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Here Handbook
Technical Reference Section Contents A - Z

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Table of Contents Z-3

Temperature Measurement Z-4

Thermocouples Z-16

Probe Response Times Z-51

Resistance Temperature Measurement Z-53

Infrared Temperature Measurement Z-57

Cryogenic Temperature Measurement Z-94

Humidity & Dewpoint Z-100

Electrical Noise Reduction Z-104

Temperature Control Z-110

Safety Z-128

Data Storage and Transmission Z-149

ITS-90 Z-158

Standards Z-194

Non-Electric Temperature Measurement Z-197

Thermocouple Reference Data Z-198

RTD & Thermistor Reference Data Z-250

Conversion Charts Z-259

Z Section Table of Contents
Technical Reference Section......Z-2
Z Section Table of Contents .......Z-3
Frequently Asked
Temperature Questions............Z-4
Temperature Measurement
and Control Glossary................Z-5
Practical Guidelines for
Temperature Measurement....Z-13
Physical Properties of
Thermoelement Materials.......Z-16
OMEGACLAD® Sheath
Selection Guide ......................Z-17
Introduction to Practical
Temperature Measurements ...Z-19
Using Thermocouples.............Z-21
Using RTD’s............................Z-33
Using Thermistors ..................Z-36
Nicrosil/Nisil Type N
Thermocouple ........................Z-41
The Choice of Sheathing
for Mineral Insulated
Thermocouples.......................Z-45
Temperature Properties of
Some Metals, Elements
and Compounds .....................Z-48
Thermocouple Properties .........Z-49
Metal Sheathed and Exposed
Thermocouple Response
Times in Air ............................Z-51
Metal Sheathed and Exposed
Thermocouple Response
Times in Water .......................Z-52
OMEGA® Interchangeable
Thermistor Applications..........Z-53
Resistance Elements
and RTD’s ..............................Z-54
Introduction to Infrared
Pyrometers .............................Z-57
Principles of Infrared
Thermometry ..........................Z-59
Infrared Temperature
Measurement: Theory
and Application.......................Z-63
Noncontact Temperature
Measurement: Theory
and Application.......................Z-67
Fiber Optics ..............................Z-70
Handheld Infrared
Thermometers for
All Applications .......................Z-74
Principles of Infrared
Thermocouples.......................Z-76
Microcomputer-Based Infrared
Temperature Transducers......Z-81
Infrared Thermocouples
Extended Temperature
Ranges ...................................Z-84
Infrared Window Data...............Z-86
IR Quick Help ...........................Z-87
Table of Total Infrared
Emissivity ...............................Z-88
Cryogenic Temperature Sensors:
CY7 Series Silicon Diodes .....Z-90
Resolution and Accuracy of
Cryogenic Temperature
Measurements........................Z-94
Heat Wave:
A National Problem ..............Z-100
Dewpoint.................................Z-102
Equilibrium Relative Humidity:
Saturated Salt Solutions.......Z-103
Two-Wire Transmitters
For Temperature
Applications ..........................Z-104
How to Use Ferrite Cores
With Instrumentation ............Z-105
“Electromagnetic Compatibility”
and CE Conformity ...............Z-106
Low Noise Thermocouple
System .................................Z-108
Introduction to Temperature
Controllers and Selection
Considerations .....................Z-110
Temperature Control:
Tuning a PID Controller........Z-115
Controller Operation ...............Z-118
SSR Thermal Considerations..Z-119
OMEGA PT41 Precision
Clock/Timer/Controller
Functions..............................Z-122
Solid State Relays ..................Z-124
Intrinsic Safety ........................Z-128
Intrinsic Safety Circuit
Design ..................................Z-131
Selecting a Recorder ..............Z-149
Overview of IEEE-488 ............Z-151
ASCII Code Values
and Hexadecimal
Conversion Chart .................Z-154
The RS-232 Standard.............Z-157
Guidelines for Realizing the
ITS-90...................................Z-158
The International Temperature
Scale of 1990 .......................Z-186
International Standard
Codes ...................................Z-194
Application Notes:
Low-Cost Non-Electric
Temperature Gauges ...........Z-197
ITS-90 Thermocouple Direct
and Inverse Polynomials ......Z-198
Tungsten-Rhenium
Thermocouples:
Calibration Equivalents.........Z-202
Z-3
Thermocouple Reference Tables
Revised to ITS-90
Type J, Deg. C .....................Z-203
Type K, Deg. C.....................Z-204
Type E, Deg. C.....................Z-207
Type S, Deg. C.....................Z-208
Type R, Deg. C.....................Z-210
Type B, Deg. C.....................Z-212
Type N, Deg. C.....................Z-214
Type J, Deg. F......................Z-216
Type K, Deg. F .....................Z-218
Type E, Deg. F .....................Z-221
Type T, Deg. F .....................Z-225
Type S, Deg. F .....................Z-225
Type R, Deg. F .....................Z-228
Type B, Deg. F .....................Z-231
Type N, Deg. F .....................Z-237
Type C, Deg. C.....................Z-239
Type C, Deg. F .....................Z-241
Tungsten and Tungsten/
Rhenium:
Thermocouple Tables...........Z-246
CHROMEGA® vs. Gold-0.07
Atomic Percent Iron
Thermocouple Table
of Temp. vs.Thermoelectric
Voltage .................................Z-247
Space for Transmitters
in Probe Assembly Heads ....Z-249
Platinum Resistance Temp.
Detector:
Interchangability Tolerance
Chart.....................................Z-250
ITS-90 Polynomial for RTD
Temperature vs. Resistance ..Z-251
RTD Temp. vs. Resistance
Table For European Curve,
Alpha = .00385 .....................Z-252
RTD Temp. vs. Resistance
Table For American Curve,
Alpha = .00392 .....................Z-255
Thermistor
Resistance vs. Temp............Z-256
Resistance vs. Temperature
for Series “700”
Linear Thermistor Pairs ........Z-258
Temperature Conversion
Chart Between C and F........Z-259
Conversion Factors for
Physical Units of Measure....Z-261
Ohm’s Law, Summary ............Z-263
Conversion Factors for
Electrical Units of Measure...Z-264
Frequently Asked Questions
Q. How many feet of T/C wire can I
run?
A. For a specific instrument, check its
specifications to see if there are
any limits to the input impedance.
However as a rule of thumb, limit
the resistance to 100 Ohms
resistance maximum, and this
depends on the gage of the wire;
the larger the diameter, the less
resistance/foot, the longer the run
can be. However, if the
environment is electrically noisy,
then a transmitter may be required
which transmits a 4-20 mA signal
that can be run longer distances
and is more resistant to noise.
Q. Should I use a grounded or
ungrounded probe?
A. It depends on the instrumentation.
If there is any chance that there
may be a reference to ground
(common in controllers with non-
isolated inputs), then an
ungrounded probe is required. If the
instrument is a handheld meter,
then a grounded probe can almost
always be used.
Q. What size relay do I need to
control my heaters?
A. This must be calculated from known
parameters. Take the total wattage
of heaters and divide this value in
watts by the voltage rating of the
heaters in volts. The answer will be
in amperes, and solid state and
mechanical relays are rated by
“current rating” in amperes.
Q. Can I send my 4-20 mA control
output to a chart recorder to
monitor a process input?
A. No. A control output is designed to
control a valve or some equivalent
control device. If you need to send
an analog signal to a recording
device, then choose a controller
that has a “retransmission or
recorder output” option.
Q. Can I split my one T/C signal to
two separate instruments?
A. No. The T/C signal is a very low-
level millivolt signal, and should
only be connected to one device.
Splitting to two devices may result
in bad readings or loss of signal.
The solution is to use a “dual” T/C
probe, or convert one T/C output to
a 4-20 mA signal by using a
transmitter or signal conditioner;
then the new signal can be sent to
more than one instrument.
Q. What are the accuracies and
temperature ranges of the
various thermocouples?
A. They are summarized in the tables
on the first few pages of Section H.
It is important to know that both
accuracy and range depend on
such things as the thermocouple
alloys, the temperature being
measured, the construction of the
sensor, the material of the sheath,
the media being measured, the
state of the media (liquid, solid, or
gas) and the diameter of either the
thermocouple wire (if it is exposed)
or the sheath diameter (if the
thermocouple wire is not exposed
but is sheathed).
Q. Why can't I use ANY multimeter
for measuring temperature with
thermocouples? What errors will
result if I don't use a
thermocouple temperature
meter?
A. The magnitude of the
thermoelectric voltage depends on
the closed (sensing) end as well as
the open (measuring) end of the
particular thermocouple alloy leads.
Temperature sensing instruments
that use thermocouples take into
account the temperature of the
measuring end to determine the
temperature at the sensing end.
Most millivoltmeters do not have
this capability, nor do they have the
ability to do non-linear scaling to
convert a millivoltage measurement
to a temperature value. It is
possible to use lookup tables to
correct a particular millivoltage
reading and calculate the
temperature being sensed.
However, the correction value
needs to be continuously
recalculated, as it is generally not
constant over time. Small changes
in temperature at the measuring
instrument and the sensing end will
change the correction value.
Q. How can I choose between
thermocouples, resistance
temperature detectors (RTD’s),
thermistors and infrared devices
when measuring temperature?
A. You have to consider the
characteristics and costs of the
various sensors as well as the
available instrumentation. In
addition: THERMOCOUPLES
generally can measure
temperatures over wide
temperature ranges, inexpensively,
and are very rugged, but they are
not as accurate or stable as RTD’s
and thermistors. RTD’s are stable
and have a fairly wide temperature
range, but are not as rugged and
inexpensive as thermocouples.
Since they require the use of
Z-4
electric current to make
measurements, RTD’s are subject
to inaccuracies from self-heating.
THERMISTORS tend to be more
accurate than RTD’s or
thermocouples, but they have a
much more limited temperature
range. They are also subject to self-
heating. INFRARED SENSORS Z
can be used to measure
temperatures higher than any of the
other devices and do so without
direct contact with the surfaces
being measured. However, they are
generally not as accurate and are
sensitive to surface radiation
efficiency (or more precisely,
surface emissivity). Using fiber
optic cables, they can measure
surfaces that are not within a direct
