas in each stage of learning activity
which include original stage, practicing stage, decision making stage, and stage of final
product.
According result of t-test analysing shown in Table 2, mean scores of student's final
ideas novelty and selected ideas novelty are higher than those of student's original ideas
and practicing ideas. Nevertheless, there is on statistically significant differences within
mean scores of original ideas novelty and practicing ideas novelty. There is neither
statistically significant differences within mean scores of selected ideas novelty and final
ideas novelty.
Table 1
Novelty of students' ideas in each stage of learning
TYPE OF IDEAS MEAN SD
Original ideas 2.94 .91
Practicing ideas 2.95 .51
Selected ideas 3.43 .74
Final ideas 3.90 1.26
Table 2
Two-tailed t-test comparison of students' ideas novelty in each stage
TYPE OF IDEAS T P
Original- Practicing -.035 .972
Original- Selected -2.505 .017*
Original- Final -3.158 .003**
Practicing- Selected -3.535 .001**
Practicing- Final -3.664 .001**
Selected- Final -2.02 .052
* P<.05 ** P<.011
288
Student's perceptions of creation

After completing the whole creating activity, open-end discussions and interviews were
conducted to gather data of students' perceptions of this creative learning activity. Those
main opinions were:
1. Creative thinking training was good for students' thinking skills. Through creative
thinking training, students could be aware of and more familiar with creative thinking
skills, e.g., substituting, combining, adjusting, enlarging, reducing, getting rid of, and
rearranging.
2. Divergent thinking activity was important to create a special design idea. Through
"free-path-thinking", students could obtain or create more creative ideas that they
never thought of before.
3. There were always many problems and difficulties between ideas and practical
designing/making. Because of lacking of enough practical experience, students felt
weak in taking their novel idea into practice and producing a product.
4. The products brought them achievement and more interest in creation. Most
students got satisfied with and felt amazed at their works. In this activity, they could
design and make their work as their imagination.
Pictures of students' works

This learning unit lasted six hours. See Figure 4 a and b for pictures of some of the
products.
As the windmill turned, the girl As the windmill turned, the

would push that stone mill. monkey would flourish its arms.
Figure 4 (a)
Some of the student's products
(available http://sam.nhltc.edu.tw)
289
As the windmill turned, As the windmill turned, the

the girl would dance happily. terrible box would be opened,
and a skeleton would run out.
Figure 4 (b)
More of the student's products
(available http://sam.nhltc.edu.tw)
Implications and recommendations

This exploratory pilot study was intended to develop a teaching model, which was
project-based, student-based, and activity-based, to improve student's creativity in
technology education. There were seven main steps in that teaching model, those were:
technology learning (knowledge and operating practicing), validating the problem,
divergent thinking training, divergent thinking, designing and discussing, making,
presenting and evaluating. Through the creative activity, novel ideas were proposed,
selected, and taken into practice.
The main findings were:
1. Students' final ideas and selected ideas were more creative than their original ideas
and practicing ideas.
2. Creative thinking training was necessary for creation and good for students' thinking
skills.
3. Divergent "free-path-thinking" activity was important to create a special design idea.
4. Because of lacking of enough practical experience, there were always many problems
and difficulties between ideas and practical designing/making.
5. Creative activity based on the teaching model brought students achievement and
more interest in creation.
In this study, experimental activities were conducted in National Taipei Teacher's
College and National Hualien Teacher's College in Taiwan. The result of this study
showed that the creative thinking skills of experimented students were reinforced as well
290
as the awareness of technology. Based on the findings of this study, it is recommended

that more and advanced application of this teaching model to elementary schools to
improve children's technological creativity.
Reference
Ministry of Education, ROC 1999, National education development and reform for the new millennium,
[WWW document], retrieved September 9 2002, URL
http://www.eje.ntnu.edu.tw/l-english/l-mainframe.asp
National Science Council, ROC. 2002, Abstract of National Science and Technology Development Plan
(Fy2001–Fy2004), retrieved September 9 2002, URL
http://nscnt04.nsc.gov.tw/tc_new/abstract.htm
291
What Learning Styles Do Students Have in
LT (Living Technology) Classrooms?:
Perceptions of Model Bridge
Structuring Activity
Ranlong Lin
National Taiwan Normal University
T
hough there exists a symbiotic relationship between teachers (teaching) and students
(learning), as Bencze (2000) denoted, in educational contexts, it is apparent that
individuals' pre-conceptions can impair learning in a variety of ways. Technology educators
need to develop an understanding of student's learning styles in order to design appropriate
learning activities that tie with students' interests, aptitudes and abilities. Living in 21st century,
students have to develop problem solving, and critical thinking capabilities to cope with the
complicated technological world. In this research paper, the author investigated students'
technology perceptions, by the bridge structuring activity, at Living Technology classroom settings
in Taiwan. The results will promote a better understanding of technology education.
Introduction
People have unique and recognisable patterns of behaviour. These basic patterns
influence many aspects of personal and professional conduct, called styles. These are
unique and complex, but are also relatively consistent and predictable. Most behaviour
traits are not inherited. They develop over time, can change slowly, and are reflected in
other characteristics of a person. When they affect learning they are referred to as
"Learning Styles" (Henak 1992). Learning style refers to the characteristic ways each
individual collects, organises, and transforms information into useful knowledge and
action (Cross 1976; Kolb 1984). It influences what setting students desire to learn, what
kind of things they want to learn about, and how they will approach learning situations.
The objective of technology education is to guide the students from manipulating
concrete things (hands-on), into intellectually enculturated learning process (minds-on).
Ultimately, foster in them the capabilities of designing, problem-solving, creativity and
critical thinking. To reach these qualities of learning, we must examine some concerns:
"What is the proficiency of students' learning?", "Does the learning process encourage
students to have confidence in their experience?", "Can students reflect their learning
experience and apply what they have learned?", and "Is the process of learning beneficial
to students?" The perplexity of teaching technology is to reconcile the teacher's strategies
with the learning styles and the demands of different students. For all individuals, it is
292
What Learning Styles Do Students Have in Living Technology Classrooms?
important to establish a learning mode in response to their experiences. Then, remove

