Tutorial – 4

CEN-204, Hydraulics

Abhinandan
Goyal 19113002
M1

Q1. A hydrometeorological network is an organized system for collection of

information of specific kinds such as precipitation, run off, water quality,
sedimentation and other climate parameters.
The main objectives to set up hydrometeorological networks are :
● Water resources assessment for (sub)basins,
● units Planning of water resources projects for irrigation, domestic and
industrial water supply, hydroelectric power generation, environmental
requirements, navigation, recreation, etc.
● Flood management including forecasting;
● Impacts of climate change on water resources
● Establish and Operate Hydrological Information System (HIS)
Steps in Network Design :
The hydrometeorological network design is not a one-time affair. Factors
affecting network design go on evolving with time and thus the networks also
require periodic review and adjustments. The steps in the network design are as
follows –
1. Assess data needs
2. Identify the network objectives
3. Prioritization
4. Determine network density
5. Review the existing network
6. Select the site and equipment
7. Estimate the cost
8. Implement
9. Review

Q2. Hydrological data is quite useful and has many current as well as potential
users. Many of these are –

Governmental Departments −
● Surface Water Dept
● Federal/Local − Groundwater Dept
● Federal/Local − Agricultural Dept.
● Environment and Forest Dept.
Nongovernmental Organizations –
● Chambers of Commerce
● Environmental Protection Org
● Farmers Associations/Cooperative Bodies
● Water Users
Associations Private Sector −
● Contractors
● Energy Utilities
● Engineering Consultants
● Industries: Beverages, Capital Goods, Consumer Goods, Textile Mills,
Paper Mills, Automobiles
● Animal husbandry

Q3. Every major stream should be gauged near its mouth and its major
tributaries should also be gauged as feasible.
Selection of Sites for River Gauging Stations -
1. Places where major rivers cross state/national borders.
2. Places where flow has changed considerably after the last upstream station.
3. Based on locations of proposed projects.
4. Locations whose data may be needed for flood forecasting.
5. Locations of interest from ecological and biodiversity perspective
General site selection guidelines -
1. There should be a straight, well-defined approach channel.
2. Site should not have a tendency to collect floating debris.
3. Avoid locations subject to high turbulence
4. Ideally, flow should be confined to a single channel.
5. Channel bed should be rigid, free from large undulations.
6. Unhindered access to site in all seasons.
7. Avoid sites with a tendency for formation of vortices, reverse flow, or dead
water.
8. Human interference is a problem in some places.
9. Measurement section should be clearly visible across its width.
10. There should be sufficient depth of flow across whole cross section.
11. Site should be sufficiently far from backwater or any other disturbance.

Q4. WMO (2008): first gauging station on a river where drainage area is about
1300 km2
Second station at a place in downstream where drainage area is approximately
doubled.
Stations are also established where significant changes in flow are observed.
First hydrological station on a stream typical of the region.
Further stations to cover area and obtain information about variability.
Recommended Minimum Densities of River Gauging Stations (area in km2 per
station)
Physiographic Streamflow Sediments Water quality
unit
Coastal 2750 18,300 55,000
Mountains 1000 6700 20,000
Interior plains 1875 12,500 37,500
Hilly/undulating 1875 12,500 47,500
Small islands 300 2000 6000
Urban areas - - -
Polar/arid 20,000 200,000 200,000

Accuracy: WMO: Water depth measurement should have accuracy of about 2%,
flow velocity 2% - 5%, and discharge about 5%. Suspended sediment
concentration should be estimated with an accuracy of 10%.
The Central Water Commission under Ministry of Water Resources, Govt of
India measures the river flow in India and alone maintains over 900 station.

Q5. River stage is an important concept when analysing how much water is
moving in a stream at any given moment. Stage is the water level above some
arbitrary point, usually with the zero height being near the riverbed, in the river.
There are many means of measuring the river stage, some manual some
automatic. Some of these are –

Manual method of measuring river stage -

Staff gauge:
It is an iron section (normally porcelain enamelled), graduated every 10 mm,
and installed such that a part of it is always immersed in the water. Staff gauges
are manually read generally each day in morning in lean season, (multi) hourly
in floods. They are an inexpensive, simple, and robust method to measure water
level.
Staff gauge can be either vertical or inclined. Stepped sections are installed at
different locations in a line normal to flow where range of water level variation
is large. Each of these stepped gauges should refer to common datum, should
overlap sufficiently -- continuity of readings and consistency with each other
Inclined staff gauge: a graduated surface anchored to a permanent foundation.
Inclined gauges flush with stream bank are less likely to be damaged by floods,
floating ice, or drift than are projecting vertical staff gauges.
Automatic method of measuring river stage-

Float Gauge:
Like the recording rain gauge the float gauge water level recorder also works on
the principle of a float. The most common type of automatic water level
recorder uses a float line with a metal float at one end and small counterweight
at the other end. The float line passes over a pulley and transfers the changes of
water level to it.
A recording stylus is attached to the pulley. It moves laterally and traces the
water level fluctuations on a recorder chart. The recorder chart is a tracing
quality strip paper wound over rollers or a drum. The recorder chart is
connected to a clockwork mechanism which moves it at pre-determined speed
continuously.