line of sight.
Q. What are the two most often
overlooked considerations in
selecting an infrared temperature
measuring device?
A. The surface being measured must
fill the field of view, and the surface
emissivity must be taken into
account.
Q. What are the best ways of
overcoming electrical noise
problems?
A. 1) Use low noise, shielded leads,
connectors and probes. 2) Use
instruments and connectors that
suppress EMI and RF radiation.
3) Consider using analog signal
transmitters, especially current
transmitters. 4) Evaluate the
possibility of using digitized signals.
Q. If a part is moving, can I still
measure temperature?
A. Yes. Use infrared devices or direct
contacting sensors plus a slip ring
assembly.
Q. Can a two-color infrared system
be used to measure low
emissivity surfaces?
A. Only if at high temperature, say,
above 700°C (1300°F).
Q. What error will result if the spot
size of the infrared pyrometer is
larger than the target size?
A. It would be indeterminate. The
value would be a weighted average
that wouldn’t necessarily be
repeatable.
Q. What readout should be used
with the OS36, OS37 and OS38
units?
A. Using the DP5000, BS6000, or the
HH-200 would be best.
Presenting . . . OMEGA’s Temperature
Measurement and Control Glossary
A comprehensive glossary of terms used in the field of temperature measurement and control. A helpful reference
tool for scientists, engineers, and technicians!
Absolute Zero: Temperature at which thermal energy is at a minimum.
Defined as 0 Kelvin, calculated to be –273.15°C or –459.67°F.
AC: Alternating current; an electric current that reverses its direction at
regularly recurring intervals.
Accuracy: The closeness of an indication or reading of a measurement
device to the actual value of the quantity being measured. Usually
expressed as ± percent of full scale output or reading.
Adaptor: A mechanism or device for attaching non-mating parts.
ADC: Analog-to-Digital Converter: an electronic device which converts
analog signals to an equivalent digital form, in either a binary code
or a binary-coded decimal code. When used for dynamic
waveforms, the sampling rate must be high to prevent aliasing
errors from occurring.
Address: The label or number identifying the memory location where a
unit of information is stored.
Aliasing: If the sample rate of a function (fs) is less than two times the
highest frequency value of the function, the frequency is
ambiguously presented. The frequencies above (fs/2) will be folded
back into the lower frequencies producing erroneous data.
Alloy 11: A compensating alloy used in conjunction with pure copper
as the negative leg to form extension wire for platinum—platinum-
rhodium thermocouples Types R and S.
Alloy 200/226: The combination of compensating alloys used with
tungsten vs. tungsten/26%-rhenium thermocouples as extension
cable for applications under 200°C.
Alloy 203/225: The combination of compensating alloys used with
tungsten/3%-rhenium vs. tungsten/25%-rhenium thermocouples as
extension cable for applications under 200°C.
Alloy 405/426: The combination of compensating alloys used with
tungsten/5%-rhenium vs. tungsten/26%-rhenium thermocouples as
extension cable for applications under 870°C.
ALOMEGA®: An aluminum nickel alloy used in the negative leg of a
type K thermocouple (registered trademark of OMEGA
ENGINEERING, INC.).
Alphanumeric: A character set that contains both letters and digits.
Alumel: An aluminum nickel alloy used in the negative leg of a Type K
thermocouple (Trade name of Hoskins Manufacturing Company).
Ambient Compensation: The design of an instrument such that
changes in ambient temperature do not affect the readings of the
instrument.
Ambient Conditions: The conditions around the transducer (pressure,
temperature, etc.).
Ambient Temperature: The average or mean temperature of the
surrounding air which comes in contact with the equipment and
instruments under test.
Ammeter: An instrument used to measure current.
Ampere (amp): A unit used to define the rate of flow of electricity
(current) in a circuit; units are one coulomb (6.25 x 108 electrons)
per second.
Amplifier: A device which draws power from a source other than the
input signal and which produces as an output an enlarged
reproduction of the essential features of its input.
Amplitude: A measurement of the distance from the highest to the
lowest excursion of motion, as in the case of mechanical body in
oscillation or the peak-to-peak swing of an electrical waveform.
Analog Output: A voltage or current signal that is a continuous
function of the measured parameter.
Analog-to-Digital Converter (A/D or ADC): A device or circuit that
outputs a binary number corresponding to an analog signal level at
the input.
Angstrom: Ten to the minus tenth (10–10) meters or one millimicron, a
unit used to define the wavelength of light. Designated by the
symbol Å.
ANSI: American National Standards Institute.
Anti-Reset Windup: This is a feature in a three-mode PID controller
which prevents the integral (auto reset) circuit from functioning
when the temperature is outside the proportional band.
Application Program: A computer program that accomplishes specific
tasks, such as word processing.
Z-5
ASCII: American Standard Code for Information Interchange. A seven
or eight bit code used to represent alphanumeric characters. It is
the standard code used for communications between data
processing systems and associated equipment.
ASME: American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Assembler: A program that translates assembly language instructions
into machine language instructions.
ASTM: American Society for Testing and Materials.
Asynchronous: A communication method where data is sent when it is
ready without being referenced to a timing clock, rather than
waiting until the receiver signals that it is ready to receive.
ATC: Automatic temperature compensation.
Auto-Zero: An automatic internal correction for offsets and/or drift at
zero voltage input.
Automatic Reset: 1. A feature on a limit controller that automatically
resets the controller when the controlled temperature returns to
within the limit bandwidth set. 2. The integral function on a PID
controller which adjusts the proportional bandwidth with respect to
the set point to compensate for droop in the circuit, i.e., adjusts the
controlled temperature to a set point after the system stabilizes.
AWG: American Wire Gage.
Background Noise: The total noise floor from all sources of
interference in a measurement system, independent of the presence
of a data signal.
Backup: A system, device, file or facility that can be used as an
alternative in case of a malfunction or loss of data.
Bandwidth: A symmetrical region around the set point in which
proportional control occurs.
Basic: A high-level programming language designed at Dartmouth
College as a learning tool. Acronym for Beginner’s All-purpose
Symbolic Instruction Code.
Baud: A unit of data transmission speed equal to the number of bits
(or signal events) per second; 300 baud = 300 bits per second.
BCD, Buffered: Binary-coded decimal output with output drivers, to
increase line-drive capability.
BCD, Parallel: A digital data output format where every decimal digit
is represented by binary signals on four lines and all digits are
presented in parallel. The total number of lines is 4 times the
number of decimal digits.
BCD, Serial: A digital data output format where every decimal digit is
represented by binary signals on four lines and up to five decimal
digits are presented sequentially. The total number of lines is four
data lines plus one strobe line per digit.
BCD, Three-State: An implementation of parallel BCD, which has 0, 1
and high-impedance output states. The high-impedance state is
used when the BCD output is not addressed in parallel connect
applications.
Beryllia: BeO (Beryllium Oxide), a high-temperature mineral insulation
material; toxic when in powder form.
BIAS Current: A very low-level DC current generated by a panel meter
and superimposed on a signal. This current may introduce a
measurable offset across a very high source impedance.
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD): The representation of a decimal number
(base 10, 0 through 9) by means of a 4-bit binary nibble.
Binary: Refers to the base 2 numbering system, in which the only
allowable digits are 0 and 1. Pertaining to a condition that has only
two possible values or states.
Bipolar: The ability of a panel meter to display both positive and
negative readings.
Bit: Acronym for binary digit. The smallest unit of computer
information, it is either 0 or 1.
Blackbody: A theoretical object that radiates the maximum amount of
energy at a given temperature, and absorbs all the energy incident
upon it. A blackbody is not necessarily black. (The name blackbody
was chosen because the color black is defined as the total
absorption of light energy.)
BNC: A quick disconnect electrical connector used to interconnect
and/or terminate coaxial cables.
Temperature Measurement and Control Glossary
Boiling Point: The temperature at which a substance in the liquid
phase transforms to the gaseous phase; commonly refers to the
boiling point of water which is 100°C (212°F) at sea level.
BPS: Bits per second.
Breakdown Voltage Rating: The dc or ac voltage which can be applied
across insulation portions of a transducer without arcing or
conduction above a specific current value.
BTU: British thermal unit. The quantity of thermal energy required to
raise one pound of water at its maximum density, 1 degree F. One
BTU is equivalent to .293 watt hours, or 252 calories. One kilowatt
hour is equivalent to 3412 BTU.
Bulb (Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer): The area at the tip of a liquid-in-
glass thermometer containing the liquid reservoir.
Burn-In: A long term screening test (either vibration, temperature or
combined test) that is effective in weeding out premature failures
because it simulates actual or worst case operation of the device,
accelerated through a time, power, and temperature relationship.
Burst Proportioning: A fast-cycling output form on a time
proportioning controller (typically adjustable from 2 to 4 seconds)
used in conjunction with a solid state relay to prolong the life of
heaters by minimizing thermal stress.
Bus: Parallel lines used to transfer signals between devices or
components. Computers are often described by their bus structure
(i.e., S-100, IBM PC).
Byte: The representation of a character in binary. Eight bits.
Calender-van Dusen Equation: An equation that defines the
resistance-temperature value of any pure metal that takes the form
of (RT = RO) (1 + AT + BT2) for values between the ice point (0°C)
and the freezing point of antimony (630.7°C) and the form RT = RO
[1 + AT + BT2 + C (T–100)T2] between the oxygen point (–183.0°C)