the obstacles that hinder students' learning, and to promote and boost the confidence
and the enjoyment of their learning.
Taiwan has transformed "Industrial Arts" into "Living Technology" gradually in
recent years. Although the variation of content area in technology can keep step with
other countries, however, it fails to pay close attention to the mental development of
students' learning. Therefore, study in the light of the mental track is critical when
investigating the development of students' learning in the technology education. It is also
valuable to make appropriate teaching design in technology activities.
Purpose
The aim of this research, in accordance with the aspects of constructivist theory, was to
investigate the various design and their patterns from junior high students by the "model
bridge structuring" technology activity. Through the qualitative investigation of students'
learning process in the technology classroom, this research explores the effective ways
that could improve and strengthen students' learning. Furthermore, it promotes
technology teaching effectiveness and facilitates students to acquire more valuable
technology learning.
The purpose of this research is to describe and analyse some critical characteristics of
students leaning in technology activity. The research examined the technology process
which students worked through.
To fulfil the demands of the research, the following questions were asked:
1. To what extent do the junior high students learn technological content?
2. To what extent do the junior high students engage in problem solving situations
naturally?
3. How do student groups interact with each other?
4. How students transfer their technological knowledge and ability?
5. What is the effect when teachers are involved in the student group work?
Literature review
Many scholars support the contention that each individual, although necessarily
immersed in a particular culture and discourse environment (Carré 1981; Lemke 1990;
Sutton 1996; Vygotsky 1978), possesses unique sets of mental constructs which tend to
interact with incoming stimuli, causing unique perceptions of common phenomena
(Ausubel 1968; Cobern 1996; Glasersfeld 1995; Hodson 1986; Osborne & Wittrock 1985;
Polanyi 1958). For example, people 'see' different images in the same figure due to their
unique cognitive framework (set of constructs). Indeed, it is said that such phenomena
reveal more about the person experiencing it than the stimulus itself (Barlex & Carré 1985).
However, in educational contexts, it is apparent that individuals' pre-conceptions can
impair learning, in a variety of ways. For example, Tasker and Osborne (1985) found
significant discrepancies between:
1. ideas children brought to the lesson and those the teacher assumed they would bring;
293
2. the scientific problem the teacher would have liked the children to investigate and
what they took to be the problem;
3. the activity proposed by the teacher and those undertaken by the children, despite
considerable teacher intervention; and
4. children's conclusions, and those proposed by the teacher.
Consequently, many educators have developed constructivism-informed strategies to
enable students to link their existing conceptions with new ones so that, if necessary,
conceptual change might occur (Driver & Oldham 1986; Glasersfeld 1995; Hodson 1988;
Osborne & Wittrock 1985; Posner et al 1982; Tobin & Tippins 1993). Given that students
frequently adhere to their personal conceptions, despite indicating understanding of new
ones (Hodson & Reid 1988), most constructivist approaches encourage students to make
explicit first – that is, make conscious – their initial conceptions so that they may be
challenged, if necessary, or by alternatives. Such reflection of existing conceptions have
become part of encouraging students to think about their own thinking; that is, to engage
in ongoing meta-cognition (White & Mitchell 1994).
Quite a few researchers revealed that teaching and learning should centre on the
active knowledge construction of individual learners. Constructivist theory epitomises
learning as an active, continuous process whereby learners take information from their
environment and construct personal interpretations and meanings based upon prior
knowledge and experience (Kozulin 1998; von Glasersfeld 1995). In a socio-cultural
interpretation, learning is understood to take part in a personalised social context. Thus,
the acquisition of skills, knowledge, attitudes, and values is a process of enculturation,
especially when the learner participates in authentic and context-dependent activity
(McCormick, Murphy, Hennessy & Davidson 1996; Koulaidis & Tsatsaroni 1996). It
follows that individual construction of technological knowledge occurs predominantly in
socially interactive settings, which are shared with the members of the learning
community, essentially through the meanings of context-dependent language and actions
(Gergen 1995; Wertsch 1991; Vygotsky 1986).
While situated in a highly changeable contemporary human world, the goal of
constructivist teaching targets at cultivating learner' s self-directed learning abilities.
Students can acquire an extensive cognitive structure with which transfer what have
learned into new situations. The cognitive structure that students established includes:
procedural knowledge, "How"-techniques, skills or capabilities; conceptual knowledge,
"What"-facts, concepts, propositions. In order to acquaint students with technological
activities, related knowledge of the procedure must practice validly in the learning
process. The procedural knowledge includes: design and problem solving, planning,
system analysis (method), optimisation, modelling and strategically thinking, among them
the most closely-related is design and problem solving.
In summing up, the students should be given opportunities to act according to the
technological processes required to solve the problems they faced. Technological process
can be claimed to have some certain and specific features which should be taken into
account, regardless of the materials used. Students need to be educated as much in
technology as through it (Sparkes 1993; Twyford 2000).
294
Method
The design of this research was intended by discussion and expatiation, to reveal the
experiences and related construct of students' realisation. Students in the study were
given sufficient opportunity to reflect their experience, make their interpretation, values
and judgement. The phenomenological research problems that explored human
experiential structure and nature were answered by learning observation with interviews.
Therefore, the research method employed was designed to elicit data from the socio-
cultural context using semi-structured interview techniques. The methodological
perspective of the study was qualitative in nature and based on interpretative skills and
inductive analysis, whereby the researcher continually explored the relationship between
data and emergent findings (Ritchie & Hampson 1996; Järvinen & Hiltunen 1999). The
study also employed an open search for categories, concepts, and patterns emerging from
the students' hands-on projects on model-bridge construction technology activity. The
emergent patterns, relative to the theme of the study, were thereafter categorised and
classified into interpretable data (Erickson 1986; Patton 1990).
Results and discussions

