General Biology 2 IM

Instructional Materials
for STE 2103
Compiled by:
Borjal, Sheena V.
Gulane, Mc. Rinsey M.
Mendiola, Benigno T.
Introduction
General Biology 2 is a Senior High School Specialized Subject that is offered to Science,
Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) students. It is designed to enhance the
understanding of the principles and concepts in the study of biolody. This instructional material
starts with a discussion of organismal biology which covers the different process in plants and
animals such as reproduction, development, nutrition, gas exchange, circulation, regulation of
body fluids, chemical and nervous control, immune systems, sensory and motor mechanisms.
Heredity and variation are also discussed. Each module contains self- tests, assessments and
checkpoints to help evaluate student learning.
This subject seeks to engage students in the wonders of the living world as well as to instill
reflective knowledge about how biology relates to their own existence and the world they live in.
Course Outcomes
On the completion of this course, the students are expected to:
1. compare and contrast the different processes in plants and animals;

2. explain how organisms maintain steady internal conditions;
3. describe examples of homeostasis;
4. predict genotypes and phenotypes of parents and offspring using the laws of inheritance;
5. explain the different patterns of inheritance;
6. illustrate the molecular structure of DNA and RNA;
7. explain why DNA is the molecule of life; and
8. diagram the steps in transcription and translation.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction i
Course Outcomes i
Table of Contents ii
Rubrics for Checkpoints and Self Tests v
Module 1: Organ and Organ Systems 1
Self- Check 5
Assessment 5
Module 2.1: Introduction to Reproduction 6
Self- Check 20
Module 2.2: Plant Reproduction 21
Activity 2.2.1 24
Activity 2.2.2 24
Activity 2.2.3 25
Checkpoint 27
Module 3: Integument and Skin 28
Self- Check 33
Module 4.1: Locomotion and Support: Skeletal System 34
Self- Check 45
Assessment 46
Activity 47
Module 4.2: Locomotion and Support: Muscular System 49
Self- Check 56
Assessment 56
Module 5.1: Nutrient Procurement and Processing: 58
Plant Nutrition
Self- Check 69
Assessment 69
ii
Human Nutrition
Self- Check 79
Assessment 80
Nutrition and Human Health
Self- Check 90
Module 6: Gas Exchange 91
Self- Check 100
Assessment 101
Module 7: Excretory System 103
Self- Check 113
Assessment 113
Module 8.1: Transport and Circulation (Cardiovascular System) 115
Self- Check 130
Assessment 130
Module 8.2: Blood 133
Self- Check 139
Assessment 139
Module 8.3: Lymphatic System 141
Self- Check 147
Module 9: The Nervous System 148
Activity 152
Checkpoint 152
Module 10: The Endocrine System 154
Activity 156
Module 11: Feedback Mechanism and Homeostasis 157
Module 12: Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance 162
Checkpoint 174
Checkpoint 179
iii
Checkpoint 184
Testing Your Knowledge 190
Module 13: The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology 192
Testing Your Knowledge 206
References 207
iv
RUBRICS
Grading of Short Questions of Checkpoints and Self Tests
Category Exemplary Very Good Fair Developing Beginning
Grade 5 4 3 2 1
There are one More than The thought The thought
All the or two two mistakes of the answer of the
information is mistakes, but are can be answer
Interpretation don’t affect
correct and committed deciphered doesn‘t have
and has satisfied significantly that but with any
Correctness
the question the quality of significantly many relevance to
being asked. work affects the technical the question
output errors. being asked
Too many Usage of
spelling and vague words
Virtually, no Few spelling A number of
grammatical that
Grammar grammatical and minor spelling or
errors that inevitably
Usage errors grammatical grammatical
interferes the lead to poor
committed errors errors
meaning of explanation
the answer of thoughts.
v
MODULE 1
ORGANS and ORGAN SYSTEM
Overview
An animal organ is composed mainly of one type of tissue, other types are needed
to support, to protect, provide blood supply for the nutrients needed by the cells, and transmit
information as in the heart. The heart is an organ that is made up of cardiac muscle tissue, and
is lined by an endothelial tissue (endothelium) and contains blood vessels made of endothelium,
smooth muscle and connective tissue. The heart has also nervous tissue that transmit impulses
or information and help in the regulation of the rate and its strength of its contractions. An
organized group of tissues and organs that perform a specific set of functions make up an organ
system. The 10 major organ systems that work together to make up a complex animal are:
Integumentary, skeletal, muscular, digestive, circulatory, respiratory, urinary, nervous, endocrine,
and reproductive systems.
Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:

1. Distinguish between organs and organ systems.
2. List the major life processes carried out by each organ system in vertebrate animals.
3. Describe the two main cavities of the human body and the major organs found in each.
Discussion
Animals vary in form and function. From a sponge to a worm to a goat, an organism
has a distinct body plan that limits its size and shape. Animals’ bodies are also designed to interact
with their environments, whether in the deep sea, a rainforest canopy, or the desert.
Body Plan
Symmetry is a pattern of similarity that is observed in objects. The three types of
symmetry: Asymmetry, Radial, and Bilateral. Asymmetry, or lack of symmetry, is seen in sponges
that have no particular pattern or shape. Radial symmetry wherein the bodies are organized
circularly, similar to a wheel, such that any longitudinal cut through the central point produces two
identical halves (cnidarians and comb jellies). Humans, like all vertebrates, exhibit bilateral
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symmetry, wherein the body can be divided into right and left halves which are mirror images of
each other. Another characteristic of humans is the high degree of cephalization which means
that most of the sense organs and the brain are concentrated in the head or anterior region.
©https://bio.libretexts.org.
Figure 1.1. Different types of body symmetry. The sponge is asymmetrical, the sea anemone has radial symmetry,
and the goat has bilateral symmetry.
Animal Body Planes
A standing vertebrate animal can be divided by several planes. A sagittal plane

divides the body into right and left portions. A midsagittal plane divides the body exactly in the
middle, making two equal right and left halves. A frontal plane (also called a coronal plane)
separates the front from the back. A transverse plane (or, horizontal plane) divides the animal into
upper and lower portions. This is sometimes called a cross section, and, if the transverse cut is
at an angle, it is called an oblique plane. Figure 2.2. illustrates these planes on a goat (a four-
legged animal) and a human being.
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©https://courses.lumenlearning.com.
Figure 1.2. The planes of a quadruped goat and a bipedal human. The midsagittal plane divides the body exactly in
half, into right and left portions. The frontal plane divides the front and back, and the transverse plane divides the body
into upper and lower portions.
Additional terms used when describing location of certain organs in the body are
anterior or cephalic (front), posterior or caudal (rear or the parts towards the tail region), dorsal
(toward the back), ventral (toward the stomach or the front), lateral (the sides), proximal refers to
parts of the appendages that are near the point of attachment and distal refers to parts that are
away from the point of attachment.
ORGANS, ORGAN SYSTEMS, AND BODY CAVITIES
Organ is composed of two or more types of tissues working together to perform a

particular function. The example is the kidney that contain epithelial and connective tissues which
are specialized in eliminating wastes from the blood. Organ system contains many different
organs that cooperate to carry out a general process, such as digestion of food.
Body Cavities
The human body has large spaces called body cavities, where the internal organs
are located. The heart and lungs are located in the thoracic cavity: The digestive, urinary and
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reproductive organs are located in the abdominal cavity or coelom. A thin sheet of muscle called
the diaphragm divides the thoracic from the abdominopelvic (abdominal and pelvic cavities)
cavities.
©2016 Biology McGraw Hill Education
Figure 1.3. Mammalian body cavities.

a. Side view. The dorsal (“toward the back”) cavity contains the cranial cavity and the vertebral canal. The brain is in
the cranial cavity, and the spinal cord is in the vertebral canal. The well-developed ventral (“toward the front”) cavity is
divided by the diaphragm into the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity (abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity).
The heart and lungs are in the thoracic cavity, and most other internal organs are in the abdominal cavity.
b. Frontal view of the thoracic cavity.
Table 1.1. Life processes and Organ Systems ©2016 Biology McGraw Hill
Education
Vertebrates has two main body cavities: the smaller dorsal cavities and the larger
ventral cavity. The brain and the spinal cord are in the dorsal cavity. During development, the
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ventral cavity develops from the coelom. In Humans and other mammals, the coelom is divided
by a muscular diaphragm that assists breathing. The heart and the lungs are located in the
thoracic cavity. The major portions of the digestive system, including accessory organs (liver and
pancreas) and kidneys of the urinary system are located in the abdominal cavity. The urinary
bladder, the female reproductive organs, are located in the pelvic cavity.
SELF CHECK:
1. Explain the difference between an organ and an organ system.

2. Identify two organ systems that protect the body from disease.
3. List and locate the two major body cavities in humans, as well as the two cavities found in
each of these.
4. What are the internal organs in the different cavities of the human body?
ASSESSMENT:
1. This structure separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity.
a. liver b. pancreas c. diaphragm d. pleural membrane e. intestine
In questions 2–6, match each organ system(s) to the life process(es) it (they) carries (carry) out.
Key: a. Coordinate body activities b. Exchange gases e. Produce offspring
c. Protects the body from pathogens d. Eliminate wastes f. Transport materials
____2. Cardiovascular system

____3. Urinary and Digestive systems
____4. Lymphatic and Immune systems
____5. Nervous and Endocrine systems
____6. Respiratory system
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MODULE 2.1
INTRODUCTION TO REPRODUCTION
Overview
In the animal kingdom, the survival of each species requires the production of new
individuals. One of the characteristics of living organism is to reproduce and perpetuate its
species.
The two types of reproduction: Asexual and sexual reproduction. In asexual
reproduction, a single parent produces genetically identical offspring (clones). In sexual
reproduction, involves the production and fusion of two gametes, the sperm and the egg resulting
in a zygote. The genetic material of two individuals combines to produce offspring that are
genetically different from their parents.
Learning Objectives:
1. Differentiate asexual from sexual reproduction.
2. Describe different modes of sexual and asexual reproduction and giving specific examples.
3. Describe human reproductive organ systems.
Discussion
Asexual reproduction
Mode of reproduction that does not involve the use of gametes or sex cells. The single parent
may split, bud, or fragment to give rise to new offspring or individual. The offspring have hereditary
traits identical to those of the parent (except for mutation). This is an adaptation of sessile animals
that does not have the ability to move and look for mates. Examples are invertebrates, such as
sponges, cnidarians, flatworms, annelids and echinoderms.
Types of asexual reproduction and give examples
I. Fission- The division of parent cell into two parts which is also called binary fission. This
is the simplest type of reproduction and is seen in unicellular organism (paramecium) and
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it also occurs in some invertebrate, multi-cellular organisms. Examples: Paramecium,
amoeba, Sea anemone (cnidarians), Sea cucumbers (echinoderms).
Figure 2.1.1. Paramecium undergoing asexual reproduction through fission
II. Budding- a small part of the parent’s body grows in the form of bulb like projections called
bud and grow and it separates from the parent’s body and develop into new individual.
Examples: Hydra and corals. In hydras, a bud forms that develops into an adult and
breaks away from the main body.
Figure 2.1.2. Budding in Hydra ©https://eschooltoday.com/science/asexual-reproduction
III. Fragmentation- ability of to regenerate its parts. The organism breaks out into two or more
fragments and grow into new organism. The body of the parent breaks into several pieces.
The piece regenerates the missing parts and develops into a whole animal. Examples are
filamentous alga, i.e. Spirogyra or Oedogonium, and a detached starfish arm growing lost
parts.
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©https://www.scribd.com/document
Figure 2.1.3. Asexual reproduction through fragmentation
IV. Sporulation- A spore is tiny spherical body covered by a thick wall and grow under
favorable condition. Example: fungus, i.e. Rhizopus stolonifera (black bread mold).
Figure 2.1.4. Fungi undergoing asexual reproduction through sporulation
V. Parthenogenesis-The unfertilized egg develops into an adult individual. It is also called

“virgin development”. The resulting offspring can be either haploid or diploid, depending on the
process in the species. Examples: Insects (honeybees and wasps). Ants, bees, and wasps
produces haploid males (drones). The diploid females (workers and queens) are the result of a
fertilized egg. It is also observed in species in which the sexes were separated in terrestrial or
marine zoos. Two female Komodo dragons, a hammerhead shark, and a blacktop shark have
produced parthenogenic young when the females have been isolated from males.
Sexual Reproduction
This is the most common type of animal reproduction. Mode of reproduction that
involves the use of gametes or sex cells. The fusion of sperm and egg produces zygote after
fertilization. The egg is large and non-motile which store nutrients that supports the development
of embryo. The sperm is motile and propel itself by beating the long, whip-like flagellum.
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Figure 2.1.5. Frogs mating (in amplexus) © https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplexus
External fertilization happens usually in many aquatic animals in which the gametes
meet outside the body. The mating partners usually release eggs and sperm into the water
simultaneously. These gametes live only for a short time and many are lost in the water and some
are eaten by predators. https://youtu.be/06BPlLATtgc
Internal fertilization occurs when the male delivers sperm into the female’s body.
Most terrestrial animals, sharks, and aquatic reptiles, birds, and mammals practice internal
reproduction.
Hermaphroditism is a form of sexual reproduction in which a single individual

produces both eggs and sperm. Earthworms are typical hermaphrodites. The two organisms
mate, and mutual cross-fertilization occurs, with each inseminating the other.
Copulation is sexual union to facilitate the reception of sperm, resulting in internal

fertilization. In terrestrial vertebrates, males typically have a penis for depositing sperm into the
vagina of females. But not so in birds, which lack a penis and vagina. They have a cloaca, a
chamber that receives products from the digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts. A male
transfers sperm to a female after placing his cloacal opening against hers.
Human male reproductive system

In human males, sperm are produced in the testes, mature in each epididymis, and
may be stored in each vas deferens before entering the urethra, along with semen (seminal fluid)
produced by the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands. Sperm and semen
are ejaculated during male orgasm, when the penis is erect. Spermatogenesis occurs in the
seminiferous tubules of the testes, which also produce testosterone in interstitial cells.
Testosterone brings about the maturation of the primary sex organs during puberty and promotes
the secondary sex characteristics of males, such as low voice, facial hair, and increased muscle
strength. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) from the anterior pituitary stimulates
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spermatogenesis, and luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates testosterone production.
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) released from the hypothalamus controls anterior
pituitary production of two gonadotropic hormones, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and
luteinizing hormone (LH). FSH stimulates spermatogenesis, and LH stimulates testosterone
production. In males, the level of testosterone in the blood controls the secretion of GnRH and
the gonadotropic hormones by a negative feedback system.
The testes, housed in the scrotum, contain seminiferous tubules produce sperm or
spermatogenesis takes place. Male sex hormones are also produced here. Sperm produced in
the testes mature within the epididymis, a tightly coiled duct just outside each testis. Maturation
seems to be required for sperm to swim to the egg. Once the sperm have matured, they enter the
vas deferens, also called the ductus deferens. Sperm may be stored for a time in the vasa
deferentia (vas deferens). Each vas deferens passes into the abdominal cavity, where it curves
around the bladder and empties into an ejaculatory duct.
©2016 Biology McGraw Hill
Figure 2.1.6. The male reproductive system. The testes produce sperm. The seminal vesicles, the prostate gland,
and the bulbourethral glands provide a fluid medium for the sperm, which move from the vas deferens through the
ejaculatory duct to the urethra in the penis. The foreskin (prepuce) is removed when a penis is circumcised.
Semen (seminal fluid) is a thick, whitish fluid that contains sperm and each ejaculate
of semen contains 200 million sperm suspended in the secretions from three glands. The paired
seminal vesicles lie at the base of the bladder, and each has a duct that joins with a vas deferens.
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As sperm pass from the vasa deferentia (vas deferens) into the ejaculatory ducts, the seminal
vesicles secrete a thick, viscous fluid containing nutrients (fructose) for possible use by the sperm.
The prostate gland is a single, doughnut-shaped gland that surrounds the upper
portion of the urethra just below the bladder. The prostate gland secretes a milky, alkaline fluid
believed to activate or increase the motility of sperm.
Bulbourethral glands or Cowper’s gland are pea-sized organs that lie posterior to the
prostate on each side of the urethra. They produce a clear, mucous secretion known as pre-
ejaculate. Secretions from the bulbourethral glands are the first to enter the urethra, where they
may cleanse the urethra of acidic residue from urine.
Human female reproductive system
Figure 2.1.7. Female reproductive system. a. The ovaries produce one oocyte per month. Fertilization occurs in the
uterine tube, and development occurs in the uterus. The vagina is the birth canal and organ of sexual intercourse.
b. Vulva. At birth, the opening of the vagina is partially occluded by a membrane called the hymen. Physical activities
and sexual intercourse disrupt the hymen.
In the female, the ovaries produce gametes and steroid hormones estrogen and
progesterone. A secondary oocyte (also called an egg) produced by an ovary enters a uterine
tube/oviduct/ fallopian tube, which leads to the uterus. The oviducts, extend from the uterus in the
lower abdominal cavity to the ovaries, but they are not in contact with the ovaries. The oviduct
ends have a trumpet-like structure and have finger-like projections called fimbrae. When a
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secondary oocyte is released at ovulation, the fimbrae help the nonmotile egg enter into the tube.
The walls of the oviducts have a ciliated epithelium over smooth muscle. The cilia beat, and the
smooth muscle contracts, moving the egg toward the uterus. It usually takes the egg or embryo
a week to travel through the oviduct. Fertilization takes place in the oviducts. The uterus has a
thick muscular wall and the epithelial lining, called the endometrium rich in blood vessels and
mucus glands that develop and thicken during the female cycle in preparation for possible
pregnancy where it receives the fertilized egg or zygote, which will then implant itself in the
endometrium. At the lower end of the uterus, the cervix connects with the vagina. The vagina
receives the penis during sexual intercourse and is the lower part of the birth canal. The external
genital area of women or vulva includes the vaginal opening, the clitoris, the labia minora, the
labia majora, and the mons pubis. Beneath the labia majora, pea-sized greater vestibular glands
(Bartholin glands) open on each side of the vagina. They keep the vulva moist and lubricated
during intercourse. The clitoris, which is homologous to the penis in males has a shaft of erectile
tissue and is capped by a pea-shaped glans. The many sensory receptors of the clitoris allow it
to function as a sexually sensitive organ.
The breasts function in lactation, production of milk for the young. Each breast
consists of 15 to20 lobes of glandular tissue. Gland cells are arranged in alveoli. The hormones
prolactin stimulates milk production and oxytocin stimulates ejection of milk from the alveoli into
the ducts from which it can be sucked.
. ©2016 Biology McGraw Hill
Figure 2.1.8. Anatomy of the breast. The female breast contains lobules consisting of ducts and alveoli.
In the lactating breast, cells lining the alveoli have been stimulated to produce milk by the hormone
prolactin
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Gametogenesis (Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis)
Gametogenesis, the production of sperm and eggs, takes place through the process of
meiosis. During meiosis, two cell divisions separate the paired chromosomes in the nucleus and
then separate the chromatids that were made during an earlier stage of the cell’s life cycle,
resulting in gametes that each contain half the number of chromosomes as the parent. The
production of sperm is called spermatogenesis and the production of eggs is called oogenesis.
Oogenesis
Oogenesis occurs in the outermost layers of the ovaries. As with sperm production,
oogenesis starts with a germ cell, called an oogonium (plural: oogonia), but this cell undergoes
mitosis to increase in number, eventually resulting in up to one to two million cells in the embryo.
Figure 2.1.9. Oogenesis
Oogenesis: The process of oogenesis occurs in the ovary’s outermost layer. A primary oocyte
begins the first meiotic division, but then arrests until later in life when it will finish this division in
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a developing follicle. This results in a secondary oocyte, which will complete meiosis if it is
fertilized.
The cell starting meiosis is called a primary oocyte. This cell will begin the first meiotic
division, but be arrested in its progress in the first prophase stage. At the time of birth, all future
eggs are in the prophase stage. At adolescence, anterior pituitary hormones cause the
development of a number of follicles in an ovary. This results in the primary oocyte finishing the
first meiotic division. The cell divides unequally, with most of the cellular material and organelles
going to one cell, called a secondary oocyte, and only one set of chromosomes and a small
amount of cytoplasm going to the other cell. This second cell is called a polar body and usually
dies. A secondary meiotic arrest occurs, this time at the metaphase II stage. At ovulation, this
secondary oocyte will be released and travel toward the uterus through the oviduct. If the
secondary oocyte is fertilized, the cell continues through the meiosis II, completing meiosis,
producing a second polar body and a fertilized egg containing all 46 chromosomes of a human
being, half of them coming from the sperm.
Spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis occurs in the wall of the seminiferous tubules, with stem cells at the
periphery of the tube and the spermatozoa at the lumen of the tube. Immediately under the
capsule of the tubule are diploid, undifferentiated cells. These stem cells, called spermatogonia
(singular: spermatagonium), go through mitosis with one offspring going on to differentiate into a
sperm cell, while the other gives rise to the next generation of sperm.
During spermatogenesis, four sperm result from each primary spermatocyte, which divides
into two haploid secondary spermatocytes; these cells will go through a second meiotic division
to produce four spermatids.
Meiosis begins with a cell called a primary spermatocyte. At the end of the first meiotic
division, a haploid cell is produced called a secondary spermatocyte. This haploid cell must go
through another meiotic cell division. The cell produced at the end of meiosis is called a spermatid.
When it reaches the lumen of the tubule and grows a flagellum (or “tail”), it is called a sperm cell.
Four sperm result from each primary spermatocyte that goes through meiosis.
Stem cells are deposited during gestation and are present at birth through the beginning
of adolescence, but in an inactive state. During adolescence, gonadotropic hormones from the
anterior pituitary cause the activation of these cells and the production of viable sperm. This
continues into old age.
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Figure 2.1.10. Spermatogenesis
Ovarian Cycle
• The ovarian cycle refers to the series of changes in the ovary during which the follicle
matures, the ovum is shed, and the corpus luteum develops.
The menstrual cycle is the scientific term for the physiological changes that occur in fertile
women for the purpose of sexual reproduction. The menstrual cycle is controlled by the endocrine
system and commonly divided into three phases: the follicular phase, ovulation, and the luteal
phase. However, some sources define these phases as menstruation, proliferative phase, and
secretory phase. Menstrual cycles are counted from the first day of menstrual bleeding.
The Follicular Phase
The follicular phase (or proliferative phase) is the phase of the menstrual cycle in humans
and great apes during which follicles in the ovary mature, ending with ovulation. The main
hormone controlling this stage is estradiol. During the follicular phase, follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH) is secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. FSH levels begin to rise in the last few days of
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the previous menstrual cycle and peak during the first week of the follicular phase. The rise in
FSH levels recruits five to seven tertiary-stage ovarian follicles (also known as Graafian or antral
follicles) for entry into the menstrual cycle. These follicles compete with each other for dominance.
FSH induces the proliferation of granulosa cells in the developing follicles and the
expression of luteinizing hormone (LH) receptors on these granulosa cells. Two or three days
before LH levels begin to increase, usually by day seven of the cycle, one or occasionally two of
the recruited follicles emerges as dominant. Many endocrinologists believe that estrogen
secretion of the dominant follicle increases to a level that indirectly lowers the levels of LH and
FSH. This slowdown in LH and FSH production leads to the atresia (death) of most of the recruited
follicles, though the dominant follicle continues to mature.
These high estrogen levels initiate the formation of a new layer of endometrium in the
uterus. Crypts in the cervix are also stimulated to produce fertile cervical mucus that reduces the
acidity of the vagina, creating a more hospitable environment for sperm. In addition, basal body
temperature may lower slightly under the influence of high estrogen levels. Ovulation normally
occurs 30 (± 2) hours after the beginning of the LH surge (when LH is first detectable in urine).
Ovulation
Ovulation is the phase in which a mature ovarian follicle ruptures and discharges an ovum
(also known as an oocyte, female gamete, or egg). Ovulation also occurs in the estrous cycle of
other female mammals, which differs in many fundamental ways from the menstrual cycle. The
time immediately surrounding ovulation is referred to as the ovulatory phase or the periovulatory
period.
The Luteal Phase
The luteal phase (or secretory phase) is the latter part of the menstrual or estrous cycle.
It begins with the formation of the corpus luteum and ends in either pregnancy or luteolysis. The
main hormone associated with this stage is progesterone, which is significantly higher during the
luteal phase than in other phases of the cycle. Some sources define the end of the luteal phase
as a distinct ischemic phase.
After ovulation, the pituitary hormones FSH and LH cause the remaining parts of the
dominant follicle to transform into the corpus luteum. It continues to grow for some time after
ovulation and produces significant amounts of hormones, particularly progesterone, and to a
lesser extent, estrogen. Progesterone plays a vital role in making the endometrium receptive to
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implantation of the blastocyst and supportive of the early pregnancy. It also raises the woman’s
basal body temperature. The hormones produced by the corpus luteum suppress production of
the FSH and LH, causing the corpus luteum will atrophy. The death of the corpus luteum results
in falling levels of progesterone and estrogen. This in turn causes increased levels of FSH, leading
to recruitment of follicles for the next cycle. Continued drops in estrogen and progesterone levels
trigger the end of the luteal phase, menstruation, and the beginning of the next cycle.
The loss of the corpus luteum can be prevented by implantation of an embryo. After
implantation, human embryos produce human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), which is structurally
similar to LH and can preserve the corpus luteum. Because the hormone is unique to the embryo,
most pregnancy tests look for the presence of hCG. If implantation occurs, the corpus luteum will
continue to produce progesterone (and maintain high basal body temperatures) for eight to twelve
weeks, after which the placenta takes over this function.
Figure 2.2.11. The ovarian cycle: The ovarian cycle is the series of changes that occur in the ovary during the
menstrual cycle that cause maturation of a follicle, ovulation, and development of the corpus luteum.
Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle
• The uterine cycle describes a series of changes that occur to the lining of the uterus, or
endometrium, during a typical menstrual cycle. Several changes to the uterine lining
(endometrium) occur during the menstrual cycle, also called the uterine cycle. The
endometrium is the innermost glandular layer of the uterus. During the menstrual cycle,
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the endometrium grows to a thick, blood vessel-rich tissue lining, representing an optimal
environment for the implantation of a blastocyst upon its arrival in the uterus. Menstrual
cycles are counted from the first day of menstrual bleeding and are typically 28 days long.
During menstruation, the body begins to prepare for ovulation again. The levels of
estrogen gradually rise, signaling the start of the follicular, or proliferation, phase of the menstrual
cycle. The discharge of blood slows and then stops in response to rising hormone levels and the
lining of the uterus thickens, or proliferates. Ovulation is triggered by a surge in luteinizing
hormone. The sudden change in hormones at the time of ovulation sometimes causes minor
changes in the endometrium and light midcycle blood flow.
After ovulation, under the influence of progesterone, the endometrium changes to a

secretory lining in preparation for the potential implantation of an embryo to establish a pregnancy.
If a blastocyst implants, then the lining remains as the decidua. This becomes part of the placenta
and provides support and protection for the embryo during gestation.
If implantation does not occur within approximately two weeks, the progesterone-
producing corpus luteum in the ovary will recede, causing sharp drops in levels of both
progesterone and estrogen. This hormone decrease causes the uterus to shed its lining and the
egg in menstruation. The cessation of menstrual cycles at the end of a woman’s reproductive
period is termed menopause. The average age of menopause in women is 52 years, but it can
occur anytime between 45 and 55.
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Figure 2.2.12. The Uterine Cycle: High estrogen and progesterone levels stimulate increased endometrial thickness,
but following their decline from a lack of implantation, the endometrium is shed and menstruation occurs.
Normal menstrual flow can occur although ovulation does not occur. This is referred to as
an anovulatory cycle. Follicular development may start but not be completed although estrogen
will still stimulate the uterine lining. Anovulatory flow that results from a very thick endometrium
caused by prolonged, continued high estrogen levels is called estrogen breakthrough bleeding.
However, if it is triggered by a sudden drop in estrogen levels, it is called withdrawal bleeding.
Anovulatory cycles commonly occur before menopause and in women with polycystic ovary
syndrome.
19
SELF CHECK:
1. Discuss the anatomy and physiology of a testes.
2. Trace the path of sperm cell in a human male. What glands contribute fluids to semen?
3. Differentiate asexual and sexual reproduction
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Number of parents involved 1. 4.
Gametes 2. 5.
Genetic composition of 3. 6.
offspring
4. Matching Type
Column A Column B
______1. Bulbourethtral Glands A. Sensory organ

______2. Scrotum B. Neutralize urine in urethra
______3. Testes C. Produces and delivers milk
______4. Oviducts D. Common tube for intercourse, birth canal,
passing menstrual flow
______5. Breast E. Secrete mucus; lubricate vagina
______6. Clitoris F. Produce sperm and male hormones
______7. Vagina G. Supports testes and regulates their temperature
20
MODULE 2.2
PLANT REPRODUCTION
Overview
The production of new individuals from their parents is known as reproduction. But, how
do plants reproduce? There are different modes of reproduction in plants which we shall learn in
this lesson.
Most plants have roots, stems and leaves. These are called the vegetative parts of a plant.
After a certain period of growth, most plants bear flowers. You may have seen the mango trees
flowering in spring. It is these flowers that give rise to juicy mango fruit we enjoy in summer. We
eat the fruits and usually discard the seeds. Seeds germinate and form new plants. So, what is
the function of flowers in plants? Flowers perform the function of reproduction in plants. Flowers
are the reproductive parts
In asexual reproduction plants can give rise to new plants without seeds, whereas in
sexual reproduction, new plants are obtained from seeds.
Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
1. Describe different modes of sexual and asexual reproduction in plants; and
2. Identify the reproductive parts of a plant.
Discussion
Asexual Reproduction
In asexual reproduction new plants are obtained without
production of seeds.
• Vegetative propagation It is a type of asexual
reproduction in which new plants are produced from
roots, stems, leaves and buds. Since reproduction is
through the vegetative parts of the plant, it is known as
vegetative propagation.
Figure 2.2.1. Ginger with buds that

can grow to new plants
21
Figure 2.2.2. Potato with buds found in their scars or eyes that will grow into new plant
Figure 2.2.3. Bryophyllym plant with its leaf buds
Plants produced by vegetative propagation take less time to grow and bear flowers and
fruits earlier than those produced from seeds. The new plants are exact copies of the parent plant,
as they are produced from a single parent. Later in this chapter you will learn that plants produced
by sexual reproduction have characters of both the parents. Plants produce seeds as a result of
sexual reproduction.
• Budding. Some organisms like yeast can be seen only under a microscope. These grow
and multiply every few hours if sufficient nutrients are made available to them. Remember
that yeast is a single-celled organism. How do they reproduce?
22
Figure 2.2.4. Reproduction of a yeast cell through budding
The small bulb-like projection coming out from the yeast cell is called a bud. The
bud gradually grows and gets detached from the parent cell and forms a new yeast cell.
The new yeast cell grows, matures and produces more yeast cells. Sometimes, another
bud arises from the bud forming a chain of buds. If this process continues, a large number
of yeast cells are produced in a short time.
• Fragmentation. Organisms often seen as slimy green patches in ponds, or in other

stagnant water bodies are called algae. When water and nutrients are available algae
grow and multiply rapidly by fragmentation. An alga breaks up into two or more fragments.
These fragments or pieces grow into new individuals. This process continues and they
cover a large area in a short period of time.
Figure 2.2.5. Fragmentation
• Spore formation. When spores are released, they keep floating in the air. As they are
very light, they can cover long distances. Spores are asexual reproductive bodies. Each
spore is covered by a hard-protective coat to withstand unfavorable conditions such as
high temperature and low humidity. So, they can survive for a long time. Under favorable
conditions, a spore germinates and develops into a new individual. Plants such as moss
and ferns also reproduce by means of spores.
23
Figure 2.2.6. Spore formation
Activity 2.2.1. Potato Experiment!