and the ice point (0°C).
Calibration: The process of adjusting an instrument or compiling a
deviation chart so that its reading can be correlated to the actual
value being measured.
Calorie: The quantity of thermal energy required to raise one gram of
water 1°C at 15°C.
Cavitation: The boiling of a liquid caused by a decrease in pressure
rather than an increase in temperature.
Celsius (Centigrade): A temperature scale defined by 0°C at the ice
point and 100°C at the boiling point of water at sea level.
Ceramic Insulation: High-temperature compositions of metal oxides used
to insulate a pair of thermocouple wires. The most common are
Alumina (Al2O3), Beryllia (BeO), and Magnesia (MgO). Their application
depends upon temperature and type of thermocouple. High-purity
alumina is required for platinum alloy thermocouples. Ceramic
insulators are available as single and multihole tubes or as beads.
Ceramic: Polycrystalline ferroelectric materials which are used as the
sensing units in piezoelectric accelerometers. There are many
different grades, all of which can be made in various configurations
to satisfy different design requirements.
Character: A letter, digit or other symbol that is used as the
representation of data. A connected sequence of characters is called
a character string.
Chatter: The rapid cycling on and off of a relay in a control process
due to insufficient bandwidth in the controller.
CHROMEGA®: A chromium-nickel alloy which makes up the positive
leg of type K and type E thermocouples (registered trademark of
OMEGA ENGINEERING, INC.).
Clear: To restore a device to a prescribed initial state, usually the zero state.
Clipping: The term applied to the phenomenon which occurs when an
output signal is limited in some way by the full range of an
amplifier, ADC or other device. When this occurs, the signal is
flattened at the peak values, the signal approaches the shape of a
square wave, and high frequency components are introduced.
Clipping may be hard, as is the case when the signal is strictly
limited at some level, or it may be soft, in which case the clipping
signal continues to follow the input at some reduced gain.
Clock: The device that generates periodic signals for synchronization.
Closeness of Control: Total temperature variation from a desired set
point of system. Expressed as “closeness of control” is ±2°C or a
system bandwidth with 4°C, also referred to as “amplitude of
deviation.”
CMR (Common-Mode Rejection): The ability of a panel meter to
eliminate the effect of AC or DC noise between signal and ground.
Normally expressed in dB at dc to 60 Hz. One type of CMR is
specified between SIG LO and PWR GND. In differential meters, a
second type of CMR is specified between SIG LO and ANA GND
(METER GND).
Z-6
CMV (Common-Mode Voltage): The AC or DC voltage which is
tolerable between signal and ground. One type of CMV is specified
between SIG LO and PWR GND. In differential meters, a second
type of CMV is specified between SIG HI or LO and ANA GND
(METER GND).
Color Code: The ANSI established color code for thermocouple wires
in the negative lead is always red. Color Code for base metal
thermocouples is yellow for Type K, black for Type J, purple for
Type E and blue for Type T.
Common Mode: The output form or type of control action used by a
temperature controller to control temperature, i.e. on/off, time
proportioning, PID.
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio: The ability of an instrument to reject
interference from a common voltage at it’s input terminals with
relation to ground, usually expressed in dB (decibels).
Communication: Transmission and reception of data among data
processing equipment and related peripherals.
Z
Compensated Connector: A connector made of thermocouple alloys
used to connect thermocouple probes and wires.
Compensating Alloys: Alloys used to connect thermocouples to
instrumentation. These alloys are selected to have similar thermal
electric properties as the thermocouple alloys (however, only over a
very limited temperature range).
Compensating Loop: Lead wire resistance compensation for RTD
elements where an extra length of wire is run from the instrument to
the RTD and back to the instrument, with no connection to the RTD.
Compensation: An addition of specific materials or devices to
counteract a known error.
Compiler: A program that translates a high-level language, such as
Basic, into machine language.
Conductance: The measure of the ability of a solution to carry an
electrical current. (See Equivalent Conductance)
Conduction: The conveying of electrical energy or heat through or by
means of a conductor.
Confidence Level: The range (with a specified value of uncertainty,
usually expressed in percent) within which the true value of a
measured quantity exists.
Conformity Error: For thermocouples and RTD’s, the difference
between the actual reading and the temperature shown in published
tables for a specific voltage input.
Connection Head: An enclosure attached to the end of a thermocouple
which can be cast iron, aluminum or plastic within which the
electrical connections are made.
Constantan: A copper-nickel alloy used as the negative lead in Type E,
Type J, and Type T thermocouples.
Continuous Spectrum: A frequency spectrum that is characterized by
non-periodic data. The spectrum is continuous in the frequency
domain and is characterized by an infinite number of frequency
components.
Control Character: A character whose occurrence in a particular
context starts, modifies or stops an operation that affects the
recording, processing, transmission or interpretation of data.
Control Mode: The output form or type of control action used by a
temperature controller to control temperature, i.e., on/off, time
proportioning, PID.
Control Point: The temperature at which a system is to be maintained.
Convection: 1. The circulatory motion that occurs in a fluid at a non-
uniform temperature owing to the variation of its density and the action
of gravity. 2. The transfer of heat by this automatic circulation of fluid.
Counts: The number of time intervals counted by the dual-slope A/D
converter and displayed as the reading of the panel meter, before
addition of the decimal point.
CPS: Cycles per second; the rate or number of periodic events in one
second, expressed in Hertz (Hz).
CPU: Central processing unit. The part of the computer that contains
the circuits that control and perform the execution of computer
instructions.
Critical Damping: Critical damping is the smallest amount of damping
at which a given system is able to respond to a step function
without overshoot.
Cryogenics: Measurement of temperature at extremely low values, i.e.,
below –200°C.
CSA: Canadian Standards Administration.
Current Proportioning: An output form of a temperature controller
which provides a current proportional to the amount of control
required. Normally, a 4 to 20 milliamp current proportioning
band.
Temperature Measurement and Control Glossary
Current: The rate of flow of electricity. The unit is the ampere (a)
defined as 1 ampere = 1 coulomb per second.
Curve Fitting: Curve fitting is the process of computing the
coefficients of a function to approximate the values of a given data
set within that function. The approximation is called a “fit”. A
mathematical function, such as a least squares regression, is used
to judge the accuracy of the fit.
Cycle Time: The time, usually expressed in seconds, for a controller to
complete one on/off cycle.
Damping: The reduction of vibratory movement through dissipation of
energy. Types include viscous, coulomb, and solid.
Data Base: A large amount of data stored in a well-organized manner.
A data base management system (DBMS) is a program that allows
access to the information.
dB (Decibel): 20 times the log to the base 10 of the ratio of two
voltages. Every 20 dB’s correspond to a voltage ratio of 10, every
10 dB’s to a voltage ratio of 3.162. For instance, a CMR of 120 dB
provides voltage noise rejection of 1,000,000/1. An NMR of 70 dB
provides voltage noise rejection of 3,162/1.
DC: Direct current; an electric current flowing in one direction only and
substantially constant in value.
Deadband: 1. For chart records: the minimum change of input signal
required to cause a deflection in the pen position. 2. For temperature
controllers: the temperature band where heat is turned off upon rising
temperature and turned on upon falling temperature expressed in
degrees. The area where no heating (or cooling) takes place.
Debug: To find and correct mistakes in a program.
Decimal: Refers to a base ten number system using the characters 0
through 9 to represent values.
Default: The value(s) or option(s) that are assumed during operation
when not specified.
Degree: An incremental value in the temperature scale, i.e., there are
100 degrees between the ice point and the boiling point of water in
the Celsius scale and 180°F between the same two points in the
Fahrenheit scale.
Density: Mass per unit of volume of a substance, i.e.: grams/cu.cm. or
pounds/cu.ft.
Deviation: The difference between the value of the controlled variable
and the value at which it is being controlled.
Differential Input: A signal-input circuit where SIG LO and SIG HI are
electrically floating with respect to ANALOG GND (METER GND,
which is normally tied to DIG GND). This allows the measurement
of the voltage difference between two signals tied to the same
ground and provides superior common-mode noise rejection.
Differential: For an on/off controller, it refers to the temperature
difference between the temperature at which the controller turns
heat off and the temperature at which the heat is turned back on. It
is expressed in degrees.
Digit: A measure of the display span of a panel meter. By convention, a
full digit can assume any value from 0 through 9, a 1⁄2-digit will
display a 1 and overload at 2, a 3⁄4-digit will display digits up to 3 and
overload at 4, etc. For example, a meter with a display span of
±3999 counts is said to be a 3 3⁄4 digit meter.
Digital Output: An output signal which represents the size of an input
in the form of a series of discrete quantities.
Digital-to-Analog Converter (D/A or DAC): A device or circuit to
convert a digital value to an analog signal level.
DIN (Deutsche Industrial Norm): A set of German standards
recognized throughout the world. The 1⁄8 DIN standard for panel
meters specifies an outer bezel dimension of 96 x 48 mm and a
panel cutout of 92 x 45 mm.
DIN 43760: The standard that defines the characteristics of a 100 ohm
platinum RTD having a resistance vs. temperature curve specified
by a = 0.00385 ohms per degree.
Discharge Time Constant: The time required for the output-voltage
from a sensor or system to discharge 37% of its original value in