The inductive interpretative analysis process used in this study enabled the results to be
framed as empirical assertions, with data as evidentiary warrants (Erickson 1986). Data
elicited from student's questionnaires, interviews and observation were micro-analysed.
The author discussed the implications revealed by a sample of student's learning
processes.
Assertion 1: Students made use of their personal abilities to analyse the design and making
of Model Bridge, they used the knowledge and experience acquired from the learning
process to complete the technology project.
"In order to construct a bridge, we considered the tensions, compressions and etc., each stick
must distribute appropriately to support the loads. We made a sketch on the paper, modified it
and make it completed."
"We first drew the design diagram of the bridge, considered
the sticks to support the weight. We used triangles to shape
bridge that could sustain pressures. We learned how to
design the diagram according to the size of the model."
"While designing the structure of the bridge, we planned to

employ the arches. We made it symmetry on both sides and
analysed the distribution of forces by computer software."
Discussion 1: The above examples exhibited students' design ideas and working process
which students applied through drawings and practical hands-on experience to
technology learning activities. While designing the artifacts, students could analyse some
critical elements appropriately, and then put them into practice.
295
Assertion 2: Facing the problem-solving context of technological thematic project,

students explored the best solutions that dominated and guided by themselves for the
most part. Teacher acted as concept guidance and technical consultant.
"In making process, we made use of mathematics to

calculate the accurate distance between points. We
inquired principles and administered some tests to verify
the bridge's firmness."
"No matter in design or making stages, we protected our
results from minutest error through careful speculation
and measure. We were responsible for attaining our own
bridge to the most perfection, and compete it against
heaviest loads.
Discussion 2: There exits a very important factor in the student-centered learning style,
that the students must be responsible for their own learning. The teacher provides
students with valuable and flexible opportunities for self-monitored learning. In the
traditional technology classroom, teacher's behaviour dominates everything; it inhibits
students' active learning and lessens their adaptability to new environments. However,
under the native character of self-reflection, students' learning set can be evoked through
pertinent guiding.
Assertion 3: The interactions of students' peer group reflect the interweaving between
individual action and team cooperation. In the process of project design and making,
personal constructs interact with cooperative discussions.
"Basically, we were concerned with each other in the teamwork. Differences among personalities
and thoughts sometimes made us dispute, but we negotiated immediately and settled the
agreement. We all had the consensus to struggle together for our model bridge."
"Working together, we were very happy. We don't assign
duties on purpose; we sign on our own work."
"We were the best co-operative team. Whenever faced the

problem we encouraged each other. Although opinions
differ on the project work, but after discussed and analysed
together, we could make the perfect decision. We realised
the importance of co-operation, so we worked the bridge
structure all together."
Discussion 3: Through the cooperative learning strategy, teachers can prevent students
from learning disability and broaden their learning experiences. The cooperative learning
employed in the technology education environment involved the complicated factors of
student's personal character, learning experience, ability and emotions. Students learn to
adapt interpersonal relationship in a cooperative learning environment, and obtain the
most appropriate constructive learning model between individuals and fellowships.
296
Assertion 4: In the whole process of technology learning activity, students were influenced
by the peripheral stimulus and situated cognition, generated their transfers of concept
understanding, knowledge, skill, attitude and value.
"We used the materials about bridge photos and design
principles which referred to books, magazines and internet
searches. Though it was hard, but it was a special and
valuable learning experience."
We made use of the Internet to search the data about
forces and balances; we applied the data in our design and
making project. The computer software can provide us a
lot of resources; let us design the bridge diagram and test
our model."
"In our experiences, we understood the construction of

buildings. Firstly, it is important to consider the structures,
and we need to know the concepts of structures."
"The bridges are very important in our real life. The bridges
can make transportation more convenient, and make the
childhood more interesting."
Discussion 4: In recent years, the situated learning was paid much attention to by many
realms of education. They contended that the transferring of learning could probably
take place only when students are engaged in real life experience learning. In addition to
the teaching design of the curriculum, teachers are also responsible for the set up of
learning environments and resources. Technology education places importance on real
life technology world in TLA (Technology Learning Activity) especially infuses with
information technology to conform to the technology works of modern society.
Assertion 5: Students still needed help, when they couldn't solve the design problem
independently; they need assistance from teachers, peer group, and other experts.
"There were similar design diagrams in activity

sheets, so we applied it to our project."
"Teacher told us that the triangle shape would be

more firm compared with others. We inquired for
Alisa's dad (her father is a bridge design engineer), he
suggested that we make this kind of rectangular and
use the triangular struts to sustain the whole model
bridge."
297
"At first, we really didn't know how to do; above all,

we still needed to attend other classes, how vexed we
were! Afterwards, the computer aided bridge design
software really inspired us. According to our
observation of living world, we made the perfect one."
"I checked the books, and tested it on the software.