Take a fresh potato. Observe the scars on it with the help of a magnifying glass. You may
find bud(s) in them. These scars are also called “eyes”. Cut the potato into small portions, each
with an eye and bury them in the soil. Water the pieces regularly for a few days and observe their
progress. What do you find?
Activity 2.2.2. Reproduction of Yeast Cells!

Take a piece of yeast cake or yeast powder from a bakery or a chemist shop. Take a pinch
of yeast and place it in a container with some water. Add a spoonful of sugar and shake to dissolve
it. Keep it in the warm part of a room. After an hour, put a drop of this liquid on a glass slide and
observe under a microscope. What do you observe? You may see the formation of new yeast
cells.
Sexual Reproduction
Flowers are the reproductive parts of a plant. Stamens are the male reproductive part
and pistil is the female reproductive part
Anther contains pollen grains which produce male gametes. A pistil consists of stigma,
style and ovary. Ovary contains one or more ovules. The female gamete or the egg is formed in
an ovule. In sexual reproduction a male and a female gamete fuse to form a zygote.
24
Figure 2.2.7. Anatomy of a Flower
Activity2.2.3. Parts of a Flower!
Take a mustard/China rose/petunia flower and separate its reproductive parts. Study the
various parts of a stamen and pistil.
• Pollination. Generally, pollen grains have a tough protective coat which prevents them
from drying up. Since pollen grains are light, they can be carried by wind or water. Insects
visit flowers and carry away pollen on their bodies. Some of the pollen lands on the stigma
of a flower of the same kind. The transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of a flower
is called pollination. If the pollen lands on the stigma of the same flower or another flower
of the same plant, it is called self-pollination. When the pollen of a flower lands on the
stigma of a flower of a different plant of the same kind, it is called cross-pollination.
Figure 2.2.8. Types of pollination
25
• Fertilization. The cell which results after fusion of the gametes is called a zygote. The
process of fusion of male and female gametes is called fertilization. The zygote develops
into an embryo.
Figure 2.2.9. Fertilization and Zygote formation
• Fruits and Seed formation. After fertilization, the ovary grows into a fruit and other parts
of the flower fall off. The fruit is the ripened ovary. The seeds develop from the ovules.
The seed contains an embryo enclosed in a protective seed coat. Some fruits are fleshy
and juicy such as mango and orange. Some fruits are hard like almonds and walnuts.
• Seed Dispersal. In nature same kind of plants grow at different places. Plants benefit by
seed dispersal. It prevents competition between the plant and its own seedlings for
sunlight, water and minerals. It also enables the plants to invade new habitats for wider
distribution. Seeds and fruits of plants are carried away by wind, water and animals.
➢ Winged seeds such as those of drumstick and maple and, light seeds of
grasses or hairy seeds of aak (Madar) and hairy fruit of sunflower get blown
off with the wind to faraway places.
➢ Some seeds are dispersed by water. These fruits or seeds usually develop
floating ability in the form of spongy or fibrous outer coat as in coconut.
Some seeds are dispersed by animals, especially spiny seeds with hooks
which get attached to the bodies of animals and are carried to distant
places. Examples are Xanthium and Urena.
➢ Some seeds are dispersed when the fruits burst with sudden jerks. The
seeds are scattered far from the parent plant. This happens in the case of
castor and balsam.
26
Figure 2.2.10. Variation observed in seeds based on mode of dispersal.
CHECKPOINT
Instruction. Fill in the blanks:
1. Production of new individuals from the vegetative part of parent is called_____________.

2. A flower may have either male or female reproductive parts. Such a flower is
called_____________.
3. The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same or of another flower of
the same kind is known as _____________.
4. The fusion of male and female gametes is termed as _____________.
5. Seed dispersal takes place by means of _____________, _____________ and
_____________.
27
MODULE 3
INTEGUMENT AND SKIN
Overview
The integument separates the internal and external environment: it protects and supports.
It may be associated with controlled transfer of substances into and out of body, control of heat
loss and gain, and sensory receptors.
1. Identify the two main regions of skin, and how these differ from the subcutaneous tissue.
2. Explain the function of melanocytes in the skin and the effect of UV radiation.
3. Describe the makeup and function of the accessory structures of the human skin.
Discussion
The integumentary system includes the skin and its derivatives, such as scales (in fish,
reptiles and birds), feathers (birds only), and hair (mammal only) this organ system protects
underlying tissues against desiccation, trauma and pathogens, plus the functions in
thermoregulation, sensory perception, and vitamin D synthesis.
Epithelial cells may accumulate keratin, a protein which forms scales, feathers, horn, nails,
claws and hair, the cells dying in the process. Fish epidermis is thin and has no keratin. It is often
rich in mucus cells; mucus lowers friction and acts as an antimicrobial barrier. Overlapping folds
are frequently found. Bony scales or spines develop within the fold dermis and as the epidermis
erodes the scales are exposed. Terrestrial vertebrates synthesize increased amounts of keratin
which is important for waterproofing the body: keratin is particularly present in a horny stratum
corneum. In reptiles, the stratum corneum forms horny scales. In birds these scales are modified
to form feathers. In mammals, hairs emerge from follicles of epidermal cells which indent the
dermis. Glands are infrequent in reptile skin.
Invertebrate integuments usually comprise a single layer of columnar epithelial cells,
termed an epidermis, resting on a basement membrane. Glands may secrete a tough cuticle
which helps to maintain body turgor (e.g. in nematodes) or a shell (e.g. in crustaceans). Cilia may
be present on exposed epidermal cells (e.g. in ribbonworms).
28
Associated with the integument may be the transfer of gases, ions, water and wastes.
Receptor cells to detect changes in the external environment are situated in or near the
integument, and control of heat loss and gain, particularly in homiotherms through feathers, hair,
fur, blubber or exposed surfaces, are also integumentary features.
Skin itself has two regions: Epidermis (Stratified squamous epithelium) overlies the dermis
(Fibrous connective tissue containing sensory receptors, hair follicles, blood vessels, and nerves).
It is the outer layer of the skin that is a waterproof protective barrier. The epidermis consists of
several layers. The deepest is the stratum basale or germinativum, and the most superficial layer
is the stratum corneum. The stratum basale of the epidermis contains melanocytes, cells that
produce the pigment called melanin that helps protect against harmful effects of UV light. In the
stratum basale, cells divide and are pushed outward as other cells are produced below them. As
they move toward the body surface, epidermal cells manufacture keratin, a protein that gives the
skin mechanical strength and flexibility. It is insoluble and serves as a diffusion barrier for the
body surface. When cells reach the outer surface of the skin, they die and wear off and are being
replaced.
The dermis is a region of dense fibrous connective tissue beneath the epidermis. It
contains the collagen and elastic fibers. The collagen fibers are flexible but offer great resistance
to overstretching. Stretching of the dermis occurs in obesity and pregnancy and produces striae
or stretch marks. The elastic fibers maintain normal skin tension but also stretch to allow
movement of underlying muscles and joints. The number of collagen and elastic fiber decreases
with age and exposure to the sun, causing the skin to become less supple and more prone to
wrinkling. Sensory receptors for touch, pressure, pain, and temperature are located in this region.
The subcutaneous layer or hypodermis is composed of loose connective tissue and

adipose tissue that helps to thermally insulate the body from either gaining heat from the outside
or loosing heat from the inside. Found between the skin and any underlying structures such as
muscle and bone.
29
Figure 3.1. Human skin
anatomy. Skin consists of
two regions, the epidermis
and the dermis. A
subcutaneous layer, or
hypodermis, lies below the
dermis.
30
©http://encyclopedia.lubopitko
Figure 3.2. Layers of the Epidermis.
Figure 3.3 Layers of the Epidermis

©https://healthjade.com/epidermis/
Accessory Structure of the Human skin
The nails are protective covering of the distal part of fingers and toes. Nails grow from the
special epithelial cells at the base of the nail in the portion called nail root. The cuticle is a fold of
the skin that hides the nail root. The whitish color of the half-moon-shaped base, or lunula, results
31
from the thick layer of cells in this area. The appearance of nails can reveal clues about a person’s
health.
Figure 3.4.
Nail and its
Parts.
©https://i.pinimg.com/tip-nails-nail-tips
Hair follicles begin in the dermis and continue through the epidermis, where the hair shaft
extends beyond the skin. Contraction of the arrector pili muscles attached to hair follicles causes
the hairs to “stand on end”. Each hair follicle has one or more oil glands (sebaceous glands),
which secrete sebum, an oily substance that lubricates the hair within the follicle and the skin. If
the sebaceous gland fails to discharge, the secretions collect and form whiteheads or blackheads.
The color of blackheads is due to oxidized sebum. Acne is the inflammation of the sebaceous
glands.
Sweat glands are present in all regions of the skin, but mammalian skin glands (developing
from ingrowths of the epidermis into the dermis) include:
● eccrine sweat glands (produce sweat to cool the body);
● apocrine sweat glands (produce odoriferous sweat-like secretions from the axilla and pubis)
32
Figure 3.5.
Types of Sweat
Glands.
© https://www.mayoclinic.org//media
SELF CHECK:
1. List one function of skin that is common to all animals and one that is unique to a single
group.
2. Draw and compare the structures and functions of the epidermal and dermal layers of the skin.
3. Describe the structure and functions of nails, hair, sweat glands, and oil glands.
4. Differentiate the different layers of the epidermis.
5. Give diseases of the integumentary system.
33
MODULE 4.1
LOCOMOTION AND SUPPORT: SKELETAL SYSTEM
Overview
Most animals are protected by skeletal system. Whether it is a fluid filled compartment, a
shell, or a system of bones, the skeletal system support for the body and typically protects internal
organs. Bones store calcium and are important in maintaining homeostatic level of calcium in the
blood. The muscular and skeletal systems are working together under the control of the nervous
system. Although some animals lack muscles and bones, they all use contractile fibers to move
about at some stage of their lives. In many invertebrates, muscles push against body fluids located
inside either a gastrovascular cavity or a coelom. Only in vertebrates are muscles attached to a
bony endoskeleton. Both the skeletal system and the muscular system contribute to homeostasis.
Aside from giving the body shape and protecting internal organs, the skeleton serves as a storage
area for inorganic calcium and produces blood cells. The skeleton also protects internal organs
while supporting the body against the pull of gravity. While contributing to body movement, the
skeletal muscles give off heat, which warms the body.
.
1. Review the five major functions of the skeletal system.
2. Differentiate the three types of skeletal systems: Hydrostatic skeleton, exoskeleton,
and endoskeleton.
3. Describe the microscopic and macroscopic structure of bone.
4. List the major bones that comprise the human axial and appendicular skeletons.
Discussion
The skeletal system forms the framework of the body. It consists of bones, joints where
bones meet, and connective tissues that hold the bones together. Bones are hard and rigid
because of their component minerals, calcium and phosphorus. The different functions of the
skeletal system are:
34
- Support the body. The rigid skeleton provides internal framework that determines the body’s
shape.
- Protection of vital internal organs, such as the brain, heart, and lungs. The bones of the skull
protect the brain; the rib cage protects the heart and lungs; and the vertebrae protect the
spinal cord.
- Sites of muscle attachment. The pull of muscles on the bones makes movement possible.
Articulations (joints) occur between all the bones.
- Storage reservoir for ions. All bones have a matrix that contains calcium phosphate, a source
of calcium ions and phosphate ions in the blood.
- Production of blood cells. Blood cells and other blood elements are produced within the red
bone marrow of the skull, ribs, sternum, pelvis, and long bones.
The skeletal system supports and protects the body and transmits mechanicals forces
generated by the muscles. In animals that lack a hard skeleton, a fluid-filled gastrovascular cavity
or a fluid-filled coelom can act as a hydrostatic skeleton.
An animal with hydrostatic skeleton can change shape and perform a variety of
movements. Many soft bodied invertebrates, including cnidarians, flatworms, and annelids
(roundworms), have hydrostatic skeleton in which fluid in a closed body compartment is held
under pressure and used to transmit forces generated by contractile cells or muscles. This is
common in aquatic and burrowing animals. An example is the Hydra and other invertebrates with
a semi-enclosed body cavity made of a few layers of cells. There is no solid “bone” but the animal
under aquatic pressure can stay upright and move. The tentacles of a hydra also have hydrostatic
skeletons, allowing them to be extended to capture food. Roundworms have a fluid-filled
pseudocoelom and move in a whiplike manner when their longitudinal muscles contract.
Earthworms have smooth muscles and fluid-filled body compartments. The coelom of annelids,
such as earthworms, is segmented and has septa that divide it into compartments ( Fig. 4.1.1.).
Each segment has its own set of longitudinal and circular muscles and its own nerve supply, so
each segment or group of segments may function independently. When circular muscles contract,
the segments become thinner and elongate. When longitudinal muscles contract, the segments
become thicker and shorten. By alternating circular muscle contraction and longitudinal muscle
contraction and by using its setae to hold its position during contractions, the animal moves
forward.
35
Figure 4.1.1. Locomotion in an earthworm.
a. The coelom is divided by septa, and each
body segment is a separate locomotor unit.
Both circular and longitudinal muscles are
present. b. As circular muscles contract, a few
segments extend. The worm is held in place
by setae, needlelike, chitinous structures on
each segment of the body. Then, as
longitudinal muscles contract, a portion of the
body is brought forward. This series of events
occurs down the length of the worm.
Rigid, armor-like coverings characterize an exoskeleton. Exoskeleton are characteristic of

mollusks (clams, snails) and arthropods (insects, crustaceans). The arthropod skeleton,
composed partly of chitin, is jointed for flexibility, and adapted for many lifestyles. The exoskeleton
of mollusks is composed of calcium carbonate. A mollusk’s shell can grow as the animal grows.
Muscles are attached inside. Joints are thin and flexible. When insects grow, they shed off their
old “armor” and grow a new one, because this is a non-living skeleton does not grow and making
them to molt periodically. Muscular hydrostats are used by clams to extend their muscular foot
and by sea stars to extend their tube feet. Spiders depend on them to move their legs, and moths
rely on them to extend their proboscis. In vertebrates, movement of an elephant’s trunk involves
a muscular hydrostat that allows the animal to reach high into trees, pick up a morsel of food off
the ground, or manipulate other objects. The exoskeleton of arthropods, such as insects and
crustaceans, is composed of chitin, a strong, flexible, nitrogenous polysaccharide. Their
exoskeleton protects them against wear and tear, predators, and desiccation (drying out)—an
important feature for arthropods that live on land. Working together with muscles, the jointed and
movable appendages of arthropods allow them to crawl, fly, and/or swim. Because their
exoskeleton is of fixed size, however, arthropods must molt, or shed their skeleton, in order to
grow (Figure 4.1.2).
36
Figure 4.1.2. Exoskeleton. Exoskeletons support
muscle contraction and prevent drying out. The
chitinous exoskeleton of an arthropod is shed as the
animal molts; until the new skeleton dries and
hardens, the animal is more vulnerable to predators,
and muscle contractions may not translate into body
movements. In this photo, a cicada has just finished
molting.
An endoskeleton consists of rigid but flexible support made of bones; cartilage surrounded
by masses of muscles. The endoskeletons of echinoderms and chordates consist of living tissue
and therefore can grow. In sponges, cells are supported on spicules. The endoskeleton of
echinoderms is made from calcium plates underneath the skin.
BONES
Most bones are cartilaginous in the fetus but are converted to bone during development.
Along bone undergoes endochondral ossification in which a cartilaginous growth plate remains
between the primary ossification center in the middle and the secondary centers at the ends of
the bones. Growth of the bone is possible as long as the growth plates are present, but eventually
they too are converted to bone.
Bone is constantly renewed; osteoclasts break down bone, and osteoblasts build new
bone. Osteocytes are in the lacunae of osteons; a long bone has a shaft of compact bone and
two ends contain red marrow.
Osteoporosis, or loss of bone density, is a common disease in older adults. The human
skeleton is an endoskeleton that consists of 206 bones in the adult. It has five main functions:
providing support to the body, storing minerals and lipids, producing blood cells, protecting
internal organs, and allowing for movement.
The human skeleton is divided into two parts:
(1) the axial skeleton, located along the central axis of the body, which is made up of the skull,
vertebral column, the sternum (breastbone), and the ribs; and
(2) the appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the limbs (arms and legs) plus bones
making up the pectoral (shoulder) girdle and most of the pelvic (hip) girdle; these girdles connect
the limbs (appendages) to the axial skeleton.
The skull, which protects the brain, is formed by the cranium and the facial bones. In
newborns, certain bones of the cranium are joined by membranous regions called fontanels, all
37
of which usually close and becomes sutures by the age of 2 years. It also contains sinuses or air
spaces lined by mucous membrane.
The major bones of the cranium are: the frontal bone forms the forehead on the top of the
cranium, and the parietal bones extend to the sides. Below the parietal bones is the location of
the temporal bones with an opening leading to the middle ear. The occipital bone forms the base
of the skull and the spinal cord passes upward a large opening called foramen magnum. The
facial bones consist of the following: nasal bones, the zygomatic bones (cheekbones), maxillae
form the upper jaw and the mandible which is the lower jaw.
The Human Skull
©2016 Biology McGraw

Hill
Figure 4.1.3. The skull. The skull consists of the cranium and the facial bones. The frontal bone is the
forehead; the zygomatic arches form the cheekbones, and the maxillae form the upper jaw. The mandible has a
projection we call the chin.
38
©https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_column
Figure 4.1.4. The Vertebral column
The vertebral column (L. vertebra, “bones of backbone”) supports the head and trunk and
protects the spinal cord and the roots of the spinal nerves. It consists of 24 vertebrae and 2 bones
composed of fused vertebrae, the sacrum and the coccyx. The vertebral column consists of the
cervical (neck) region with 7 vertebrae; the thoracic (chest) region, with 12 vertebrae; the lumbar
(back) region with 5 vertebrae; the sacral (pelvic) region with 5 fused vertebrae; and the coccygeal
region, also composed of fused vertebrae (coccyx). Normally, the vertebral column has four
curvatures, which provide more resilience and strength for an upright posture than could a straight
column.
The rib cage is formed by the sternum (breastbone), thoracic vertebrae, and, in mammals,
12 pairs of ribs. The rib cage protects the internal organs of the chest and it also supports the
chest wall, preventing it from collapsing as the diaphragm contracts. The 12 pairs of ribs are
attached dorsally to the vertebrae. The first 7 are attached ventrally to the sternum (true ribs); the
next 3 are attached to indirectly by cartilages (false ribs); and the last 2, the “floating ribs”, have
no attachments to the sternum.
39
Figure 4.1.5. The
rib cage. The rib
cage consists of the
thoracic vertebrae,
the 12 pairs of ribs,
the costal cartilages,
and the sternum, or
breastbone.
The pectoral girdle consists of 2 collarbones, or clavicles, and 2 shoulder blades, or

scapulas. The pelvic girdle consists of a pair of large bones, each composed of three fused
hipbones. Whereas the pelvic girdle is securely fused to the vertebral column, the pectoral girdle
is loosely and flexibly attached to it by muscles. Each human limb consists of 30 bones and
terminates in five digits, the fingers and toes.
The more specialized appendages of other tetrapods maybe characterized by 4 digits

(pig), three (rhinoceros), two (camel), or one (as in the horse). The pelvic girdle (L. pelvis, “basin”)
consists of two heavy, large coxal bones (hip bones). The coxal bones are anchored to the
sacrum, and together these bones form a hollow cavity called the pelvic cavity. The wider pelvic
cavity in females compared to that of males accommodates pregnancy and childbirth. The weight
of the body is transmitted through the pelvis to the lower limbs and then onto the ground. The
largest bone in the body is the femur, or thighbone.
40
Figure 4.1.6. The human skeleton. a. Anterior view. b. Posterior view. The bones of the axial skeleton are in
blue, and the rest is the appendicular skeleton.
41
The Long Bone
Figure 4.1.7. Anatomy of a long bone. Left: A long bone is encased by fibrous membrane (periosteum), except
where it is covered at the ends by hyaline cartilage (see micrograph). Spongy bone located beneath the cartilage may
contain red bone marrow. The central shaft contains yellow bone marrow and is bordered by compact bone, which is
shown in the enlargement and micrograph (right).
The radius has a thin outer shell of compact bones, which is very dense and hard. The
compact bone lies near the surfaces of the bone, that provides great strength. It consists of
interlocking spindle-shaped units called osteons, or Haversian systems. Within an osteon,
osteocyte (bone cells) lies in small cavities called lacunae. The lacunae are arranged in concentric
circles around a central Haversian Canal. Blood vessels that nourish the bone tissue pass through
the Haversian canals.
Osteocytes are connected by threadlike extensions of their cytoplasm that extend through
narrow channels called canaliculi. The spongy bone has numerous bony bars and plates
42
separated by irregular spaces filled with red bone marrow, a specialized tissue that produces
blood cells. In this way the skeletal system assists in homeostasis. Red blood cells transport
oxygen and white blood cells are part of the immune system, which fight infection.
Bone growth and renewal

During fetal development, bones form in two ways. Long bones develop from cartilage
templates in a process called endochondral bone development. A bone begins to ossify in the
diaphysis, and secondary sites of bone production develop in the epiphysis. The part of the bone
between the ossified regions can grow. Eventually the ossified regions fuse. Flat bones of the
skull develop from a non-cartilage, connective tissue. This process is called the intramembranous
bone development.
Osteoblasts are bone-building cells, that secrete the protein collagen, which forms the
strong fibers of bone. Calcium phosphate is present in the interstitial fluid, that crystallizes around
the collagen fibers, forming the hard matrix of bone. As the matrix forms around the osteoblasts,
they become isolated within the lacunae. The trapped osteoblasts are called osteocytes. Bones
are modeled during growth and remodeled continuously throughout life in response to physical
stresses and other changing demands. As muscles develop in response to physical activity, the
bones to which they are attached thicken and become stronger.
Osteoclasts are large, multinucleated cells that break down (resorb) bone. The
osteoclasts move about, secreting hydrogen crystals that dissolve the crystals, and enzymes that
digest the collagen. Osteoclasts and osteoblasts are synergistic; together they shape bones.
Endochondral ossification of a long bone begins in a region called primary ossification

center, located in the middle of the cartilaginous model. In the primary ossification center, the
cartilage is broken down and invaded by blood vessels, and cells in the area mature into bone-
forming osteoblasts. Later, secondary ossification centers form at the ends of the model. A
cartilaginous growth plate remains between the primary ossification center and each secondary
center. As long as this plate remain, growth is possible.
Growth is controlled by growth hormones and sex hormones. The bone stops growing
when the plates become ossified, causing the primary and secondary centers of ossification to
fuse. Bone absorbing cell called osteoclasts break down bone, remove worn cell, and deposit
calcium in the blood. Osteoclasts help maintain the blood calcium level and contribute to
homeostasis. Calcium is important in muscle contraction and nerve conduction. The blood
calcium is regulated by the antagonistic hormones parathyroid hormone (PTH), and Calcitonin.
43
PTH promotes the activity of osteoclasts and calcitonin inhibits their activity to keep the blood
calcium levels within normal limits.
Assuming that the blood calcium is normal, bone destruction caused by the work of the
osteoclasts is repaired by the osteoblasts. As they form bone, some of the osteoblasts get caught
in the matrix they secrete and are converted to osteocytes. These cells live within the lacunae of
osteons where they continue to affect the timing and location of bone remodeling.
When a child is growing, the rate of bone formation is greater than the rate of bone
breakdown. The skeletal continues to increase until ages 20 and 30. After that, the rate of
formation and rate of breakdown of bone mass are equal, until ages 40 and 50. Then,
reabsorption begins to exceed formation, and the total bone mass slowly decreases.
As people age, an abnormal thinning of the bones called osteoporosis can lead to
increased risk of fractures, especially of the wrist, vertebrae, and pelvis. Women are twice as
likely as men to have an osteoporosis. Because women have about 30% less bone mass than
men. Women typically lose about 2% of their bone mass each year after menopause. Estrogen
replacement therapy has been shown to increase bone mass and reduce fractures, but it can also
increase the risk of cardiovascular disease and certain types of cancer. Consumption of 1,000-
1,500 mg of calcium per day, obtaining sufficient Vitamin D, and engaging in regular physical
exercise decreases the risk of having osteoporosis.
Intervertebral disks, composed of fibrocartilage, between the vertebrae provide padding.
They prevent the vertebrae from grinding against one another and absorb shock caused by
movements such as running, jumping, and even walking. The presence of the disks allows the
vertebrae to move as we bend forward, backward, and from side to side. Unfortunately, these
disks become weakened with age and can herniate and rupture. Pain results if a disk presses
against the spinal cord and/or spinal nerves. The body may heal itself, or the disk can be removed
surgically.
Joints, or articulations, are junction sites of two or more bones. Joints facilitate flexibility
and movement. At the joint, the outer surface of each bone consists of articular cartilage. The
sutures between bones of the human skull are immovable joints. In a suture, bones are held
together by thin layer of dense fibrous connective tissue, which may be replaced by bone in the
adult. Slightly movable joints, found between vertebrae, are made of cartilage and help absorb
shock.
Joints are classified as immovable, like those of the cranium; slightly movable, like those
between the vertebrae; and freely movable (synovial joints), like those in the knee and hip. In
synovial joints, ligaments bind the two bones together, forming a capsule containing synovial fluid.
44
Different types of synovial joints can be distinguished. The knee and elbow joints are hinge
joints because, like a hinged door, they largely permit movement in one direction only. The joint
between the first two cervical vertebrae, which permits side-to-side movement of the head, is an
example of a pivot joint, which allows only rotation. More movable are the ball-and-socket joints;
for example, the ball of the femur fits into a socket on the hip bone. Ball-and-socket joints allow
movement in all planes and even rotational movement.
Most joints are freely movable joints. Each is enclosed by a joint capsule of connective
tissue and lined with a membrane that secretes a lubricant called synovial fluid. This viscous fluid
reduces friction during movement and also absorbs shock. The joint capsule is reinforced by
ligaments, bands of fibrous connective tissue that connects the bones and limit movement at the
joint. In osteoarthritis, a common joint disorder, cartilage repair does not keep up with
degeneration, and the articular cartilage wears out. In rheumatoid arthritis, an autoimmune
disease, the synovial membrane thickens and become inflamed. Synovial fluid accumulates,
causing pressure, pain, stiffness, and progressive deformity, leading to loss of function.
SELF CHECK:
1. What are the three types of skeleton found in the animal kingdom and how do they differ?
Cite Animals that have these types of skeleton.
2. Give the functions of the skeletal system in humans and how does the skeletal system
contribute to homeostasis?
3. Contrast compact bone with spongy bone. Explain how bone grows and is renewed.
4. How are joints classified?
5. Differentiate:
A. Bone vs. Cartilage D. Compact bone vs. Spongy bone

B. Tendon vs. Ligament E. Osteocyte vs. Chondrocyte
C. Pectoral girdle vs Pelvic Girdle
6. What movements occur at the hip joint and knees as you bend down to touch your toes?
7. What movement(s) occur(s) at the scapulae when you shrug your shoulders?
8. What are the major differences between the male pelvis and female pelvis that permit
childbirth in females?
45
ASSESSMENT:
1. Which of the following statements about bone tissue is false?
A. Compact bone tissue is made of cylindrical osteons that are aligned such that
they travel the length of the bone.
B. Haversian canals contain blood vessels only.
C. Haversian canals contain blood vessels and nerve fibers.
D. Spongy tissue is found on the interior of the bone, and compact bone tissue is
found on the exterior.
2. The forearm consists of the:
A. radius and ulna C. ulna and humerus
B. radius and humerus D. humerus and carpals
3. Which of the following does not belong to the group?
A. Femur B. Tibio-fibula C. Scapula D. Phalanges E. Tarsals
4. All of the following are groups of vertebrae except ________, which is a curvature.
A. thoracic B. cervical C. lumbar D. pelvic
5. Which of these is a facial bone?
A. frontal B. occipital C. lacrimal D. temporal
6. Which of the following is not a characteristic of the synovial fluid?
A. lubrication C. shock absorption
B. regulation of water balance in the joint D. protection of articular cartilage
7. The elbow is an example of which type of joint?
A. hinge B. pivot C. saddle D. gliding
46
Activity:
:
Name___________________________________
Grade & Section__________________________ Date _________________________
LABEL THE PARTS:
47
48
MODULE 4.2
LOCOMOTION & SUPPORT: MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Overview
The skeletal system and the muscular system act as one to produce movement. Muscle
tissue is specialized to contract. Although a few animals are rooted to one spot, sweeping their
surrounding with tentacles, locomotion-movement from place to place in the environment- is
characteristic of most animals. For most animals dependable, rapid, and responsive movement
is key to finding food and escaping from predators. Animals creep, walk, run, jump, swim, or fly.
Muscles responsible for locomotion anchor to the skeleton. Movement of any part of the body is
possible because of muscles. Muscles move the bones of the skeleton, keep the heart beating,
and enable the internal organs to do their work. Muscles powers both locomotion and the
physiological actions necessary to maintain homeostasis.
1. Describe the macroscopic and microscopic structure of muscle fiber.
2. List, in sequence, the events that take place during muscle contraction
3. Explain the specific role of Acetylcholine (ACh) in stimulating a muscle fiber to contract.
Discussion
Muscles are composed of contractile tissue that is capable of contracting and relaxing.
Only a few animals are non-motile (sessile), and most of these inhabit in water, where currents
can bring a supply of food to them. The nearly 700 skeletal muscles and their associated tissues
make up approximately 40% of the weight of an average human.
Skeletal muscles are attached to the skeleton by bands of fibrous connective tissue called
tendons. When muscles contract, they shorten. Muscles can exert force only by shortening;
therefore, they often work as antagonistic pairs. The biceps and triceps brachii exemplify an
antagonistic pair of muscles that act opposite to one another. The biceps brachii flexes the elbow
joint, and the triceps brachii extend the elbow joints.
A vertebrate muscle is composed of a number of muscle fibers. The sarcolemma, or

plasma membrane, in a muscle fiber, has multiple inward extensions that form a set of T tubules
49
(transverse tubules). The cytoplasm of a muscle fiber is called sarcoplasm, and the endoplasmic
reticulum is called the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Threadlike structure structures called myofibrils
run lengthwise through the muscle fiber. They consist of even smaller structures, the
myofilaments or filaments. There are two types of filaments: myosin (thick filament consisting of
protein myosin) and actin (thin filament with actin protein). They also contain the proteins
tropomyosin and troponin complex that regulate the actin filament’s interaction with myosin
filaments. Myosin and actin filaments are organized into repeating units called sarcomeres, the
basic units of muscle contraction. Sarcomeres are joined at their ends by interweaving of filaments
called the Z line. Each sarcomere consists of overlapping myosin and actin filaments. The
filaments overlap lengthwise in the muscle fibers, producing the pattern of transverse bands or
striations characteristic of striated muscle. The I band, which consist of actin filaments, lie at both
ends of the sarcomere, immediately adjacent to Z line. The A band is the wide, dark region of
overlapping myosin and actin filaments. Within the A band is a narrow, light area, the H zone,
made up exclusively of myosin filaments; the actin filaments do not extend into this region.
50
Figure 4.2.1. Human

musculature. Anterior view
of some of the major
superficial skeletal muscles.
51
Figure 4.2.2. Skeletal muscle fiber structure and function. A muscle
fiber contains many myofibrils, divided into sarcomeres, which are
contractile. When the myofibrils of a muscle fiber contract, the
sarcomeres shorten: The actin (thin) filaments slide past the myosin
(thick) filaments toward the center, so that the H zone gets smaller, to
the point of disappearing.
Sliding Filament Model
Muscle fibers when they are contracted reveals that the sarcomeres within the myofibrils
have shortened. When a sarcomere shortens, the actin filaments slide past the myosin filaments
and approach one another. This causes the I band to shorten and the H zone to nearly or
completely disappear. The movement of actin filaments in relation to myosin filaments is called
the sliding filament model of muscle contraction. During the sliding process, the sarcomere
shortens even though the filaments themselves remain the same length. ATP supplies the energy
for muscle contraction.
52
Neuromuscular Junction
Muscles are stimulated to contract by motor nerve fibers. Nerve fibers have several
branches, each of which ends at an axon terminal that lies in close proximity to the sarcolemma
of a muscle fiber. A small gap, called a synaptic cleft, separates the axon terminal from the
sarcolemma. The entire region is called neuromuscular junction.
Figure 4.2.3. Neuromuscular junction. The branch of a motor nerve fiber (a) ends in an axon terminal
(b) that meets but does not touch a muscle fiber. A synaptic cleft separates the axon terminal from the
sarcolemma of the muscle fiber. Nerve impulses traveling down a motor fiber causes synaptic vesicles (c)
to discharge a neurotransmitter that diffuses across the synaptic cleft. When the neurotransmitter is
received by the sarcolemma of a muscle fiber, impulses begin, leading to muscle fiber contraction.
Axon terminals contain synaptic vesicles that are filled with the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine (Ach). When nerve impulses traveling down a motor neuron arrive at an axon
terminal, the synaptic vesicles release Ach into the synaptic cleft. Ach quickly diffuses across the
cleft and binds to receptors in the sarcolemma. Now the sarcolemma generates impulses that
spread over the sarcolemma and down T tubules to the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The release of
calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum causes the filaments within the sarcomeres to slide past
53
one another. Sarcomere contraction results in myofibril contraction, which in turn results in muscle
fiber, and finally muscle contraction.
Once neurotransmitter has been released into a neuromuscular junction and has initiated
response, it is removed from the junction. When the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) breaks
down acetylcholine, muscle contraction ceases.
Nerves innervate muscles. A nerve impulse travels down a motor neuron to a

neuromuscular junction, causing the release of ACh, which binds to receptors on the sarcolemma.
Impulses begin and move down T tubules that approach the sarcoplasmic reticulum, where
calcium is stored. Thereafter, calcium ions are released and bind to troponin. The troponin-Ca2+
complex causes tropomyosin threads winding around actin filaments to shift their position,
revealing myosin binding sites. Myosin filaments are composed of many myosin molecules with
double globular heads. When myosin heads break down ATP, they are ready to attach to actin.
The release of ADP + P causes myosin heads to change their position. This is the power stroke
that causes the actin filament to slide toward the center of a sarcomere. When more ATP
molecules bind to myosin, the heads detach from actin, and the cycle begins again.
Contraction continues until nerve impulses cease and calcium ions are returned to their
storage sites. The membranes of the sarcoplasmic reticulum contain active transport proteins that
pump calcium back into the storage sites and muscle relaxation occurs. When a person dies,
ATP production ceases. Without ATP, the myosin heads cannot detach from actin, nor the
calcium be pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum. As a result, the muscles remain
contracted, a phenomenon called rigor mortis.
54
Figure 4.2.4. Excitation-contraction coupling in vertebrate skeletal muscle ©2004. Integrated
Principles of Zoology
McGraw Hill Education
Excitation-contraction coupling in vertebrate skeletal muscle.
Step 1: An action potential spreads along the sarcolemma and is conducted inward to the
sarcoplasmic reticulum by way of T tubules (T-tubule system). Calcium ions released
from the sarcoplasmic reticulum diffuse rapidly into the myofibrils and bind to troponin
molecules on the actin molecule. Troponin molecules are moved away from the active
sites.
Step 2: Myosin cross bridges bind to the exposed active sites.
Step 3: Using the energy stored in ATP, the myosin head swings toward the center of the
sarcomere. ADP and a phosphate group are released.
Step 4: The myosin head binds another ATP molecule; this frees the myosin head from the
active site on actin.
Step 5: The myosin head splits ATP, retaining the energy released as well as the ADP and the
phosphate group. The cycle can now be repeated as long as calcium is present to open
active sites on the actin molecules.
55
SELF CHECK:
1. Give the functions of the muscular system in humans. How does the muscular system
contribute to homeostasis?
2. Discuss the microscopic structural features of a muscle fiber and a sarcomere. What is a
sliding filament model?
3. Discuss the availability and specific role of ATP during muscle contraction.
4. Describe the structure and function of a neuromuscular junction.
ASSESSMENT:
1. Peristalsis is due to what type of muscle?
A. Smooth B. Striated C. Cardiac D. Skeletal E. Voluntary
2. Diverse adaptations for animal movement are mainly due to:
A. Nervous systems C. Muscular system E. Both B and C

B. Skeletal system D. Both A and B
3. In a muscle fiber,
A. the sarcolemma is connective tissue holding the myofibrils together.