response to a zero rise time step function input. This parameter
determines a low frequency response.
Disk Operating System (DOS): Program used to control the transfer of
information to and from a disk, such as MS DOS.
Displacement: The measured distance traveled by a point from its
position at rest. Peak to peak displacement is the total measured
movement of a vibrating point between its positive and negative
extremes. Measurement units expressed as inches or milli-inches.
Dissipation Constant: The ratio for a thermistor which relates a change
in internal power dissipation to a resultant change of body
temperature.
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Drift: A change of a reading or a set point value over long periods due
to several factors including change in ambient temperature, time,
and line voltage.
Droop: A common occurrence in time-proportional controllers. It
refers to the difference in temperature between the set point and
where the system temperature actually stabilizes due to the time-
proportioning action of the controller.
Dual Element Sensor: A sensor assembly with two independent
sensing elements.
Dual-Slope A/D Converter: An analog-to-digital converter which
integrates the signal for a specific time, then counts time intervals
for a reference voltage to bring the integrated signal back to zero.
Such converters provide high resolution at low cost, excellent
normal-mode noise rejection, and minimal dependence on circuit
elements.
Duplex: Pertaining to simultaneous two-way independent data
communication transmission in both directions. Same as “full
duplex”.
Duplex Wire: A pair of wires insulated from each other and with an
outer jacket of insulation around the inner insulated pair.
Duty Cycle: The total time to one on/off cycle. Usually refers to the
on/off cycle time of a temperature controller.
Dynamic Calibration: Calibration in which the input varies over a
specific length of time and the output is recorded vs. time.
Echo: To reflect received data to the sender. For example, keys
depressed on a keyboard are usually echoed as characters
displayed on the screen.
Electrical Interference: Electrical noise induced upon the signal wires
that obscures the wanted information signal.
Electromotive Force (emf): The potential difference between the two
electrodes in a cell. The cell emf is the cell voltage measured when
no current is flowing through the cell. It can be measured by means
of a pH meter with high input impedance.
Electronic Industries Association (EIA): A standards organization
specializing in the electrical and functional characteristics of
interface equipment.
EMF: Electromotive force. A rise in (electrical) potential energy. The
principal unit is the volt.
EMI: Electromagnetic interference.
Emissivity: The ratio of energy emitted by an object to the energy
emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature. The emissivity of
an object depends upon its material and surface texture; a polished
metal surface can have an emissivity around 0.2 and a piece of
wood can have an emissivity around 0.95.
Endothermic: A process is said to be endothermic when it absorbs
heat.
End Point (Potentiometric): The apparent equivalence point of a
titration at which a relatively large potential change is observed.
Enthalpy: The sum of the internal energy of a body and the product of
its volume multiplied by the pressure.
Environmental Conditions: All conditions to which a transducer may
be exposed during shipping, storage, handling, and operation.
Eprom: Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory. The PROM can be
erased by ultraviolet light or electricity.
Error: The difference between the value indicated by the transducer
and the true value of the measured value being sensed. Usually
expressed in percent of full scale output.
Error Band: The allowable deviations to output from a specific
reference norm. Usually expressed as a percentage of full scale.
Eutectic Temperature: The lowest possible melting point of a mixture
of alloys.
Excitation: The external application of electrical voltage current applied
to a transducer for normal operation.
Exothermic: A process is said to be exothermic when it releases heat.
Expansion Factor: Correction factor for the change in density between
two pressure measurement areas in a constricted flow.
Explosion-Proof Enclosure: An enclosure that can withstand an
explosion of gases within it and prevent the explosion of gases
surrounding it due to sparks, flashes or the explosion of the
container itself, and maintain an external temperature which will not
ignite the surrounding gases.
Exposed Junction: A form of construction of a thermocouple probe
where the hot or measuring junction protrudes beyond the sheath
material so as to be fully exposed to the medium being measured.
This form of construction usually gives the fastest response time.
Temperature Measurement and Control Glossary
Fahrenheit: A temperature scale defined by 32° at the ice point and
212° at the boiling point of water at sea level.
Ferrule: A compressible tubular fitting that is compressed onto a
probe inside a compression fitting to form a gas-tight seal.
Field of View: A volume in space defined by an angular cone extending
from the focal plane of an instrument.
File: A set of related records or data treated as a unit.
Firmware: Programs stored in PROM’s.
Flag: Any of various types of indicators used for identification of a
condition or event, for example, a character that signals the
termination of a transmission.
Floppy Disk: A small, flexible disk carrying a magnetic medium in
which digital data is stored for later retrieval and use.
FM: Factory Mutual Research Corporation. An organization which sets
industrial safety standards.
FM Approved: An instrument that meets a specific set of specifications
established by Factory Mutual Research Corporation.
FORTRAN: Formula Translation language. A widely used high-level
programming language well suited to problems that can be
expressed in terms of algebraic formulas. It is generally used in
scientific applications.
Freezing Point: The temperature at which a substance goes from the
liquid phase to the solid phase.
Frequency: The number of cycles over a specified time period over
which an event occurs. The reciprocal is called the period.
Frequency Modulated Output: A transducer output which is obtained
in the form of a deviation from a center frequency, where the
deviation is proportional to the applied stimulus.
Frequency, Natural: The frequency of free (not forced) oscillations of
the sensing element of a fully assembled transducer.
Frequency Output: An output in the form of frequency which varies as
a function of the applied input.
Full Scale Output: The algebraic difference between the minimum
output and maximum output.
Gain: The amount of amplification used in an electrical circuit.
Galvanometer: An instrument that measures small electrical currents
by means of deflecting magnetic coils.
Ground: 1. The electrical neutral line having the same potential as the
surrounding earth. 2. The negative side of DC power supply. 3.
Reference point for an electrical system.
Grounded Junction: A form of construction of a thermocouple probe
where the hot or measuring junction is in electrical contact with the
sheath material so that the sheath and thermocouple will have the
same electrical potential.
Half-Duplex: One way at a time data communication; both devices can
transmit and receive data, but only one at a time.
Handshake: An interface procedure that is based on status/data signals
that assure orderly data transfer as opposed to asynchronous
exchange.
Hardcopy: Output in a permanent form (usually a printout) rather than
in temporary form, as on disk or terminal display.
Hardware: The electrical, mechanical and electromechanical
equipment and parts associated with a computing system, as
opposed to its firmware or software.
Heat: Thermal energy. Heat is expressed in units of calories or BTU’s.
Heat Sink: 1. Thermodynamic. A body which can absorb thermal
energy. 2. Practical. A finned piece of metal used to dissipate the
heat of solid state components mounted on it.
Heat Transfer: The process of thermal energy flowing from a body of
high energy to a body of low energy. Means of transfer are:
conduction; the two bodies contact. Convection; a form of
conduction where the two bodies in contact are of different phases,
i.e. solid and gas. Radiation: all bodies emit infrared radiation.
Heat Treating: A process for treating metals where heating to a
specific temperature and cooling at a specific rate changes the
properties of the metal.
Hertz (Hz): Units in which frequency is expressed. Synonymous with
cycles per second.
Hexadecimal: Refers to a base sixteen number system using the
characters 0 through 9 and A through F to represent the values.
Machine language programs are often written in hexadecimal notation.
Hold: Meter HOLD is an external input which is used to stop the A/D
process and freeze the display. BCD HOLD is an external input used
to freeze the BCD output while allowing the A/D process to continue
operation.
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Host: The primary or controlling computer in a multiple part system.
Hysteresis: The difference in output when the measurand value is first
approached with increasing and then with decreasing values.
Expressed in percent of full scale during any one calibration cycle.
See Deadband
Impedance: The total opposition to electrical flow (resistive plus
reactive).
Infrared: an area in the electromagnetic spectrum extending beyond
red light from 760 nanometers to 1000 microns (106 nm). It is the
form of radiation used for making non-contact temperature
measurements.
Input Impedance: The resistance of a panel meter as seen from the
source. In the case of a voltmeter, this resistance has to be taken
into account when the source impedance is high; in the case of an
ammeter, when the source impedance is low. Z
Insulated Junction: See Ungrounded Junction
Insulation Resistance: The resistance measured between two
insulated points on a transducer when a specific dc voltage is
applied at room temperature.
Integral: A form of temperature control. See Automatic Reset (2)
Interchangeability Error: A measurement error that can occur if two or
more probes are used to make the same measurement. It is caused
by a slight variation in characteristics of different probes.
Interface: The means by which two systems or devices are connected
and interact with each other.
Interrupt: To stop a process in such a way that it can be resumed.
Intrinsically Safe: An instrument which will not produce any spark or
thermal effects under normal or abnormal conditions that will ignite
a specified gas mixture.
IPTS-48: International Practical Temperature Scale of 1948. Fixed