Other while, I referred to my dad's books, because my
dad is a specialist in structure design."
Discussion 5: Teaching in the L.T. (Living Technology) aimed at providing students

various materials, equipment and technical supports, facilitating them to pursuit their
own ideas and carry them into fulfilment. It is necessary to establish the scaffold of
learning, connecting teachers, family and peers group to help them. In the spirit of
constructivist learning theory, it is the key point that lays interactive learning between
novices and experts.
Conclusions and implications

The results of this research support the advocacy that social interaction can promote the
learning of technological problem solving and design & making. Students situated in a
co-operative learning environment that can teach themselves, knowledge transferred
between each other. The phenomenon revealed that student's learning sometimes seems
to be the way of apprenticeship; students themselves served as novices and experts
alternatively. The teacher wasn't always the smart person who knows everything. On the
contrary, students often did the expert's job. Making use of the computers was an
important part in the whole technological activity. Computers provided the possibility of
connecting technology, science and mathematics (TSM) naturally in student-centred
problem solving activities.
In the design and making of Model Bridge structuring activity, students employed
many ways to reveal the acquired knowledge, especially, the use of real tools and
materials to elicit knowledge derived from their direct experiences. There were also some
other resources come from teacher's guidance, peers' discussion and personal analysis,
which support students to develop structuring concepts and complete their project.
Therefore, students synthesised their perceptions about technical principles.
The results of this research reveal that students' technological concepts on problem
solving were demonstrated primarily through experience and imagination. The
perceptions generated students' innate responses to design and making, including
knowing the usefulness of things, expressing the ability of technological creativity,
acquiring the skills and processes of meta-cognition. The study also exhibits some critical
characteristics of students in technological actions, such as how to decide their design
practically in light of their making experience. The prior knowledge of students, direct
observation and actual experience guided them to carry out the analysis clearly. It appears
298
that students applied their instinctive analysis to project design and making.
The teaching materials of technology education can be derived from many empirical
realms of human living world. As a technology teacher, our mission lies in manifesting
the knowledge, skills, understandings and values which constitute the technology world.
Technology education is a multi-faceted study area; it is a composite of human
knowledge and experiences drawn extensively from many subjects' achievements. For
that matter, we need a multi-disciplinary approach to implement the realistic problem
solving or thematic technological learning activities, and so it will coincide with the spirit
of our curriculum integration in Taiwan.
Acknowledgement
The author wishes to express his appreciation to Dr. Kuang-Chao Yu (Professor, Dept.
of Industrial Technology Ed., National Taiwan Normal University) who took the time
and effort to offer his review and valuable suggestions for this paper.
References
Ausubel, D P 1968, Educational psychology: A cognitive view, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York.
Barlex, D & Carré, C 1985, Visual communication in science, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Bencze, J L 2000, Repertory grid technique for eliciting individuals' conceptions. [WWW document], URL
http://www.oise.utoronto.ca/~lbencze/RepGrids.pdf
Carré, C 1981, Language teaching and Learning: Science, Ward Lock, London.
Cobern, W W 1996, 'Worldview theory and conceptual change in science, Education. Science
Cross, K P 1976, Accent on learning, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
Driver, R & Oldham, V 1986, 'A constructivist approach to curriculum development in science',
Studies in Science Education, vol.13, pp.105–122.
Erickson, F 1986, 'Qualitative methods in research on teaching', in Handbook of Research on Teaching,
ed. M C Wittrock, Macmillan, New York.
Gergen, K J 1995, 'Social construction and the educational process', in Constructivism in education, eds
L P Steffe & J Gale, Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ.
Glasersfeld, E von 1995, Radical constructivism: A way of knowing and learning, Falmer, London.
Henak, R M 1992, 'Addressing learning styles', The Technology Teacher, November, pp.23–28.
Hodson, D 1986, 'The nature of scientific observation', School Science Review, vol.68, pp.17–29.
Hodson, D 1988, 'Towards a philosophically more valid science curriculum', Science Education,
vol.72, no.1, pp.19–40.
Hodson, D & Reid, D 1988, 'Changing priorities in science education: Part I', School Science Review,
vol.70, no.250, pp.101–165.
Järvinen, E M & Hiltunen, J 1999, 'Home security-children's innovations in action', in Impacts of
technology education, eds I Mottier & M J de Vries, Proceedings of PATT-9 Conference in
Indianapolis, PATT-Foundation, Eindhoven, March 27–29.
Kolb, D A 1984, Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development, Prentice-Hall, NJ.'
Koulaidis, V & Tsatsaroni, A 1996, Technology and science: An epistemological approach to their
teaching', in The Second Jerusalem International Science & Technology Education Conference on Technology
Education for a Changing Future: Theory, Policy and Practice, eds D Mioduser & I Zilberstein, Center
for Educational Technology, Tel Aviv.
299
Kozulin, A 1998, Psychological tools: A socio-cultural approach to education, Harvard University Press,
Cambridge, MA.
Lemke, J L 1990, Talking science: Language, learning and values, Ablex, Norwood, NJ.
McCormick, R, Murphy, P, Hennessy, S & Davidson, M 1996, 'Research on student learning of
designing and problem solving in technology activity in schools in England', Paper presented
to American Research Association Annual Meeting, New York, 8th–11th April 1996.
Osborne, R & Wittrock, M 1985, 'The generative learning model and its implications for science
education', Studies in Science Education, vol.12, pp.59–87.
Patton, M Q 1990, Qualitative evaluation and research methods, Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA.
Polanyi, M 1958, Personal knowledge, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London.
Posner, G J, Strike, K A, Hewson, P W & Gertzog, W A 1982, 'Accommodation of a scientific
conception: Towards a theory of conceptual change', Science Education, vol.66, no.2, pp.211–27.
Ritchie, S M & Hampson, B 1996, 'Learning in the making: A case study of science and technology
projects in a year six classroom', Research in Science Education, vol.26, no.4, pp.391–407.
Sparkes, J 1993, 'Some differences between science and technology', in Technology for technology
education, eds R McCormick, C Newey & J Sparkes, Addison-Wesley, London.
Sutton, C 1996, 'Beliefs about science and beliefs about language', International Journal of Science
Tasker, R & Osborne, R 1985, 'Science teaching and science learning', in Learning in Science: The
implications of children's science, eds R Osborne & P Freyberg, Heinemann Press, Auckland.
Tobin, K & Tippins, D 1993, 'Constructivism as a referent for teaching and learning', in The practice
of constructivism in science education, ed. K Tobin, AAAS Press, Washington, D.C.
Twyford, J 2000, Nodding toy project. [WWW document], URL
http://www.ex.ac.uk/telematics/T3/technology/nodding/design.htm
von Glasersfeld, E 1995, 'A constructivist approach to teaching', in Constructivism in education, eds
P L Steffe & J Gale, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, Hillsdale, NJ.
Vygotsky, S 1978, Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes, Harvard University
Press, Cambridge, MA.
Vygotsky, L S 1986, Thought and language, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
Wertsch, J V 1991, Voices of the mind: A socio-cultural approach to mediated action, Harvester Wheatsheaf,
Hertfordshire, UK.
White, R T & Mitchell, I J 1994, 'Meta-cognition and the quality of learning', Studies in Science
300
Understanding Design in
Primary Design and Technology
Denise J. MacGregor
University of South Australia, Adelaide
A
nning's (1994) research in England and Wales, has demonstrated that teachers'
understandings of design in Design and Technology Education are a combination of
centrally imposed National curriculum coupled with their own practical, operational
versions. This paper, based on the author's case study research into the understandings and
practice of design by five Design and Technology Key Teachers in South Australian Primary
school settings, explores the sentiment of this aspect of Anning's findings in an Australian
context. Questions to be addressed in this paper are:
• What are Key Teachers' understandings of design?
• How are these understandings constructed?
• How are these understandings reflected in Key Teachers' practice?
Introduction
Design and Technology Education is relatively new introduction to the Primary School
curriculum. As a consequence very few Primary teachers have received formal pre-
service education in the field of design and technology education (Stables 1997; Stein,
Campbell, McRobbie & Ginns 1999). Stein et al (1999) state that where Design and
Technology Education has been introduced into the Primary School curriculum teachers
have experienced a variety of difficulties. According to Anning (1994) and Jarvis and
Rennie (1996) these difficulties have been related to teachers limited understanding of
the phenomenon of Design and Technology, their struggles to conceptualise the
Learning Area in accordance with curriculum frameworks and their limited knowledge of
specific tool and practice skills (Stein et al 1999). The link between the teaching of
Design and Technology and understanding Design and Technology has also been
recognised by Kimbell, Stables and Green, (1996) and Badham (2000). They suggest that
it is teachers' personal understandings that impact on the way in which the Learning Area
is taught in schools.
With the introduction of Design and Technology Education as an independent
Learning Area into primary school curriculum in 1994, many South Australian schools
appointed Design and Technology Key Teachers to provide professional development
programmes to support teachers in developing their understandings of the new Learning
Area.
301
The recent introduction of the South Australian Curriculum Standards and