B. the sarcoplasmic reticulum stores calcium.
C. both myosin and actin filaments have cross-bridges.
D. there is a T system but no endoplasmic reticulum.
E. All of these are correct.
4. According to the sliding filament model, when muscles contract,
A. sarcomeres shorten.
B. myosin heads break down ATP.
C. actin slides past myosin.
D. the H zone disappears.
56
5. Acetylcholine
A. is active at somatic synapses but not at neuromuscular junctions.

B. binds to receptors in the sarcolemma.
C. precedes the buildup of ATP in mitochondria.
D. is stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
E. Both b and d are correct
6. Nervous stimulation of muscles
A. occurs at a neuromuscular junction.

B. involves the release of ACh.
C. results in impulses that travel down the T system.
D. causes calcium to be released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
57
MODULE 5.1
NUTRIENT PROCUREMENT AND PROCESSING: PLANT NUTRITION
Overview
Plant nutrition is the study of how a plant gains and uses mineral nutrients from the soil.
Nutrients are elements such as nitrogen and calcium and are obtained primarily as inorganic ions.
In traditional farming, crop plants absorb inorganic nutrients from the soil; then humans and other
animals consume them. Leftover crop residue and the human and animal manure return the
nutrients to the soil. In essence, mineral nutrients continually cycle through all organisms and
enter the biosphere predominantly through the root systems of plants.
1. Define nutrient and cite the nutritional requirements of plants;
2. Identify the structures and functions of various root and leaf tissues;
3. Describe the mutualistic relationships that assist plants in acquiring nutrients from the soil.;
and
4. Enumerate nutritional adaptation by plants.
Discussion
Nutrient refers to any substance required for the growth and maintenance of an organism.
Carbon dioxide, which enters leaves, and water, which enters roots, are combined during
photosynthesis to form carbohydrates, with the release of oxygen from the leaves. Root cells, and
all other plant cells, carry on cellular respiration, which uses oxygen and gives off carbon dioxide.
Aside from the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, plants require nutrients, which are
absorbed as minerals by the roots.
The two types of organisms based on the mode of nutrition are:
A. Autotrophs – organisms that obtain energy from sunlight and chemicals to produce their
own food. Examples: plants; chemosynthetic bacteria
B. Heterotrophs – organisms that cannot make their own food and obtain their energy from
other organisms. Examples: animals, fungi
58
Nutritional Requirements of Plants
Water is an essential nutrient for a plant, but much of the water entering a plant evaporates
at the leaves. The photosynthetic tissues carry out photosynthesis, a process that uses carbon
dioxide and gives off oxygen. Roots, like all plant organs, carry on cellular respiration, a process
that uses oxygen and gives off carbon dioxide Just as roots require water and minerals, it is
important that roots always have a continuous supply of oxygen.
Figure 5.1.1. Organization of a plant body and Plant Nutrition. The body of a plant consists of a root system and a
shoot system. The shoot system contains the stem and leaves, two types of plant vegetative organs. Axillary buds can
develop into branches of stems or flowers, the reproductive structures of a plant. The root system is connected to the
shoot system by vascular tissue (brown) that extends from the roots to the leaves.
59
Figure 5.1.2. Leaf
structure. Photosynthesis
takes place in mesophyll
tissue of leaves. The leaf
is enclosed by epidermal
cells covered with a waxy
layer, the cuticle. Leaf
hairs are also protective.
The veins contain xylem
and phloem for the
transport of water and
solutes. A stoma is an
opening in the epidermis
that permits the exchange
of gases.
60
Figure 5.1. 3. Eudicot root tip. The root tip is divided into three zones. b. The vascular cylinder of a eudicot root
contains the vascular tissue. c. Because of the Casparian strip (orange), water and minerals must pass through
the cytoplasm of endodermal cells in order to enter the xylem
Essential Inorganic Nutrients
Approximately 95% of a typical plant’s dry weight (weight excluding free water) is carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen. Why? Because these are the elements found in most organic compounds,
such as carbohydrates. Carbon dioxide (CO2) supplies the carbon, and water (H2O) supplies the
hydrogen and oxygen found in the organic compounds of a plant. In addition to carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen, plants require certain other nutrients, which the roots absorb as minerals. A mineral
61
is an inorganic substance, usually containing two or more elements. In plants, nitrogen is a major
component of nucleic acids and proteins, magnesium is a component of chlorophyll, and iron is a
building block of cytochrome molecules.
The major essential nutrients for plants are listed in Table 5.1.1. A nutrient is essential if
(1) it has an identifiable role, (2) no other nutrient can substitute for it and fulfill the same role, and
(3) a deficiency of this nutrient disrupts plant function and metabolism, causing a plant to die
without completing its life cycle. Essential nutrients are divided into macronutrients and
micronutrients according to their relative concentrations in plant tissue.
Table 5.1.1 Some Essential Inorganic Nutrients in Plants ©2016 Biology McGraw Hill
Beneficial nutrients are another category of elements taken up by plants. Beneficial

nutrients either are required for growth or enhance the growth of a particular plant. Horsetails
require silicon as a mineral nutrient, and sugar beets show enhanced growth in the presence of
sodium. Nickel is a beneficial mineral nutrient in soybeans when root nodules are present.
Aluminum is used by some ferns, and selenium, which is often fatally poisonous to livestock, is
utilized by canola plants.
Routes for the absorption of water and minerals across plant roots:
A. symplast route – through plasmodesmata
B. apoplast route – along cell walls; the water and minerals from the soil need to reach the
conducting tissues of plants, specifically the xylem.
62
Water Transport
Minerals accumulate at high concentrations beyond the endodermis in the root xylem
tissue. This solute concentration difference results in the continuous movement of water into the
root, creating root pressure. For example, if the stem of a young plant is cut, the cut end will often
“leak” xylem sap. If a glass tube is sealed over the cut end, the sap will rise, because root pressure
raises the water level in the glass tube. During the day, root pressure is not as obvious, because
water is being drawn out from the leaves. At night, water continues to enter the roots, but
evaporation slows down at the surface of the leaves. This results in a phenomenon called
guttation. Guttation occurs when drops of water are forced out of vein endings along the edges of
leaves. This morning “dew” effect is the direct result of root pressure.
Figure 5.1.4. Plant transport and water potential. Vascular tissue in plants includes xylem, which transports water
and minerals from the roots to the leaves, and phloem, which transports organic nutrients, often in the opposite
direction. The xylem and phloem are continuous from the roots through the stem to the leaves, which are the vegetative
organs of a plant. Water potential is higher at the roots as water moves in by osmosis. Water potential is lower at the
leaves as water escapes through stomata.
63
Cohesion-Tension Model of Xylem
Transport Water that enters xylem must be transported against gravity to all parts of the
plant. Transporting water can appear to be a daunting task, especially for plants such as redwood
trees, which can exceed 90 m (almost 300 ft) in height. The cohesion-tension model of xylem
transport illustrates how water and minerals travel upward in xylem yet requires no expenditure
of energy by the plant. To understand how it works, one must start in the soil. There is a higher
water potential in the soil and a lower water potential in the plant. Water will move into the root by
osmosis. All of the water entering roots creates root pressure, which is helpful for the upward
movement of water but is not nearly enough to get it all the way up to the leaves—especially in a
tall tree. Transpiration is the phenomenon that explains how water can completely resist gravity
and travel upward. Focusing on the top of the tree, the water molecules escaping from the spongy
mesophyll and into the air through stomata. The key is that it is not just one water molecule
escaping but a chain of water molecules. The movement of water through xylem is like drinking
water from a straw. Drinking exerts pressure on the straw, and a chain of water molecules is
drawn upward. Water molecules are polar and “stick” together with hydrogen bonds. Water’s
ability to stay linked in a chain is called cohesion, and its ability to stick to the inside of a straw or
a xylem vessel is adhesion. In plants, evaporation of water at the leaves exerts tension, which
pulls on a chain of water molecules. Transpiration is the constant tugging or pulling of the water
column from the top due to evaporation. Cohesion of water molecules and adhesion to the inside
of a xylem vessel facilitate this process. As transpiration occurs, the water column is pulled
upward—first within the leaf, then from the stem, and finally from the roots. In addition, unlike
other plant cells, xylem vessels offer a simple pipeline, with reinforced lignified walls and low
resistance for the movement of water.
Nutritional Adaptation of Plants and Specialized Absorptive Structures:
In leaves, the lower epidermis of eudicots and both surfaces of monocots contain
specialized cells called guard cells. Guard cells, which are epidermal cells with chloroplasts,
surround microscopic pores called stomata (sing., stoma). When the stomata are open, gas
exchange and water loss occur.
64
Figure 5.1.5. Leaf
epidermis contains
stomata (sing., stoma)
for gas exchange.
Root hairs are slender extensions of specialized epidermal cells that greatly increase the surface
area available for absorption.
Figure 5.1.6. Root epidermis Figure 5.1.7. Pneumatophores of this

has root hairs to absorb water. tree allow it to acquire oxygen even
though it lives in water.
Trees growing in water, such as mangrove and bald cypress, have evolved spongy roots
called pneumatophores, which extend above the water’s surface and enhance gas exchange. In
plants with wood, the epidermis of the stem is replaced by cork cells. At maturity, cork cells can
be sloughed off. New cork cells are made by a meristem called cork cambium. This entire cork
area of the plant is called the periderm. As the new cork cells mature, they increase slightly in
volume, and their walls become encrusted with suberin, a lipid material, so that they are
waterproof and chemically inert. These nonliving cells protect the plant and help it resist fungal,
bacterial, and animal attacks. Some cork tissues, notably from the cork oak are used commercially
for bottle corks and other products. The cork cambium overproduces cork in certain areas of the
stem surface, causing ridges and cracks to appear. These features on the surface are called
lenticels. Lenticels are the site of gas exchange between the interior of a stem and the air.
65
Figure 5.1.8. Periderm includes
cork and cork cambium. Lenticels
in cork are important in gas
exchange.
Two mutualistic relationships assist roots in obtaining mineral nutrients. Root nodule which
localized swellings in roots of certain plants where bacterial cells exist symbiotically with the plant.
Peas, beans, and other legumes have root nodules, where nitrogen-fixing bacteria live. Plants
cannot extract nitrogen from the air, but the bacteria within the nodules can take up and reduce
atmospheric nitrogen. The plant gets a source of nitrogen from the bacteria, and the bacteria
receive carbohydrates from the plant. The most common types of symbiosis occur between
bacteria collectively called rhizobia and plants of the legume family.
Bacterial nitrogen fixation is responsible for most of the conversion of nitrogen from the air
(N ≡ N) into ammonium (NH4 +) and is therefore the first step in the introduction of nitrogen into
ecological cycles. Most nitrogen-fixing bacteria live independently in the soil, but some do form
symbiotic associations with a host plant. In these associations, the host plant provides food and
shelter, while the bacteria provide nitrogen in a form the plant can use.

Figure 5.1.9. Root Nodules.
Nitrogen fixation is an energy-intensive process that requires special conditions for the
bacteria’s enzymes. One of those conditions is an anaerobic environment, as the presence of
oxygen disrupts the nitrogen fixing process. For this reason, nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in organs
called root nodules where oxygen levels are maintained high enough for cellular respiration but
low enough so as to not inactivate important nitrogen-fixing enzymes. In addition, large-scale
farming of legume crops often depletes the native populations of rhizobia, and farmers must often
supplement with pellets containing these bacteria.
66
The second type of mutualistic relationship, called mycorrhizae, involves fungi and almost
all plant roots. Only a small minority of plants do not have mycorrhizae, and these plants are
most often limited as to the environment in which they can grow. Plants that have mycorrhizae
are able to extract water and minerals from the soil better than those with roots that lack a fungal
partner. This relationship is mutualistic, because the fungus receives sugars and amino acids
from the plant, while the plant receives increased water and minerals via the fungus. The fungus
increases the surface area available for mineral and water uptake and breaks down organic
matter in the soil, releasing nutrients the plant can use. Orchid seeds, which are quite small and
contain limited nutrients, do not germinate until a mycorrhizal fungus has invaded their cells. Root
nodules involve a mutualistic relationship with bacteria, and mycorrhizae are a mutualistic
relationship with fungi.
Other means of acquiring nutrients also occur. Parasitic plants, such as dodders,
broomrapes, and pinedrops, send out rootlike projections, called haustoria, that tap into the xylem
and phloem of the host stem. Carnivorous plants, such as the Venus flytrap and sundew, obtain
some nitrogen and minerals when their leaves capture and digest insects. The modified leaves of
the Venus flytrap serve as a trap for insect prey. When triggered by an insect, the leaf snaps shut.
Once shut, the leaf secretes digestive juices, which break down the soft parts of the insect’s body.
The spines of a cactus plant are modified leaves that protect the fleshy stem from animal
predation. The tendrils of a cucumber are modified leaves that attach the plant to a physical
support.
67
Figure 5.1.10. Mycorrhizae. Plant Figure 5.1.11. Other ways to acquire
growth is better when mycorrhizae nutrients. a. Some plants, such as the
are present. dodder, are parasitic. b. Some plants, such
as the sundew, are carnivorous.
Figure 5.1.12. The modified leaves of the Venus flytrap serve as a trap for
insect prey. When triggered by an insect, the leaf snaps shut. Once shut,
the leaf secretes digestive juices, which break down the soft parts of the
insect’s body.
68
SELF CHECK:
1. Name the elements that make up most of a plant’s body. What are essential mineral nutrients
and beneficial mineral nutrients?
2. Name two symbiotic relationships that assist plants in taking up minerals and two types of
plants that have other means of acquiring nutrients.
3. Describe and give evidence for the cohesion-tension model of water transport.
ASSESSMENT:
1. A nutrient element is considered essential if:
A. plant growth increases with a reduction in the concentration of the element.

B. plants die in the absence of the element.
C. plants can substitute a similar element for the missing element with no ill effects.
D. the element is a positive ion
2. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria:
A. reduce atmospheric nitrogen. D. can live independently in the soil.

B. are usually associated with legume plants. E. break N ≡ N bonds.
C. All of these are correct.
3. Which of the following is not an adaptation by plants to obtain minerals?
A. specialized leaves that capture insects D. parasitic plants, such as a dodder

B. mycorrhizal associations E. nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules
C. broad leaves in low sunlight
4. The opening in the leaf that allows gas and water exchange is called the:
A. lenticel. B. hole. C. stoma. D. guard cell. E. accessory cell.
69
5. Stomata are usually open:
A. at night, when the plant requires a supply of oxygen.

B. during the day, when the plant requires a supply of carbon dioxide.
C. day or night if there is excess water in the soil.
D. during the day, when transpiration occurs.
E. Both b and d are correct.
6. What role do cohesion and adhesion play in xylem transport?
A. Like transpiration, they create a tension.

B. Like root pressure, they create a positive pressure.
C. Like sugars, they cause water to enter xylem
D. They create a continuous water column in xylem.
7-11. Label this leaf using these terms: leaf vein, lower epidermis, palisade mesophyll, spongy
mesophyll, and upper epidermis.
70
MODULE 5.2
NUTRIENT PROCUREMENT AND PROCESSING: HUMAN NUTRITION
Overview
Metabolism refers to the sum of all the chemical processes that take place within an
organism. The processes of metabolism control and manage the energy resources of cells and
organisms. Some metabolic pathways store energy and others release energy. Pathways that
release energy by breaking down complex compounds into simpler ones are called catabolic
pathways. Pathways that use energy to build complex molecules from simpler ones are called
anabolic pathways. A digestive system includes all the organs, tissues, and cells involved in
ingesting food and mechanically and chemically breaking down into smaller components and then
eliminates the residues. Digestion contributes to homeostasis by providing the body with the
nutrients needed to sustain the life of cells.
1. List all major components of the human digestive tract from the mouth to the anus.
2. Discuss the major functions of the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder.
3. Describe the overall characteristics and functions of digestive enzymes.
4. Compare the specific types of nutrients that are digested in the mouth, stomach, and small
intestine.
Discussion
A digestive system has the following processes:
1. Mechanical processing and motility. Movements of various parts, such as the teeth, tongue,
and muscle layers, break up, mix, and propel food material.
2. Secretion. Digestive enzymes and other substances are released into the digestive tube.
3. Digestion. Food is chemically broken down into nutrient molecules that can cross the plasma
membrane or be absorbed.
4. Absorption. Digested nutrients and fluid pass across the tube wall and into blood or lymph.
5. Elimination. Undigested foo and unabsorbed residues are eliminated from the end of the GI
tract.
Unicellular organism has food vacuoles which fuse with lysosomes that contain
hydrolytic enzymes. Example: food vacuole in a protozoans like Paramecium and amoeba.
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A few animals such as sponges, lack a digestive tract, water from the aqueous environment flow
through the sponge, food particles are removed by cells that make up the inner lining of the
organism. Planarians, have gastrovascular cavity or incomplete digestive tract that has only one
opening, used both as an entrance for food and an exit for wastes. An incomplete tract has little
specialization. Many other animals such as earthworms (annelids) have a complete digestive
tract that has both a mouth and an anus. It is essentially like a tube with an opening at one end
for taking in food (mouth) and an opening at the other end where unabsorbed waste materials are
eliminated (anus). In between the mouth and anus, are specialized organs that carry out transport,
processing, and absorption of digested nutrients.
Some animals are continuous feeders (clams, which are filter feeders); others are
discontinuous feeders (squid). Discontinuous feeders need a storage organ for food. Most
mammals have teeth that can hold plant material and grind it up. Also, the herbivore’s stomach
contains bacteria that can digest cellulose. Carnivores need teeth that can tear and rip animal
flesh into pieces. Meat is easier to digest than plant material, so the digestive system of carnivores
has fewer specialized regions and the intestine is shorter than that of the herbivores.
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Figure 5.2.1. The human digestive tract. Trace the path of food from the mouth to the anus. The large
intestine consists of the cecum, colon (ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colons), rectum, and
anus. Note also the location of the accessory organs of digestion: the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder.
The digestive tube extends from the mouth to the anus. The central space of the digestive
tract through which food passes is called the lumen. The tube wall consists of four layers:
(1.) Mucosa (innermost layer of the epithelium)
(2.) Submucosa, which surround the mucosa, a layer of connective tissue with blood and lymph
vessels and nerve cells.
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(3.) Smooth muscle- circular and longitudinal muscles.
(4.) outer layer the serosa, is a very thin serous membrane.
The contraction of all these muscles accounts for the movement of the gut contents from
the esophagus to the rectum by peristalsis, a rhythmic contraction that serves to move the
contents along the digestive tract. Sphincters are muscles that encircle tubes and act as valves;
tubes close when sphincters contract and they open when sphincters relax.
Figure 5.2.2. Wall of the digestive

tract. The esophagus, stomach,
small intestine, and large intestine all
have a lumen and walls composed of
similar layers.
In the human digestive system, both mechanical and chemical digestion begins in the
mouth, where food is chewed and mixed with saliva. The palate separates the oral cavity from
the nasal cavity consisting of hard palate (anterior) and soft (posterior) palate. The uvula is the
posterior extension of the soft palate. The cheeks and lips retain food while it is chewed by the
teeth and mixed with saliva.
Figure 5.2.3. Swallowing. Respiratory and

digestive passages converge and diverge in
the pharynx. When food is swallowed, the
soft palate closes off the nasopharynx, and
the epiglottis covers the glottis, forcing the
bolus to pass down the esophagus.
Therefore, a person does not breathe when
swallowing.
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The three major salivary glands, (sublingual, parotid, and submandibular glands) secrete
their juices by way of ducts into the mouth. Saliva contains the enzymes salivary amylase, which
begin to digest starch producing maltose (disaccharide). In the mouth, food forms into a mass
called bolus in preparation for swallowing passing through the pharynx (throat). The pharynx is
divided into three parts: nasopharynx, oropharynx and laryngopharynx. Contractions of the tongue
push the food bolus into the pharynx. Then the vocal cords seal off the larynx and the epiglottis
goes downward to keep the trachea closed. Contractions of the throat muscles then squeeze the
food bolus into the esophagus. The digestive and respiratory passages come together in the
pharynx and then separate. The esophagus is a tubular structure about 25 cm. in length.
Sphincters are muscles that encircles tubes and acts as valves; tubes close when sphincter
contract, and they open when sphincters relax. The gastroesophageal sphincter is located where
the esophagus enters the stomach. Peristalsis is a rhythmic contraction that serves to move the
contents along the tubular organs. Peristalsis in the esophagus moves the bolus through a
sphincter. Heartburn occurs due to acid reflux, when some of the stomach’s contents escape into
the esophagus. When vomiting occurs, the abdominal muscles and the diaphragm, a muscle that
separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities, contract.
The stomach is a thick walled, J-shaped organ that lie on the left side of the body just
beneath the diaphragm. Food in the stomach is mechanically digested by churning, and protein
are enzymatically digested by the action of pepsin in the gastric juice. Gastric glands secrete
hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen, the precursor of pepsin. So much HCl is secreted by the gastric
glands that the stomach has a pH of 2.0, sufficient to kill the bacteria and other microorganisms
present in the food. A thick layer of mucus protects the wall of the stomach from enzymatic action.
Epithelial cells can be damage by the development of ulcerations in the mucosa. Gastric ulcers
can be caused by an acid-resistant bacterium, Helicobacter pylori which attaches to the epithelial
lining and stops the production of mucus. Rugae are folds in the stomach wall that expand as the
stomach fills with food. After several hours, a thick, creamy consistency of food or semi solid
food, called chyme, leaves the stomach through the pylorus and enters the small intestine in
spurts. Most enzymatic digestion takes place in the duodenum (the first part of the small
intestine), which produces several digestive enzymes and also receives secretions from the liver
and pancreas. The other parts of the small intestine are the jejunum and ileum. A duct brings bile
from the liver and gall bladder, and pancreatic juice from the pancreas, into the small intestine
(duodenum). Bile emulsifies fat-emulsification causes fat droplets to disperse in water. The
intestine has slightly basic pH because the pancreatic juice contains sodium bicarbonate
(NaHCO3), which neutralize the acidic chyme. The pancreas releases enzymes that digest
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proteins, lipid, and carbohydrate. Trypsin and chymotrypsin digest polypeptides into dipeptides.
Pancreatic lipase degrades fats, and pancreatic amylase digests complex carbohydrates. The
wall of the small intestine contains fingerlike projections called villi. A villus has an outer layer of
columnar epithelial cells, and each of these cells has microscopic extensions called microvilli
(“brush border”). Nutrients are absorbed into the villus, which contains blood capillaries and
lymphatic capillary, called a lacteal. The glucose, amino acids, and glycerol and fatty acids enter
the epithelial cells of the villus. The glycerol and fatty acids are joined together once absorbed
and become lipoprotein droplets which enter a lacteal. And carried to all cells of the body by
bloodstream.
The large intestine, which consists of the cecum, colon (the ascending colon, transverse
colon, descending colon, and sigmoid colon), rectum and anus, is responsible for eliminating
undigested wastes. The large intestine absorb water, salt, and some vitamins. The cecum, which
lies below the junction with the small intestine, is the blind end of the large intestine. The cecum
has a small projection called the vermiform appendix (inflammation of the appendix is
appendicitis). Water is absorbed mostly in the small intestine, about 95% of the total amount of
water that enters the body in one day and the remaining portion is absorbed by the colon. If this
water is not reabsorbed, diarrhea, the passing of watery feces, can lead to serious dehydration
and ion loss, especially in children. Large population of bacteria including Escherichia coli and
400 other species can be found in the large intestine, which provide protection against more
pathogenic species. They also produce vitamin K necessary for blood clotting and certain vitamin
B. Feces leave by way of the anus containing bacteria, undigested plant material, fats, waste
products (bile pigments) mucus, dead cells from intestinal lining. The color of the feces is the
result of bilirubin breakdown and the presence of oxidized iron. The foul odor is the result of
bacterial action. Constipation results when chyme passes through the intestines too slowly,
causing more water is removed from the chyme, which result to feces that is dry and hard. This
is due to deficient fiber in the diet. Colorectal cancer is the third most common cancer in Western
countries. Consumption of red meat increases the risk in having a colon cancer. Dietary fat causes
an increase in bile secretion and it could be that intestinal bacteria convert bile salts to substances
that promote the development of colon cancer. Dietary fiber absorbs water and add bulk, diluting
the concentration of bile salts and facilitating the movement of substances through the intestine.
Regular elimination reduces the time that the colon wall is exposed to any cancer-promoting
agents in the feces. Polyps (benign or cancerous) may develop in colon, which are small growths
arising from mucosa. It can be removed surgically.
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Figure 5.2.4. Anatomy of the small intestine.
The wall of the small intestine has folds that bear
fingerlike projections called villi. The products of digestion
are absorbed into the blood capillaries and the lacteals of ©2016 Biology McGraw Hill
the villi by microvilli, which project from the villi.
Table 5.2.1. Some Hormones that regulate digestion:
Hormone Source Target Actions

Factors that Stimulate
tissue release
Gastrin Stomach Stomach
Stimulates the gastric Distention of the
(Mucosa) (gastric
glands to secrete stomach by food;
glands)
pepsinogen certain substances such
as partially digested
proteins and caffeine
Secretin Duodenum Pancreas -Signals secretion of Acidic cyme acting on
(mucosa) sodium bicarbonate mucosa of duodenum
Liver -Stimulate bile secretion
Cholecystokinin Duodenum Pancreas Stimulates release of Presence of fatty acids
(CCK) (mucosa) digestive enzymes and partially digested
Gallbladder Stimulate emptying of proteins in duodenum
the bile
Gastric Duodenum Stomach Decreases stomach Presence of fatty acids
Inhibitory (mucosa) churning, thus slowing or glucose in duodenum
peptide (GIP) emptying
©2006 Biology Brookes/Cole
Three Accessory Organs

The liver, pancreas, and the gall bladder are accessory organs of the digestive system. The Liver
is the largest gland in the body, which lies in the upper right of the abdomen just under the
diaphragm and acts as a gatekeeper to the blood. The liver:
1. Secretes bile (consisting of water, bile salts, bile pigments, cholesterol and lecithin), and then
stored in the gallbladder, which is important in the digestion of fats
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2. Helps maintain homeostasis by removing or adding nutrients to the blood. Nutrients are
absorbed through the thin wall of the intestinal villi. The hepatic portal vein transports
amino acids and glucose to the liver.
3. Converts excess glucose to glycogen and stores it.
4. Converts excess amino acids to fatty acids and urea.
5. Stores iron and certain vitamins (Vitamins A, B12, D, E, and K).
6. Detoxifies alcohol and other drugs and poisons.
7. Breaks down worn out blood cells.
The liver makes many of the proteins found in the blood plasma and helps regulate the
quantity of cholesterol in the blood. The liver maintains the blood glucose level at about 100
mg/100ml. When insulin is present, any excess glucose in the blood is removed and stored by
the liver as glycogen. Between meals, glycogen is broken down to glucose, which enters the
hepatic veins, and in this way, the blood glucose level remains constant. When the glycogen is
depleted, the liver converts glycerol (from fats) and amino acids to glucose molecules. The
conversion of amino acids glucose necessitates deamination, the removal of the amino groups to
form urea (ammonia is combined with carbon dioxide to form urea). Urea is a nitrogenous waste
product from amino acid breakdown.
The liver produces bile, which is stored in the gallbladder. Bile contains pigment bilirubin
which contribute to its yellowish green color. Bilirubin is derived from the breakdown of
hemoglobin. Bile contains bile salts derived from cholesterol and they emulsify fat in the small
intestine, which can be acted by digestive enzyme from the pancreas.
When a person has a liver ailment, a yellowing of the skin and the sclera of the eyes called
jaundice may occur. This is due to the excess bilirubin deposited in the tissues because the liver
is defective in excreting the pigment. Hepatitis is the inflammation of the liver caused by viruses.
Hepatitis A virus is usually acquired from food or water that has been contaminated with feces.
Hepatitis B, which spread by sexual contact, can also be spread by blood transfusion or
contaminated needles. Hepatitis C, is acquired by contact with infected blood. A vaccine is
available for Hepatitis B and no vaccine for Hepatitis C.
Cirrhosis or fatty liver, seen in alcoholics, where the organ becomes fatty, and the liver
tissue is replaced by inactive fibrous scar tissue.
The gallbladder is a pear-shaped, muscular sac attached to the outer surface of the liver
and its function is to store bile coming from the liver. About 1,000 ml. of bile is produced by the
liver each day, and excess of it is stored in the gallbladder. Water is reabsorbed by the gallbladder
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so that bile becomes thick, mucus-like material. When bile is needed the gallbladder contracts,
releasing bile into the duodenum via the common bile duct. The cholesterol content of the bile
can be formed into crystals called gallstones.
Table 5.2.2. Summary of Digestion:

Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids
Mouth Polysaccharides
Salivary amylase
Maltose and small
polysaccharide
Stomach Action continues until acidic Protein

pH inactivates salivary Pepsin
amylase
Short polypeptides
Small Intestine Undigested polysaccharides Polypeptides Glob of Fat

Pancreatic
amylase Trypsin, Bile salts
Chymotrypsin
Maltose and other Small polypeptides Emulsified Fat
disaccharides and peptides Droplets
Maltase, sucrase, Carboxypeptidases,
lactase Peptidases, Pancreatic
Dipeptidases Lipase
monosaccharides
Amino acids
Fatty Acids
and Glycerols
SELF CHECK:
1. Contrast an incomplete digestive tract with a complete digestive tract.