points in thermometry as specified by the Ninth General Conference
of Weights and Measures which was held in 1948.
IPTS-68: International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968. Fixed
points in thermometry set by the 1968 General Conference of
Weights and Measures.
ISA: Instrument Society of America.
Isolation: The reduction of the capacity of a system to respond to an
external force by use of resilient isolating materials.
Isothermal: A process or area that is a constant temperature.
Joule: The basic unit of thermal energy.
Junction: The point in a thermocouple where the two dissimilar metals
are joined.
K: When referring to memory capacity, two to the tenth power (1024 in
decimal notation).
Kelvin: Symbol K. The unit of absolute or thermodynamic temperature
scale based upon the Celsius scale with 100 units between the ice
point and boiling point of water. 0°C = 273.15K (there is no degree
(°) symbol used with the Kelvin scale).
Kilowatt (kw): Equivalent to 1000 watts.
Kilowatt Hour (kwh): 1000 watthours. Kilovolt amperes (kva): 1000
volt amps.
KVA: Kilovolt amperes (1000 volt amps).
Lag: 1. A time delay between the output of a signal and the response
of the instrument to which the signal is sent. 2. A time relationship
between two waveforms where a fixed reference point on one wave
occurs after the same point of the reference wave.
Latent Heat: Expressed in BTU per pound. The amount of heat needed
(absorbed) to convert a pound of boiling water to a pound of steam.
Leakage Rate: The maximum rate at which a fluid is permitted or
determined to leak through a seal.
Limits of Error: A tolerance band for the thermal electric response of
thermocouple wire expressed in degrees or percentage defined by
ANSI specification MC-96.1 (1975).
Linearity: The closeness of a calibration curve to a specified straight
line. Linearity is expressed as the maximum deviation of any
calibration point on a specified straight line during any one
calibration cycle.
Load: The electrical demand of a process expressed as power (watts),
current (amps) or resistance (ohms).
Load Impedance: The impedance presented to the output terminals of
a transducer by the associated external circuitry.
Logarithmic Scale: A method of displaying data (in powers of ten) to yield
maximum range while keeping resolution at the low end of the scale.
Temperature Measurement and Control Glossary
Loop Resistance: The total resistance of a thermocouple circuit
caused by the resistance of the thermocouple wire. Usually used in
reference to analog pyrometers which have typical loop resistance
requirements of 10 ohms.
LSD (Least-Significant Digit): The rightmost active (non-dummy)
digit of the display.
LS-TTL Compatible: For digital input circuits, a logic 1 is obtained for
inputs of 2.0 to 5.5 V which can source 20 µA, and a logic 0 is
obtained for inputs of 0 to 0.8 V which can sink 400 µA. For digital
output signals, a logic 1 is represented by 2.4 to 5.5 V with a
current source capability of at least 400 µA, and a logic 0 is
represented by 0 to 0.6 V with a current sink capability of at least 16
MA. “LS” stands for Low-power Schottky.
LS-TTL Unit Load: A load with LS-TTL voltage levels, which will draw
20 µA for a logic 1 and –400 µA for a logic 0.
M: Mega; one million. When referring to memory capacity, two to the
twentieth power (1,048,576 in decimal notation).
Manual Reset (Adjustment): The adjustment on a proportioning
controller which shifts the proportioning band in relationship to the
set point to eliminate droop or offset errors.
Manual Reset (Switch): The switch in a limit controller that manually
resets the controller after the limit has been exceeded.
Maximum Operating Temperature: The maximum temperature at
which an instrument or sensor can be safely operated.
Maximum Power Rating: The maximum power in watts that a device
can safely handle.
Mean Temperature: The average of the maximum and minimum
temperature of a process equilibrium.
Measurand: A physical quantity, property, or condition which is measured.
Measuring Junction: The thermocouple junction referred to as the hot
junction that is used to measure an unknown temperature.
Melting Point: The temperature at which a substance transforms from
a solid phase to a liquid phase.
Mica: A transparent mineral used as window material in high-
temperature ovens.
Microamp: One millionth of an ampere, 10–6 amps.
Microcomputer: A computer which is physically small. It can fit on top
of or under a desk; based on LSI circuitry, computers of this type
are now available with much of the power currently associated with
minicomputer systems.
Micron: One millionth of a meter, 10–6 meters.
Microvolt: One millionth of a volt, 10–6 volts.
Mil: One thousandth of an inch (.001≤).
Milliamp: One thousandth of an amp, 10–3 amps, symbol mA.
Millimeter: One thousandth of a meter, symbol mm.
Millivolt: Unit of electromotive force. It is the difference in potential
required to make a current of 1 millampere flow through a
resistance of 1 ohm; one thousandth of a volt, symbol mV.
Mineral-insulated Thermocouple: A type of thermocouple cable which
has an outer metal sheath and mineral (magnesium oxide)
insulation inside separating a pair of thermocouple wires from
themselves and from the outer sheath. This cable is usually drawn
down to compact the mineral insulation and is available in
diameters from .375 to .010 inches. It is ideally suited for high-
temperature and severe-duty applications.
Minor Scale Division: On an analog scale, the smallest indicated
division of units on the scale.
Modem: Modulator/Demodulator. A device that transforms digital
signals into audio tones for transmission over telephone lines, and
does the reverse for reception.
MSD (Most-Significant Digit): The leftmost digit of the display.
Mueller Bridge: A high-accuracy bridge configuration used to measure
three-wire RTD thermometers.
Multiplex: A technique which allows different input (or output) signals
to use the same lines at different times, controlled by an external
signal. Multiplexing is used to save on wiring and I/O ports.
N/C (No Connection): A connector point for which there is no internal
connection.
NBS: National Bureau of Standards.
NEC: National Electric Codes.
Negative Temperature Coefficient: A decrease in resistance with an
increase in temperature.
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NEMA-4: A standard from the National Electrical Manufacturers
Association, which defines enclosures intended for indoor or
outdoor use primarily to provide a degree of protection against
windblown dust and rain, splashing water, and hose-directed water.
NEMA-7: A standard from the National Electrical Manufacturers
Association, which defines explosion-proof enclosures for use in
locations classified as Class I, Groups A, B, C or D, as specified in
the National Electrical Code.
NEMA-12: A standard from the National Electrical Manufacturers
Association, which defines enclosures with protection against dirt,
dust, splashes by non-corrosive liquids, and salt spray.
NEMA-Size Case: An older US case standard for panel meters, which
requires a panel cutout of 3.93 x 1.69 inches.
Network: A group of computers that are connected to each other by
communications lines to share information and resources.
Nibble: One half of a byte.
Nicrosil/Nisil: A nickel-chrome/nickel-silicone thermal alloy used to
measure high temperatures. Inconsistencies in thermoelectric
voltages exist in these alloys with respect to the wire gage.
NMR (Normal-Mode Rejection): The ability of a panel meter to filter
out noise superimposed on the signal and applied across the SIG HI
to SIG LO input terminals. Normally expressed in dB at 50/60 Hz.
Noise: An unwanted electrical interference on the signal wires.
Normal-Mode Rejection Ratio: The ability of an instrument to reject
interference usually of line frequency (50–60 Hz) across its input
terminals.
NPT: National Pipe Thread.
Null: A condition, such as balance, which results in a minimum
absolute value of output.
Octal: Pertaining to a base 8 number system.
O.D.: Outside diameter.
Offset: The difference in temperature between the set point and the
actual process temperature. Also referred to as droop.
Ohmmeter: An instrument used to measure electrical resistance.
On/off Controller: A controller whose action is fully on or fully off.
Open Circuit: The lack of electrical contact in any part of the
measuring circuit. An open circuit is usually characterized by rapid
large jumps in displayed potential, followed by an off-scale reading.
Operating System: A collection of programs that controls the overall
operation of a computer and performs such tasks as assigning places
in memory to programs and data, processing interrupts, scheduling
jobs and controlling the overall input/output of the system.
Optical Isolation: Two networks which are connected only through an
LED transmitter and photoelectric receiver with no electrical
continuity between the two networks.
Output: The electrical signal which is produced by an applied input to
the transducer.
Output Impedance: The resistance as measured on the output
terminals of a pressure transducer.
Output Noise: The RMS, peak-to-peak (as specified) ac component of
a transducer’s dc output in the absence of a measurand variation.
Overshoot: The number of degrees by which a process exceeds the set
point temperature when coming up to the set point temperature.
Parallax: An optical illusion which occurs in analog meters and causes
reading errors. It occurs when the viewing eye is not in the same
plane, perpendicular to the meter face, as the indicating needle.
Parallel Transmission: Sending all data bits simultaneously.
Commonly used for communications between computers and
printer devices.
Parity: A technique for testing transmitting data. Typically, a binary
digit is added to the data to make the sum of all the digits of the
binary data either always even (even parity) or always odd (odd
parity).
Peltier Effect: When a current flows through a thermocouple junction,
heat will either be absorbed or evolved depending on the direction
of current flow. This effect is independent of joule I2 R heating.
Peripheral: A device that is external to the CPU and main memory, i.e.,
printer, modem or terminal, but is connected by the appropriate
electrical connections.
Phase: A time-based relationship between a periodic function and a
reference. In electricity, it is expressed in angular degrees to
describe the voltage or current relationship of two alternating
waveforms.
Phase Difference: The time expressed in degrees between the same
reference point on two periodic waveforms.
Temperature Measurement and Control Glossary
Phase Proportioning: A form of temperature control where the power
supplied to the process is controlled by limiting the phase angle of