Accountability Framework (SACSA) (DETE) in 2001 has renewed emphasis on the
importance and value of the Key Teachers' role. According to Curtis (2001), it is this
group of educators who are instrumental in shaping the ways in which this dynamic
Learning Area is taught in schools.
Although the place of design was implicit in former curriculum documents such as A
Statement on Technology for Australian Schools (A.E.C. 1994a) and Technology – A Curriculum
Profile for Australian Schools (A.E.C 1994b), the content of current documentation and the
re-naming of the Learning Area to Design and Technology both serve to emphasise the
explicit place that design now holds as a core methodology. It is therefore imperative that
insights be gained as to Key Teachers' understandings of design. Hence the purpose of
the research was to stimulate thinking and to express conclusions through:
• investigating Key Teachers' understandings of the concept of design in Primary school
Design and Technology Education;
• examining how these understandings were constructed; and
• exploring design practice through the documentation of Key Teachers' planning and
programming.
Describing design in Design and Technology Education

Eggleston (1994), suggests that Design and Technology Education is the one subject area
that is specifically concerned with a student's capacity to design and make, to solve
problems with the use of materials and to understand the significance of Design and
Technology on their own and others' lives. Eggleston further states that at the "heart of
the matter" is the design process:
The design process at its most complete is one that can be used to describe, to analyse and
hopefully to improve every aspect of human activity and especially those human activities
that lead to end products and services (p.26).
The design process, according to Eggleston (1994), is above all else one of rational
and logical analysis. However Roberts (1994): Hill (1998): Roth, Tobin and Richie (2001)
suggest that the process of design is not a neat systematic process but instead has
iterative patterns involving processes of conscious reflection and thought. These authors
question the value in presenting students with a simple lineal process of design that does
not reflect the complexity evident in the way professional designers operate.
In 1994 the Assessment of Performance Unit (APU) undertook an extensive
investigation into the nature of teachers' understanding of Design and Technology in
the United Kingdom, the findings of the unit concluded that there was "consensus on
certain basic tenets" of Design and Technology Education. These were that design,
"was an active process involving the purposeful pursuit of a task to some form of
resolution that results in improvement (for some) in the made world" (APU, p.60 cited
in Banks 1994).
The Unit also reviewed a number of models that had been developed to support
teachers in their understanding of design as a process. The APU came to the conclusion
that "the models used to describe the process (of design) became ever more confused as
302
Understanding Design in Primary Design and Technology
the subtlety of the process becomes apparent" (p.60). Hence the APU, whilst recognising
that these models could provide a useful guide or starting point for teachers to develop
their understanding of design processes, were mindful that the models could be
interpreted as a prescriptive series of stages that needed to be completed by students.
Used unsympathetically, the approach can reveal a greater concern for 'doing' all of the
stages of the process, than for combining a growing range of capabilities in a way which
reflects individual creativity and confident and effective working methods (APU 1994, p.61).
Liddament (1996) argues that such models and processes limit teachers'
understandings of 'design'. He believes that teachers need to develop an understanding
which, "draws attention to the metamorphic and evolutionary character of designing"
(p.11). The suggestion is made that teachers need to be aware that when students design
they implement processes which constantly change depending on the context of the
problem and the nature of the individual. Liddament believes that it is this metamorphic
element which characterises the creative aspect of design which cannot be found in
sequential problem-solving models.
According to Mawson (2001) these models have not only contributed to the
development of teachers' understandings overseas but they have also shaped the past and
continue to influence current curriculum documentation in Australian schools.
An understanding of design as a process, informed the focus of the Design and
Technology Learning Area in SACSA, (DETE 2001) currently being implemented in
South Australian primary schools. However the concept of process in these documents is
not described in terms of 'the process', but as a way of working that is shaped by the
student. This process is articulated through three strands, critiquing, designing and
making. A quality Design and Technology Education weaves the three strands.
Critiquing involves making judgements and learning through deconstructing. It
occurs before, throughout and after designing and making. Designing involves
imagination and creativity to develop ideas and choices about new products, processes
and systems. Making involves creating the new products using a range of materials and
techniques. The process of design as described in the SACSA Framework (DETE 2001)
is not sequential but holistic and dynamic in nature. The framework states that design is
about change and choice making.
To design is to change one set of circumstances into another and, in doing so; choices have
to be made. The decisions faced when designing involve complexity and holistic thinking as
there are many factors to consider (DETE 2001, p.42).
When student's design they draw on a wide range of thinking and creative capabilities to
plan, generate, synthesise and realise ideas.
They (students) use design skills for their particular potential, and recognise the different
elements involved in designing and that these elements can be interconnected (DETE
2001, p.42).
SACSA (DETE 2001) states that designing facilitates the development of design
skills and techniques and develops the ability of students to effectively communicate
their design thinking. When students engage in processes of design they are encouraged
to analyse critically the intention, the design, the manufacture and the consequence of
303
their own and broader technological development (DETE 2001).

According to Fleer and Jane (1999) primary school teachers in Australia have
supported students in developing a rich variety of design skills and design thinking
through implementing a design approach to the teaching of Design and Technology.
Fleer and Sukroo (1995) and Williams (2000) state that it is important for students to
utilise a range of processes as they design. They suggest that innovative teachers
recognise that students can work in many different ways when they design. As Design
and Technology Education is such a broad area, Williams (2000) further suggests that to
focus on any one process does not provide students with a broad concept of the nature
of the Learning Area.
Research design
The orientation of the research was an interpretive inquiry in the form of a qualitative
case study which according to Merriam (1988) is an, "intensive, holistic description and
analysis of a bounded phenomenon such as a program, an institution, a person, a
process, or a social unit" (p.xiv).
As Key Teachers' had been identified (Curtis 2001) as one of the defining bodies for
the construction of teachers' understanding of design it is they who became the focus for
this investigation. The five participants in this research study are Design and Technology
Education Key Teachers' with recognised experience and expertise in teaching primary
Design and Technology.
To facilitate the collection of descriptive data a multi-method approach to data
collection was implemented for this case study (Cohen & Manion 1994). The use of
three methods of data collection, interviews, questionnaire and document analysis
facilitated triangulation.
A series of three interviews were administered on a one-to-one basis, these semi-
structured interviews were guided by some set questions which sought open responses
and formed the basis for further questioning as the interviews proceeded (Smith 1999).
The questionnaire was implemented to support the Key Teachers' in gathering their
thoughts and to have time between interviews to consider their responses. Its purpose
was not to provide conclusive or extensively detailed information but to provide a
starting point for conversation in the interviews.
Key Teachers' teaching and learning programmes were viewed and discussed. Smith
(1999) suggests that the analysis of documents can be useful in extending understandings
about some phenomenon and in extending the research. The purpose of document
analysis in this instance was to analyse how participants' understandings of design were
put into practice.
Research findings
For the purpose of this paper the research findings have been summarised and
structured under the following headings, Key Teachers' personal and professional
interests in design, understandings of design and planning and programming.
304
Personal and professional interests

The collated data suggested that four of the five Key Teachers' had a personal interest in
design before it became a required area of study. The introduction of Design and
Technology Education into primary schools had enabled participants to adapt initial
interests and to transfer and modify understandings that they had previously associated
with craft, construction, building and design to the new Learning Area.
For all participants, personal and professional interests provided the motivation for
teaching Design and Technology. Professional Development opportunities, motivating
colleagues and a belief that Design and Technology would benefit student learning
contributed to the development of a professional interest.
Data revealed that although the introduction of curriculum documents was not the
starting point for participant's interest in Design and Technology, they did provide:
A sense of purpose and justification about what I was trying to achieve…they (the
documents) enabled me to articulate more clearly as to how and why this (teaching Design
and Technology) was educationally valuable and how it can benefit children and their
learning (Participant 4).
All participants currently use the SACSA Frameworks (DETE 2001) to plan, programme
and assess student outcomes in Design and Technology Education.
Key Teachers' understandings of design