2. List the parts of the digestive tract anatomically describe them, and state the contribution
of each to the digestive process.
3. State the location and describe the functions of the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder.
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4. Describe the structure and function of the large intestine. Name several medical conditions
associated with the large intestine.
5. Assume that you have eaten a ham sandwich. Discuss the digestion of the contents of
the sandwich. Mention all the necessary enzymes.
ASSESSMENT:
1. Animals that feed discontinuously
A. have a digestive tract that permits storage.

B. are always filter feeders. c. exhibit extremely rapid digestion.
C. have a nonspecialized digestive tract.
D. usually eat only meat.
2. Beginning with the mouth and going from a–f, which structure is out of order first when tracing
the path of food in humans?
A. mouth B. esophagus C. stomach D. pharynx E. small intestine F. large intestine
3. Why can a person not swallow food and talk at the same time?
A. To swallow, the epiglottis must close off the trachea.

B. The brain cannot control two activities at once.
C. To speak, air must come through the larynx to form sounds.
D. A swallowing reflex is only initiated when the mouth is closed.
E. Both A and C are correct.
4. Which association is incorrect?
A. mouth—starch digestion
B. esophagus—protein digestion
C. small intestine—starch, lipid, protein digestion
D. liver—bile production
E. large intestine—water absorption
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5. In humans, most of the absorption of the products of digestion takes place across
A. the squamous epithelium of the esophagus.

B. the convoluted walls of the stomach.
C. the fingerlike villi of the small intestine.
D. the smooth wall of the large intestine.
E. the lacteals of the lymphatic system.
6. The appendix connects to the
A. cecum. C. large intestine. E. small intestine.

B. liver. D. esophagus. F. All of these are correct.
7. Which of these could be absorbed directly without need of digestion?
A. glucose C. nucleic acid

B. fat D. protein E. All of these are correct.
8. Which association is incorrect?
A. protein—trypsin C. starch—amylase
B. fat—lipase D. maltose—pepsin E. protein—pepsin
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MODULE 5.3
NUTRIENT PROCUREMENT AND PROCESSING: NUTRITON AND
HUMAN HEALTH
Learning Objectives
1. List the major types of nutrients, and provide examples of foods that are good source of each.
2. Describe the connection between a person’s diet and the likely development of obesity, type
II diabetes, and cardiovascular disease
3. Describe the nutritional functions of vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals.
Discussion
Metabolism includes all the chemical processes that take place in the body. It includes
anabolism, which includes the synthetic aspects of metabolism such as production of proteins
and nucleic acids; and catabolism includes the breakdown processes such as hydrolysis. A
Calorie is a unit of energy that indicates the amount of energy contained in food. It specifically
refers to the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg (2.2 lb.) of water by
1oC (1.8oF). The greater the number of Calories in a quantity of food, the greater energy it contains
(Johnson and Raven, 1996).
For a balanced diet, humans and other animals require carbohydrates, lipids, proteins,
vitamins, and minerals.
CARBOHYDRATES
Sugars and starches are important sources of energy in the human diet. Most
carbohydrates are ingested in the form of starch and cellulose, both polysaccharides composed
of long chains of glucose subunits. Nutritionists refer to polysaccharide as complex
carbohydrates. Foods rich in complex carbohydrates include rice, potatoes, corn, and other cereal
grains. Fruits, vegetables, milk, and honey are natural sources of sugars. Glucose and fructose
are monosaccharide sugars, and lactose (milk sugar) and sucrose (table sugar) are
disaccharides. Disaccharides are broken down in the small intestine, and monosaccharides are
absorbed in the bloodstream and delivered to cells used for the production of ATP by cellular
respiration.
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When we eat an excess of carbohydrate-rich food, the liver cells become fully packed with
glycogen and convert excess glucose to fatty acids and glycerol. Liver cells convert these
compounds into triacylglycerols and send them to the fat depots of the body for storage. Refined
carbohydrates, such as white bread and white rice, are unhealthy because the refining process
removes fibers and many vitamins and minerals. The refining process also produces a form of
starch that the digestive system rapidly breaks down to glucose. The rapid increase in glucose
concentration in the blood stimulates the pancreas to release a large amount of insulin, the
hormone that stimulates the liver and the muscles to remove glucose in the blood. Insulin lowers
blood glucose level. When glucose and insulin levels are high triglyceride levels increase and
high-density lipoprotein (HDL-the good cholesterol) concentration decreases. These metabolic
events lead to cardiovascular disease and also an increased risk of type 2 diabetes.
Dietary intake of fiber decreases cholesterol concentration in the blood and is associated
with lower risk for cardiovascular disease and diabetes. Fiber is mainly a complex mixture of
cellulose and other indigestible carbohydrates. We obtain dietary fiber by eating fruits,
vegetables, and whole grains. Fiber also stimulates the feeling of being satisfied (satiety) after
food intake and thus is useful in treating obesity. Fiber includes various undigestible
carbohydrates derived from plants. Food sources include beans, peas, nuts, fruits, vegetables,
and whole-grain products. Insoluble fiber adds bulk to fecal material, which stimulates movement
in the large intestine, preventing constipation. Soluble fiber combines with bile acids and
cholesterol in the small intestine and prevents them from being absorbed. In this way, high-fiber
dies may protect against heart disease.
There is a relative risk of consuming high levels of high fructose corn syrup (HFCS), or
corn sugar, which is now the commonly used sweetening agent, found in soft drinks and a huge
variety of foods that end up on our plates.
LIPIDS
Like carbohydrates, triglycerides (fats and oils) supply energy for cells, but fat is also
stored for the long term in the body. Dietary experts generally recommend that people include
unsaturated, rather that saturated, fats in their diets. Two unsaturated fatty acids, alpha-linolenic
and linoleic acids (also called omega-3 fatty acids), are essential in the diet, meaning that we
cannot synthesize them. Delayed growth and skin problems can develop in people who consume
an insufficient amount of these essential unsaturated fatty acids, which can be found in certain
fish and in plant oil like canola, olive oil, corn oil, and soy oil. It decreases the level of LDL-bad
cholesterol and play other protective roles in decreasing the risk for coronary heart disease.
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Lipids play key role in the development of atherosclerosis, a progressive disease in which
the arteries become clogged with fatty material. The type of fats consumed, as well as other
dietary and lifestyle factors, is important. A healthy proportion of HDL and LDL can be promoted
by a regular exercise program, healthy diet, appropriate body weight (obesity raises LDL and
triacyglycerol levels), and by not smoking cigarettes.
In general, animal foods are rich in both saturated fats and cholesterol. Butter contains
mainly saturated fats. Because polyunsaturated fats decrease the blood cholesterol level, many
people now cook with vegetable oils rather than with butter and lard, drink skim milk rather than
whole milk, and eat low-fat ice cream. Some use margarine instead of butter. However, during
margarine production vegetable oils are partially hydrogenated (some of the carbons accept
hydrogen to become fully saturated). During hydrogenation, some double bonds are transformed
from a cis arrangement to a trans arrangement, forming trans fatty acids; the harder the
margarine, the higher the trans fatty acid content. Many processed foods, including crackers,
cookies, and potato chips, contain trans fatty acids.
If you have good genes, control your weight, and exercise regularly, your body may be
able to process unhealthy fats. It is important to remember that some fats, for example trans-fatty
acids and saturated fats are unhealthy, but others, such as omega-3 fatty acids and
monounsaturated fat, are healthy.
PROTEIN
Proteins are essential building blocks of cells, serves as enzyme, and also used to make
compound, such as hemoglobin and myosin. High- quality protein tends to be most expensive
and least available of the nutrients. Protein poverty is one of the most pressing health problems.
Ingested proteins are degraded in the digestive tract to small peptides and amino acids. Of the
20 or so amino acids important in nutrition, approximately 9 cannot be synthesized by humans at
all, or at least not in sufficient quantities to meet the body’s needs. The diet must provide these
essential amino acids.
Complete proteins are found in fish, meat, nuts, eggs, and milk. Some foods, such as
gelatin and legumes (soybeans, beans, peas, peanuts) contain a high proportion of protein.
However, they either do not contain all the essential amino acids, or they do not contain them in
proper nutritional proportions. Most plant proteins are deficient in one or more essential amino
acids. The healthiest sources of protein are fish, chicken, nuts, and legumes.
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Amino acids circulating in the blood are taken up by cells and used for the synthesis of
proteins. The liver removes excess amino acid from the circulation. Liver cells deaminate amino
acid, that is, remove the amino group. During deamination, ammonia forms from the amino group.
Ammonia, which is toxic at high concentrations, is converted to urea and excreted from the body.
The remaining carbon chain of the amino acid (called keto acid) may be converted into
carbohydrate or lipid and used as fuel or stored. Even people who eat high protein diets can gain
weight if they eat too much.
Vitamins are organic compounds required in small amounts for many biochemical
processes. Many serve as components of coenzymes. Fat soluble vitamins include vitamins A,
D, E, and K. Water soluble vitamins are the B and C vitamins. Fruit and vegetables are rich
sources of vitamins. Health professionals debate the advisability of taking large amounts of
certain specific vitamin, such as Vitamin C to prevent colds or vitamin E to protect against vascular
diseases. Some studies suggest that vitamin A (found in yellow and green vegetables) and
vitamin C (found in citrus and tomatoes) help protect against certain forms of cancer. We do not
know yet understand all the biochemical roles played by vitamins or the interactions among
various vitamins and other nutrients. We do know that large overdoses of vitamins, like vitamin
deficiency, can be harmful. Moderate overdoses of the B and C vitamins are excreted in the
urine, but surpluses of the fat –soluble vitamins are not easily excreted and can accumulate to
harmful levels.
Minerals are inorganic nutrients ingested in the form of salts dissolved in food and water.
We need certain minerals, including sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, phosphorus,
magnesium, and sulfur, in amounts of 100 mg or more daily. Several others, such as iron, copper,
iodide, fluoride, and selenium, are trace elements, minerals that we require in amounts of less
than 100 mg per day.
Minerals are necessary components of body tissues and fluids. Salt content (about 0.9%
in plasma) is vital in maintaining the fluid balance of the body, and because salts are lost from the
body daily in sweat, urine, and feces, they must be replaced by dietary intake. Sodium chloride is
the salt needed in largest quantity in blood and other body fluids. A deficiency results in
dehydration. Iron is the mineral most often deficient in the diet. Iron deficiency is one of the most
widespread nutritional problems in the world.
ANTIOXIDANTS protect against oxidants.
Normal cell processes that require oxygen produce oxidants, highly reactive molecules
such as free radicals, peroxides, and superoxides. Free radicals, molecules or ions with one or
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more unpaired electron, are also generated by ionizing radiation, tobacco smoke, and other forms
of air pollution. Oxidants damage DNA, proteins, and unsaturated fatty acids by snatching
electrons. Damage to DNA causes mutations that lead to cancer, injury to unsaturated fatty acids
can damage cell membranes. Free radicals are thought to contribute to atherosclerosis by
causing oxidation of LDL cholesterol. Oxidative damage to the body over many years contributes
to the aging process.
Cells have antioxidants that destroy free radicals and other reactive molecules.
Antioxidants in tissues include certain enzymes- catalase, and peroxidase. Their action requires
minerals such selenium, zinc, manganese, and copper. Certain vitamins- vitamin C, vitamin E,
and β-carotene-have strong antioxidant activity. Vitamins A and E protect cell membranes from
free radicals. A variety of phytochemicals are potent antioxidants.
Phytochemicals play important roles in maintaining health. Diets rich in fruits and
vegetables lower the incidence of heart disease and certain types of cancer. A diet that includes
all the essential nutrients does not provide the same health benefits as one rich in fruit and
vegetables. The missing ingredients appear to be phytochemicals, plant compounds that promote
health. Some phytochemicals function as antioxidants. In Asian countries where diets are low in
fat and high in soy and green tea, the incidence of breast, prostate, and colorectal cancer is low.
Among the important classes of phytochemicals are the carotenoids, allium compounds,
flavonoids, indoles, and isocyanates. Except for carotenoids, yellow-orange pigments that the
body can convert into vitamin A, phytochemicals have not been established as essential nutrients.
Among the carotenoids are the lycopenes, powerful antioxidants that are responsible for the red
color of the tomatoes.
Millions of people do not have to eat or do not eat a balance diet. Individuals suffering
from undernutrition are weak, easily fatigued, and highly susceptible to infection. Iron, calcium,
and vitamin A are commonly deficient nutrients, but essential amino acids are the ones most often
deficient in the diet. Millions of people suffer from poor health and lowered resistance to disease
because of protein deficiency. Children’s physical and mental development are retarded when
proteins are not provided in the diet. Because their bodies cannot manufacture antibodies and
cells needed to fight infection, common childhood diseases, such as whooping cough, measles,
and chicken pox, are often fatal in children suffering from protein malnutrition.
In young children, severe protein malnutrition results in the condition known as
kwashiorkor. This Ashanti (West African) word means “first-second.” It refers to the situation in
which the first child is displaced from its mother’s breast when a younger sibling is born. The
older child is then given a diet of starchy cereal or cassava that ids deficient in protein. Growth
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becomes stunted, muscles are wasted, and edema develops (swollen belly); the child becomes
apathetic and anemic, with impaired metabolism. Without essential amino acids, digestive
enzymes cannot be manufactured, so that little protein is ingested cannot be digested.
Obesity is the excess accumulation of fat in adipose tissues, is a serious nutritional
problem. A person gain weight by taking in more energy, in the form of kilocalories, than is
expended in activity. When energy (kilocalories) input equals energy output, body weight remains
constant. When the energy output is greater than the energy input, body weight decreases. When
energy input exceeds energy output, body weight increases.
Diabetes Mellitus I and Diabetes Mellitus II
Diabetes mellitus occurs when the hormone insulin is not functioning properly, resulting in
abnormally high levels of glucose. This may occur due to deficiency of insulin secretion by the
pancreas, as in type I diabetes, or to an inability of the cells to respond to insulin (Insulin
resistance), defined as type II diabetes. In both types the excess blood glucose spills over into
urine, leading to increase urination, thirst, and weight loss. Over time the high levels of blood
glucose, and lack of other insulin functions, can lead to damage of blood vessels, nerves, eyes,
kidneys, and even to death. Type I can usually be successfully managed with insulin injections,
but type II can be much more resistant to treatment. Regular exercise helps prevent and control
type II diabetes.
Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death. Heart attacks and strokes often
occur when arteries become blocked by plaque, which contains saturated fats and cholesterol.
Cholesterol is carried in the blood by two types of lipoproteins: low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and
high-density lipoprotein (HDL). LDL molecules are considered “bad” because they are like
delivery trucks that carry cholesterol from the liver to the cells and to the arterial walls. HDL
molecules are considered “good” because they are like garbage trucks that dispose of cholesterol.
HDL transports cholesterol from the cells to the liver, which converts it to bile salts that enter the
small intestine. Diets high in saturated fats, trans-fats, an/or cholesterol tend to raise LDL
cholesterol levels, while eating unsaturated fats may actually lower LDL cholesterol levels.
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Table 5.3.1. Amino Acids 2013 Concepts of Biology, OpenStax College
Table 5.5.2. Fat-soluble Essential Vitamins 2013 Concepts of Biology, OpenStax College
Table 5.3.3. Water-soluble Essential Vitamins 2013 Concepts of Biology, OpenStax College
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Table 5.3.4. Minerals and Their Function in the Human Body
2013 Concepts of Biology, OpenStax College
SELF CHECK:
1. Explain why good nutrition is important to human health.
2. Explain why obesity can lead to Type II Diabetes and cardiovascular disease.
3. Describe the nutritional functions of vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals.
4. List the major types of nutrients and give its sources.
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MODULE 6
GAS EXCHANGE
1. identify the different types of respiration;
2. describe the following adaptations for gas exchange: body surface, tracheal tubes, gills,
and lungs;
3. trace the passage of oxygen through the human respiratory system from nostrils to
alveoli;
4. summarize the mechanics and the regulation of breathing in humans, and describe gas
exchange in the lungs and tissues;
5. summarize the mechanisms by which carbon dioxide is transported in the blood; and
6. describe several common disorders that mainly affect the upper respiratory tract as well
as that affect the lower respiratory tract.
Discussion
Most animal cells require a continuous supply of oxygen for cellular respiration. Some
cells, such as mammalian brain cells, maybe damaged beyond repair if their oxygen supply is cut
off for only a few minutes. The must get riff off the carbon dioxide from cells. The exchange of
gases between the organism and its environment is known as respiration. Organismic respiration,
oxygen from the environment is taken up by the animal and delivered to its individual cells. At
the same time, Carbon dioxide is excreted to the environment. In aerobic cellular respiration,
which takes place in the mitochondria, oxygen is necessary for the citric acid to proceed. Oxygen
serves as the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain. Carbon dioxide is a metabolic
waste product of the cellular respiration. Carbon dioxide must be released to prevent physiological
pH in tissues from being very acidic.
Small aquatic animals exchange gases by diffusion, requiring no specialized respiratory

structure. Some invertebrates, including most annelids, and a few vertebrates (many amphibians)
exchange gases across the body surface. In insects and other arthropods, air enters a network
of tracheal tubes, or tracheae, through openings called spiracles, along the body surface.
Tracheal tubes branch and extend to all regions of the body.
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Gills are moist, thin projections of the body surface found mainly in aquatic animals. In
chordates, gills are usually external, located along the edges of the gill slits. In bony fishes an
operculum, protects the gills; a countercurrent exchange system maximizes diffusion of oxygen
into the blood and diffusion of carbon dioxide out of blood.
Animals carry on the ventilation, the process of actively moving air or water over
respiratory surfaces. Terrestrial vertebrates have lungs and some means of ventilating them.
Most fishes do not have lungs but have a homologous swim bladder that permits the fish to control
its buoyancy. Amphibians and reptiles have lungs with only some ridges or folds that increase
the surface area.
In birds, the lungs have extensions, called air sacs, that act as bellows, drawing air into
the system. Two cycles of inhalation and exhalation support a one-way flow of air through the
lungs. Air flows from the outside into the posterior air sacs, to the lungs, through the anterior air
sacs, and then out of the body. Gas exchange takes place through the walls of the parabronchi
in the lungs. A crosscurrent arrangement in which blood flow is at right angles to the parabronchi,
increases the amount of oxygen that enters the blood.
Adaptations of animals for gas exchange include respiratory pigments that bind and
transport gases. The respiratory pigment of vertebrates is hemoglobin while that of invertebrates
(e.g. arthropods and mollusks) is hemocyanin. Blood cannot carry sufficient oxygen and carbon
dioxide in dissolved form to meet the body’s requirements; hemoglobin helps enhance its
capacity.
In plants however, the carbon dioxide that is released as a by-product of cellular

respiration may again be taken up for the process of photosynthesis. In plants structures for gas
exchange are: Stomates in leaves; Lenticels in stems; Root hairs in aerial roots; and,
Pneumatophores or the lateral roots of mangroves.
Air contains higher concentration of molecular oxygen than does water, and oxygen
diffuses more rapidly through air than through water air is less dense and less viscous than water,
so less energy is needed to move air over gas exchange surface. Terrestrial animals have
adaptations that protect their respiratory surfaces from drying.
Respiratory system brings oxygen from the air to the bloodstream and returns carbon
dioxide from the bloodstream to the air. It includes all of the structures that conduct air in a
continuous pathway to and from the lungs. As air moves through the nose, the pharynx, the
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trachea, and the bronchi to the lungs it is filtered so that it is free of debris, warmed, and
humidified. By the time the air reaches the lungs, it is at body temperature and saturated with
water. In the nose, hair and cilia act as a filtering device wherein the cilia in the trachea and
bronchi beat upward carrying mucus and dust back into the throat, where the accumulation may
be swallowed or expectorated.
Figure 6.1. The human respiratory tract. a. The respiratory tract extends from the nose to the lungs, which are
composed of air sacs called alveoli. b. The lining of the trachea is a ciliated epithelium with mucus-producing goblet
cells. The lining prevents inhaled particles from reaching the lungs: The mucus traps the particles, and the cilia help
move the mucus toward the throat, where it can be swallowed or expectorated. c. Gas exchange occurs between air in
the alveoli and blood within a capillary network that surrounds the alveoli.
The hard and soft palates separate the nasal cavities from the mouth, but the air and food
pass the pharynx (nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx). Air passes from the pharynx
through the glottis, which is an opening into the larynx, or voice box. At the edges of the glottis
are two folds of connective tissue covered by mucous membrane called the vocal cords.
The trachea or windpipe is the main passageway from the larynx to lungs. The wall of the
trachea is made up of C-shaped rings of cartilage which prevent it from collapsing during
inhalation. When food is being swallowed, the larynx rises, and the glottis is covered by a flap of
tissue called the epiglottis. A backward movement of the soft palate covers the entrance of the
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nasal passages into the pharynx. The trachea divides into two tubes called primary bronchi which
are supported by rings of cartilage. Inside the lungs the bronchi branch into smaller bronchioles
that end into air sacs or pockets called alveoli. Alveoli are arranged like grapes in a stem. Alveoli
in each lung provide a large surface area for gas exchange. Internal gas exchange occurs
between the air in the alveoli and the blood in the capillaries.
MECHANICS OF BREATHING
Terrestrial vertebrates ventilate their lungs by moving air into and out of the of the
respiratory tract. Amphibians use positive pressure to force air into the respiratory tract. With the
mouth and nostrils firmly shut, the floor of the mouth rises and pushes the air into the lungs.
Reptiles, birds, and mammals use negative pressure to move air into the lungs and positive
pressure to move it out. Inspiration (or inhalation) is the act of moving air into the lungs, and
expiration (or exhalation) is the act of moving air out of the lungs. Reptiles have jointed ribs that
can raised to expand the lungs, but mammals have the rib cage and a diaphragm. The diaphragm
is a horizontal muscle that divides the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. During
inspiration, the rib cage moves up and out, and the diaphragm contracts and moves down. As the
thoracic cavity (chest) expands and lung volume increases, air flows into the lungs due to
decreased air pressure in the thoracic cavity and lungs. Inspiration is the active phase in reptiles
and mammals.
Figure 6.2. The thoracic cavity during inspiration and expiration. a. During inspiration, the thoracic cavity and
lungs expand, so that air is drawn in. b. During expiration, the thoracic cavity and lungs resume their original
positions and pressures. Then, air is forced out.
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During expiration, the rib cage moves down, and the diaphragm relaxes and moves up to
its former position. There is no muscle contraction required, thus expiration is the passive phase
of breathing in reptiles and mammals. During expiration, air flows out as a result of increased
pressure in the thoracic cavity and lungs.
Modifications of Breathing in Humans

Normally, adults have a breathing rate of 12 to 20 ventilations per minute. The rhythm of
ventilation is controlled by a respiratory center in the medulla oblongata of the brain. The
respiratory center automatically sends out impulses by way of a spinal nerve to the diaphragm
(phrenic nerve) and intercostal nerves to the intercostal muscles of the rib cage. Now inspiration
occurs. Then, when the respiratory center stops sending neuronal signals to the diaphragm and
the rib cage, expiration occurs. Although the respiratory center automatically controls the rate and
depth of breathing, its activity can also be influenced by nervous input and chemical input.
Following forced inhalation, stretch receptors in the alveolar walls initiate inhibitory nerve impulses
that travel from the inflated lungs to the respiratory center. This stops the respiratory center from
sending out nerve impulses. The chemoreceptors in the carotid bodies, located in the carotid
arteries, and in the aortic bodies, located in the aorta, stimulate the respiratory center during
intense exercise due to a reduction in pH, or if arterial oxygen decreases to 50% of normal.
They also respond to an increase in hydrogen ions and to a very low oxygen level. Oxygen
and carbon dioxide are exchanged between alveoli and blood by diffusion. The pressure of a
particular gas determines its direction and rate of diffusion. Hemoglobin transports oxygen in the
blood; carbon dioxide is mainly transported in plasma as the bicarbonate ion. Excess hydrogen
ions are transported by hemoglobin. The enzyme carbonic anhydrase found in the red blood cells
speeds the formation of bicarbonate ion.
About 60% of the carbon dioxide in the blood is transported as bicarbonate ions. About
30% combines with hemoglobin, and another 10% is dissolved in the plasma. Carbon dioxide
combines with water to form carbonic acid; the reaction is catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase.
Carbonic acid dissociates, forming bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) and hydrogen ions (H+). Hemoglobin
combines with H+, buffering the blood. Many bicarbonate ions diffuse into the plasma and are
replaced by Cl- ions; this exchange is known as the chloride shift.
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RESPIRATION AND HUMAN HEALTH
The human respiratory tract is constantly exposed to environmental air, which may contain
infectious agents, allergens, tobacco smoke, or other toxins. This results in the respiratory tract
being susceptible to a number of diseases.
Disorders of the Upper Respiratory Tract
The upper respiratory tract consists of the nasal cavities, sinuses, pharynx, and larynx.
Because the upper part of the respiratory tract filters out many pathogens and other materials that
may be present in the air, it is commonly affected by a variety of infections, which may also spread
to the middle ear or the sinuses.
The Common Cold
Most “colds” are relatively mild viral infections of the upper respiratory tract characterized
by sneezing, rhinitis (runny nose), and perhaps a mild fever. Most colds last a few days, after
which the immune response is able to eliminate the inciting virus. However, since colds are
caused by several different viruses, and by several hundred strains of these viruses, we usually
have no immunity to the next strain that “goes around,” and vaccines are very difficult to develop.
As with all viral infections, antibiotics such as penicillin are useless in treating colds.
Strep Throat
Most cases of pharyngitis, or inflammation of the pharynx, are caused by viruses, but strep
throat is an acute pharyngitis caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pyogenes. Typical
symptoms include severe sore throat, high fever, and white patches in the tonsillar area.
Adults experience about half as many sore throats as do children, who average about five
upper respiratory infections per year and about one strep throat infection every 4 years. Many
untreated strep infections probably resolve on their own, but some can lead to more serious
conditions, such as scarlet fever or rheumatic fever. Fortunately, infection with S. pyogenes can
be easily and quickly diagnosed with specific laboratory tests, and it is usually curable with
antibiotics.
Disorders of the Lower Respiratory Tract: Disorders Affecting the Trachea and Bronchi
One of the most obvious and life-threatening disorders that can affect the trachea is
choking. The best way for a person without extensive medical training to help someone who is
choking is to perform the Heimlich maneuver, which involves grabbing the choking person around
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the waist from behind and forcefully pulling both hands into his or her upper abdomen to expel
whatever is lodged. If this fails, trained medical personnel may be able to quickly insert a breathing
tube through an incision made in the trachea. This procedure is called a tracheotomy, and the
opening is a tracheostomy. If infections of the upper respiratory tract spread into the lower
respiratory tract, acute bronchitis, or inflammation of the bronchi, often results.
Other causes of acute bronchitis include allergic reactions and damage from
environmental toxins, such as those present in cigarette smoke. Symptoms include fever, a cough
that produces phlegm or pus, and chest pain. Depending on the cause, acute bronchitis may be
treatable with antibiotics, or it may resolve with time or progress to more serious conditions. If
the inciting cause (such as smoking) persists, acute bronchitis can develop into chronic bronchitis,
in which the airways are inflamed and filled with mucus. Over time, the bronchi undergo
degenerative changes, including the loss of cilia and their normal cleansing action. Under these
conditions, infections are more likely to occur. Smoking and exposure to other airborne toxins are
the most frequent causes of chronic bronchitis. Along with emphysema, chronic bronchitis is a
major component of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
Asthma is a disease of the bronchi and bronchioles marked by coughing, wheezing, and
breathlessness. The airways are unusually sensitive to various irritants, which include allergens
such as pollen, animal dander, dust, and cigarette smoke. Even cold air or exercise can be an
irritant. An asthmatic attack results from inflammation in the airways and the contraction of
smooth muscle lining their walls, resulting in a narrowing of the diameter of the airways.
Asthma is not curable, but it is treatable. Drugs administered by inhalers can help prevent
the inflammation and dilate the bronchi. Pneumonia is a viral, bacterial, or fungal infection of the
lungs in which bronchi and alveoli fill with a discharge, such as pus and fluid. Along with coughing
and difficulty breathing, people suffering from pneumonia often have a high fever, sharp chest
pain, and a cough that produces thick phlegm or even pus.
Several bacteria can cause pneumonia, as can the influenza virus, especially in the very
young, the very old, and people with a suppressed immune system. AIDS patients are subject to
a particularly rare form of pneumonia caused by a fungus of the genus Pneumocystis, but they
suffer from many other types of pneumonias as well.
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Figure 6.3. Common bronchial and pulmonary diseases. Exposure to infectious pathogens and/or polluted
air, including tobacco smoke, causes the diseases.
Tuberculosis (TB)
Pulmonary tuberculosis is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The
incidence of TB is rising in certain areas of the world, especially where HIV infection (which
reduces immunity to M. tuberculosis) is common and treatments are not widely available.
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, approximately one-third of the
world’s population is infected with M. tuberculosis, and TB is the cause of death for as many as
half of all persons with AIDS. When tubercle bacilli invade the lung tissue, the cells build a
protective capsule around the organisms, isolating them from the rest of the body. This tiny
capsule is called a tubercle. f the resistance of the body is high, the imprisoned organisms die,
but if the resistance is low, the organisms can escape and spread. It is possible to tell if a person
has ever been exposed to M. tuberculosis with a TB skin test, in which a highly diluted extract of
the bacterium is injected into the skin of the patient. A person who has never been exposed to
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the bacterium shows no reaction, but one who has previously been infected develops an area of
inflammation that peaks in about 48 hours.
Emphysema is a chronic and incurable lung disorder in which the alveoli are distended
and their walls damaged, so that the surface area available for gas exchange is reduced.
Emphysema often contributes to COPD in smokers. Air trapped in the lungs leads to alveolar
damage and a noticeable ballooning of the chest. The elastic recoil of the lungs is reduced, so
not only are the airways narrowed but the driving force behind expiration is also reduced. The
patient is breathless and may have a cough. Because the surface area for gas exchange is
reduced, less oxygen reaches the heart and brain, leaving the person feeling depressed, sluggish,
and irritable. Exercise, drug therapy, and supplemental oxygen, along with giving up smoking,
may relieve the symptoms and slow the progression of emphysema and COPD. Inhaling particles
such as silica (sand), coal dust, or asbestos can lead to pulmonary fibrosis, a condition in which
fibrous connective tissue builds up in the lungs. The lungs cannot inflate properly and are always
tending toward deflation.
Breathing asbestos is also associated with the development of cancer, including a type
called mesothelioma. More people die from lung cancer each year than from cancer of the colon,
breast, and prostate combined. Lung cancer is more common in men than women, but rates in
women have increased in recent years due to an increasing number of women who smoke. Lung
cancer rates remain low until about age 40, when they gradually start to rise, peaking at around
age 70. Symptoms may include coughing, shortness of breath, blood in the sputum, and chest
pain. Many other symptoms can occur if the cancer spreads to other parts of the body, which is
common. Lung cancer may be treated with a combination of surgery, chemotherapy, and
radiation. Even with treatment, lung cancer is highly lethal—5-year survival rates range from 15%
in the United States to 8% in less developed countries.
Smoking is also associated with bronchitis, emphysema, heart disease, and other types
of cancer. Considering that the nicotine in cigarette smoke is addictive, it is better never to start
smoking than to try quitting later on. This advice applies to e-cigarettes.
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Figure 6.4. Smoking and lung disorders. Smoking causes 90% of all lung cancers and is a major cause of
emphysema. a. Normal lung. b. The lung of a person who died from emphysema, shrunken and blackened from
trapped smoke. c. The lung of a person who died from lung cancer, blackened from smoke except for the presence
of the tumor, which is a mass of malformed soft tissue.
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an example of a lung disease that is genetic rather than infectious,
although infections also play a role in the disease. One in 31 Americans carries the defective
gene, but a child must inherit two copies of the gene to have the disease. CF is the most common
genetic disease in the U.S. white population. The gene that is defective in CF codes for cystic
fibrosis transmembrane regulator (CFTR), a protein needed for proper transport of chloride (Cl –)
ions out of the epithelial cells of the lung. Because this also reduces the amount of water
transported out of lung cells, the mucus secretions become very sticky and can form plugs that
interfere with breathing. Symptoms of CF include coughing and shortness of breath; part of the
treatment involves clearing mucus from the airways by vigorously slapping the patient on the back
as well as by administering mucus-thinning drugs.
SELF CHECK:
1. Compare the respiratory organs of aquatic animals to those of the terrestrial animals.
2. Describe the following adaptations for gas exchange: body surface, tracheal tubes, gills,
and lungs.
3. Name the parts of the respiratory system and list a function for each part.
4. Summarize the mechanics and the regulation of breathing in humans, and describe gas
100
exchange in the lungs and tissues.
5. Summarize the mechanisms by which carbon dioxide is transported in the blood.
6. Cite some respiratory problems and impact on public health.
ASSESSMENT:
1. Which of these is incorrect concerning inspiration?