Q6. River flow measurements are usually classified into 2 categories –

Direct Determination of discharge. It includes –
1. Area Velocity method.
2. Dilution techniques.
3. Float method.
4. Current method.
Indirect Determination of discharge. It includes –
1. Slope area method.
2. Hydraulic structure.
3. Estimations by 5d relation
Q7. Current Meter:
Current meter (CM) is commonly used to measure velocity of flowing water. It
consists of a rotating element (rotor) which moves due to reaction of water
current.
CMs are of two types: propeller type and cup type.
Propeller type CM causes less disturbance to flow than vertical axis rotors. In
vertical axis CMs, about 4 to 6 cups are mounted on vertical axis - rotate due to
force of moving water. Horizontal axis propeller type CM consists of a propeller
mounted on a horizontal shaft.
CM measurements are usually classified based on: Means used to cross stream
during observations - wading, cableway, bridge, or boat. Wading - small streams
of shallow depth only. Deep, wide channels - cableway is stretched from bank to
bank, above high water level, carriage moving over cableway - observation
platform.
Bridges are advantageous from view of accessibility, not best locations
hydraulically. Velocity should be measured on downstream of bridge.
Boats are most satisfactory for CM measurements in wide rivers. Relation
between revolutions per second N of CM and water velocity v is given by
v=a+b×N
a = starting velocity or velocity required to overcome mechanical friction,
b = a constant of proportionality.
Procedure to measure velocity using CM -
The meter is lowered in water and when it faces the current of water in the
channel the wheel rotates. To keep the meter facing the direction of flow a tail is
attached. This tail aligns the meter in the direction of flow. The meter is also
fitted with a streamlined weight which keeps the meter in a vertical position.
The rate of rotation of the wheel depends on the velocity of flow. A dry battery
is kept on the shore or in a boat and an electric current is passed to the wheel
from it. A commutator is fixed to the shaft of the revolving wheel. It makes and
breaks the contact in an electrical circuit at each revolution. An automatic
revolution counter is kept in the boat or on the shore with the battery which
registers the revolutions. Then the time taken for a required number of
revolutions may be noted. The velocity of flow can be read from a rating table.
The rating table is always provided with the meter.

Q8. Velocity-Area Method

The velocity-area method is the most common method of estimating river flow.
In this method, discharge is computed by measuring river depths and velocity
at several regularly or irregularly spaced verticals.
Discharge (Q) passing through a cross section is Q = A
V. A is the area of cross section of flow (m2 ), and
V is the mean flow velocity (m/s).
It is not enough to measure velocity at a single point. Depending on accuracy
required, divide cross-section into vertical segments. In each segment, velocity
is measured at one/more points along depth - get average velocity. Calculate
area of individual segment.
Two methods to determine mean velocity over vertical velocity profile.
One-Point Measurement: If velocity distribution in a vertical is close to the
classical form, then we can assume that mean velocity occurs at 0.6 of depth (D)
from the surface i.e. 0.6D. This is used for depths less than 1.0 m.
Two-Point Measurement: average of velocities at 0.2d and 0.8d depth below
surface. Used for depths > 1.0m.
If it is only possible to measure the surface velocity, surface velocity is
multiplied by a coefficient, say 0.85, to get mean velocity.
For rivers > 10 m wide, at least 20 verticals should be used .
For rivers < 10 m wide discharge in any one segment should not exceed 10% of
total. Between 20 and 30 verticals are normally used for wide rivers.

Q9. Moving Boat Method

The moving boat method is one of the advanced techniques in the measurement
of discharge. On large rivers, conventional methods of discharge measurement
may be difficult during floods. The moving boat method can be used to
overcome problems in such a situation. Also, this method can be used at remote
locations, at sites where unsteady flow conditions require rapid completion of
measurement or at locations where no fixed facilities are available.
The principal difference between a conventional measurement and the
moving-boat measurement is in the method of data collection.
In MB method, data is collected by an observer on a boat traversing along a
pre-selected path. An echo sounder records bed profile.
Force exerted on CM is a combination of two forces acting simultaneously:
a) force resulting from movement of boat along the cross-section,
b) a consequence of natural streamflow normal to that path.
Observer also measures angle between the CM, which aligns itself in a
direction parallel to the movement of water and the preselected path. Data are
collected at a large number of observation points in cross section.
Velocity (Vv) measured at a point is velocity of water past CM is vector sum of
velocity of water (v) and velocity of boat (Vb) with respect to bed. Velocity of
streamflow can be obtained by measuring angle α between path of boat and the
vane which aligns itself in a direction parallel to movement of water past it.
Flow velocity v, perpendicular to boat path (true course) at each observation
point 1, 2, 3,…, can be determined from relationship
v = Vv sin α
Accuracy of a MB measurement depends upon skill of boat operator in
maintaining a desired course. It is important that deviations from true course be
kept as few in number and as small in magnitude, as possible.