the line voltage.
PID: Proportional, integral, derivative. A three-mode control action
where the controller has time proportioning, integral (auto reset)
and derivative rate action.
Piezoresistance: Resistance that changes with stress.
Pixel: Picture element. Definable locations on a display screen that are
used to form images on the screen. For graphic displays, screens
with more pixels provide higher resolution.
Platinel: A non-standard, high temperature platinum thermocouple
alloy whose thermoelectric voltage nearly matches a Type K
thermocouple (Trademark of Englehard Industries).
Platinum: A noble metal which in its pure form is the negative wire of
Type R and Type S thermocouples.
Platinum 6% Rhodium: The platinum-rhodium alloy used as the
negative wire in conjunction with platinum-30% rhodium to form a
Type B thermocouple.
Platinum 10% Rhodium: The platinum-rhodium alloy used as the
positive wire in conjunction with pure platinum to form a Type S
thermocouple.
Platinum 13% Rhodium: The platinum-rhodium alloy used as the
positive wire in conjunction with pure platinum to form a Type R
thermocouple.
Platinum 30% Rhodium: The platinum-rhodium alloy used as the
positive wire in conjunction with platinum 6% rhodium to form a
Type B thermocouple.
Platinum 67: To develop thermal emf tables for thermocouples, the
National Bureau of Standards paired each thermocouple alloy
against a pure platinum wire (designated Platinum 2 prior to 1973,
and currently Platinum 67). The thermal emf’s of any alloy
combination can be determined by summing the “vs. Pt-67” emf’s
of the alloys, i.e., the emf table for a Type K thermocouple is derived
from the Chromel vs. Pt-67 and the Alumel vs .Pt-67 values.
Polarity: In electricity, the quality of having two oppositely charged
poles, one positive, one negative.
Port: A signal input (access) or output point on a computer.
Positive Temperature Coefficient: An increase in resistance due to an
increase in temperature.
Potential Energy: Energy related to the position or height above a
place to which fluid could possibly flow.
Potentiometer: 1. A variable resistor often used to control a circuit.
2. A balancing bridge used to measure voltage.
Power Supply: A separate unit or part of a circuit that supplies power
to the rest of the circuit or to a system.
PPM: Abbreviation for “parts per million,” sometimes used to express
temperature coefficients. For instance, 100 ppm is identical to 0.01%.
Primary Standard (NBS): The standard reference units and physical
constants maintained by the National Bureau of Standards upon
which all measurement units in the United States are based.
Probe: A generic term that is used to describe many types of
temperature sensor.
Process Meter: A panel meter with sizeable zero and span adjustment
capabilities, which can be scaled for readout in engineering units for
signals such as 4–20 mA, 10–50 mA and 1–5 V.
Program: A list of instructions that a computer follows to perform a
task.
Prom: Programmable read-only memory. A semiconductor memory
whose contents cannot be changed by the computer after it has
been programmed.
Proportioning Band: A temperature band expressed in degrees within
which a temperature controller’s time proportioning function is
active.
Proportioning Control Mode: A time proportioning controller where
the amount of time that the relay is energized is dependent upon the
system’s temperature.
Proportioning Control plus Derivative Function: A time proportioning
controller with a derivative function. The derivative function senses
the rate at which a system’s temperature is either increasing or
decreasing and adjusts the cycle time of the controller to minimize
overshoot or undershoot.
Proportioning Control plus Integral: A two-mode controller with time
proportioning and integral (auto reset) action. The integral function
automatically adjusts the temperature at which a system has
stabilized back to the set point temperature, thereby eliminating
droop in the system.
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Proportioning Control with Integral and Derivative Functions: Three
mode PID controller. A time-proportioning controller with integral
and derivative functions. The integral function automatically adjusts
the system temperature to the set point temperature to eliminate
droop due to the time proportioning function. The derivative
function senses the rate of rise or fall of the system temperature
and automatically adjusts the cycle time of the controller to
minimize overshoot or undershoot.
Protection Head: An enclosure usually made out of metal at the end of
a heater or probe where connections are made.
Protection Tube: A metal or ceramic tube, closed at one end, into
which a temperature sensor is inserted. The tube protects the
sensor from the medium into which it is inserted.
Protocol: A formal definition that describes how data is to be
exchanged.
PSIA: Pounds per square inch absolute. Pressure referenced to a
vacuum.
Z
PSID: Pounds per square inch differential. Pressure difference between
two points.
PSIG: Pound per square inch gage. Pressure referenced to ambient air
pressure.
PSIS: Pounds per square inch standard. Pressure referenced to a
standard atmosphere.
Pulse Width Modulation: An output in the form of duty cycle which
varies as a function of the applied measurand.
Radiation: See Infrared
Random Access Memory (RAM): Memory that can be both read and
changed during computer operation. Unlike other semi-conductor
memories, RAM is volatile—if power to the RAM is disrupted or
lost, all the data stored is lost.
Range: Those values which a transducer is intended to measure,
specified by upper and lower limits.
Rangeability: The ratio of the maximum flowrate to the minimum
flowrate of a meter.
Rankine (°R): An absolute temperature scale based upon the
Fahrenheit scale with 180° between the ice point and boiling point
of water. 459.67°R = 0°F.
Rate Action: The derivative function of a temperature controller.
Rate Time: The time interval over which the system temperature is
sampled for the derivative function.
Ratiometric Measurement: A measurement technique where an
external signal is used to provide the voltage reference for the dual-
slope A/D converter. The external signal can be derived from the
voltage excitation applied to a bridge circuit or pick-off supply,
thereby eliminating errors due to power supply fluctuations.
Read Only Memory (ROM): Memory that contains fixed data. The
computer can read the data, but cannot change it in any way.
Real Time: The time interval over which the system temperature is
sampled for the derivative function.
Record: A collection of unrelated information that is treated as a single
unit.
Recovery Time: The length of time which it takes a transducer to
return to normal after applying a proof pressure.
Reference Junction: The cold junction in a thermocouple circuit which is
held at a stable, known temperature. The standard reference
temperature is 0°C (32°F). However, other temperatures can be used.
Refractory Metal Thermocouple: A class of thermocouples with
melting points above 3600°F. The most common are made from
tungsten and tungsten/rhenium alloys, Types G and C. They can be
used for measuring high temperatures up to 4000°F (2200°C) in
non-oxidizing, inert, or vacuum environments.
Relay (Mechanical): An electromechanical device that completes or
interrupts a circuit by physically moving electrical contacts into
contact with each other.
Relay (Solid State): A solid state switching device which completes or
interrupts a circuit electrically with no moving parts.
Remote: Not hard-wired; communicating via switched lines, such as
telephone lines. Usually refers to peripheral devices that are located
at a site away from the CPU.
Repeatability: The ability of a transducer to reproduce output readings
when the same measurand value is applied to it consecutively,
under the same conditions, and in the same direction. Repeatability
is expressed as the maximum difference between output readings.
Resistance: The resistance to the flow of electric current measured in
ohms (Ω). For a conductor, resistance is a function of diameter,
resistivity (an intrinsic property of the material) and length.
Temperature Measurement and Control Glossary
Resistance Ratio Characteristic: For thermistors, the ratio of the
resistance of the thermistor at 25°C to the resistance at 125°C.
Resistance Temperature Characteristic: A relationship between a
thermistor’s resistance and the temperature.
Resolution: The smallest detectable increment of measurement.
Resolution is usually limited by the number of bits used to quantize
the input signal. For example, a 12-bit A/D can resolve to one part in
4096 (2 to the 12 power equals 4096).
Resonant Frequency: The measurand frequency at which a transducer
responds with maximum amplitude.
Response Time: The length of time required for the output of a
transducer to rise to a specified percentage of its final value as a
result of a step change of input.
Response Time (time constant): The time required by a sensor to
reach 63.2% of a step change in temperature under a specified set
of conditions. Five time constants are required for the sensor to
stabilize at 100% of the step change value.
RFI: Radio frequency interference.
Rheostat: A variable resistor.
Rise Time: The time required for a sensor or system to respond to an
instantaneous step function, measured from the 10% to 90% points
on the response waveforms.
Room Conditions: Ambient environmental conditions under which
transducers must commonly operate.
Root Mean Square (RMS): Square root of the mean of the square of
the signal taken during one full cycle.
RTD: Resistance temperature detector.
SAMA: Scientific Apparatus Makers Association. An association that
has issued standards covering platinum, nickel, and copper
resistance elements (RTD’s).
SCR: Silicon controlled rectifier.
Scroll: To move all or part of the screen material up or down, left or
right, to allow new information to appear.
Seebeck Coefficient: The derivative (rate of change) of thermal EMF with
respect to temperature, normally expressed as millivolts per degree.
Seebeck Effect: When a circuit is formed by a junction of two
dissimilar metals and the junctions are held at different
temperatures, a current will flow in the circuit caused by the
difference in temperature between the two junctions.
Seebeck EMF: The open circuit voltage caused by the difference in
temperature between the hot and cold junctions of a circuit made
from two dissimilar metals.
Self-Heating: Internal heating of a transducer as a result of power
dissipation.
Sensing Element: That part of a transducer which reacts directly in
response to input.
Sensitivity: The minimum change in input signal to which an
instrument can respond.