A. The rib cage moves up and out.
B. The diaphragm contracts and moves down.
C. As pressure in lungs decreases, air comes rushing in.
D. The lungs expand because air comes rushing in.
2. If the digestive and respiratory tracts were completely separate in humans, there would
be no need for
A. swallowing.
B. a nose.
C. an epiglottis.
D. a diaphragm.
3. It is difficult to develop immunity to the common cold because

A. antibodies don’t work against cold viruses.
B. bacteria that cause colds are resistant to antibiotics.
C. colds can be caused by hundreds of viral strains.
D. common cold viruses cause severe immunosuppression.
4. The first action that should be taken when someone is choking on food is to perform
A. a tracheostomy.
B. CPR.
C. the Heimlich maneuver.
D. X-rays to determine where the food is lodged.
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5. Asthma
A. mainly affects the upper respiratory tract.
B. is considered to be a genetic disorder.
C. None of these statements are true.
D. is usually caused by an infection
E. is usually curable.
6. Pulmonary tuberculosis is caused by a

A. bacterium. B. fungus. C. protist. D. virus.
7. In which chronic lung disease do the alveoli become distended and often fuse into
enlarged air spaces?
A. asthma B. cystic fibrosis C. emphysema D. pulmonary fibrosis
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MODULE 7
EXCRETORY SYSTEM
1. define osmoregulation and excretion and state the advantages and disadvantages of excreting
ammonia, uric acid, or urea;
2. describe the organs of the mammalian urinary system, and give the
functions of each;
3. describe on a diagram the structures of a nephron (including associated blood
vessels), and give the functions of each structure;
4. discuss the contributions of glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion to
the formation of urine; and
5. summarize the four major functions of human kidneys in maintaining homeostasis.
Discussion
An important part of maintaining homeostasis in animals involves osmoregulation, or
balancing the levels of water and salts in the body. Osmoregulatory system also removes
metabolic wastes from the body, a process called excretion. Osmoregulation is the active
regulation of osmotic pressure of body fluids to keep them from becoming too dilute or to
concentrated. Excretion is the process of removing metabolic wastes, excess water and ions, and
harmful substances. Excretory systems maintain homeostasis by selectively adjusting the
concentration of salts and other substances in blood and other body fluids. Extracellular fluid
includes the fluid outside the cells, such as interstitial fluid and blood. The excretory system
collects fluid from the blood and interstitial fluid. It then adjusts the composition of this fluid by
selectively returning needed substances to the body fluid and releases the adjusted excretory
product containing excess or potentially toxic substances.
Metabolic wastes must be excreted so that they do not accumulate and reach
concentrations that would disrupt homeostasis. The most common metabolic waste products are
water, carbon, dioxide and nitrogenous wastes.
Nitrogenous wastes include ammonia, uric acid, and urea. During the metabolism of amino
acids, the nitrogen-containing amino group is removed (in the process called deamination) and
converted to ammonia. The ammonia is highly toxic, that some aquatic animals excrete it to the
surrounding water before it can build up to toxic levels in their tissue. Some terrestrial animals
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vent it directly into the air; but most animals including humans, convert ammonia to a less toxic
nitrogenous waste such as uric acid or urea. Ammonia is quite toxic, but it can be a nitrogenous
excretory product if sufficient water is available to wash it from the body.
Uric acid is not very toxic and insoluble in water and forms crystals from ammonia and
from the breakdown of excess purine and pyrimidine nucleic acids from the diet. In some
individuals, uric acid builds up in the blood and can precipitate in and around the joints, producing
a painful ailment called gout. In reptiles and birds, a dilute solution of uric acid passes from
kidneys to the cloaca, a common reservoir for the products of the digestive, urinary, and
reproductive systems. The cloacal contents are refluxed into the large intestine, where water is
reabsorbed. The white substance in the bird’s feces is uric acid. Embryos of reptiles and birds
which are developed inside a shelled-eggs and the production of insoluble uric acid is
advantageous for shelled embryos because all nitrogenous wastes are stored inside the shell
until hatching takes place.
Urea is also less toxic and excretion requires water. The elimination allows body water to
be conserved, an important advantage for terrestrial animals with limited access to water.
Production of urea requires energy because it is produced in the liver by urea cycle.
Most marine invertebrates are osmoconformers—the salt concentration of their body fluids
varies with changes in the seawater. Some marine invertebrates, especially those inhabiting
coastal habitats, are osmoregulators that maintain an optimal salt concentration despite changes
in salinity of their surroundings. Nephridial organs, which include protonephridia and
metanephridia, function in osmoregulation and waste disposal. Protonephridia, found in flatworms
and nemerteans, are tubules with no internal openings. Interstitial fluid enters their blind ends,
which consist of flame cells, cells with brushes of cilia. Beating of the cilia propels fluid through
the tubules; excess fluid leaves through the nephridiopores. Most annelids and mollusks have
excretory tubules called metanephridia, which are open at both ends. As fluid from the coelom
moves through the tubule, needed materials are reabsorbed by capillaries. Urine containing
wastes, exits the body through the nephridiopores.
Malpighian tubules, extensions of the insect gut wall, have blind ends that lie in the
hemocoel. Cells of the tubule actively transport uric acid and some other substances from the
hemolymph into the tubule, and waters follows by diffusion. The contents of the tubule pass into
the gut, and water and some solutes are reabsorbed in the rectum. Malpighian tubules effectively
conserve water and have contributed to the success of insects as terrestrial animals.
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Figure 7.1. Excretory organs in animals. a. Two or more tracts of branching tubules run the length of the body and
open to the outside by pores. At the ends of side branches are small, bulblike cells called flame cells. b. The nephridium
has a ciliated opening, the nephridiostome, which leads to a coiled tubule surrounded by a capillary network. Urine can
be temporarily stored in the bladder before being released to the outside via a pore called a nephridiopore.
The Human Urinary System
The human kidneys are bean-shaped, reddish-brown organs and located on each side of
the vertebral column just below the diaphragm, in the lower back where they are partially protected
by the lower rib cage. The right kidney is slightly lower than the left kidney. The kidneys produce
urine, which passes through the ureters to the urinary bladder for storage. During urination, the
urine is released from the body through the urethra. In males, the urethra passes through the
penis and in females, the opening of the urethra is ventral to that of the vagina. No connection
exists between the genital (reproductive) and urinary systems in females, but in males, it carries
sperm during ejaculation.
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The kidney has three ©2016 Biology McGraw Hill
major parts:
• The renal cortex,
which is the outer
region of the kidney
• The renal medulla,
which consists of 8 to
10 cone-shaped
pyramids that lie in the
inner side of the renal
cortex.
• The renal pelvis, a
hollow chamber in the
innermost part of the
kidney, where urine is
collected and then
carried to the bladder
by a ureter.
Figure 7.2. The human urinary system. Urine is found only

in the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.
NEPHRONS
Nephron is the functional unit of the kidney that produces urine. These are tiny tubules,
over 1 million, located primarily in the in the renal cortex and some dip down into the renal medulla.
The nephron consists of a cluster of capillaries, called glomerulus, surrounded by a cup like
structure called the glomerular capsule (Bowman’s capsule) that opens into a long, coiled renal
tubule. The outer layer of the Bowman’s capsule is composed of squamous epithelial cells, and
the inner layer is composed of specialized cells that allow the passage of molecules.
The renal tubule consists of a proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, and distal
convoluted tubule. The loop of Henle has a descending limb and an ascending limb. This is
followed by the distal convoluted tubule, where several of these enter the collecting duct. The
collecting duct transports urine down through the renal medulla and deliver it to the renal pelvis.
Each nephron has its own blood supply. The renal artery supplies the kidney with blood,
and it branches into numerous small arteries which branch into arterioles. Each arteriole, called
an afferent arteriole, divides to form a capillary bed the glomerulus, which is surrounded by a
glomerular capsule. The glomerulus drains into an efferent arteriole, which subsequently
branches into a second capillary bed around the tubular parts of the nephron, called the
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peritubular capillaries. These peritubular capillaries lead to venules that join to form veins leading
to the renal vein, a vessel that enter the inferior vena cava.
Figure 7.3. Macroscopic and microscopic anatomy of the kidney. a. Longitudinal section of a kidney, showing
the location of the renal cortex, the renal medulla, and the renal pelvis. b. An enlargement of one renal lobe,
showing the placement of nephrons.
Urine formation
An average human produces between 1-2 liters of urine daily. The fundamental process of
urine formation involves initially filtering a large amount of water and a collection of solutes out of
the blood, then reabsorbing much of the water, along with other material the body needs to
conserve. Urine production requires three distinct processes, wherein the entire tubule portion of
the nephron participates in the last two steps in urine formation:
• Glomerular filtration at the glomerular capsule;

• Tubular reabsorption at the convoluted tubules;
• Tubular secretion at the convoluted tubules.
Glomerular Filtration is the movement of small molecules across a glomerular wall into the
glomerular capsule as a result of blood pressure. When the blood enters the glomerulus, blood
pressure is sufficient to cause small molecules, such as water, nutrients, salts, and wastes, to
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move from the glomerulus to the inside of the glomerular capsule. The molecules that leave the
blood and enter the glomerular capsule are called the glomerular filtrate. Plasma proteins and
blood cells are too large to pass the capsule, so they remain in the blood as it flows to the efferent
arteriole.
Tubular reabsorption takes place when substances move across the walls of the tubules into
the associated peritubular capillary network. Tubular reabsorption makes most of the filtered
water to be returned to the blood. Here, osmosis comes into play. Wherein there is diffusion of
water from the filtrate. Sodium ions (Na+) are actively pumped into the peritubular capillary, and
the Chloride ions (Cl-) follow passively. Then water moves passively from the tubule into the
blood. About 60%-70% of salt and water are reabsorbed at the proximal convoluted tubule.
Glucose and amino acids also return to the blood at proximal convoluted tubule because of the
carrier proteins. Glucose is an example of a molecule that ordinarily is reabsorbed completely
because the supply of carrier molecules for it is plentiful. If the filtrate contains more glucose than
there is carrier to handle it, glucose exceed its renal threshold. When this happens, the excess
glucose appears in the urine. The presence of glucose in the filtrate results in less water being
absorbed; the increased thirst and frequent urination in untreated diabetics are a result of less
water being reabsorbed into the peritubular capillary network. Urea is also an example of a
substance that is passively reabsorbed from the filtrate; but after the water is reabsorbed, the
urea is greater than that of the peritubular plasma, thus the filtered urea is reabsorbed.
Tubular secretion is the second way substances are removed from blood and added to tubular
fluid. Certain molecules are actively secreted from the peritubular capillary network into the
convoluted tubules. Substances such as uric acid, hydrogen ions, ammonia, creatinine,
histamine, and penicillin are eliminated by tubular secretion. This is helping to rid the body of
harmful compounds that were not filtered into the glomerulus
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Figure 7.4. Nephron
anatomy. a. You can
trace the path of blood
about a nephron by
following the arrows.
A nephron is made up of
a glomerular capsule,
the proximal convoluted
tubule, the loop of the
nephron, the distal
convoluted tubule, and
the collecting duct.
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McGraw Hill
Figure 7.5. Processes in urine formation. The three main processes in urine formation are described in boxes and
color coded to arrows that show the movement of molecules into or out of the nephron at specific locations. In the end,
urine is composed of the substances within the collecting duct (blue arrow). The peritubular capillary adjoins the cells.
The Kidneys and Homeostasis
The kidneys are organs of homeostasis for four main reasons:

1. The kidneys excrete metabolic wastes such as urea, which is the primary nitrogenous waste
of humans.
2. They maintain the water-salt balance, which in turn affects blood volume and blood pressure.
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3. Kidneys maintain the acid-base balance or pH balance.
4. They secrete hormones.
Salt (Na+Cl-) diffuses and actively transported out of the ascending limb of the loop of the
nephron into the renal medulla; urea also leaks from the collecting duct and enters the tissues of
the renal medulla. These actions create a hypertonic environment, which draws water out of the
descending limb and the collecting duct. This water is returned to the cardiovascular system.
Three hormones are involved in maintaining the water-salt balance of the blood.
ADH (Antidiuretic hormone) which makes the collecting duct more permeable to water, is
secreted by the posterior pituitary in response to an increase osmotic pressure of the blood
(caused by dehydration). ADH permits the permeability of the collecting ducts to water. As a
result, more water is reabsorbed and only small volume of urine is produced.
Aldosterone is secreted by the adrenal cortex after low blood pressure has caused the
kidneys to release renin. The presence of renin leads to the formation of angiotensin II which
causes the adrenal cortex to release aldosterone. Aldosterone causes the kidneys to retain Na+;
therefore, water is reabsorbed and blood pressure rises. When blood pressure increases, atrial
natriuretic hormone, increases sodium excretion by preventing the secretion of renin and
aldosterone. These actions increase urine output and lower blood pressure.
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is released by the posterior lobe of the pituitary in response
to an increased concentration of salts in the blood. To understand the action of this hormone,
consider its name. Diuresis means increased amount of urine, and antidiuresis means decreased
amount of urine. When ADH is present, more water is reabsorbed (blood volume and pressure
rise), and a decreased amount of more concentrated urine is produced. One way by which ADH
accomplishes this change is by causing the insertion of additional aquaporin water channels into
the epithelial cells of the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct, allowing more water to be
reabsorbed. In practical terms, if an individual does not drink much water on a certain day, the
posterior lobe of the pituitary releases ADH, causing more water to be reabsorbed and less urine
to form. On the other hand, if an individual drinks a large amount of water and does not perspire
much, ADH is not released. More water is excreted, and more urine forms. Diuretics, such as
caffeine and alcohol, increase the flow of urine by interfering with the action of ADH. ADH
production also decreases at night, an adaptation that allows longer periods of sleep without the
need to wake up to urinate.
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Hormones Control the Reabsorption of Salt
Usually, more than 99% of the Na+ filtered at the glomerulus is returned to the blood. Most
sodium (67%) is reabsorbed at the proximal convoluted tubule, and a sizable amount (25%) is
extruded by the ascending limb of the loop of the nephron. The rest is reabsorbed from the distal
convoluted tubule and collecting duct. Blood volume and pressure are, in part, regulated by salt
reabsorption. When blood volume, and therefore blood pressure, is not sufficient to promote
glomerular filtration, a cluster of cells near the glomerulus called the juxtaglomerular apparatus
secretes renin. Renin is an enzyme that changes angiotensinogen (a large plasma protein
produced by the liver) into angiotensin I. Later, angiotensin I is converted to angiotensin II, a
powerful vasoconstrictor that also stimulates the adrenal glands, which lie on top of the kidneys,
to release aldosterone. Aldosterone is a hormone that promotes the excretion of potassium ions
(K+) and the reabsorption of sodium ions (Na +) at the distal convoluted tubule. The reabsorption
of sodium ions is followed by the reabsorption of water. Therefore, blood volume and blood
pressure increase.
2016 Biology McGraw Hill
Figure 7.6. The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. The liver secretes angiotensinogen into the bloodstream.
Renin from the kidneys initiates the chain of events that results in angiotensin II. Angiotensin II acts on the adrenal
cortex to secrete aldosterone, which causes reabsorption of sodium ions by the kidneys and a subsequent rise in blood
pressure.
Atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH) is a hormone secreted by the atria of the heart when
cardiac cells are stretched due to increased blood volume. ANH inhibits the secretion of renin by
the juxtaglomerular apparatus and the secretion of aldosterone by the adrenal cortex. Its effect,
therefore, is to promote the excretion of Na +—that is, natriuresis. When Na+ is excreted, so is
water, and therefore blood volume and blood pressure decrease. These examples show that the
kidneys regulate the water balance in blood by controlling the excretion and reabsorption of ions.
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Sodium is an important ion in plasma that must be regulated, but the kidneys also excrete or
reabsorb other ions, such as potassium ions (K +), bicarbonate ions (HCO3 –), and magnesium ions
(Mg2+), as needed.
The kidneys also keep blood pH within normal limits. They reabsorb HCO 3- and excrete
H+ as needed to maintain the pH about 7.4.
SELF CHECK:
1. Describe (or label on a diagram) the organs of the mammalian urinary system, and give
the functions of each.
2. Trace the anatomical path taken by urine from the glomeruli to its exit from the body.
3. Describe the macroscopic anatomy of the human kidney, and relate it to the placement of
the nephrons.
4. List the parts of the nephron, and give a function for each.
5. Describe how urine is made outlining what happens at each part of the nephron.
6. Name and describe the action of antidiuretic hormone (ADH), the renin-aldosterone
connection, and the atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH).
ASSESSMENT:
1. In the path of blood through the human kidney, the blood vessel that follows the renal
artery is the
A. peritubular capillary
B. efferent arteriole.
C. afferent arteriole.
D. renal vein.
2. Which of these materials is not filtered from the blood at the glomerulus?
A. water B. urea C. protein D. glucose
3. Excretion of a hypertonic urine in humans is associated best with
A. the glomerular capsule.
B. the proximal convoluted tubule.
C. the loop of the nephron.
D. the collecting duct.
E. Both c and d are correct.
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4. Which of these causes blood pressure to decrease?
A. aldosterone
B. antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
C. renin
D. atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH)
Label this diagram of a nephron:
Put your answer in their corresponding box:

a. h.
b. i.
c. j.
d. k.
e. l.
f. m.
g.
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MODULE 8.1
TRANSPORT AND CIRCULATION (CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM)
Overview
All animal cells require a steady supply of oxygen and nutrients, hormones, and their waste
products must be removed. It is facilitated by the circulatory system which moves fluid between
various parts of the body.
1. compare and contrast the open circulatory system and closed circulatory system of animals;
2. describe the structure and function of the human heart; and
3. trace the course of blood through the pulmonary and systemic circulations, naming in
sequence each structure through which it passes.
Discussion
Some aquatic animals do not have circulatory system. Small, simple invertebrates, such
as sponges, cnidarians (hydras and sea anemones) and flatworms depend on diffusion for
internal transport. The gastrovascular cavity makes digested materials available to the cells that
line the cavity. These cells can also acquire oxygen from the watery contents of the cavity and
discharge their wastes there. Larger animals require a specialized circulatory system, which
typically consists of blood, a heart, and a system of blood vessels or spaces through which blood
circulates. In all animals, interstitial fluid, the tissue between cells, brings oxygen and nutrients
into contact with cells.
There are two types of circulatory fluids: blood, which is always contained in the blood
vessels, and hemolymph, a mixture of blood and tissue fluid, which fills the body cavity and
surrounds the internal organs. Hemolymph is seen in animals with open circulatory system that
consists of blood vessels plus open spaces. Arthropods (grasshopper) and most mollusks have
an open circulatory system in which blood flows into a hemocoel, bathing the tissues directly.
Some invertebrates (annelids- Earthworm) have a closed circulatory system in which blood flows
through a continuous circuit of blood vessels and the blood does not leave the vessels. The blood
vessels are joined by five pairs of anterior hearts that pumps blood and the lateral vessels
distribute blood to the rest of the worm.
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The vertebrate circulatory system consists of a muscular heart that pumps blood into a
system of arteries, capillaries, and veins. This system transports nutrients, oxygen, wastes, and
hormones; helps maintain fluid balance, appropriate pH, and body temperature; and defends the
body against infection and diseases. The arteries carry blood away from the heart; veins return
blood back to the heart. Arterioles constrict (vasoconstriction) and dilate (vasodilation) to regulate
blood pressure and distribution of blood to the tissues. Capillaries are thin-walled exchange
vessels through which blood and tissues exchange materials. Venules and veins collect blood
from the capillary beds and take it to the heart. Valves within the veins open toward the heart,
preventing backflow of blood when they close.
Plant transport involves: (A) absorption of water through the roots and (B) up and down
movement of substances in phloem. Absorption of water plus macronutrients and micronutrients
through the root system is possible by diffusion. Root hairs increase the surface area for transport.
Water molecules pass through the epidermis, cortex, endodermis and pericycle; then they move
upwards by means of xylem vessels. Phloem cells transport substances such as products of
photosynthesis, water and other compounds up and down the plant body. Phloem tissues are
adjacent to companion cells that give them support and nourishment. There are two major
hypotheses on how substances can move up and down the plant body. These are (i) Ascent of
xylem sap and (ii) Pressure flow or bulk flow.
Ascent of xylem sap is explained as a “push” from below by the water molecules gushing
upwards through xylem vessels. It can also be described as “pull” from above by a combination
of transpiration (evaporation of water from the plant body) and cohesion of water molecules
through hydrogen bonds.
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Figure 8.1.1. Cohesion-tension model of
xylem transport. Tension created by
evaporation (transpiration) at the leaves pulls
water along the length of the xylem—from the
roots to the leaves.
Pressure flow or bulk flow maintains that in the plant there is a source cell and a sink cell.
A “source” cell is where photosynthesis occurs and a “sink” cell is where the nutrients are needed.
Leaf cells are definitely source cells. Sucrose and other substances accumulate in the source and
due to high concentration they flow down (or up) where they are needed. Sink cells are growing
parts of the plants- buds, flowers, fruits, root tips. In this way, phloem tissues carry materials down
and up. Xylem lies adjacent to phloem tissues and water may easily diffuse from xylem to phloem.
Materials are transported up and down the plant body by a combination of the actions of phloem
and xylem cells.
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Figure 8.1.2. Organization of conducting cells in xylem and phloem. The specialized cells making up xylem and
phloem form a series of interconnected and parallel cells that form a pathway for the movement of water and
carbohydrates in a plant. Xylem cells (a) move water from the bottom to the top. Phloem cells (b) can move sucrose
and other materials in any direction.
Vascular plants have a transport tissue, called xylem, that moves water and minerals from
the roots to the leaves. Xylem, with its strong-walled, nonliving cells, gives trees much-needed
internal support. Xylem contains two types of conducting cells: tracheids and vessel elements
• Tracheids are tapered at both ends. The ends overlap with those of adjacent tracheids,
and pits allow water to pass from one tracheid to the next.
• Vessel elements are long and tubular with perforation plates at each end. Vessel
elements placed end to end form a completely hollow pipeline from the roots to the leaves. The
process of photosynthesis results in sugars, which are used as a source of energy and building
blocks for other organic molecules throughout a plant. Phloem is the type of vascular tissue that
transports organic nutrients to all parts of the plant. Roots buried in the soil cannot carry on
photosynthesis, but they require a source of energy, so that they can carry on cellular metabolism.
In flowering plants, phloem consists of two types of cells: sieve-tube members and companion
cells.
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• Sieve-tube members are the conducting cells of phloem. The end walls are called sieve plates
and have numerous pores; strands of cytoplasm extend from one sieve-tube member to another
through the pores. Sieve-tube members lack nuclei.
•Companion cells, which do have nuclei, provide proteins to sieve-tube members. In this way,
sieve-tube members form a continuous sieve tube for organic nutrient transport throughout the
plant.
Invertebrates with a Circulatory System
Most invertebrates have a circulatory system that transports oxygen and nutrients, such
as glucose and amino acids, to their cells. There it picks up wastes, which are later excreted from
the body by the lungs or kidneys. There are two types of circulatory fluids: blood, which is always
contained within blood vessels, and hemolymph, a mixture of blood and interstitial fluid, which fills
the body cavity and surrounds the internal organs.
Open Circulatory Systems
Hemolymph is seen in animals that have an open circulatory system that consists of blood
vessels plus open spaces. Open circulatory systems were likely the first to evolve, as they are
present in simpler and evolutionarily older animals. For example, in most mollusks and
arthropods, the heart pumps hemolymph via vessels into tissue spaces that are sometimes
enlarged into saclike sinuses. Eventually, hemolymph drains back to the heart. In the
grasshopper, an arthropod, the dorsal tubular heart pumps hemolymph into a dorsal aorta, which
empties into the hemocoel. When the heart contracts, openings called ostia (sing., ostium) are
closed; when the heart relaxes, the hemolymph is sucked back into the heart by way of the ostia.
The hemolymph of a grasshopper is colorless, because it does not contain hemoglobin or
any other respiratory pigment. It carries nutrients but no oxygen. Oxygen is taken to cells, and
carbon dioxide is removed from them, by way of air tubes called tracheae, which are found
throughout the body. The tracheae provide efficient transport and delivery of respiratory gases
while restricting water loss.
Closed Circulatory Systems
Blood is seen in animals that have a closed circulatory system, in which blood does not
leave the vessels. For example, in annelids, such as earthworms, and in some mollusks, such as
squid and octopuses, blood consisting of cells and plasma (a liquid) is pumped by the heart into
a system of blood vessels. Valves prevent the backward flow of blood. In the segmented
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earthworm, five pairs of anterior hearts (aortic arches) pump blood into the ventral blood vessel
(an artery), which has a branch, called a lateral vessel, in every segment of the worm’s body.
Blood moves through these branches into capillaries, the thinnest of the blood vessels, where
exchanges with interstitial fluid take place. Both gas exchange and nutrient-for-waste exchange
occur across the capillary walls. Most cells in the body of an animal with a closed circulatory
system are not far from a capillary. In an earthworm, after leaving a capillary, blood moves from
small veins into the dorsal blood vessel (a vein). This dorsal blood vessel returns blood to the
heart for repumping. The earthworm has red blood that contains the respiratory pigment
hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is dissolved in the blood and is not contained within blood cells. The
earthworm has no specialized organ, such as lungs, for gas exchange with the external
environment. Gas exchange takes place across the body wall, which must always remain moist
for this purpose.
Figure 8.1.3. Open versus closed circulatory systems. a. Top: The grasshopper, an arthropod, has an open circulatory
system. Bottom: A hemocoel is a body cavity filled with hemolymph, which freely bathes the internal organs. The heart,
a pump, sends hemolymph out through vessels and collects it through ostia (openings). This open system probably
could not supply oxygen to wing muscles rapidly enough. These muscles receive oxygen directly from tracheae (air
tubes). b. Top: The earthworm, an annelid, has a closed circulatory system. The dorsal and ventral blood vessels are
joined by five pairs of anterior hearts, which pump blood. Bottom: The lateral vessels distribute blood to the rest of the
worm.
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All vertebrate animals have a closed circulatory system, which is called a cardiovascular
system. It consists of a strong, muscular heart in which the atria (sing., atrium) receive blood and
the muscular ventricles pump blood through the blood vessels. There are three kinds of blood
vessels: arteries, which carry blood away from the heart; capillaries, which exchange materials
with interstitial fluid (the fluid between the body’s cells); and veins, which return blood to the heart
(Fig. 8.1.4).
An artery or a vein has three distinct layers (Fig.8.1.4 a, c). The outer layer consists of
fibrous connective tissue, which is rich in elastic and collagen fibers. The middle layer is
composed of smooth muscle and elastic tissue. The innermost layer, called the endothelium, is
similar to squamous epithelium. Arteries have thick walls, and those attached to the heart are
resilient, meaning that they are able to expand and accommodate the sudden increase in blood
volume that results after each heartbeat. Arterioles are small arteries whose diameter can be
regulated by the nervous and endocrine systems. Arteriole constriction and dilation affect blood
pressure in general. The greater the number of vessels dilated, the lower the blood pressure.
Arterioles branch into capillaries, which are extremely narrow, microscopic tubes with a wall
composed of only one layer of cells. Capillary beds, which consist of many interconnected
capillaries (Fig. 8.1.5), are so prevalent that in humans almost all cells are within 60–80 µm of a
capillary. But only about 5% of the capillary beds are open at the same time. After an animal has
eaten, precapillary sphincters relax, and the capillary beds in the digestive tract are usually open.
During muscular exercise, the capillary beds of the muscles are open. Capillaries, which are
usually so narrow that red blood cells pass through in single file, allow exchange of nutrient and
waste molecules across their thin walls. Venules and veins collect blood from the capillary beds
and take it to the heart. First, the venules drain the blood from the capillaries, and then they join
to form a vein. The wall of a vein is much thinner than that of an artery, and this may be associated
with a lower blood pressure in the veins. Valves within the veins point, or open, toward the heart,
preventing a backflow of blood when they close ( Fig. 8.1.4).
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Figure 8.1.4. Transport in vertebrates. a. Arteries Figure 8.1.5. Anatomy of a capillary bed. When a
have well developed walls with a thick middle layer of capillary bed is open, sphincter muscles are relaxed
elastic tissue and smooth muscle. b. Capillary walls are and blood flows through the capillaries. When
only one cell thick. c. Veins have flabby walls, precapillary sphincter muscles are contracted, the bed
particularly because the middle layer is not as thick as is closed and blood flows through an arteriovenous
in arteries. Veins have valves, which ensure one-way shunt that carries blood directly from an arteriole to a
flow of blood back to the heart. venule.
The Human Heart
The vertebrate heart consists of one or two atria which receive blood and one or two
ventricles, which pump blood into the arteries. The heart is enclosed by a pericardium and the
major portion of the heart made up of cardiac muscle tissue. And the inner surface of the heart
is the endothelium which is continuous with the endothelial lining of the blood vessels. The wall
that separates the heart into a right side and a left side is called the septum. The heart has 4
chambers- 2 thin walled atria with protruding appendages called auricles; and two lower, thick
walled ventricles, which pump the blood away from the heart.
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Figure 8.1.6. External
heart anatomy.
The venae cavae and
the pulmonary trunk are
attached to the right
side of the heart. The
aorta and the
pulmonary veins are
attached to the left side
of the heart. Blood
vessels are colored red
if they carry oxygen-rich
blood and blue if they
carry oxygen-poor
blood.
Figure 8.1.7. Internal view of