Q10. The velocity at segment 1 is doubtful, because the velocity near the
surface should be low as compared to velocity at larger depths. So assuming the
value of velocity at segment 1 accordingly and doing the calculations –
Segme Averag Velocit Velocit Velocit Averag Area of Dischar
nt e y at y at y at e segment ge of
depth( 0.2d 0.6d 0.8d velocit (m2) segment
m) (m/s) (m/s) (m/s) y (m/s) (m3/s)
1 0.3 0.40 0.40 0.6 0.24
2 0.6 0.72 0.70 0.71 1.2 0.852
3 1.1 1.15 1.10 1.125 2.2 2.475
4 0.9 1.09 0.98 1.035 1.8 1.863
5 0.65 0.64 0.68 0.66 1.3 0.858
6 0.35 0.42 0.42 0.7 0.294
Total Dischar 6.582
ge

𝑞(𝐶 − 𝐶 )
1 2
Q11. 𝑄= 𝐶−𝐶
2 𝑏
Given , 𝐶 = 0
𝑏

𝐶 = 40 𝑔𝑚/𝑙
1

𝐶 = 10 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0. 009988 𝑔𝑚/𝑙

2

q = 10 cm3/s
Q = 10 * (40 – 0.009988) / 0.009988 = 10* 4003.8
= 40038 cm3/s

Q12. 𝐻 = 93. 5
0

SN y=Q H x=H- ( (y (
𝐻 𝑥−𝑥) − 𝑦 ) ^2 𝑥 − 𝑥 )(
0 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
1 138.6 94.65 1.15 3.9469 374334.7 1215.521
2 165.2 95.485 1.985 1.3264 342493 674.0082
3 225.12 96.067 2.567 0.3245 275949.5 299.2685
4 359.62 96.285 2.785 0.1236 152731.7 137.4475
5 714.0 96.86 3.36 0.0498 1327.072 -8.1346
6 742.0 97.72 4.22 1.1735 71.048 -9.13114
7 610.1 97.105 3.605 0.2193 19692.23 -65.7161
8 279.95 95.55 2.05 1.1809 221350.5 511.2695
9 203.15 95.192 1.692 2.0871 299514.3 790.654
10 190.3 95.185 1.685 2.1074 313744.5 813.1393
11 170.8 95.07 1.57 2.4545 335969.8 908.1048
12 136.36 94.871 1.371 3.1176 377080.7 1084.262
13 159.75 94.915 1.415 2.9642 348901.7 1016.972
14 170.12 94.921 1.421 2.9436 336758.5 995.6362
15 148.1 94.82 1.32 3.3003 362800.2 1094.251
16 632.5 96.7 3.2 0.0040 13907.25 -7.4649
17 879.91 97.21 3.71 0.3286 16765.33 74.2314
18 2738.5 100.238 6.738 12.9693 3952426 7159.64
19 3600.4 103.65 10.15 49.1863 8122335 19987.7
20 2744.1 100.24 6.74 12.9837 3974724 7183.795
Sum
Avg 750.429 96.6367 3.1367 102.7926 1984287 43855.45
7.2
b = 𝑆 /𝑆 = (𝑥 − 𝑥 )(𝑦 − 𝑦 ) / (𝑥 − 𝑥 ) ^2 = 43855.45/102.7926 =
𝑥𝑦 𝑥𝑥 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
426.64
a=𝑦 −𝑏*𝑥 = 750. 429 − 426. 64 * 3. 1367 = − 587. 813
𝑚 𝑚
Q13. a) Assumptions of UH Theory are as follows –
1. Fixed duration of runoff - For a given catchment, duration of surface runoff
is essentially constant for all uniform-intensity storms of same duration,
regardless of total volume of surface runoff.
2. Proportionality of ordinates - For a given catchment, if two
uniform-intensity storms of the same length produce different total volumes of
surface runoff, then the rates of surface runoff at corresponding times t, after the
beginning of two storms, are in the same proportion to each other as the total
volumes of surface runoff.
3. Principle of superposition: Time distribution of surface runoff from a given
storm period is independent of concurrent runoff from antecedent storm
periods.
4. Concurrent Flow - Surface runoff hydrograph (SRH) resulting due to a
particular rainfall event is not affected by the concurrent runoff resulting
from other rainfall events.
Total SRH is sum of SRH due to other events
Qt = ( qPE1 + qPE2 + ……. + qPEn )t
5. Excess rainfall is of uniform intensity : Not strictly valid. Usually
intensity is not uniform for even 10 minutes. When there are small changes in
case of large watershed there is no major impact on UH shape.
6. Excess rainfall is uniform in space (size limitation) : Not strictly valid.
Rains are seldom uniform over a watershed of reasonable size. Rainfall
variability increases with size of watershed. Upper limit on watershed size
for applicability of UH.
7. Linearity Assumption: All watershed are non-linear – some more, some
less. UH features – peak, time base, rise and recession – change with intensity.
As a practical tool, UH concept is useful, linear system theory.
8. Catchment characteristics do not change with time: Catchment features
change – rapidly in some places, slowly in others. Update UH after
significant changes.
b) • Snyder (1938) developed a method to determine key characteristics of
synthetic UH for a catchment from measurable topographic data.
• Derived underlying formulas from a study of 20 watersheds, mainly
from Appalachian Highlands of eastern US, size from 26 to 25,600 km2 .
• Basic parameter of Snyder method is tp time to peak (hrs) - time from
centre of mass of effective RF of unit duration to UH peak:
tp = C1Ct(L.Lc)0.3
L = length of main stream (km) from catchment divide to outlet;
Lc is distance (km) from outlet to a point on stream, nearest to the centroid of
watershed;
Ct = a constant which represents catchment storage and swiftness of response,
varies from 1.8 to 2.2; catchments with steeper slopes have lower values.