Sensitivity Shift: A change in slope of the calibration curve due to a
change in sensitivity.
Sequential Access: An access mode in which records are retrieved in
the same order in which they were written. Each successive access
to the file refers to the next record in the file.
Serial Transmission: Sending one bit at a time on a single
transmission line. Compare with Parallel Transmission.
Set Point: The temperature at which a controller is set to control a
system.
Settling Time: The time taken for the display to settle within one digit
final value when a step is applied to the meter input.
SI: System Internationale. The name given to the standard metric
system of units.
Signal: An electrical transmittance (either input or output) that
conveys information.
Signal Conditioner: A circuit module which offsets, attenuates,
amplifies, linearizes and/or filters the signal for input to the A/D
converter. The typical output signal conditioner is +2 V dc.
Signal Conditioning: To process the form or mode of a signal so as to
make it intelligible to, or compatible with, a given device, including
such manipulation as pulse shaping, pulse clipping, compensating,
digitizing, and linearizing.
Single-Ended Input: A signal-input circuit where SIG LO (or
sometimes SIG HI) is tied to METER GND. Ground loops are
normally not a problem in AC-powered meters, since METER GND
is transformer-isolated from AC GND.
Z-11
Single Precision: The degree of numeric accuracy that requires the
use of one computer word. In single precision, seven digits are
stored, and up to seven digits are printed. Contrast with Double
Precision.
Software: Generally, programs loaded into a computer from external
mass storage but also extended to include operating systems and
documentation.
Source Code: A non-executable program written in a high-level
language. A compiler or assembler must translate the source code
into object code (machine language) that the computer can
understand and process.
Span: The difference between the upper and lower limits of a range
expressed in the same units as the range.
Span Adjustment: The ability to adjust the gain of a process or strain
meter so that a specified display span in engineering units
corresponds to a specified signal span. For instance, a display span
of 200°F may correspond to the 16 mA span of a 4–20 mA
transmitter signal.
Spare: A connector point reserved for options, specials, or other
configurations. The point is identified by an (E#) for location on the
electrical schematic.
Specific Gravity: The ratio of mass of any material to the mass of the
same volume of pure water at 4°C.
Specific Heat: The ratio of thermal energy required to raise the
temperature of a body 1° to the thermal energy required to raise an
equal mass of water 1°.
Spectral Filter: A filter which allows only a specific band width of the
electromagnetic spectrum to pass, i.e., 4 to 8 micron infrared
radiation.
Spectrum: The resolving of overall vibration into amplitude
components as a function of frequency.
Spectrum Analysis: Utilizing frequency components of a vibration
signal to determine the source and cause of vibration.
Spot Size: The diameter of the circle formed by the cross section of
the field of view of an optical instrument at a given distance.
Spurious Error: Random or erratic malfunction.
SSR: Solid state relay. See Relay, Solid State
Stability: The ability of an instrument or sensor to maintain a
consistent output when a constant input is applied.
Stop Bit: A signal following a character or block that prepares the
receiving device to receive the next character or block.
String: A sequence of characters.
Super Cooling: The cooling of a liquid below its freezing temperature
without the formation of the solid phase.
Super Heating: 1. The heating of a liquid above its boiling temperature
without the formation of the gaseous phase. 2. The heating of the
gaseous phase considerably above the boiling-point temperature to
improve the thermodynamic efficiency of a system.
Surge Current: A current of short duration that occurs when power is
first applied to capacitive loads or temperature dependent resistive
loads such as tungsten or molybdenum heaters—usually lasting
not more than several cycles.
Syntax: The rules governing the structure of a language.
Tape: A recording medium for data or computer programs. Tape can
be in permanent form, such as perforated paper tape, or erasable,
such as magnetic tape. Generally, tape is used as a mass storage
medium, in magnetic form, and has a much higher storage capacity
than disk storage, but it takes much longer to write or recover data
from tape than from a disk.
Teflon: A fluorocarbon polymer used for insulation of electrical wires
(trademark of DuPont).
Telecommunication: Synonym for data communication. The
transmission of information from one point to another.
TEMPCO: Abbreviation for “temperature coefficient”: the error
introduced by a change in temperature. Normally expressed in %/°C
or ppm/°C.
Temperature Error: The maximum change in output, at any measurand
value within a specified range, when the transducer temperature is
changed from room temperature to specified temperature extremes.
Temperature Range, Compensated: The range of ambient
temperatures within which all tolerances specified for Thermal Zero
Shift and Thermal Sensitivity Shift are applicable (temperature
error).
Temperature Range, Operable: The range of ambient temperatures,
given by their extremes, within which a transducer may be
operated. Exceeding compensated range may require recalibration.
Temperature Measurement and Control Glossary
Terminal: An input/output device used to enter data into a computer
and record the output.
Thermal Coefficient of Resistance: The change in resistance of a
semiconductor per unit change in temperature over a specific range
of temperature.
Thermal Conductivity: The ability of a material to conduct heat in the
form of thermal energy.
Thermal emf: See Seebeck emf
Thermal Expansion: An increase in size due to an increase in
temperature expressed in units of an increase in length or increase
in size per degree, i.e. inches/inch/degree C.
Thermal Gradient: The distribution of a differential temperature
through a body or across a surface.
Thermal Sensitivity Shift: The sensitivity shift due to changes of the
ambient temperature from room temperature to the specified limits
of the compensated temperature range.
Thermal Zero Shift: An error due to changes in ambient temperature
in which the zero pressure output shifts. Thus, the entire calibration
curve moves in a parallel displacement.
Thermistor: A temperature-sensing element composed of sintered
semiconductor material which exhibits a large change in resistance
proportional to a small change in temperature. Thermistors usually
have negative temperature coefficients.
Thermocouple: The junction of two dissimilar metals which has a
voltage output proportional to the difference in temperature
between the hot junction and the lead wires (cold junction) (refer to
Seebeck emf).
Thermocouple Type Material
(ANSI Symbol)
J Iron/Constantan
K CHROMEGA®/ALOMEGA®
T Copper/Constantan
E CHROMEGA/Constantan
R Platinum/Platinum 13% Rhodium
S Platinum/Platinum 10% Rhodium
B Platinum 6% Rhodium/Platinum
30% Rhodium
G* Tungsten/Tungsten 26% Rhenium
C* Tungsten 5% Rhenium/Tungsten
26% Rhenium
D* Tungsten 3% Rhenium/Tungsten
25% Rhenium
*Not ANSI symbols
Thermopile: An arrangement of thermocouples in series such that
alternate junctions are at the measuring temperature and the
reference temperature. This arrangement amplifies the
thermoelectric voltage. Thermopiles are usually used as infrared
detectors in radiation pyrometry.
Thermowell: A closed-end tube designed to protect temperature
sensors from harsh environments, high pressure, and flows. They
can be installed into a system by pipe thread or welded flange and
are usually made of corrosion-resistant metal or ceramic material,
depending upon the application.
Thomson Effect: When current flows through a conductor within a
thermal gradient, a reversible absorption or evolution of heat will
occur in the conductor at the gradient boundaries.
Transducer: A device (or medium) that converts energy from one form
to another. The term is generally applied to devices that take
physical phenomena (pressure, temperature, humidity, flow, etc.)
and convert them to electrical signals.
Transmitter (Two-Wire): A device which is used to transmit temperature
data from either a thermocouple or RTD via a two-wire current loop.
The loop has an external power supply and the transmitter acts as a
variable resistor with respect to its input signal.
Triac: A solid state switching device used to switch alternating current
wave forms.
Triple Point: The temperature and pressure at which solid, liquid, and
gas phases of a given substance are all present simultaneously in
varying amounts.
Triple Point (Water): The thermodynamic state where all three phases,
solid, liquid, and gas, may all be present in equilibrium. The triple
point of water is .01°C.
True RMS: The true root-mean-square value of an AC or AC-plus-DC
signal, often used to determine power of a signal. For a perfect sine
wave, the RMS value is 1.11072 times the rectified average value,
which is utilized for low-cost metering. For significantly non-
sinusoidal signals, a true RMS converter is required.
TTL: Transistor-to-transistor logic. A form of solid state logic which
uses only transistors to form the logic gates.
Z-12
TTL-Compatible: For digital input circuits, a logic 1 is obtained for inputs
of 2.0 to 5.5 V which can source 40 µA, and a logic 0 is obtained for
inputs of 0 to 0.8 V which can sink 1.6 mA. For digital output signals,
a logic 1 is represented by 2.4 to 5.5 V with a current source
capability of at least 400 µA, and a logic 0 is represented by 0 to 0.6 V
with a current sink capability of at least 16 mA.
TTL Unit Load: A load with TTL voltage levels, which will draw 40 µA
for a logic 1 and –1.6 mA for a logic 0.
Typical: Error within plus or minus one standard deviation (±1%) of
the nominal specified value, as computed from the total population.
UL: Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. An independent laboratory that
establishes standards for commercial and industrial products.
Ultraviolet: That portion of the electromagnetic spectrum below blue
light (380 nanometers).
Undershoot: The difference in temperature between the temperature a
Z
process goes to, below the set point, after the cooling cycle is
turned off and the set point temperature.
Ungrounded Junction: A form of construction of a thermocouple
probe where the hot or measuring junction is fully enclosed by and
insulated from the sheath material.
Union: A form of pipe fitting where two extension pipes are joined at a
separable coupling.