the heart.
a. The heart has four
chambers; the two chambers
on the right are separated from
the two chambers on the left by
a septum. When the
atrioventricular valves open,
blood passes from the atria to
the ventricles, and when the
semilunar valves open, blood
passes out of the heart.
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It has 4 valves that prevent the backflow of blood. The two valves that lie between the
atria and ventricles are called atrioventricular (AV) valves. These valves are supported by strong
fibrous strings called chordae tendinae. The chordae support the valves and prevent them from
inverting when the heart contracts.
The right atrioventricular valve on the right side is the tricuspid valve because it has three
flaps or cusps. The valve on the left side is called the bicuspid (or the mitral) valve because it has
two flaps. Semilunar valves guard the exits from the heart. The Pulmonary semilunar valve lies
between the right ventricle and pulmonary trunk. The aortic semilunar valve lies between the left
ventricle and the aorta.
The sinoatrial (SA) node, or pacemaker, initiates each heartbeat. A specialized electrical
conduction system coordinates heartbeat. The rhythmic contraction of the atria and ventricles is
due to the internal (intrinsic) conduction system of the heart. Nodal tissue, which has both
muscular and nervous characteristics, is a unique type of cardiac muscle located in two regions
of the heart. The SA (sinoatrial) node is found in the upper dorsal wall of the right atrium; the AV
(atrioventricular) node is found in the base of the right atrium very near the septum (Fig. 8.1.8).
The SA node initiates the heartbeat about every 0.85 second by automatically sending out an
excitation impulse, which causes the atria to contract. Therefore, the SA node is called the
pacemaker, because it usually keeps the heartbeat regular. When the impulse reaches the AV
node, the AV node signals the ventricles to contract by way of large fibers terminating in the more
numerous and smaller Purkinje fibers.
Figure 8.1.8. Conduction system

of the heart. The SA node sends
out a stimulus (black arrows),
which causes the atria to contract.
When this stimulus reaches the
AV node, it signals the ventricles
to contract. Impulses pass down
the two branches of the
atrioventricular bundle to the
Purkinje fibers, and thereafter the
ventricles contract.
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Path of Blood through the heart:
- The superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava, which carry oxygen poor blood that is
relatively high in Carbon dioxide, empty into the right atrium.
- The right atrium sends blood through the atrioventricular valve (Tricuspid valve) to the right
ventricle.
- The right ventricle sends blood through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary trunk
and the two pulmonary arteries to the lungs.
- Four pulmonary veins, which carry oxygen-rich blood, empty into the left atrium.
- The left atrium sends blood through an atrioventricular valve (bicuspid or mitral valve) to the
left ventricle.
- The left ventricle sends blood through the aortic semilunar valve into the aorta and to the rest
of the body.
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Figure 8.1.9. Path of blood. When tracing blood from the right to the left side of the heart in the pulmonary circuit,
you must mention the pulmonary vessels. When tracing blood from the digestive tract to the right atrium in the systemic
circuit, you must mention the hepatic portal vein, the hepatic vein, and the inferior vena cava. The blue-colored vessels
carry oxygen-poor blood, and the red-colored vessels carry oxygen-rich blood; the arrows indicate the flow of blood.
Tracing the Path of Blood.
Branches from the aorta go to the organs and major body regions. For example, this is
the path of blood to and from the lower legs: left ventricle—aorta—common iliac artery—femoral
artery— lower leg capillaries—femoral vein—common iliac vein— inferior vena cava—right
atrium.
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The Circulatory Circuits: Pulmonary Circuit and Systemic Circuit
The Pulmonary circuit connects the heart and lungs and the systemic circuit connects the
heart and tissues. In the pulmonary circulation, the right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary
arteries, one going to each lung. Blood circulates through pulmonary capillaries in the lungs and
then is conducted to the left atrium by the pulmonary vein
The path of blood can be traced as follows: Oxygen-poor blood from all regions of the
body collects in the right atrium and then passes into the right ventricle, which pumps it into the
pulmonary trunk. The pulmonary trunk divides into the right and left pulmonary arteries, which
carry blood to the lungs. As blood passes through pulmonary capillaries, carbon dioxide is given
off and oxygen is picked up. Oxygen rich blood returns to the left atrium of the heart, through
pulmonary venules that join to form pulmonary veins.
. In the systemic circulation, the left ventricle pumps blood into the aorta, which branches
into arteries leading to the body organs. After flowing through capillary networks within various
organs, blood flows into veins that conduct it to the superior vena cava or inferior vena cava which
returns blood to the right atrium.
The aorta and the venae cavae (sing., vena cava) are the major blood vessels in the
systemic circuit. To trace the path of blood to any organ in the body, start with the left ventricle,
then to the aorta, the proper branch of the aorta, the organ, and the vein returning blood to the
vena cava, which enters the right atrium. In the systemic circuit, arteries contain oxygen-rich blood
and have a bright red color, but veins contain oxygen-poor blood and appear dull red or, when
viewed through the skin, blue. The coronary arteries are extremely important because they supply
oxygen and nutrients to the heart muscle itself. The coronary arteries supply the heart muscle
with blood.
The coronary arteries arise from the aorta just above the aortic semilunar valve. They lie
on the exterior surface of the heart, where they branch into arterioles and then capillaries. In the
capillary beds, nutrients, wastes, and gases are exchanged between the blood and the tissues.
The capillary beds enter venules, which join to form the cardiac veins, and these empty into the
right atrium.
A portal system is a structure in which blood from capillaries travels through veins to reach
another set of capillaries, without first traveling through the heart. The hepatic portal system
circulates nutrient-rich blood through the liver. The hepatic portal system takes blood from the
intestines directly to the liver. The liver then performs such functions as metabolizing nutrients
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and removing toxins. Blood leaves the liver by way of the hepatic vein, which enters the inferior
vena cava.
The Heartbeat
The heartbeat in humans begins when the sinoatrial (SA) node or pacemaker causes the
two atria to contract, and blood moves through the atrioventricular valves to the ventricles. The
SA node also stimulates the AV node, which in turn causes the two ventricles to contract.
Ventricular contraction sends blood through the semilunar valves to the pulmonary trunk and the
aorta. Heart muscle will contract without any nervous stimulation, input from the brain can
increase or decrease the rate and strength of heart contractions. The hormones epinephrine and
norepinephrine, secreted into the blood by the adrenal glands, also stimulate the heart. The
average human heart contracts, or beats, about 70 times a minute. The term systole refers to the
contraction of the heart chambers, and diastole, refers to the relaxation of these chambers. The
volume of the heart that the left ventricle pumps per minute into the systemic circuit is called the
cardiac output. The normal cardiac output is about 5.25 liters per minute. When the heart beats,
the familiar lub-dub sound is heard as the valves of the heart close. The longer and lower-pitched
lub (first heart sound) is caused by the vibrations of the heart when the atrioventricular valves
close due to ventricular contraction. The shorter and sharper dub (second heart sound) is heard
when the semilunar valves close due to back pressure of blood in the arteries.
A heart murmur, a slight slush sound after the lub, is often due to ineffective valves, which
allows the blood to pass back into the atria after the AV valves have closed. The pulse is a wave
effect that passes down the walls of the arterial blood vessels when the aorta expands and then
recoils following ventricular systole. Because there is one arterial pulse per ventricular systole,
the arterial pulse rate can be used to determine the heart rate. An electrocardiogram is a
recording of the electrical changes that occur in the myocardium during a cardiac cycle.
Blood Pressure
Blood Pressure is created by the pumping of the heart accounts for the flow of blood in
the arteries. When the left ventricle contracts, blood is forced into the aorta and then other
systemic arteries under pressure. Systolic pressure results from the blood being forced into the
arteries during ventricular systole, and diastolic pressure is the pressure in the arteries during
ventricular diastole. Human blood pressure can be measured with a sphygmomanometer, which
has a cuff that determines the amount of pressure require to stop the flow of blood through an
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artery. Blood pressure is given in millimeter of mercury (mmHg). A blood pressure reading
consists of two numbers- for example, 120/80—that represent systolic and diastolic pressures,
respectively. Skeletal muscles near veins put pressure on the collapsible walls of the veins, and
therefore on the blood contained in these vessels when they contract.
Valves in the veins prevent the backward flow of blood, and therefore pressure from
muscle contraction moves blood toward the heart. Varicose vein is an abnormal dilation in
superficial veins that develop when the valves of the veins become weak and ineffective due to
a backward pressure of the blood.
Cardiovascular Disease
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death in most Western countries.
According to the American Heart Association, CVD has been the most common cause of death
in the United States every year since 1900. Hypertension It is estimated that about 30% of
Americans suffer from hypertension, which is high blood pressure. Another 30% are thought to
have a condition called prehypertension, which can lead to hypertension. Under age 45, a reading
above 130/90 is hypertensive, and beyond age 45, a reading above 140/95 is hypertensive.
Hypertension is most often caused by a narrowing of arteries due to atherosclerosis
Hypertension- high blood pressure. Under the age 45, a reading of 130/90 is hypertensive,
and beyond age 45, a reading of 145/95 is hypertensive. It is caused by narrowing of the arteries
due to atherosclerosis. This narrowing causes the heart to work harder to supply the required
amount of blood. The resulting increase in blood pressure can damage the heart, arteries, and
other organs. Atherosclerosis is an accumulation of soft masses of fatty materials, particularly
cholesterol beneath the inner linings of the arteries. Such deposits are called plaque. Plaque
protrude into the lumen of the blood vessel, interfering with the blood flow. plaque can also cause
a clot to form on the arterial wall. As long as the clot remains stationary, it is called a thrombus,
but when it dislodges and moves along with the blood, it is called embolus. Strokes and heart
attacks are associated with hypertension and atherosclerosis.
A stroke is a disruption of blood supply to the brain, often results when a cranial arteriole
bursts or is blocked by an embolus. A lack of oxygen causes the brain to die, and paralysis or
death can result. If the coronary artery becomes partially blocked, the individual may suffer from
angina pectoris, characterized as a squeezing sensation or a flash of burning. If the coronary
artery is completely blocked, a portion of the heart muscle dies due to lack of oxygen. This is
myocardial infarction or heart attack. It may be necessary to place a stent, or self-expanding wire
mesh tube, inside a blocked artery to keep it open. If this approach is unsuccessful, a coronary
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bypass may be required, in which a surgeon replaces one or more blocked coronary arteries with
an artery taken from elsewhere in the patient’s body.
Risk factors that contribute to hypertension include obesity, smoking, chronic stress, and
a high dietary salt intake (which causes retention of fluid).
SELF CHECK:
1. Trace the Path of blood in humans from the right ventricle to the left atrium; from
the left ventricle to the kidneys and to the right atrium; from the left ventricle to
the Small intestine and to the right atrium.
2. Define these terms pulmonary circuit, systemic circuit, and portal system.
3. Explain what specifically causes the sounds of a heartbeat.
4. What type of conditions might occur as a result of chronic hypertension and
plaque?
ASSESSMENT:
1. In humans, blood returning to the heart from the lungs returns to
A. the right ventricle.

B. the left atrium.
C. the right atrium.
D. both the right and left sides
E. the left ventricle. of the heart.
2. All arteries in the body contain oxygen-rich blood, with the exception of the
A. aorta.
B. renal arteries.
C. pulmonary arteries.
D. coronary arteries.
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3. Systole refers to the contraction of the
A. major arteries.
B. major veins.
C. SA node.
D. atria and ventricles.
4. Which of these is an incorrect statement concerning the heartbeat?
A. The atria contract at the same time.

B. The ventricles relax at the same time.
C. The atrioventricular valves open at the same time.
D. The semilunar valves open at the same time.
E. First the right side contracts, and then the left side contracts.
Label the Parts:
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Please put your answer in their corresponding box:
a. j.
b. k.
c. l.
d. m.
e. n.
f. o.
g. p.
h. q.
i.
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MODULE 8.2
BLOOD
1. list the major types of blood cells and their functions;
2. identify the major cellular and molecular events that result in blood clot; and
3. define capillary exchange and describe the two forces involved.
Discussion
Blood maintain homeostasis including:
- Transporting gases, nutrients, waste products, and hormones throughout the body.
- Combating pathogenic microorganisms.
- Helping to maintain the water balance and pH.
- Regulating body temperature
- Carrying platelets and factors that ensure clotting to prevent blood loss.
It has two main portions: a liquid portion, called plasma, and the formed elements,
consisting of cells (red blood cells and white blood cells) and platelets.
Plasma
Plasma consists of water, salts, variety of substances being transported such as dissolved
gases, wastes, nutrients, and hormones; and plasma proteins, including albumins, globulins, and
fibrinogen.
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Figure 8.2.1. Composition of blood. ©2016 Biology McGraw Hill
Some of the proteins are involved in buffering the blood keeping the pH near 7.4.
Fibrinogen is one of the proteins involved in the clotting process. When the proteins involved in
blood clotting have been removed from the plasma, the remaining liquid is called serum.
Prothrombin is a protein involved in blood clotting too; High density lipoproteins (HDL), which
transport fats and cholesterol.; and gamma globulin contains many types of antibodies that
provide immunity to diseases such as measles and infectious hepatitis. Albumin, the most
plentiful of plasma proteins, transports bilirubin, a breakdown product of hemoglobin.’
Formed Elements
Red Blood Cells- also called erythrocytes, transport oxygen and carbon dioxide. They are
small, biconcave disks that at maturity lack a nucleus and contain pigment hemoglobin.
Hemoglobin contains four globin protein chains, each associated with heme, an iron containing
group. Iron combines loosely with oxygen, and oxygen is carried in the blood. If the cells do not
have enough hemoglobin, the individual suffers from anemia. The general causes of anemia
are:(1) loss of blood from hemorrhage or internal bleeding; (2) decreased production of
hemoglobin or red blood cells as in iron-deficiency anemia or pernicious anemia (which can be
caused by B12 deficiency); increase rate of RBC destruction- hemolytic anemias, such as sickle
cell anemia. RBCs are manufactured in the red bone marrow of skull, ribs, breastbone, vertebrae,
and ends of the long bones. The hormone erythropoietin, produced by the kidneys, stimulates
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RBC production in response to a decrease in oxygen. Before they are released from the bone
marrow into blood, RBCs synthesize hemoglobin and lose their nuclei. The life span of RBC is
about 120 days. They are destroyed chiefly in the liver and the spleen, where they are engulfed
by large phagocytic cells. When RBC are destroyed, hemoglobin is released. The iron is
recovered and returned to the bone marrow for reuse. The heme portions of the molecules
undergo chemical degradation and are excreted by the liver as bile pigments in the bile. The bile
pigments (bilirubin) are primarily responsible for the color of the feces.
White blood cells, also called leukocytes, are larger than the red blood cells which have a
nucleus and lack hemoglobin. They are a critical component of the immune system that defend
the body against harmful microorganisms or pathogens. Lymphocytes and monocytes are
agranular white blood cells; and neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils are granular white blood
cells.
Granular leukocytes
Neutrophils are also called PMNs or polymorphonuclear cells. They are abundant of the
WBCs and are able to squeeze through capillary walls and enter the tissues, where the
phagocytize and digest bacteria. The thick yellowish fluid called pus contains dead neutrophils
that have fought the bacterial infection. Basophil granules stain a deep blue and contain
inflammatory chemicals such as histamine Eosinophils stain a deep red and these WBCs are
involved in fighting parasitic worms.
Agranular Leukocytes
Agranular leukocytes are also called mononuclear cells and lack granules and include the
monocytes and the lymphocytes. Monocytes are the largest of the WBCs, and they migrate to
tissues in response to chronic, ongoing infections, where they differentiate into large phagocytic
macrophages. They also release growth factors that increase the production of different types of
WBCs by the bone marrow. Some of these factors are available for medicinal use and maybe
helpful to people with low immunity (AIDS patients and Cancer patients on chemotherapy). They
also interact with lymphocytes to help initiate the adaptive immune response.
Lymphocytes are of two types, the T lymphocytes and the B lymphocytes, each paly a
distinct role in adaptive immune responses to specific antigens. Helper T cell initiates and
influences the other cell types involved in adaptive immunity. The Cytotoxic T cell, attack infected
cells that contain the viruses. B cells produce antibodies. Each B cell produces one type of
antibody, which specific for one type of antigen. An antigen is a molecule that causes a specific
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immune response system recognizes it as “foreign”. When antibodies combine with antigens, the
complex is often phagocytized by a macrophage.
Platelets
Platelets (Thrombocytes) result from fragmentation of large cells, called megakaryocytes,

in the red bone marrow. They patch damaged blood vessels and release substances essential
for blood clotting or coagulation.
Blood clotting
When a blood vessel is damaged, platelets clump at the site of puncture and partially seal
the leak. Platelets and the injured tissues release a clotting factor called prothrombin activator
that converts prothrombin (plasma protein manufactured in the liver) in the plasma to thrombin.
Prothrombin requires vitamin K for its production. In the presence of clotting factors and calcium
ions (Ca2+) prothrombin is converted to thrombin. Then thrombin catalyzes the conversion of the
soluble plasma fibrinogen to an insoluble protein, fibrin threads. These fibrin threads wind around
the platelet plug in the damaged area of the blood vessel and provide the framework for the clot.
Red blood cells also are trapped within the fibrin thread; these cells make a clot appear red.
These threads trap blood cells and platelets, which help strengthen the clot. A fibrin clot is
present only temporarily. As blood vessel repair is initiated, an enzyme called plasmin destroys
the fibrin network and restores the fluidity of plasma.
Figure 8.2.2. Blood clotting. A number of plasma proteins participate in a series of enzymatic reactions that lead to
the formation of fibrin threads.
Blood types
Determination of the individual’s blood type is necessary for blood transfusion. Blood
transfusion donors and recipients must be compatible because red blood cell membranes carry
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specific proteins or carbohydrates that are antigens to blood recipients. An antigen is a molecule,
usually a protein or carbohydrate, that can trigger a specific immune response.
In the ABO system, the presence or absence of Type A and Type B antigens on RBC
determines a person’s blood type. If a person has type A blood, the antigen is on his or her
RBCs. Because it is considered by the immune system to be “self”, this molecule is not
recognized as an antigen by this individual, although it can be an antigen to a recipient who does
not have type A blood. There are four blood types: A, B, AB, and O.
Because type A blood has anti-B (antibodies) and not anti-A antibodies in the plasma, a
donor with type A blood can give blood to a recipient with type A blood. However, if a type A
blood is given to a Type B recipient, agglutination, a clumping of RBCs, can cause blood to stop
circulating in small blood vessels, leading to organ damage. Type O person could donate to all
recipients. Type O RBCs have no A and B antigens, and this is the universal donor type. Type
AB is called the universal recipient type because the type AB blood has no anti-A or anti-B
antibodies. In transfusing blood, make sure that the donor is free from transmissible infectious
microbes that cause AIDS, Hepatitis, and syphilis.
Table 8.2.3. Blood types. ©2016 Biology McGraw Hill
Figure 8.2.2. Capillary exchange. A capillary, illustrating the exchanges that take place and the forces that aid the process. At the
arterial end of a capillary, the blood pressure is higher than the osmotic pressure; therefore, water (H 2O) tends to leave the
bloodstream. In the midsection, molecules, including oxygen (O 2) and carbon dioxide (CO2), follow their concentration gradients. At
the venous end of a capillary, the osmotic pressure is higher than the blood pressure; therefore, water tends to enter the bloodstream.
The red blood cells and the plasma proteins are too large to exit a capillary.
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Capillary Exchange between a systemic capillary and interstitial fluid.
Blood that enters a capillary at the arterial end is rich in oxygen and nutrients, and it is
under pressure created by the pumping of the heart. Two forces primarily control the movement
of fluid through the capillary wall: (1) osmotic pressure, which tends to cause water to move from
interstitial fluid into blood, and (2) blood pressure, which tends to cause water to move in the
opposite direction. At the arterial end of a capillary, the osmotic pressure of blood (21 mm Hg) is
lower than the blood pressure (30 mm Hg). Osmotic pressure is created by the presence of salts
and the plasma proteins. Because osmotic pressure is lower than blood pressure at the arterial
end of a capillary, water exits a capillary at this end. Midway along the capillary, where blood
pressure is lower, the two forces essentially cancel each other, and there is no net movement of
water. Solutes now diffuse according to their concentration gradient: Oxygen and nutrients
(glucose and amino acids) diffuse out of the capillary; carbon dioxide and wastes diffuse into the
capillary. Red blood cells and almost all plasma proteins remain in the capillaries. The substances
that leave a capillary contribute to interstitial fluid. Because plasma proteins are too large to
readily pass out of the capillary, interstitial fluid tends to contain all components of plasma but
has much lower amounts of protein. At the venule end of a capillary, where blood pressure has
fallen even more, osmotic pressure is greater than blood pressure, and water tends to move into
the capillary. Almost the same amount of fluid that left the capillary returns to it, although some
excess interstitial fluid is always collected by the lymphatic capillaries. Interstitial fluid contained
within lymphatic vessels is called lymph. Lymph is returned to the systemic venous blood when
the major lymphatic vessels enter the subclavian veins in the shoulder region.
Not all capillary beds are open at the same time. When the precapillary sphincters (circular
muscles) are relaxed, the capillary bed is open and blood flows through the capillaries. When
precapillary sphincters are contracted, blood flows through a shunt that carries blood directly from
an arteriole to a venule.
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Figure 8.2.3. Capillary bed. A lymphatic capillary bed lies near a blood capillary bed. When lymphatic capillaries take
up excess tissue fluid, it becomes lymph. Precapillary sphincters can shut down a blood capillary, and blood then flows
through the shunt.
SELF CHECK:
1. List the major components of blood and the functions of each.
2. How are white blood cells classified? What are the functions of neutrophils, monocytes,
and lymphocytes?
3. Name the major events, in chronological order, that result in a blood clot.
4. Explain the ABO system of typing of blood.
5. Describe the major factors that affect the rate of capillary exchange.
ASSESSMENT:
1. Which of the following is not a formed element of blood?
A. leukocyte B. eosinophil C. fibrinogen D. platelet
2. Which of these is an incorrect association?
A. white blood cells—infection fighting

B. red blood cells—blood clotting
C. plasma—water, nutrients, and wastes
D. red blood cells—hemoglobin e. platelets—blood clotting
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3. Water enters capillaries on the venous end as a result of
A. active transport from tissue fluid.

B. an osmotic pressure gradient.
C. higher blood pressure on the venous end.
D. higher blood pressure on the arterial side.
E. higher red blood cell concentration on the venous end
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MODULE 8.3
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
At the end of the lesson, the learners must be able to:
1. describe the structure and functions of the lymphatic system; and
2. distinguish between the roles of primary and secondary lymphoid tissues, and list examples
of each.
Discussion
The lymphatic system includes the lymphatic vessels and the lymphoid organs. It has three
main functions that contribute to homeostasis.
▪ It absorbs excess tissue fluid and return it to the blood.

▪ In the small intestine, lymphatic capillaries, called lacteals absorb fats in the form of
lipoproteins and transport them to the bloodstream.
▪ the lymphoid organs and lymphatic vessels are sites of production and distribution of
lymphocytes, which help defend the body against pathogens.
The lymphatic system plays an important role in homeostasis of fluids. The lymphatic system
consists of an extensive network of lymph vessels that conduct lymph, a clear fluid formed from
the interstitial fluid, to the thoracic duct and right lymphatic duct in the shoulder region; these
ducts return lymph to the blood circulatory system. Most regions of the body are richly supplied
with lymphatic capillaries-tiny, closed-ended vessels (“dead-end” capillaries). They take up
excess tissue fluid. Lymph tissue, a type of connective tissue with large numbers of lymphocytes.
Lymph tissue is organized into small masses of tissue called lymph nodes. Lymph nodes are
small masses of tissue that filter bacteria and harmful materials out of lymph. The tonsils, thymus
gland, and spleen, which consist mainly of lymph tissue, are also part of the lymphatic system.
Interstitial fluid enters lymph capillaries, becoming lymph. The lymph is conveyed into
lymphatics, which at certain location empty into lymph nodes. As the lymph circulates through
the lymph nodes, phagocytes filter out bacteria and other harmful materials. The lymph then flows
into lymphatics that conduct it away from the lymph node. Lymphatics from all over the body
conduct lymph toward the shoulder region. These vessels join the circulatory system at the base
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of the subclavian veins by way of ducts: The thoracic duct on the left side and the right lymphatic
duct. Edema is a localized accumulation of fluid that result in an increased amount of fluid leaving
the blood capillaries, or an insufficient return of fluid to the blood via the lymphatic vessel.
Lymphoid Organs
Lymphocytes develop and mature in primary lymphoid organs such as bone marrow and
thymus. Secondary lymphoid organs are sites where some lymphocytes are activated by
antigens.
Red bone marrow is a primary lymphoid organ, where hematopoietic stem cells divide and
produce all the types of blood cells, including lymphocytes. There two main types of lymphocytes:
B lymphocytes (B cells) and T lymphocytes (T cells). Both types begin to develop in the red bone
marrow, B cells remain there until they mature. Immature T cells migrate from the bone marrow
via the bloodstream to the thymus, where they mature.
Figure 8.3.1. Lymphatic system. Lymphatic vessels drain excess fluid from the tissues and return it to the
cardiovascular system. The enlargement shows that lymphatic vessels, like cardiovascular veins, have valves
to prevent backward flow. The lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and red bone marrow are the main lymphoid
organs that assist immunity.
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Thymus is a primary lymphoid organ located in the thoracic cavity between the trachea
and the sternum ventral to the heart. It is in the thymus that T cells learn to recognize the
combinations of self-molecules and foreign molecules; this recognition characterizes mature T
cell responses. It is largest in children and shrinks as we get older. Once lymphocytes are mature,
they enter the bloodstream and frequently migrate into secondary lymphoid organs, such as
lymph nodes and spleen. Activated lymphocytes then reenter the bloodstream, searching for
signs of infection or inflammation.
The lymph nodes are small (about 1-25mm in diameter) ovoid structures occurring along
lymphatic system. They are considered a major type of secondary lymphoid organ, where lymph
percolates through the cortex and medulla of a lymph node. Resident phagocytic cells engulf any
foreign debris and pathogens and these phagocytes present these foreign materials to T cells in
the lymph node. Inguinal lymph nodes are in the groin, the axillary lymph nodes are in the armpits,
and the cervical lymph nodes are in the neck area. The presence of swollen, tender lymph nodes
is an evidence that the body is fighting an infection. Cancer cells sometimes enter lymphatic
vessels and congregate in lymph nodes.
The spleen, an oval secondary lymphoid organ with a dull purplish color, located in the
upper left side of the abdominal cavity posterior to the stomach. The spleen filters and cleanses
the blood; where macrophages remove old and defective blood cells. The spleens outer capsule
is relatively thin, and an infection or trauma can cause the spleen to burst, necessitating surgical
removal. An asplenic individual is more susceptible to certain types of infections and may require
antibiotic therapy indefinitely.
Tonsils are masses of lymph tissue under the lining of the oral cavity and the throat.
Tonsils help protect the respiratory system from infection by destroying bacteria and other foreign
matter that Red bone marrow is a primary lymphoid organ enter through the mouth or nose.
Adenoids are the pharyngeal tonsil in back of the nose.
The lymphatic system also defends the body against disease and absorbs lipids from the
digestive tract. Peyer’s patches located in the intestinal wall and the vermiform appendix,
attached to the cecum, encounter pathogens band antigens by way of the mouth.
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The Innate vs. Adaptive Immune Response
The first line of defense against non-self-pathogens is the innate, or non-specific, immune
response. The innate immune response consists of physical, chemical and cellular defenses
against pathogens. The main purpose of the innate immune response is to immediately prevent
the spread and movement of foreign pathogens throughout the body.
The second line of defense against non-self-pathogens is called adaptive immune
response. Adaptive immunity is also referred to as acquired immunity or specific immunity and is
only found in vertebrates. The adaptive immune response is specific to the pathogen presented.
The adaptive immune response is meant to attack non-self-pathogens but can sometimes make
errors and attack itself. When this happens, autoimmune diseases can develop (e.g., lupus,
rheumatoid arthritis).
The hallmark of the adaptive immune system is clonal expansion of lymphocytes. Clonal
expansion is the rapid increase of T and B lymphocytes from one or a few cells to millions. Each
clone that originates from the original T or B lymphocyte has the same antigen receptor as the
original and fights the same pathogen.
While the innate immune response is immediate, the adaptive immune response is not.
However, the effect of the adaptive immune response is long-lasting, highly specific, and is
sustained long-term by memory T cells.
Line of Timeline Cells Antigen Examples

Defense Dependency
Innate First Immediate Natural killer Independent Skin, hair, cough,

(non- response (0 - cells, mucous
specific) 96 hours) macrophages, membranes,
neutrophils, phagocytes,
dendritic cells, granulocytes
mast cells,
basophils,
eosinophils
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Adaptive Second Long term T and B Dependent Pus, swelling,
(specific) (>96 hours) lymphocytes redness, pain, T
and B
lymphocyte
response
Inflammation
Inflammatory response plays a critical role in immunity. When tissues are damaged, the
inflammatory response is initiated, and the immune system becomes mobilized. The immune cells
of the innate immune system (i.e., neutrophils and eosinophils) are the first recruited to the site of
tissue injury or damage via blood vessels and lymphatic system, followed by macrophages.
If the damage occurs near the surface of the skin, redness and swelling may be visible.
Pain and warmth are also symptoms of inflammation.
The goals of the inflammatory response are to:
1. Prevent initial establishment of infection or remove damaged tissue.
2. Prevent the spread of infection or repair damaged tissue.
3. Recruit effector cells if the immune cells of the innate immune system cannot control
infection or repair damaged tissue.
4. Mobilize effector cells (T and B lymphocytes).
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Figure 8.3.2. How inflammation works.
Adaptive Immunity – Humoral and Cellular Immunity
There are two main mechanisms of immunity within the adaptive immune system –
humoral and cellular. Humoral immunity is also called antibody-mediated immunity. With
assistance from helper T cells, B cells will differentiate into plasma B cells that can produce
antibodies against a specific antigen. The humoral immune system deals with antigens from
pathogens that are freely circulating, or outside the infected cells. Antibodies produced by the B
cells will bind to antigens, neutralizing them, or causing lysis (dissolution or destruction of cells by
a lysin) or phagocytosis.
Cellular immunity occurs inside infected cells and is mediated by T lymphocytes. The
pathogen's antigens are expressed on the cell surface or on an antigen-presenting cell. Helper T
cells release cytokines that help activated T cells bind to the infected cells’ MHC-antigen complex
and differentiate the T cell into a cytotoxic T cell. The infected cell then undergoes lysis.
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SELF CHECK:
1. Summarize the functions of the lymphatic system.