Although participants could discuss elements of design the ability to succinctly define or
to describe the concept proved to be perplexing. Perhaps this is a reflection of the
richness of the term in that it has different meaning for the individual and for the
situation to which it is to be applied.
Design is an all encompassing term, it has so many meanings and is applied to so many
contexts…defining design is not easy (Participant 1).
All human beings constantly engage in the discipline of design as they critique options, make
decisions and evaluate outcomes through life experiences (Participant 4).
However the data revealed that all participants could describe design in terms of
design activity that is, what people did as they designed (Archer & Roberts 1979).
The data provided a view of shared understandings that recognised intention and
identifying needs was central to the purpose of design. Further exploration revealed that
the participants believed that the purpose of design was to:
• meet a need;
• generate something new; or to,
• bring about change.
Participants acknowledged that when we design issues related to aesthetics, personal
priorities and values coming into play. Participants also stated that design could result in
many outcomes that can continue to be modified. Data also suggested that the process
of design could be viewed as a planning process through which we sketch and draw
plans of our initial ideas.
305
All participants viewed design as a process, not in a simple lineal way but as an
iterative process (Hill 1998) that could be adapted by the individual to suit a particular
situation. The research of Liddament (1996) suggests that teachers need to develop an
understanding of design which, "draws attention to the metamorphic and evolutionary
character of designing" (p.11). The data would suggest that participants in this study had
developed this understanding. It is a view that defies the findings of Mawson (2000)
whose study of English Design and Technology literature suggests that there is a general
adherence of teachers to a linear concept when defining and implementing a design
process. This difference in findings may be linked to the influence of curriculum
documents on participants' understandings. In South Australia the curriculum documents
are not prescriptive or centrally imposed as suggested in Anning's research, they provide
a framework that is open to individual and local interpretation.
When collating the data a number of 'Key' words were identified. All participants
used these words regularly throughout the interviews as they shared their understandings
of design. These words were:
creative analysing compromise

individuality dynamic consequence
thinking intention drawing
constructs modelling sketching
possibilities planning
The use of these words to describe the nature of design emphasises the dynamic, holistic
and broad understandings that the five Key Teachers' held.
Key Teachers' planning and programming
An analysis of Teaching and Learning programmes provided insight into participants'
understandings of design as it was through discussions that were set in the familiar
context of 'teacher practice' that understandings of design could be explored in greater
depth.
All participants' Teaching and Learning programmes reflected a teaching
methodology that supported the development of procedural and conceptual Design
knowledge.
Williams (2000) suggests that the focus for the development of procedural knowledge
has been associated with the development of manipulative skills and how to use tools
effectively and safely. This research supported this claim, however several participants
also introduced students to drawing and planning techniques and in doing so provided a
broader range of practical skills and understandings for students to draw upon when they
designed.
Participants encouraged students to explore and discuss the concept of innovation
through critiquing existing technologies. The concept of developing designerly thinking
with designerly action (Anning 1994) was evidenced in all participants programmes.
Participants also encouraged students to discuss how they designed and to investigate
how others designed. For several participants this included inviting designers from
outside of the education field to work with students.
306
Design briefs were used to introduce a design task to students. All participants
provided briefs that ranged from very open to closed depending, "on the purpose of the
task and the outcome that you want students to achieve" (Participant 3).
Participants' programmes reflected that the way in which students designed varied
from student to student and from task to task and that it was dependent on:
• the individual student's preferred learning style;
• the level of a student's prior knowledge;
• the amount of time to complete the task;
• the resources available; and
• the nature of the design brief (open or closed).
It (the way in which students design) varies for each child, where they come from and the
way they like to work. Some children are very visual. Others like to work in a linear way and
need to know what to do step by step. Some are creative and way out there in their thinking.
They'll just spark with an idea and go with it then have to deal with the practicalities
afterwards (Participant 2).
Participants did not teach a specific design process. They encouraged whole class and
group discussion to clarify a task. On some occasions they would encourage students to
sketch their ideas, or they would suggest to students that they could design as they made.
Participants encouraged students to share, through discussion with their peers how
they designed. Such discussions provided ideas that other students could adopt or adapt
as part of their own design practice.
However several participants stated that they had not always taught this way. In the
past these participants had taught stages of design explicitly and as a lineal process.
Experience, reflection and observation has since informed these participants that
although this was still a preferred style of learning for some of their students (gifted and
talented in one instance and students lacking confidence in another) it generally
presented a limited view of designing. This finding is very different from Anning's