Q14. First calculating 4 hour Unit hydrograph,

Since the baseflow is zero, the given discharge hydrograph is the DRH.
Volume of DRH = 60*60*4*(sum of DRH ordinates)
= 60*60*6*920 = 13.248 Mm3
Area of catchment = 500 km2
ER depth = Volume of DRH / Area = 13.248 /500 = 2.6496 cm
The ordinates of DRH are divided by ER depth to obtain the coordinates of the
4-h unit hydrograph.
Time from start of rain Ordinate of DRH Ordinate of 4-h unit
(hr) (m3/s) hydrograph
0 0 0
4 90 33.967
8 180 67.934
12 230 86.805
16 160 60.386
20 97 36.609
24 65 24.532
28 43 16.228
32 32 12.077
36 23 8.68

Now converting the 4h UH to 6h UH –

Time E(t) E(t-4) S curve E(t-6) SA - S B 6h UH
Ord (SA) (SB) Ord
0 0 0 0 0
2 16.983 16.983 16.983 11.322
4 33.967 0 33.967 33.967 22.644
6 50.951 16.983 67.934 0 67.934 45.289
8 67.934 33.967 101.902 16.983 84.918 56.612
10 77.37 67.934 145.305 33.967 111.337 74.225
12 86.805 101.902 188.707 67.934 120.772 80.515
14 73.596 145.305 218.901 101.902 116.998 77.999
16 60.386 188.707 249.094 145.305 103.789 69.192
18 48.497 218.901 267.398 188.707 78.691 52.46
20 36.609 249.094 285.703 218.901 66.802 44.535
22 30.57 267.398 297.969 249.094 48.875 32.583
24 24.532 285.703 310.235 267.398 42.836 28.557
26 20.38 297.969 318.349 285.703 32.646 21.764
28 16.228 310.235 326.464 297.969 28.494 18.996
30 14.153 318.349 332.503 310.235 22.267 14.845
32 12.077 326.464 338.541 318.349 20.191 13.461
34 10.378 332.503 342.881 326.464 16.417 10.945
36 8.68 338.541 347.222 332.503 14.719 9.812

Q15.
Time(h) Ordinate S-curve S-curve S-curve SA – SB 2-h UH
of 4-h addition ordinate lagged ordinates
UH (m3 /s) (m3/s) by 2h (m3/s)
(m3/s) (SA) (SB)
0 0 - 0 - 0 0
2 8 - 8 0 8 16
4 20 0 20 8 12 24
6 43 8 51 20 31 62
8 80 20 100 51 49 98
10 110 51 161 100 61 122
12 130 100 230 161 69 138
14 146 161 307 230 77 154
16 150 230 380 307 73 146
18 142 307 449 380 69 138
20 130 380 510 449 61 122
22 112 449 561 510 51 102
24 90 510 600 561 39 78
26 70 561 631 600 31 62
28 52 600 652 631 21 42
30 38 631 669 652 17 34
32 27 652 679 669 10 20
34 20 669 689 679 10 (20)15
36 15 679 694 689 5 (10)10
38 10 689 699 694 5 (10)6
40 5 694 699 699 (0) (0)3
42 2 699 701 699 (2) (4)0
44 0 699 699 701 (-2) (-4)0