2. Give the different lymphatic organs and its functions.
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MODULE 9
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
At the end of this module, the student shall be able to:
1. explain the functions of the nervous system; and

2. describe the functions of the parts of the nervous system.
Discussion
Nervous System
While neurons are the building blocks of the body’s

communication system, it is the network of neurons
that allow signals to move between the brain and body.
These organized networks, composed of up to 1 trillion
neurons, make up what is known as the nervous system.
Figure 9.1. Anatomy of a Nerve Cell
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The human nervous system has two
parts: the central nervous system, which
includes the brain and spinal cord, and
the peripheral nervous system, which is
composed of nerves and nerve networks
throughout the body.
Figure 9. 2. The CNS and PNS of a human body
Figure 9.3. Parts of a neuron and their functions
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Figure 9.4. The two divisions of the nervous system
The Central Nervous System

The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain and spinal cord. The primary
form of communication in the CNS is the neuron. Together, the brain and the spinal cord are the
literal "center" of the body’s communication system.
• The brain and spinal cord are vital to human life and functioning.
• The body employs a number of protective barriers to surround them, including the bone
(skull and spine) and membranous tissue known as meninges. The brain and spine are
suspended in a protective liquid known as cerebrospinal fluid.
• The CNS is responsible for processing every sensation and thought that you experience.
The sensory information that is gathered by receptors throughout the body. It then passes
the information on to the central nervous system. The CNS also sends messages to the
rest of the body to control movement, actions, and responses to the environment.
The Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral system (PNS) is composed of nerves that extend outside of the central
nervous system. The nerves and nerve networks that make up the PNS are actually bundles of
axons from neuron cells. The nerve bundles can be relatively small or large enough to be easily
seen by the human eye.
The PNS is further divided into two different systems: the somatic nervous system and the
autonomic nervous system.
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Somatic Nervous System
The somatic nervous system transmits sensory communications. It is responsible for
voluntary movement and action. It is composed of sensory (afferent) neurons and motor (efferent)
neurons. Sensory neurons carry information from the nerves to the brain and spinal cord while
motor neurons transmit information from the central nervous system to the muscle fibers.
Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system is responsible for controlling involuntary functions such as
heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and blood pressure. The system is also involved in human
emotional responses such as sweating and crying.
The autonomic nervous system is subdivided into the sympathetic nervous

system and parasympathetic nervous system.
• Sympathetic nervous system: The sympathetic nervous system controls the body’s
response to an emergency. When the system is aroused, your heart and breathing rates
increase, digestion slows or stops, the pupils dilate and you begin to sweat. Also known
as the fight-or-flight response, the system is preparing your body to either fight the danger
or flee.
• Parasympathetic nervous system: The parasympathetic nervous system counters the
sympathetic system. After a crisis or danger has passed, the system helps to calm the
body by slowing heart and breathing rates, resuming digestion, contracting the pupils, and
stopping sweating.
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Activity
Instruction: Determine and label the parts of a Neuron.
Checkpoint
Instruction: Select the best answer that is asked by the question.
1. The human nervous system is capable of a wide range of functions. What is the basic unit of
the nervous system?
A. Glial cell
B. Meninges
C. Neuron
D. Cerebrospinal fluid
2. The neuron cell is made up of which of the following parts?

A. Axon
B. Dendrite
C. Nucleus
D. All of the Above
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3. Neurons come in which different type(s)?
A. Sensory
B. Motor
C. Skeletal
D. A and B
4. How do neurons communicate with one another?

A. Electrically
B. Chemically
C. Through weak, radio-wave-like impulses
D. A and B
5. What is a common neurotransmitter?

A. Acetylcholine
B. GABA
C. Serotonin
D. All of the above
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MODULE 10
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
At the end of this module, the student shall be able to:
1. explain the functions of the endocrine system; and

2. identify the important glands in the body and the hormones that they produce.
Discussion
The Endocrine System
• The endocrine system is composed of glands that secrete chemical messengers known
as hormones. Hormones are carried in the bloodstream to specific areas of the body,
including the organs and body tissues.
• The pineal gland, the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, the thyroid, the ovaries, and the
testes are some of the most important glands in the body. Each of these glands works in
a number of unique ways in specific areas.
• The endocrine system is not a part of the nervous system, but it is still essential to
communication throughout the body.
• The hypothalamus connects these two important communication systems. The
hypothalamus is a tiny collection of nuclei that is responsible for controlling an astonishing
amount of human behavior.
• Located at the base of the forebrain, the hypothalamus regulates basic needs such as
sleep, hunger, thirst, and sex drive. It's also involved in producing our emotional and stress
responses. The hypothalamus controls the pituitary glands, which, in turn, controls the
release of hormones from other glands that are part of the endocrine system.
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Figure 10.1. Shows the gland and the corresponding hormone they secrete.
155
Activity
Instruction: A. The position of endocrine organs has been indicated in red on the diagram of a
composite male and female dog shown below. Label each indicated organ.
B. In the table below, list 3 hormones produced by the pituitary gland and state the function of
each.
Hormone Function
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MODULE 11
FEEDBACK MECHANISM AND HOMEOSTASIS
Overview
Maintaining homeostasis requires that the body continuously monitor its internal
conditions. From body temperature to blood pressure to levels of certain nutrients, each
physiological condition has a particular set point. A set point is the physiological value around
which the normal range fluctuates. A normal range is the restricted set of values that is optimally
healthful and stable. For example, the set point for normal human body temperature is
approximately 37°C (98.6°F) Physiological parameters, such as body temperature and blood
pressure, tend to fluctuate within a normal range a few degrees above and below that point.
Control centers in the brain play roles in regulating physiological parameters and keeping them
within the normal range. As the body works to maintain homeostasis, any significant deviation
from the normal range will be resisted and homeostasis restored through a process called
negative feedback. Negative feedback is a mechanism that prevents a physiological response
from going beyond the normal range by reversing the action once the normal range is exceeded.
The maintenance of homeostasis by negative feedback goes on throughout the body at all times,
and an understanding of negative feedback is thus fundamental to an understanding of human
physiology.
At the end of this module, students shall be able to:
1. explain what a feedback mechanism is;
2. describe the types of feedback mechanism; and
3. understand the role that feedback mechanisms play in maintaining homeostasis.
Discussion
Negative Feedback
A negative feedback system has three basic components (Figure 1a). A sensor, also
referred to a receptor, is a component of a feedback system that monitors a physiological value.
This value is reported to the control center. The control center is the component in a feedback
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system that compares the value to the normal range. If the value deviates too much from the set
point, then the control center activates an effector. An effector is the component in a feedback
system that causes a change to reverse the situation and return the value to the normal range.
Figure 11.1. Negative Feedback Loop. In a negative feedback loop, a stimulus—a deviation from a set point—is
resisted through a physiological process that returns the body to homeostasis. (a) A negative feedback loop has four
basic parts. (b) Body temperature is regulated by negative feedback.
In order to set the system in motion, a stimulus must drive a physiological parameter beyond
its normal range (that is, beyond homeostasis). This stimulus is “heard” by a specific sensor. For
example, in the control of blood glucose, specific endocrine cells in the pancreas detect excess
glucose (the stimulus) in the bloodstream. These pancreatic beta cells respond to the increased
level of blood glucose by releasing the hormone insulin into the bloodstream. The insulin signals
skeletal muscle fibers, fat cells (adipocytes), and liver cells to take up the excess glucose,
removing it from the bloodstream. As glucose concentration in the bloodstream drops, the
decrease in concentration—the actual negative feedback—is detected by pancreatic alpha cells,
and insulin release stops. This prevents blood sugar levels from continuing to drop below the
normal range.
Humans have a similar temperature regulation feedback system that works by promoting
either heat loss or heat gain (Figure 1b). When the brain’s temperature regulation center receives
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data from the sensors indicating that the body’s temperature exceeds its normal range, it
stimulates a cluster of brain cells referred to as the “heat-loss center.” This stimulation has three
major effects:
• Blood vessels in the skin begin to dilate allowing more blood from the body core to flow to
the surface of the skin allowing the heat to radiate into the environment.
• As blood flow to the skin increases, sweat glands are activated to increase their output.
As the sweat evaporates from the skin surface into the surrounding air, it takes heat with
it.
• The depth of respiration increases, and a person may breathe through an open mouth
instead of through the nasal passageways. This further increases heat loss from the lungs.
In contrast, activation of the brain’s heat-gain center by exposure to cold reduces blood flow
to the skin, and blood returning from the limbs is diverted into a network of deep veins. This
arrangement traps heat closer to the body core and restricts heat loss. If heat loss is severe, the
brain triggers an increase in random signals to skeletal muscles, causing them to contract and
producing shivering. The muscle contractions of shivering release heat while using up ATP. The
brain triggers the thyroid gland in the endocrine system to release thyroid hormone, which
increases metabolic activity and heat production in cells throughout the body. The brain also
signals the adrenal glands to release epinephrine (adrenaline), a hormone that causes the
breakdown of glycogen into glucose, which can be used as an energy source. The breakdown of
glycogen into glucose also results in increased metabolism and heat production.
Positive Feedback
Positive feedback intensifies a change in the body’s physiological condition rather than
reversing it. A deviation from the normal range results in more change, and the system moves
farther away from the normal range. Positive feedback in the body is normal only when there is a
definite end point. Childbirth and the body’s response to blood loss are two examples of positive
feedback loops that are normal but are activated only when needed.
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Figure 11.2. Positive Feedback Loop. Normal childbirth is driven by a positive feedback loop. A positive feedback
loop results in a change in the body’s status, rather than a return to homeostasis.
Childbirth at full term is an example of a situation in which the maintenance of the existing
body state is not desired. Enormous changes in the mother’s body are required to expel the baby
at the end of pregnancy. And the events of childbirth, once begun, must progress rapidly to a
conclusion or the life of the mother and the baby are at risk. The extreme muscular work of labor
and delivery are the result of a positive feedback system.
The first contractions of labor (the stimulus) push the baby toward the cervix (the lowest
part of the uterus). The cervix contains stretch-sensitive nerve cells that monitor the degree of
stretching (the sensors). These nerve cells send messages to the brain, which in turn causes the
pituitary gland at the base of the brain to release the hormone oxytocin into the bloodstream.
Oxytocin causes stronger contractions of the smooth muscles in of the uterus (the effectors),
pushing the baby further down the birth canal. This causes even greater stretching of the cervix.
The cycle of stretching, oxytocin release, and increasingly more forceful contractions stops only
when the baby is born. At this point, the stretching of the cervix halts, stopping the release of
oxytocin.
A second example of positive feedback centers on reversing extreme damage to the body.
Following a penetrating wound, the most immediate threat is excessive blood loss. Less blood
circulating means reduced blood pressure and reduced perfusion (penetration of blood) to the
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brain and other vital organs. If perfusion is severely reduced, vital organs will shut down and the
person will die. The body responds to this potential catastrophe by releasing substances in the
injured blood vessel wall that begin the process of blood clotting. As each step of clotting occurs,
it stimulates the release of more clotting substances. This accelerates the processes of clotting
and sealing off the damaged area. Clotting is contained in a local area based on the tightly
controlled availability of clotting proteins. This is an adaptive, life-saving cascade of events.
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MODULE 12
MENDEL’S LAWS OF INHERITANCE
Overview
In this lesson, we will examine the outcomes of Mendel’s crosses in garden peas. The
inheritance patterns observed in peas are fundamentally related to inheritance patterns found in
other eukaryotic species, such as corn, fruit flies, mice and humans. We will learn how Mendel
established rules that govern the process of inheritance because of his crosses in garden peas.
In the last part of this lesson, we will become familiar with the general concepts in probability and
statistics. We will examine how probability calculations allow us to predict the outcomes of simple
and complicated genetic crosses; and how to use statistics to test the validity of genetic
hypotheses that try to explain the inheritance patterns of traits.
Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
• explain how Gregor Mendel established the fundamental principles of inheritance by

studying garden peas;
• define basic genetics terminology;
• explain the fundamental principles of heredity deduced by Gregor Mendel; and
apply these principles in solving genetic problems.
Discussion
There had been many efforts to explain how one organism inherit traits. One was made
by an ancient Greek physician, Hippocrates, who suggested the idea of “pangenes”. According
to him, these “pangenes” travel from each part of an organism’s body to the eggs or sperm and
then are passed to the next generation. He added that the changes that occur in the body during
an organism’s life are passed on in this way. In several respects, this model was incorrect.
Reproductive cells are not made of particles from somatic (body) cells and changes in the somatic
cells do not influence the eggs and sperm. For example, no matter how long you have endured
braces on your teeth, cells in your mouth do not transmit genetic information to your gametes,
and there is no higher likelihood that you will have children with straight teeth just because you
wore braces. This may seem a common sense today but this idea prevailed until the 19 th century.
In the early 19th century, biologists then established that offspring inherit traits from both parents.
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This then became the “blending” hypothesis which explains that hereditary materials from male &
female parents mix in a way similar to how blue and yellow paints blend to make green. This
hypothesis was later rejected because it does not explain how traits that disappear in one
generation can reappear in later ones.
Figure 12.1. Gregor Johann Mendel, the father of genetics

(Brooker, 2012)
The field of genetics, the scientific study of the transmission of traits from one generation
to the next, began in the 1860s, when an Augustinian monk and biologist named Gregor Johann
Mendel deduced the basic patterns of inheritance by breeding garden peas (Pisum sativum).
Mendel is now remembered as the father of genetics. He grew up in a farm in Northern Moravia,
which was then a part of Austria and is now a part of the Czech Republic. He was later accepted
into the Augustinian Monastery of St. Thomas and then completed his studies for the priesthood,
and was ordained in 1847. Soon after becoming a priest, Mendel worked for a short time as a
substitute teacher. In 1856, he began his historic studies on pea plants. He grew and crossed
thousands of pea plants on a small 23- by 115- foot plot for 8 years. In 1866, he published his
work entitled, Experiments on Plant Hybrids which is meticulously accurate record that included
quantitative data concerning the outcomes of his crosses. However, this paper was largely
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ignored by scientists at that time. Still, Mendel’s groundbreaking work allowed him to propose the
natural laws that now provide a framework for our understanding of genetics
Before his death in 1884, Mendel reflected “My scientific work has brought me a great deal
of satisfaction and I am convinced that it will be appreciated before long by the whole world.” In
1900, the work of Mendel was independently rediscovered by three biologists with an interest in
plant genetics: Hugo de Vries of Holland, Carl Correns of Germany and Erich von Tscherkmak of
Austria. Within a few years, the influence of Mendel’s studies was felt around the world.
Mendel’s Study of Pea Plants
When two distinct individuals with different characteristics are mated, or crossed, to each
other—a process called hybridization experiment—their offspring are referred to as hybrids.
For example, a hybridization experiment could involve a cross between a purple-flowered plant
and a white-flowered plant. Mendel was particularly intrigued, in such experiments, by the
consistency with which offspring of subsequent generations showed characteristics of one or the
other parent. Because of his foundations in physics and natural science, he believed that this
consistency might be rooted in natural laws that could be expressed mathematically. He realized
that in order to reveal these natural laws, he needed to perform quantitative experiments in which
the number of offspring carrying specific traits were cautiously recorded and analyzed.
Mendel chose garden pea, Pisum sativum, to study the natural laws that govern plant
hybrids. The morphological structure of this plant is shown in the figure below. Mendel considered
several properties of this plant to be mainly advantageous for studying plant hybridization.
Figure 12.2. [a] The pea flower can produce both pollen and egg cells. The pollen grains are produced within the
anthers, and the egg cells are produced within the ovules that are contained within the ovary. A modified petal called a
keel encloses the anthers and ovaries. [b] Photograph of a flowering pea plant. (Brooker, 2012)
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First, this plant was available in several varieties that had distinguishable physical
characteristics. For example, one variety has purple flowers, and the other has white flowers. A
heritable property that varies among individuals, such as flower color, is called a character. The
term trait or variant is typically used to describe the specific property of a character. For example,
eye color is a character of humans and blue eyes is a trait (or variant) found in some people.
Second, garden peas had short generation times and produced large numbers of offspring from
each mating. The third advantage of pea plants as an experimental model is that matings can be
strictly controlled. Consequently, pea plants are able to self- fertilize in nature: sperm- carrying
pollen grains released from the stamen land on the egg- containing carpel of the same flower. By
covering a flower with a small bag so that no pollen from another plant could reach the carpel,
Mendel could ensure self- fertilization. When Mendel wanted cross- fertilization, he used the
method shown below.
Figure 12.3 Mendel’s technique for cross- fertilization of pea plants

(Taylor et al, 2017)
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He prevented self-fertilization by cutting off the immature stamens of a plant before they produced
pollen. To cross-fertilize the stamenless flower, he dusted its carpel with pollen from another plant.
After pollination, the carpel developed into a pod, containing seeds (peas) that he later planted.
The seeds grew into offspring plants (F1). Through these methods, Mendel could always be sure
of the parentage of new plants.
Mendel chose to observe seven characters, each of which occurred as two distinct traits.
He chose true-breeding varieties—that is, varieties for which self-fertilization produced offspring
all identical to the parent. Over the course of two years, he tested his strains to determine if their
characters bred true. This means that a trait did not vary in appearance from generation to
generation. For instance, if the seeds from a pea plant were yellow, the next generation would
also produce yellow seeds. Similarly, if the offspring were allowed to self- fertilize, all their
offspring would also produce yellow seeds, and so on.
Figure 12.4. An illustration of the seven characters that Mendel studied. Each character had two traits or variants that
were decisively different from each other. (Brooker, 2012)
What happened when Mendel crossed his different true- breeding varieties with each
other? For example, what offspring would result if plants with purple flowers and plants with white
flowers were crossed- fertilized? Earlier in this section, it was mentioned that the offspring of two
different varieties are called hybrids, and the cross- fertilization itself is referred to as
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hybridization, or simply a genetic cross. The true-breeding parents are called the P generation
(P for parental), and their hybrid offspring are called the F1 generation (F for filial, from the Latin
word for “son”). When F1 plants self-fertilize or fertilize each other, their offspring are the F2
generation. Mendel deduced the fundamental principles of heredity because of his quantitative
analysis of the F2 plants from thousands of genetic crosses.
CONCEPT CHECK
Describe three generations of your own family using the terminology of

genetic cross (P, F1, F2).
A cross in which an experimenter is observing only one character is called a single- factor
cross. When the two parents are different variants for a given character, this type of cross
produces single- character hybrids, also known as monohybrids. This type of experimental
approach led Mendel to propose the law of segregation. Mendel’s experimental procedure is
shown in the figure below. He speculated that the inheritance pattern of a single character may
follow quantitative natural laws. The goal of this experiment was to uncover such laws.
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Figure 12.5. Mendel began his experiments with true- breeding pea plants with regard to only one of seven different characters.
(Brooker,2012)
The experiment starts with a cross between a true- breeding tall pea plant and a true-
breeding dwarf plant. Mendel observed that the resulting F 1 plants are all tall pea plants. Was the
dwarf pea plant’s genetic contribution to the hybrids lost? By allowing the F 1 generation plants to
self- fertilize, Mendel found the answer to be no. Out of 1, 064 F2 plants, 787 were tall and 277
were dwarf. That is, there are about three tall plants for every one dwarf plant, or a 3:1 ratio of tall
to dwarf. Mendel reasoned that the heritable factor for dwarf plants did not disappear in the F1
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plants but was masked when the tall- plant factor was present. He also deduced that F 1 plants
must have carried two factors for the plant height character, one for tall and one for dwarf. The
data presented in the figure below are the results of producing an F1 generation via cross-
fertilization and an F2 generation via self- fertilization of the F1 monohybrids.
Figure 12.6. The data obtained by Mendel on his garden pea crosses (Brooker, 2012)
A quantitative analysis of these data allowed Mendel to propose four hypotheses which
are described by Taylor et al (2017). Note that modern terminology, such as “gene” was used.
1. There are alternative versions of genes that account for variations in inherited characters. For
example, the gene for plant height in pea plants exists in two versions: one for tall and the other
for dwarf. Alternative versions of a gene are called alleles.
2. For each character, an organism inherits two alleles of a gene, one from each parent. These
alleles may be identical or they may differ. An organism that has two identical alleles for a gene
is said to be homozygous for that gene (and is a “homozygote” for that trait). An organism that
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has two different alleles for a gene is said to be heterozygous for that gene (and is a
“heterozygote”).
3. If the two alleles of an inherited pair differ, then one determines the organism’s appearance
and is called the dominant allele and the other has no noticeable effect on the organism’s
appearance and is called the recessive allele. Geneticists use uppercase italic letters to
represent dominant alleles and lowercase italic letters to represent recessive alleles.
4. A sperm or egg carries only one allele for each inherited character because allele pairs separate
(segregate) from each other during the production of gametes. This statement is called the law
of segregation. When sperm and egg unite at fertilization, each contributes its allele, restoring
the paired condition in the offspring.
Let’s explore more on the laws of segregation and independent assortment.
Law of Segregation
Mendel’s hypotheses predict that when alleles segregate during gamete formation in the
F1 plants, half the gametes will receive a tall- plant allele (T) and the other half a dwarf- plant allele
(t). During fertilization among F1 plants, the gametes unite randomly. An egg with a tall- plant
allele has an equal chance of being the fertilized by a sperm with a tall- plant allele or one with a
dwarf- plant allele (that is, a T egg may fuse with a T sperm or a t sperm). Because the same is
true for an egg with a dwarf- plant allele (a t egg with a T sperm or t sperm), there are a total of
four equally likely combinations of sperm and egg in the F 2 generation. Figure 12.7 visualizes this
scenario.
In figure 12.7, Mendel’s cross of tall and dwarf pea plants is used to illustrate how alleles
are passed from parents to offspring. To represent the alleles that determine the plant height, the
letters T and t are used. The dominant allele is represented by uppercase letter (in this case, T
for tall height), and the recessive allele is represented by the same letter (t, for dwarf height). Each
of the parent in the P cross has identical copies of the height gene because both parents are true-
breeding plants. When an individual has two identical copies of a gene, the individual is said to
be homozygous with respect to that gene. In the P cross, the tall plant is homozygous for the tall
allele T, and the dwarf plant is homozygous for the dwarf allele t. The genetic composition of an
individual is called genotype. The genotype of the P generation in the cross are TT and tt. The
observable characteristic of an organism is termed phenotype. In the P generation, the plants
exhibit a phenotype that is either tall or dwarf.
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On the other hand, F1 generation has a genotype of Tt and is therefore heterozygous.
This means that the individuals in the F1 generation carry one copy of the tall allele and one copy
of the dwarf allele. Although these plants are heterozygous, their phenotypes are tall because
they have a copy of the dominant tall allele.
Figure 12.7. Mendel’s law segregation. This illustration shows a cross between a true- breeding
tall plant and a true- breeding dwarf plant and the subsequent segregation of tall (T) and
dwarf (t) alleles in the F1 and F2 generations. (Brooker, 2012)
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As seen in Figure 12.7, the phenotypes of the F2 generation are tall and dwarf in a ratio of
3:1. This is predicted by the law of segregation. Because the parents of the F2 generation are
heterozygous, each gamete can transmit either a T allele or a t allele to a particular offspring, but
not both. Therefore, TT, Tt, and tt are the possible genotypes of the F2 generation. By randomly
combining these alleles, the genotypes are produced in a 1:2:1 ratio. Because TT and Tt both
produce tall phenotypes, a 3:1 phenotypic ratio is observed in the F2 generation.
A Punnett Square Can Be Used to Predict the Outcome of Crosses
Punnett square, a method originally proposed by Reginald Punnett is an easy way to

predict the outcome of simple genetic crosses. To construct a Punnett square, you must know
the genotypes of the parents. The following is the step-by-step description of this approach
according to Brooker (2012) using a cross of heterozygous tall plants as an example.
Step 1. Write down the genotypes of both parents. In this example, a heterozygous tall plant is
crossed to another heterozygous tall plant. The plant providing the pollen is considered
the male parent and the plant providing the eggs, the female parent.
Male parent: Tt
Female parent: Tt
Step 2. Write down the possible gametes that each parent can make. Remember that the law of
segregation tells us that a gamete can carry only one copy of each gene.
Male gametes: T or t
Female gametes: T or t
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Step 3. Create an empty Punnett square. In our example, the number of columns equals the
number of male gametes, and the number of rows equals the number of female gametes.
Our example has two rows and two columns. Place the
male gametes across the top
of the Punnett square and the
female gametes along the
side.
Step 4. Fill in the possible genotypes of the offspring by combining the alleles of the gametes in
the empty boxes.
Step 5. Determine the relative proportions of genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring. The
genotypes are obtained directly from the Punnett square. They are contained within the
boxes that have been filled in. In this example, the genotypes are TT, Tt, and tt in a 1:2:1
ratio. To determine the phenotypes, you must know the dominant/ recessive relationship
between the alleles. For plant height, we know that T (tall) is dominant to t (dwarf). The
genotypes TT and Tt are tall, whereas the genotype tt is dwarf. Therefore, our Punnett
square shows us that the ratio of phenotypes is 3:1, or 3 tall plants: 1 dwarf plant.
CONCEPT CHECK
How can two plants with different genotypes for a particular inherited
character be identical in phenotype?
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SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
In summer squash, white fruit color (W) is dominant over yellow fruit (w). If a squash plant
homozygous for white is crossed with a plant that is homozygous for yellow, what will the phenotypic
and genotypic ratios be for the F1 generation?
SOLUTION:
1. Write down the cross in terms of the parental (P) genotypes and phenotypes:
WW (homozygous white fruit) x ww (homozygous yellow fruit)
2. Place them in a punnett square and fill the resulting genotype
W W
w Ww Ww
w Ww Ww
3. Determine the phenotypic and genotypic ratios:
GENOTYPIC RATIO: 4/4 Ww

PHENOTYPIC RATIO: 4 white fruit: 0 yellow fruit or 4/4 are white
CHECKPOINT
Solve the following problems:
1. In humans, the allele for albinism is recessive to the allele for normal skin pigmentation. If
two heterozygotes have children, what is the chance that the child will have normal skin
pigment? What is the chance that a child will be albino?
2. In humans, the brown- eye (B) allele is dominant to the blue- eye allele (b). If an individual
who is heterozygous for brown eyes mate with an individual that is homozygous for blue
eyes, what will be the likely genotype and phenotype ratios of their offspring?
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Law of Independent Assortment
From the previous discussion, you learned that Mendel was able to deduce his law of
segregation by following one character through two generations. Now, let’s consider one of
Mendel’s experiments in which he studied two characters— one was seed shape, found in round
and wrinkled variants and the other was seed color, which existed as yellow and green variants.
This type is called the two- factor cross and produces dihybrids. The experimental protocol for
Mendel’s experiment is shown in figure 12.8.
Figure 12.8. Mendel’s two- factor cross involving seed shape, round and wrinkled; and seed color, yellow or green.
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In this experiment of Mendel, he began by crossing two types of true- breeding pea strains.
One strain produced round, yellow seeds (RRYY) and the other strain produced wrinkled, green
seeds (rryy). When these plants were crossed, the seeds, which contain the plant embryo are
considered part of the F1 generation. Mendel’s data revealed that all F 1 seeds displayed a
phenotype of round and yellow, as he expected. This is because round and yellow are dominant
traits. Figure 12.9 shows that data of obtained by Mendel.
Figure 12.9. Data obtained by Mendel for his experiment with two types of true-breeding
pea strains that were different with regard to two characters.
The F2 generation had seeds that were round and green, and seeds that were wrinkled
and yellow, in addition to parental- type seeds. These combinations of traits that were not found
in the true- breeding plants of the parental generation are called nonparentals. The linkage model
is contradicted by the occurrence of these nonparental variants. What is this linkage model?
According to this model, the R and Y alleles should be linked together and so should the r and y
alleles. If this were the case, the F1 plants could produce gametes that are only RY or ry. These
would combine to produce RRYY (round, yellow), RrYy (round, yellow), or rryy (wrinkled, green)
in a 1:2:1 ratio. There is no production of nonparental seeds. Figure 10 visualizes this model. The
results obtained by Mendel in the F2 generation supports the independent- assortment model and
refutes the linkage- model. He observed a phenotypic ratio of 9:3:3:1 in the F 2 generation.
Mendel’s law of independent assortment states that two different genes randomly assort their
alleles during the formation of haploid cells. This means that the allele for one gene is found within
a resulting gamete independently of whether the allele for a different gene is found in the same
gamete. Using the example in figure 12.8, the round and wrinkled alleles are assorted into haploid
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gametes independently of the yellow and green alleles. Therefore, a heterozygous RrYy parent
can produce four different gametes— RY, Ry, rY and ry— in equal proportions.
Figure 12.10. Two hypotheses to explain how two different genes assort during gamete formation. (a) According to
the linked hypothesis, the two genes always stay associated with each other. (b) In contrast, the independent-
assortment hypothesis proposes that the two different genes randomly segregate into haploid cells.
A Punnett Square Can Also Be Used to Solve Independent- Assortment Problems
Predicting the outcome of crosses involving two or more genes that assort independently
can be solved by creating a Punnett Square. Let’s consider a cross between two plants that are
heterozygous for height and seed color. This cross is TtYy x TtYy. Note that each gamete has a
single allele for each of the two genes. How do you find the unique gametes that can be formed
from genotypes? First, count the number of heterozygous pair. In our example, the genotype TtYy
has two heterozygous pair. Then, use the equation 2n where n is the number of heterozygous
pair. So, using our example again, 2 n= 22= 4. Therefore, the number of unique gametes that the
genotype TtYy can form is 4. The four possible gametes are:
TY, Ty, tY and ty
Therefore, a Punnett Square with 16 boxes is needed for this cross (Figure 11). The resulting
phenotypes of the offspring are predicted to occur in a ratio of 9:3:3:1.
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CONCEPT CHECK
If a parent is ttYy, how many different types of gametes can it form?
Figure 12.11. A Punnett square for a two- factor cross. (Brooker, 2012)
Constructing a single large Punnett square in crosses involving three or more genes can
be very cumbersome. For instance, in a three- factor cross between two pea plants that are Tt Rr
Yy, each parent can make 2 3 or 8, possible gametes. Therefore, a Punnett square must contain
8 x 8= 64 boxes. As an alternative, we can consider each gene separately and then algebraically
combine them by multiplying together the expected outcomes for each gene.
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CHECKPOINT
1. A heterozygous pea plant that is tall with yellow seeds, TtYy, is allowed to self-fertilize.
What is the probability that an offspring will be either tall with yellow seeds, tall with green
seeds, or dwarf with yellow seeds?
2. A pea plant is heterozygous for three genes (Tt Rr Yy), where T = tall, t = dwarf, R = round
seeds, r = wrinkled seeds, Y = yellow seeds, and y = green seeds. If this plant is self-
fertilized, what are the predicted phenotypes of the offspring, and what fraction of the
offspring will occur in each category?
VARIATIONS ON MENDEL’S LAWS
Incomplete Dominance
The pattern of inheritance in terms of discrete factors called genes that are passed from
generation to generation according to simple rules of probability was explained by Mendel’s laws.
However, these laws stop short of explaining some patterns of genetic inheritance. Remember
that the F1 offspring of Mendel’s pea crosses always looked like one of the two parental varieties.
In this situation where the dominant allele has the same phenotypic effect whether present in one
or two copies is called complete dominance. For some characters, however, the appearance of
F1 hybrids falls between the phenotypes of the two parental strains, an effect called incomplete
dominance. For example, when red snapdragons are crossed with white snapdragons, the
resulting F1 generation all have pink flowers (figure 12.12).
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Figure 12.12. Incomplete dominance in snapdragon flower color (Taylor et al, 2017)
This resulting phenotype is because of the flowers of the heterozygote having less red
pigment that the red homozygote. As seen in the Punnett square in figure 12, the F 2 offspring
appear in a phenotypic ratio of one red to two pink to one white as the red and white alleles
segregate during gamete formation in the pink F 1 hybrids. In incomplete dominance, the
phenotype of the F1 generation differ from the two homozygous varieties (parents) and the
genotypic and phenotypic ratios are both 1:2:1 in the F 2 generation.
Multiple Alleles and Codominance
In our previous discussions, we have discussed patterns of inheritance that involved only
two alleles er gene (for example, A vs. a). But there are many genes that have more than two
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alleles, known as multiple alleles. A very good example of multiple alleles is the ABO blood
group phenotype in humans that involves three alleles of a single gene. These three alleles are
IA (for an enzyme referred to as I, which adds carbohydrate A to red blood cells), IB (which adds
carbohydrate B), and i (which adds neither A nor B carbohydrate). The different combinations of
these three alleles produce four phenotypes: blood types A, B, AB, or O. These letters refer to
two carbohydrates— A and B— that may be present on the surface of the red blood cells (RBCs).
A person’s RBCs may be coated with carbohydrate A (thus they are said to have type A blood);
carbohydrate B (type B); both carbohydrates (type AB); or neither carbohydrate (type O). Because
there are three alleles, there are six possible genotypes, as illustrated in figure 12.13. For safe
blood transfusion, it is critical blood types are compatible. If the carbohydrate of the donor’s blood
cells is foreign to the recipient, the recipient’s immune system produces proteins called antibodies
that may cause the donors blood cells to clump together, potentially killing the recipient.
Figure 12.13. Multiple alleles for the ABO blood groups (Taylor et al, 2017)
Both the IA and IB alleles are dominant to the i allele. Thus, IAIA and IAi people have type A
blood, and IBIB and IBi people have type B. Recessive homozygotes, ii, have type O blood, with
neither carbohydrate. The IA and IB alleles are codominant: Both alleles are expressed in
heterozygous individuals (IAIB), who have type AB blood. Codominance means that neither allele
can mask the expression of the other allele.
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SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
A man with type AB blood marries a woman with type O blood. What proportion of their children
will have a type B blood?
SOLUTION:
1. Write down the cross in terms of the parental genotypes:

(Man) IAIB x (Woman) ii
2. Place them in a Punnett square and fill the resulting genotype.
IA IB
i
IAi IBi
i
IAi IBi
3. Therefore, the proportion of the children that will have a type B blood is 50%.
Codominance and incomplete dominance are often confused as the same concept.
However, they are completely different. In incomplete dominance, there is a blending of
phenotypes. Codominance, on the other hand, results in two phenotypes being expressed in
different parts of the animal. There is no blending. For instance, a Holstein cow has black and
white spots. This results from a “white” allele and a “black” allele that are each fully expressed in
different parts of the organism. Both alleles where expressed equally. Alleles in codominance are
usually represented by using two different capital letters.
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Figure 12.14. Holstein Cattle exhibits codominance (http://afs.okstate.edu/breeds/cattle/holstein/)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
In some chickens, the gene for feather color is controlled by codominance. The allele for black
is B and the allele for white is W. The heterozygous phenotype is known as erminette. If two
erminette chickens were crossed, what is the probability that:
a. they would have a black chick?

b. they would have a white chick?
SOLUTION:
1. The genotypes are:

Black chicken: BB; White chicken: WW and Erminette chicken: BW
Therefore, the cross of two erminette chicken is BW x BW.
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2. Place it in a Punnett square and fill out the resulting genotype:
B W
B BB BW
W BW WW
3. Determine the probability of having black chick and white chick:
Therefore, there is a ¼ or 25% probability that the cross between two erminette chickens will
produce black chicks and ¼ or 25% probability that they will produce white chicks.
CHECKPOINT
1. A wealthy elderly couple die together in an accident. Soon a man shows up to claim their
fortune, saying that he is their only son who ran away from home as a boy. Other relatives
dispute his claim. Hospital records show that the deceased couple were Type AB and O.
The claimant to the fortune is Type O. Could he be their son? Explain.
2. Could two individuals with type A blood ever produce offspring with Type O? Explain.
Sex Chromosomes and Sex- Linked Genes
A pair of sex chromosomes, designated by X and Y, can be found in many animals

including fruit flies and all mammals. These sex chromosomes determine an individual’s sex. In
humans, individuals with one X chromosome and one Y chromosome are males; while those who
have XX chromosomes are females. Figure 15 shows the human sex chromosomes. Additionally,
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human males and females both have 44 autosomes or nonsex chromosomes. After meiosis, each
gamete contains one sex chromosome and a haploid set of autosomes (22 in humans). Each egg
cell contains a single X chromosome. Of the sperm cells, half contain an X chromosome and half
contain a Y chromosome. The sex of an offspring depends on whether the sperm cell that fertilizes
the egg cell contains an X or a Y chromosome. Figure 12.16 visualizes this.
Figure 12.15. The human sex chromosomes (Taylor et al, 2017)
Figure 12.16. The X- Y system (Taylor et al, 2017)
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Aside from this X- Y system, there are other sex- determining system. For instance,
grasshoppers, roaches, and some other insects have an X- O system, in which O stands for the
absence of a sex chromosome. Their females have two X chromosomes (XX) while males have
only one sex chromosome (XO). In fishes, butterflies and birds, the eggs determine the sex. The
sex chromosomes in these animals are designated as Z and W. Males have the genotype ZZ and
females are ZW. Sex is determined by whether the egg carries a Z or a W in this system. In most
ants and bees, sex is determined by the chromosome number rather than by sex chromosomes.
Females are diploid for they developed from a fertilized egg while males are haploid because they
develop from unfertilized eggs.
Sex- Linked Genes
Aside from the fact that sex chromosomes determine the sex of an organism, they also
contain bear genes for characters unrelated to femaleness or maleness. A gene located on either
sex chromosome is called a sex- linked gene. Sex- linked genes exhibit a unique pattern of
inheritance. Because the human X chromosome contains many more genes than the Y (about
1,110 versus 78), the vast majority of sex-linked genes are X-linked genes (Taylor et al, 2017).
White eye color in fruit fly is an example of X- linked recessive trait. White eyes are very
rare, wild- type fruit flies have red eyes. Figure 12.17 shows this character. In this example, we
use the uppercase letter R for the dominant wild- type, red- eye allele and r for the recessive
white- eye allele. We show them as superscripts to the letter X because these alleles are carried
on the X chromosome. Thus, red- eyed male fruit flies have the genotype XRY; white- eyed males
are XrY. Note that the Y chromosome does not have a gene locus for eye color; thus, the male’s
phenotype results entirely from his single X- linked gene. For females, XRXR and XRXr have red
eyes, and XrXr have white eyes.
Figure 12.17. Fruit fly eye color determined by a sex- linked gene
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A white- eyed male that has a genotype of XrY will transfer his Xr to all his female offspring
but none to his male offspring. This is because, in order to be female his female offspring must
inherit his X chromosome, but his male offspring must inherit his Y chromosome. Figure 12.18
shows different crosses of female and male fruit flies.
Figure 12.18. Three different crosses of fruit flies (Taylor et al, 2017)
In figure 12.18, the first cross is between a homozygous red- eyed female and a white-
eyed male. All their offspring are red- eyed fruit flies with the males having a genotype of XRY and
the females with a genotype of XRXr. This means that the females are all carriers of the allele for
white eyes. The second cross in figure 12.18 is between a heterozygous female and a red- eyed
male. Twenty- five percent of the offspring are red- eyed females with a genotype of XRXR; 25%
are red- eyed females with a genotype of XrXR; 25% are re- eyed males with a genotype of XRY
and 25% are white- eyed males with a genotype of XrY. In the third cross, a heterozygous female
is crossed with a white- eyed male. The cross produce 25% white- eyed female (XrXr) and 25%
white- eyed male (XrY).
In humans, sex- linked disorders affect mostly males. This is because if a man inherits
only an X- linked recessive allele from his mother, the allele will be expressed. A woman, however
ahs to inherit two such alleles (one from each parent) to exhibit the trait.
An example of an X- linked recessive trait that has a well- documented history is

hemophilia. Hemophilia is a condition in which an individual bleeds excessively when injured
because they lack one or more of the proteins required for blood clotting. Hemophilia plagued the
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royal families in Europe. Queen Victoria of England (1819- 1901) of England was a carrier of the
hemophilia allele. She passed it on to one of her sons and two of her daughters. Through
marriage, her daughters then introduced the disease into the families of Russia and Spain. Figure
12.19 shows a pedigree that traces the disease through one branch of the royal family. Alexandra,
like her mother and grandmother, was a carrier. Alexandra’s son, Alexis, had the disease.
Figure 12.19. Hemophilia in the royal family of Russia (Taylor et al, 2017)
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SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
In humans, hemophilia is a sex- linked recessive trait. If a female who is carrier for hemophilia
marries a male with normal blood clotting, what fraction of their children will have hemophilia?
SOLUTION:
1. Determine the genotypes of the parents:

Female (carrier): XRXr
Male (normal): XRY
2. Place them in a Punnett square and fill out the resulting genotypes.
XR Y
XR XRXR XRY
Xr XRXr XrY
3. Determine the fraction of children that will have hemophilia
¼ of the children will have hemophilia
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TESTING YOUR KNOWLEDGE
PART 1. Read each item carefully. Encircle the letter of the answer that best fits the question.
1. What does the X/Y pair of chromosomes determine in humans?
A. How tall you will be
B. How long you will live
C. What color of eyes you have
D. Whether you are a boy or a girl
2. Mendel established true- breeding varieties by:
A. Allowing varieties to self- fertilize
B. Allowing breeds to cross- fertilize
C. Performing minor surgery on the peas
D. None of the above
3. A pea plant is Tt. Which of the following statements is correct?
A. Its genotype is Tt, its phenotype is dwarf
B. Its phenotype is Tt, its genotype is dwarf
C. Its genotype is Tt, its phenotype is tall
D. Its phenotype is Tt, its genotype is tall
4. A 3:1 ratio is characteristic of the:
A. F2 generation of a monohybrid cross;
B. F1 generation of a monohybrid cross;
C. F2 generation of a dihybrid cross;
D. F2 generation of a trihybrid cross.
5. How many unique gametes can be produced by an individual with a genotype of
QQWwEeRRTtYyUUIiOoPp?
A. 16 C. 64
B. 32 D. 128
PART 2. Solve the following problems. Make sure to show your solution.
1. In humans, free earlobes (F) are dominant over attached earlobes (f). If one parent is
homozygous for free earlobes, while the other is homozygous for attached earlobes, can
they produce children with attached earlobes? Justify your answer.
2. In horses, black is dependent upon a dominant allele, B, and chestnut upon its recessive
allele, b. The trotting gait is due to a dominant gene, T, the pacing gait to its recessive, t.
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If a homozygous black pacer is mated to a homozygous chestnut trotter, what will be the
appearance of the F1 generation?
3. Ryan crossed two plants— one plant is heterozygous for red color and is short; the other
is homozygous recessive for flower color & heterozygous for plant height. He noted that
for flower color, red (R) is dominant over yellow (r) & for plant height, tall (T) is dominant
over short (t). Supposed 5000 offspring are produced, how many yellow and short plants
will you expect?
4. How many unique gametes can be formed by individuals of the following genotypes:
a. RrBBNnOoLL
b. JJKkPpVvWW
c. SsFfGGHh
d. Aa
e. RrUUDdEeccvvZzSSIi
5. John Kenneth has brown eyes (he is homozygous for this). He married Nica who is
heterozygous for brown eyes. Note that brown eyes are dominant over blue eyes. What
is the ratio of the phenotypes and genotypes of their possible children?
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MODULE 13
THE CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
Overview
The genes that determine who you are contained in your DNA. How can DNA control your
characteristics? The central dogma of molecular biology states that DNA contains instructions for
making a protein, which are then copied by RNA. RNA then uses these instructions to make
proteins.
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. illustrate the molecular structure of DNA and RNA;

2. relate how the structure of DNA makes it possible to store the genetic information;
3. explain how DNA is replicated; and
4. explain the processes of transcription and translation.
Discussion
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the genetic material. The discovery of the genetic role
of the DNA can be traced back to 1928 when a British medical officer Frederick Griffith was trying
to develop a vaccine against pneumonia. He studied two strains of a bacterium: a harmless strain
and a pathogenic (disease- causing) strain that causes the disease in mammals. When Griffith
killed the pathogenic bacteria and then mixed the bacterial remains with the harmless bacteria,
some living bacterial cell became pathogenic. Moreover, the newly acquired ability to cause
disease was inherited by all of the descendants of the transformed bacteria. It was clear that there
is some chemical component of the dead bacteria that caused a heritable change in the live
bacteria. Griffith’s work started the race to discover the identity of the chemical basis of heredity.
In 1952, American biologists Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase performed a set of
experiments that showed that DNA is the genetic material of T2, a virus that infects the bacterium
Escherichia coli (E. coli), a microbe that is usually found in the intestines of mammals including
humans. T2 virus (figure 13.1) is called a bacteriophage or phages for short. Bacteriophages are
viruses that exclusively infect bacteria.
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Figure 13.1. The T2 Bacteriophage (Taylor et al, 2017)
The fact that T2 can reprogram its host cell to produce new phages was already known
by Hershey and Chase, but what they don’t know is what component of the virus is responsible
for this capability. During that time, the structure of the phage T2 is known to consist solely of two
types of molecules, DNA and protein.
Hershey and Chase were able to design a simple yet conclusive experiment. They started
by growing T2 with E. coli in a solution containing radioactive solution (batch 1). Figure 13.2
visualizes their experiment. DNA does not contain sulfur but proteins do. As new phages were
made, the radioactive sulfur atoms were incorporated only into the proteins of the bacteriophage.
They then grow a second batch of phages in solution that contains radioactive phosphorus. This
was labeled only the phage DNA because nearly all the phage’s phosphorus is in the DNA. Their
next step was to allow the two batches of T2 to infect separate samples of nonradioactive bacteria.
Shortly after the onset of infection, they agitated the cultures in an ordinary kitchen blender to
shake loose any parts of the phages that remained outside the bacterial cells. The mixtures were
then collected in tubes and then they spun these tubes in a centrifuge. The cells were deposited
as a solid pellet at the bottom of the centrifuge tubes, but phages and parts of phages—because
they were lighter—remained suspended in the liquid. The researchers then measured the
radioactivity in the pellet and in the liquid.
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Hershey and Chase found that when the bacteria had been infected with T2 phages
containing labeled protein (batch 1), the radioactivity ended up mainly in the solution within the
centrifuge tube, which contained phages but not bacteria. This result suggested that the phage
Figure 13.2. The Hershey- Chase experiment. (Taylor et al., 2017)
protein did not enter the cells. But when the bacteria had been infected with phages whose DNA
was tagged (batch 2), most of the radioactivity was in the pellet of bacterial cells at the bottom of
the centrifuge tube. Furthermore, when these bacteria were returned to a liquid growth medium,
they soon lysed, or broke open, releasing new phages that contained some radioactive
phosphorus in their DNA.
Their experiment led to our current understanding of the replication cycle of phage T2. The
phage T2 injects its DNA into the host after the virus attaches to the host bacterial cell. The viral
protein is left outside the bacterium (as shown in the experiment where the radioactive protein did
not show up in the host cells at the bottom of the centrifuge tube). The DNA causes the bacterial
cells to produce new phages which soon cause the host cell to lyse and release the newly
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produced phages. These phages then attach to other host bacterial cells. The results of their
experiment suggested that it is the viral DNA that contains the instructions for making phages.
DNA is a double- stranded helix
Most biologists were convinced that DNA was the material that stored genetic information
because of the experiment made by Hershey and Chase in 1952. The next step after this
discovery was to determine how the structure of the DNA molecule could account for its role in
heredity. The first to solve the puzzle of the DNA structure were two scientists who were relatively
unknown at that time— American James D. Watson and Englishman Francis Crick.
Watson saw an X- ray image of DNA produced by Rosalind Franklin. A careful study of
the image enabled Watson to deduce the basic shape of DNA to be a helix (spiral) with a uniform
diameter and the nitrogenous bases located above one another like a stack of dinner plates. The
thickness of the helix suggested that it was made up of two polynucleotide strands, forming a
double helix. But how were the nucleotides arranged in the double helix?
A wire model of the DNA was then constructed by Watson and Crick. Their model
conformed to both Franklin’s data and to what was then known as the chemistry of DNA. Franklin
previously concluded that the sugar-phosphate backbones must be on the outside of the double
helix, forcing the nitrogenous bases to swivel to the interior of the molecule. But the mystery on
how the bases were arranged in the interior of the double helix is still unanswered.
After considerable trial and error, Watson and Crick realized that the chemical structures
of the bases dictated the pairings even more specifically. Adenine can best form hydrogen bonds
with thymine and only thymine, and guanine with cytosine and only cytosine. In the biologist’s
shorthand, A pairs with T, and G pairs with C. A is also said to be “complementary” to T and G to
C.
Watson and Crick’s discovery explained some data obtained several years earlier by
American biochemist Erwin Chargaff. Chargaff had discovered that the amount of adenine in the
DNA of any one species was equal to the amount of thymine and the amount guanine was equal
to that cytosine. This is known as the Chargaff’s rule. You can picture the model of the DNA
double helix proposed by Watson and Crick as a rope ladder with wooden rungs, with the ladder
twisting into a spiral. The side ropes represent the sugar- phosphate backbones, and the rungs
represent pairs of nitrogenous bases joined by hydrogen bonds.
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Figure 13.3. Rosalind Franklin and her X-ray image of the DNA
(Taylor et al., 2017)
Figure 13.4. Watson and Crick in 1953 with their model of the DNA
(Taylor et al, 2017)
DNA and its close chemical cousin, RNA (ribonucleic acid) are nucleic acids that have
long chains (polymers) of chemical units (monomers) called nucleotides. A nucleotide polymer
(chain) is called a polynucleotide. Each type of DNA nucleotide has a different nitrogen-
containing base: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) or thymine (T). The number of possible
polynucleotides is enormous because nucleotides can occur in a polynucleotide in any sequence
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and because polynucleotides can be very long. A closer look at the DNA structure is shown in
figure 13.5.
Figure 13.5. Breaking down the structure of the DNA (Taylor et al, 2017)
Each nucleotide is made up of three components: a nitrogenous base (in DNA: A, C, T or

G); a sugar (shown in blue in figure 13.5); and a phosphate group (shown in yellow). The
nucleotides are joined to one another by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and
the phosphate of the next, forming a sugar-phosphate backbone with a repeating pattern of sugar-
phosphate-sugar- phosphate. The nitrogenous bases are arranged like ribs that project from the
backbone.
The phosphate group has a phosphorus atom (P) at the center with four surrounding
oxygen atoms. The sugar has five carbon atoms, called out in red in the figure for emphasis—
four in its ring and one extending above the ring. The ring also includes an oxygen atom. The
sugar is called deoxyribose because, compared with the sugar ribose, it is missing an oxygen
atom. Notice that the C atom in the lower right corner of the ring is bonded to an H atom instead
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of to an -OH group, as it is in ribose. Hence, DNA is “deoxy”—which means “without an oxygen”—
compared to RNA. The full name for DNA is deoxyribonucleic acid: deoxyribo refers to its form of
the sugar, nucleic because DNA is located in the nuclei of eukaryotic cells, and acid because the
phosphate group is in the ionized (negatively charged) form after donating a hydrogen atom.
The four nucleotides found in DNA differ only in the structure of their nitrogenous bases.
Thymine (T) and cytosine (C) are single-ring structures called pyrimidines. Adenine (A) and
guanine (G) are larger, double-ring structures called purines. The one- letter abbreviations can
be used either for the bases alone or for the nucleotides containing them. What about RNA? As
its name—ribonucleic acid—implies, its sugar is ribose rather than deoxyribose.
Figure 13.6. An RNA nucleotide (Taylor et al, 2017)
Notice the ribose in the RNA nucleotide; unlike deoxyribose, the sugar ring has an -OH
group attached to the C atom at its lower-right corner. Another difference between RNA and DNA
is that instead of thymine, RNA has a nitrogenous base called uracil (U).
CONCEPT CHECK
Compare and contrast DNA and RNA polynucleotides.
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DNA Replication
Encoding and storing genetic information are the primary functions of the DNA. It thus acts
as the molecular basis of heredity. During cell division, genes are passed along from cell to
another and during reproduction, genes are passed from one generation to the next. This storage
ability is possible because of the DNA’s unique structure.
The specific pairing of the complementary bases accounts for the ability of DNA to be
copied. Watson and Crick predicted that a cell applies the same rules when copying its genes
during each turn of the cell cycle. The process by which DNA makes a copy of itself during cell
cycle is called DNA replication. This process is visualized in figure 13.7.
Figure 13.7. The untwisting and replication of the DNA (Taylor et al, 2017)
As shown in the figure, the two strands of parental DNA (blue) separate. Each strand
becomes a template for the assembly of a complementary strand from a supply of free nucleotides
(gray) available within the nucleus. The nucleotides line up one at a time along the template strand
in accordance with the base-pairing rules. Enzymes link the nucleotides to form the new DNA
strands. The completed new molecules, identical to the parental molecule, are known as daughter
DNA (although no gender should be inferred).
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Watson and Crick predicted that when a double helix replicates, each of the daughter
molecules will have one old strand from the parental molecule and one newly created strand. This
model for DNA replication is called the semiconservative model because half of the parental
molecule is maintained (conserved) in each daughter molecule. Conceptually, the general
mechanism of DNA replication is quite simple but the actual process is complex requiring the
coordination of more than a dozen enzymes and other proteins.
Figure 13.8. Template model for DNA replication (Taylor et al, 2017)
Origins of replication, short stretches of DNA having a specific sequence of nucleotides, are
particular sites where replication of a chromosomal DNA molecule begins. The two strands of the
double helix of the DNA at the origin of replication separate because of the attachment of proteins.
Figure 13.9. The opposite orientations of DNA strands (Taylor et al, 2017)
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The sugar- phosphate backbones run in opposite directions. As a result, each strand has a
3’ (“three-prime”) end and a 5’ (“five-prime”) end. The primed numbers refer to the carbon atoms
of the nucleotide sugars. At one end of each DNA strand, the sugar’s 3’ carbon atom is attached
to an -OH group; at the other end, the sugar’s 5’ carbon is attached to a phosphate group. This
opposite orientation is very crucial in DNA replication. DNA replication always occurs in a 5’ to 3’
direction. DNA nucleotides are linked to a growing daughter strand by enzymes called DNA
polymerases. A DNA polymerase adds nucleotides only to the 3’ end of the strand, never to the
5’ end. Thus, a daughter DNA strand can only grow in the 5’to 3’end.
Figure 13.10. How daughter strands are synthesized (Taylor et al, 2017)
You see the consequences of this enzyme specificity in Figure 13.10, where the forked
structure represents one side of a replication bubble. As described by Taylor et al (2017), one of
the daughter strands (shown in gray) can be synthesized in one continuous piece by a DNA
polymerase working toward the forking point of the parental DNA. However, to make the other
daughter strand, polymerase molecules must work outward from the forking point. The only way
this can be accomplished is if the new strand is synthesized in short pieces as the fork opens up.
These pieces are called Okazaki fragments, after the Japanese husband and wife team of
molecular biologists who discovered them. Another enzyme, called DNA ligase, then links, or
ligates, the pieces together into a single DNA strand.
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DNA replication is a means by which genetic instructions are copied for the next generation
of the organism. It ensures that all the body cells in a multicellular organism carry the same genetic
information.
The Flow of Genetic Information
In the previous module we learned about genotype and phenotype. Now, what is the
molecular connection between genotype and phenotype? The answer is that the DNA inherited
by an organism specifies traits by dictating the synthesis of proteins. Proteins are the links
between genotype and phenotype. But a gene does not directly create a protein. Rather, a gene
dispatches instruction in the form of RNA, which in turn programs protein synthesis. This is a
fundamental concept is the central dogma of molecular biology and is visualized in Figure 13.11.
Figure 13.11. The flow of genetic information in a eukaryotic cell (Taylor et al, 2017)
The “chain of command” is from DNA in the nucleus of the cell to RNA to protein synthesis
in the cytoplasm. The two main stages are transcription, the synthesis of RNA under the direction
of DNA, and translation, the synthesis of protein under the direction of RNA.
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CONCEPT BOX 1: GENETIC INFORMATION WRITTEN IN CODONS IS TRANSLATED
INTO AMINO ACID SEQUENCE
The bridge between DNA and protein synthesis is the nucleic acid RNA: DNA is
transcribed into RNA, which is then translated into protein. Put another way, information within
the cell flows as DNA to RNA to protein.
Transcription and translation are linguistic terms, and it is useful to think of nucleic acids
and proteins as having languages. To understand how genetic information passes from genotype
to phenotype, we need to see how the chemical language of DNA is translated into the different
chemical language of proteins.
What exactly is the language of nucleic acids? Both DNA and RNA are polymers made
of nucleotide monomers strung together in specific sequences that convey information, much as
specific sequences of letters convey information in written language. In DNA, there are four types
of nucleotides, which differ in their nitrogenous bases (A, T, C, and G). The same is true for RNA,
although it has the base U instead of T.
Figure 13.12 focuses on a small region of one gene (gene 3, shown in light blue) on a
DNA molecule. DNA’s language is written as a linear sequence of nucleotide bases on a
polynucleotide, a sequence such as the one you see on the enlarged DNA segment in the figure.
Specific sequences of bases, each with a beginning and an end, make up the genes on a DNA
strand. A typical gene consists of hundreds or thousands of nucleotides in a specific sequence.
The pink strand underneath the enlarged DNA segment represents the results of
transcription: an RNA molecule. The process is called transcription because the nucleic acid
language of DNA has been rewritten transcribed) as a sequence of bases on RNA. Notice that
the language is still that of nucleic acids, although the nucleotide bases on the RNA molecule
are complementary to those on the DNA strand.
The purple chain at the bottom of Figure represents the results of translation, the
conversion of the nucleic acid language to the polypeptide language. Like nucleic acids,
polypeptides are polymers, but the monomers that compose them are the 20 different kinds of
amino acids. Again, the language is written in a linear sequence, and the sequence of nucleotides
of the RNA molecule dictates the sequence of amino acids of the polypeptide. The RNA acts as
a messenger carrying genetic information from DNA.
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Figure 13.13 Transcription and translation of codons
During translation, there is a change in language from the nucleotide sequence of the
RNA to the amino acid sequence of the polypeptide. How is this translation achieved? Recall
that there are only four different kinds of nucleotides in DNA (A, G, C, T) and in RNA (A, G, C,
U). In translation, these four nucleotides must somehow specify all 20 amino acids. Consider if
each single nucleotide base were to specify one amino acid. In this case, only four of the 20
amino acids could be accounted for, one for each type of base. What if the language consisted
of two-letter code words? If we read the bases of a gene two at a time—AG, for example, could
specify one amino acid, whereas AT could designate a different amino acid—then only 16
arrangements would be possible (42), which is still not enough to specify all 20 amino acids.
However, if the base code in DNA consists of a triplet, with each arrangement of three
consecutive bases specifying an amino acid— AGT specifies one amino acid, for example, while
AGA specifies a different one—then there can be 64 (that is, 43) possible code words, more than
enough to specify the 20 amino acids. Thus, triplets of bases are the smallest “words” of uniform
length that can specify all the amino acids. Indeed, the 64 triplets allow for more than one to
represent an amino acid.
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Experiments have verified that the flow of information from gene to protein is based on
a triplet code: The genetic instructions for the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide chain are
written in DNA and RNA as a series of nonoverlapping three-base “words” called codons. Notice
in the figure that three-base codons in the DNA are transcribed into complementary three-base
codons in the RNA, and then the RNA codons are translated into amino acids that form a
polypeptide.
 From Taylor, Martha R., Jean L. Dickey, Eric J. Simon, Kelly Hogan, Jane B. Reece (2017).
Campbell: Biology Concepts and Connections 9th Edition.
Boston: Pearson Education.
The genetic code dictates how codons are translated into amino acids. Figure 13.14
shows that 61 out of 64 triplets code for amino acids. Notice that the triplet AUG (highlighted in
green) codes for amino acid methionine (Met) and also can provide the signal for the start of a
polypeptide chain. Three codons serve as the stop codons and mark the end of translation. They
do not designate amino acids.
The codons in figure 13.14 are the triplets found in RNA. They have a straightforward,
complementary relationship to the codons in DNA, with UUU in the RNA matching AAA in the
DNA, for example. The codons occur in a linear order along the DNA and RNA, with no gaps.
An example of translating genetic code is shown in figure 14.15.
Figure 13.14. The genetic code (Brooker, 2012)
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Figure 13.15. Deciphering the genetic information in DNA (Taylor et al, 2017)
TESTING YOUR KNOWLEDGE

PART 1. Read each item carefully. Encircle the letter of the answer that best fits the question.
1. The DNA sequence 5’- AGCATGGCTGGC- 3’ is part of a gene. How many amino acids
are coded for by this message?
A. 4 C. 12
B. 8 D. 20
2. What nitrogen base is in DNA but NOT in RNA?
A. Uracil C. Guanine
B. Thymine D. Cytosine
3. What determines the kind of genes an organism possesses?
A. Size of simple sugar molecule in the organs of the organism.
B. Sequence of the subunits A,T,C & G in the DNA of the organism.
C. Type of amino acids in the cells of the organism.
D. Shape of the protein molecules in the organelles of the organism.
4. For the DNA strand 5’- TACGATCATAT- 3’, the correct complementary DNA strand is:
A. 3’- TACGATCATAT- 5’
B. 3’- ATGCTAGTATA- 5’
C. 3’- AUGCUAGUAUA- 5’
D. 3’- GCATATACGCG- 5’
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5. Genetic information flows in one- direction. Which best represents this flow?
A. DNA- protein- RNA
B. Protein- RNA- DNA
C. RNA- protein- DNA
D. DNA- RNA- protein
6. Which of the following units are repeatedly joined together to form a strand of DNA?
A. Amino acids C. Fatty acids
B. Nucleotides D. Polysaccharides
PART 2. Answer the following questions:
1. Along one strand of a double helix is the nucleotide sequence: 5’- GGCATAGGT- 3’.
What is the complementary sequence for the other DNA strand?
2. Translate the RNA sequence 5’- CCGUACGGU- 3’ into the corresponding amino acid
sequence.
3. For the given mRNA sequence: 3’- CUGAUUGAGUCA- 5’, determine the sequence of
the template DNA strand.
4. Translate the following mRNA sequence into amino acid sequence:
5’-AUGCCAUGAAAC- 3’.
5. The following represent deoxyribonucleotide sequences in the template strand of DNA:
Sequence 1: 3’-ATGCATGCCATA-5’
Sequence 2: 5’-CGGTTTTCGAAC-3’
a. Determine the mRNA sequence that would be derived from transcription.
b. Determine the amino acid sequence that is encoded by these mRNAs.
207
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Instructional Materials

for STE 2103

On the completion of this course, the students are expected to:

1. compare and contrast the different processes in plants and animals;

At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:

Animal Body Planes

A standing vertebrate animal can be divided by several planes. A sagittal plane

ORGANS, ORGAN SYSTEMS, AND BODY CAVITIES

Organ is composed of two or more types of tissues working together to perform a

©2016 Biology McGraw Hill Education

Figure 1.3. Mammalian body cavities.

1. Explain the difference between an organ and an organ system.

____2. Cardiovascular system

Types of asexual reproduction and give examples

Figure 2.1.1. Paramecium undergoing asexual reproduction through fission

Figure 2.1.2. Budding in Hydra ©https://eschooltoday.com/science/asexual-reproduction

Figure 2.1.4. Fungi undergoing asexual reproduction through sporulation

V. Parthenogenesis-The unfertilized egg develops into an adult individual. It is also called

Hermaphroditism is a form of sexual reproduction in which a single individual

Copulation is sexual union to facilitate the reception of sperm, resulting in internal

Human male reproductive system

©2016 Biology McGraw Hill

Human female reproductive system

©2016 Biology McGraw Hill

. ©2016 Biology McGraw Hill

Figure 2.1.9. Oogenesis

The Follicular Phase

The Luteal Phase

Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle

After ovulation, under the influence of progesterone, the endometrium changes to a

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

______1. Bulbourethtral Glands A. Sensory organ

Figure 2.2.1. Ginger with buds that

Figure 2.2.3. Bryophyllym plant with its leaf buds

• Fragmentation. Organisms often seen as slimy green patches in ponds, or in other

Figure 2.2.5. Fragmentation

Activity 2.2.1. Potato Experiment!

Activity 2.2.2. Reproduction of Yeast Cells!

Activity2.2.3. Parts of a Flower!

Figure 2.2.8. Types of pollination

Figure 2.2.9. Fertilization and Zygote formation

Instruction. Fill in the blanks:

1. Production of new individuals from the vegetative part of parent is called_____________.

The subcutaneous layer or hypodermis is composed of loose connective tissue and

©2016 Biology McGraw Hill Education

Figure 3.3 Layers of the Epidermis

Accessory Structure of the Human skin

©2016 Biology McGraw Hill

Rigid, armor-like coverings characterize an exoskeleton. Exoskeleton are characteristic of

©2016 Biology McGraw Hill

The Human Skull

©2016 Biology McGraw

Figure 4.1.4. The Vertebral column

©2016 Biology McGraw Hill

The pectoral girdle consists of 2 collarbones, or clavicles, and 2 shoulder blades, or

The more specialized appendages of other tetrapods maybe characterized by 4 digits

Bone growth and renewal

Endochondral ossification of a long bone begins in a region called primary ossification

A. Bone vs. Cartilage D. Compact bone vs. Spongy bone