(1994). Her research illustrated that teachers had not had time to reflect on their
understandings to the extent that they could identify what specific concepts of design
they should be promoting in their classrooms.
Several participants linked the development of higher order thinking skills with the
skills of designing. These participants acknowledged that when students designed they
analysed, questioned and predicted. Participants viewed these skills as valuable 'life skills'
that could be transferred across to other areas of the curriculum to support student
learning.
Conclusions
The purpose of this paper was to explore the sentiment of Annings (1994) research into
teachers' understandings of design in an Australian context. The aspect of her findings
which underpin this paper is that the understanding of design which teachers in England
and Wales hold are a combination of imposed curriculum coupled with their own
operational versions.
307
The data from this South Australian study suggest that there are three main
influences that shape Key Teachers' understandings, these are:
• personal experiences which have developed through interest and enthusiasm for
designing both within and outside of education;
• professional experiences such as observing students designing, reflecting on their own
teaching practice of design, recognising the benefits to student learning, professional
development, conversing with colleagues; and
• past and current curriculum documents.
The recent introduction of the South Australian Curriculum Standards and
Accountability Framework (SACSA) (DETE 2001) and the role that several of the Key
Teachers have had in trailing this document has clearly played a significant role in
shaping understandings. However it can also be argued that the Key Teachers who had a
significant input into its content shaped the SACSA Framework itself.
While Key Teachers' understanding and practice of design are certainly shaped by
curriculum documents their understandings are also heavily influenced by their
conceptual knowledge, which is based on personal interests and the professional insights
developed through experience.
The research also leads us to suggest that Key Teachers' in South Australia have had
time to reflect on their understandings and practice to enable them to identify:
• why they teach design; and
• how to successfully teach design to support student learning in Design and
Technology.
The findings of this study concur with Anning's (1994) views to a degree, however the
data suggests that it is the combined synergy of a range of influences coupled with
experience and time to reflect on understandings and practice that currently shapes Key
Teachers' understanding.
References
Anning, A 1994, 'Dilemmas and opportunities of a new curriculum: Design and technology with
young children', International Journal of Technology and Design Education, vol.4, no.2, pp.155–178.
APU (Assessment of Performance Unit) 1987, Design and technological activity: A framework for
assessment, London.
APU (Assessment of Performance Unit) 1994, 'Learning through design and technology', in
Teaching technology, ed. F Banks, Routledge, London.
Archer, B & Roberts, P 1979, 'Design and technological awareness in education', Studies in Design
Education, Craft and Technology, vol.12, no.1, pp.55–56.
Australian Education Council 1994a, A statement on technology for Australian schools, Curriculum
Australian Education Council 1994b, Technology – A curriculum profile for Australian schools, Curriculum
Badham, G 2000, 'Linking theory to practice: Changing the beliefs of design', International Conference
on Technology Education Research 2000 Proceedings, Griffith University, Brisbane.
308
Cohen, L & Manion, L 1994, Research methods in education, Routledge, London & New York.
Curtis, T 2001, 'Design and technology education', Discussion paper for Learning Areas Forum, June
2001, pp.1–3 (unpublished).
Department of Education, Training and Employment (DETE), 2001, South Australian Curriculum
Standards and Accountability Framework, DETE Publishing, Adelaide.
Eggleston, J 1994, 'What is design and technology education?, in Teaching technology, ed. F Banks,
Routledge, London.
Fleer, M & Jane, B 1999, Technology for children: Developing your own approach, Prentice Hall, Australia.
Fleer, M & Sukroo, M 1995, I can make my robot dance, Curriculum Corporation, Carlton, Australia.
Hill, A 1998, 'Problem solving in real-life contexts: An alternative for design and technology
education', International Journal of Technology and Design Education, vol.8, no.3, pp.203–220.
Jarvis, T & Rennie, L 1996, 'Perceptions about technology held by Primary teachers in England',
Research in Science and Technology Education, vol.14, no.1, pp.43–54.
Kimbell, R, Stables, K & Green, R 1996, Understanding practice in design and technology (1st edn.), Open
University Press, Buckingham.
Liddament, T 1996, 'Design and problem solving', International Conference on Design and Technology
Educational Research and Curriculum Development, Department of Design and Technology,
Loughborough University, Leicestershire, United Kingdom, pp.11–15.
Mawson, B 2001, 'Breaking the shackles: Beyond the design process', TENZ 2001, Technology
Education New Zealand Conference proceedings, Wellington New Zealand, pp.153–165.
Merriam, S 1988, Case study research in education: A qualitative Approach, Jossey-Bass Inc. Pub.
California.
Roth, W, Tobin, K & Richie, S 2001, Re/constructing elementary science, Peter Lang Publishing, New
York.
Roberts, P 1994, 'The place of design in technology education', in Innovations in Science and Technology
Education, ed. Layton, vol.5, UNESCO, Paris.
Smith, B 1999, 'Issues and methods in research Substitute Study Guide for Section 3: The interpretivist
approach, University of South Australia.
Stein, S, Campbell, J, McRobbie, J & Ginns, I 1999, 'A model for the professional development of
teachers in design and technology', Paper presented at the Australian Association for Research in
Education-New Zealand Association for Research in Education Conference, Melbourne, Australia,
December 1999.
Williams, P J 2000, 'Design: The only methodology of technology?', Journal of Technology Education,
vol.11, no.2, April.
309

Learning in Technology Education

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Learning in Technology Education

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Learning in Technology Education

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

LEARNING IN TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION

CHALLENGES FOR THE 21ST CENTURY

Edited by Howard Middleton

Learning in Technology Education: Challenges for the 21st Century.

Desktop Publishing by Karen Moorehead

An analysis of one accident

Reasons loss-of-control problems are difficult to recognise

Suggested changes to safety instruction

on differentiating between problem types. Likewise, traditional safety instruction

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

integration can be achieved. These are set out in table 1 below.

Bailey and Pownell argue that as applied to technology integration, Maslow's

Design as an activity clearly offers tremendous potential for self-actualisation. Designers

The notion of confidence

comfort zone and compromise their sense of confidence.

Maslow and confidence

A 'new' model for the pre-service education of secondary

and practice. Using a grounded research approach provided an opportunity to discern

subjected to an extensive literature review to ascertain whether or not a relationship

Flagging student interest

Supportive school environment

An investigation of the literature from previous research indicates that a supportive

Emergent model of curriculum change

Conclusions and recommendations

in effect, documents or organised collections of documents. A document is considered

What are the claims about hypermedia?

Hypermedia and learning

programmers. The pervasive nature of web browser technology, the underlying

SCREEN USED RESPONDENTS USER

Ignored case study

Content display area

Media display area

movements were aligned with the chapter structure.

school facilities and resources, and teacher professional development opportunities.

Students and teachers involved

Defining Mäori education

Student teacher evaluation

24 student teacher responses

Continuum where 5 = "strong"

24 student teacher responses

Continuum where 5 = "strong"

24 student teacher responses

Continuum where 5 = "strong"

Continuum where 5 = "strong"

Continuum where 5 = "strong"

76 student teacher responses

Continuum where 5 = "strong"

can be supported through innovative approaches to teaching and learning. By

included in educational policy as well. Technology education is now named as "Living

Purpose and objectives

Besides quantitative analysis, main experimental participant's opinions were presented

(2) selecting appropriate topics: through brainstorming, students selected important,

introducing goals and objectives

selecting appropriate topics

practicing practical skills

introducing data collecting collecting and analysing data

learning how to present

questioning and discussing