Vacuum: A pressure less than atmospheric pressure.
Velocity: The time rate of change of displacement; dx/dt.
Vibration Transducer: Generally, any device which converts
movement, either shock or steady state vibration, into an electrical
signal proportional to the movement; a sensor.
Volt: The (electrical) potential difference between two points in a
circuit. The fundamental unit is derived as work per unit charge—
(V = W/Q). One volt is the potential difference required to move one
coulomb of charge between two points in a circuit using one joule
of energy.
Voltage: An electrical potential which can be measured in volts.
Voltmeter: An instrument used to measure voltage.
Watt Density: The watts emanating from each square inch of heated
surface area of a heater. Expressed in units of watts per square
inch.
Wheatstone Bridge: A network of four resistances, an emf source, and
a galvanometer connected such that when the four resistances are
matched, the galvanometer will show a zero deflection or “null”
reading.
Window: In computer graphics, a defined area in a system not
bounded by any limits; unlimited “space” in graphics.
Word: Number of bits treated as a single unit by the CPU. In an 8-bit
machine, the word length is 8 bits; in a sixteen-bit machine, it is
16 bits.
Working Standard: A standard of unit measurement calibrated from
either a primary or secondary standard which is used to calibrate
other devices or make comparison measurements.
Zero Adjustment: The ability to adjust the display of a process or
strain meter so that zero on the display corresponds to a non-zero
signal, such as 4 mA, 10 mA, or 1 V dc. The adjustment range is
normally expressed in counts.
Zero Offset: 1. The difference expressed in degrees between true zero
and an indication given by a measuring instrument. 2. See Zero
Suppression
Zero Power Resistance: The resistance of a thermistor or RTD
element with no power being dissipated.
Zero Suppression: The span of an indicator or chart recorder may be
offset from zero (zero suppressed) such that neither limit of the
span will be zero. For example, a temperature recorder which
records a 100° span from 400° to 500° is said to have 400° zero
suppression.
Zero Voltage Switching: The making or breaking of circuit timed such
that the transition occurs when the voltage wave form crosses zero
voltage; typically only found in solid state switching devices.
Practical Guidelines for
Temperature Measurement
Temperature can be measured via a
diverse array of sensors. All of them
infer temperature by sensing some
change in a physical characteristic.
Six types with which the engineer is
likely to come into contact are:
thermocouples, resistance
temperature devices (RTD’s and
thermistors), infrared radiators,
bimetallic devices, liquid expansion
devices, and change-of-state
devices. It is well to begin with a
brief review of each.
Thermocouples consist essentially
of two strips or wires made of
different metals and joined at one
end. As discussed later, changes in
the temperature at that juncture
induce a change in electromotive
force (emf) between the other ends.
As temperature goes up, this output
emf of the thermocouple rises,
though not necessarily linearly.
Resistance temperature devices
capitalize on the fact that the
electrical resistance of a material
changes as its temperature
changes. Two key types are the
metallic devices (commonly referred
to as RTD’s), and thermistors. As
their name indicates, RTD’s rely on
resistance change in a metal, with
the resistance rising more or less
linearly with temperature.
Thermistors are based on
resistance change in a ceramic
semiconductor; the resistance drops
nonlinearly with temperature rise.
Infrared sensors are noncontacting
devices. As discussed later, they infer
temperature by measuring the thermal
radiation emitted by a material.
Bimetallic devices take advantage of
the difference in rate of thermal
expansion between different metals.
Strips of two metals are bonded
together. When heated, one side will
expand more than the other, and the
resulting bending is translated into a
temperature reading by mechanical
linkage to a pointer. These devices
are portable and they do not require
a power supply, but they are usually
not as accurate as thermocouples
or RTD’s and they do not readily
lend themselves to temperature
recording.
Fluid-expansion devices, typified
by the household thermometer,
generally come in two main
classifications: the mercury type and
the organic-liquid type. Versions
employing gas instead of liquid are
also available. Mercury is
considered an environmental
hazard, so there are regulations
governing the shipment of devices
that contain it. Fluid-expansion
sensors do not require electric
power, do not pose explosion
hazards, and are stable even after
repeated cycling. On the other hand,
they do not generate data that are
easily recorded or transmitted, and
they cannot make spot or point
measurements.
Change-of-state temperature
sensors consist of labels, pellets,
crayons, lacquers or liquid crystals
whose appearance changes when a
certain temperature is reached.
They are used, for instance, with
steam traps – when a trap exceeds
a certain temperature, a white dot
on a sensor label attached to the
trap will turn black.
Response time typically takes
minutes, so these devices often
do not respond to transient
temperature changes, and accuracy
is lower than with other types of
sensors. Furthermore, the change in
state is irreversible, except in the
case of liquid-crystal displays. Even
so, change-of-state sensors can be
handy when one needs confirmation
that the temperature of a piece of
equipment or a material has not
exceeded a certain level, for
instance for technical or legal
reasons, during product shipment.
The workhorses
In the chemical process industries,
the most commonly used temperature
sensors are thermocouples, resistive
devices and infrared devices. There
is widespread misunderstanding as
to how these devices work and how
they should be used.
Thermocouples: Consider first the
thermocouple, probably the most-
often-used and least-understood of
the three. Essentially, a thermocouple
consists of two alloys joined
together at one end and open at the
other. The emf at the output end (the
open end; V1 in Figure 1a) is a
function of the temperature T1 at the
closed end. As the temperature
rises, the emf goes up.
Z-13
Often the thermocouple is located
inside a metal or ceramic shield that
protects it from a variety of
environments. Metal-sheathed
thermocouples are also available
with many types of outer coatings,
such as polytetrafluoroethylene, for
trouble-free use in corrosive
solutions.
The open-end emf is a function of
not only the closed-end temperature
(i.e., the temperature at the point of
measurement) but also the
temperature at the open end (T2 in
Figure 1a). Only by holding T2 at a
standard temperature can the
measured emf be considered a
direct function of the change in T1.
The industrially accepted standard
for T2 is 0°C; therefore, most tables
and charts make the assumption
that T2 is at that level. In industrial
instrumentation, the difference
between the actual temperature at
T2 and 0°C is usually corrected for
electronically, within the
instrumentation. This emf
adjustment is referred to as the
cold-junction, or CJ, correction.
Temperature changes in the wiring
between the input and output ends
do not affect the output voltage,
provided that the wiring is of
thermocouple alloy or a
thermoelectric equivalent (Figure
1a). For example, if a thermocouple
is measuring temperature in a
furnace and the instrument that
shows the reading is some distance
away, the wiring between the two
could pass near another furnace
and not be affected by its
temperature, unless it becomes hot
enough to melt the wire or
permanently change its
electrothermal behavior.
The composition of the junction
itself does not affect the
thermocouple action in any way, so
long as the temperature, T1, is kept
constant throughout the junction
and the junction material is
electrically conductive (Figure 1b).
Similarly, the reading is not affected
by insertion of non-thermocouple
alloys in either or both leads,
provided that the temperature at the
ends of the “spurious” material is the
same (Figure 1c).
 This ability of the thermocouple to protective coating. Usually, the
work with a spurious metal in the mandrel and coating are glass or
A transmission path enables the use ceramic.
of a number of specialized devices,
V1 The mean slope of the resistance
such as thermocouple switches. vs. temperature plot for the RTD is
Whereas the transmission wiring
B often referred to as the alpha value
T1 itself is normally the thermoelectrical
T2 equivalent of the thermocouple alloy, (Figure 2), alpha standing for the
temperature coefficient. The slope of
Z
properly operating thermocouple
T3 the curve for a given sensor
switches must be made of gold-
(a) depends somewhat on the purity of
plated or silver-plated copper alloy the platinum in it.
Figure 1a
elements with appropriate steel
springs to ensure good contact. So The most commonly used standard
long as the temperatures at the slope, pertaining to platinum of a
input and output junctions of the particular purity and composition,
T1 D switch are equal, this change in has a value of 0.00385 (assuming
composition makes no difference. that the resistance is measured in
F ohms and the temperature in
It is important to be aware of what degrees Celsius). A resistance vs.
V1 might be called the Law of
T1 temperature curve drawn with this
G Successive Thermocouples. Of the slope is a so-called European curve,
two elements that are shown in the because RTD’s of this composition
T1 E upper portion of Figure 1d, one were first used extensively on that
thermocouple has T1 at the hot end continent. Complicating the picture,
(b) T2 and T2 at the open end. The second there is also another standard
thermocouple has its hot end at T2 slope, pertaining to a slightly
Figure 1b and its open end at T3. The emf level different platinum composition.
for the thermocouple that is Having a slightly higher alpha value
measuring T1 is V1; that for the other of 0.00392, it follows what is known
thermocouple is V2. The sum of the as the American curve.
A two emfs, V1 plus V2, equals the emf
V3 that would be generated by the If the alpha value for a given RTD is
V1 combined thermocouple operating not specified, it is usually 0.00385.
B between T1 and T3. By virtue of this However, it is prudent to make sure
T1 B law, a thermocouple designated for of this, especially if the temperatures
T2
one open-end reference to be measured are high. This point
T3 C C temperature can be used with a is brought out in Figure 2, which
T3 different open-end temperature. shows both the European and
American curves for the most widely
RTD’s: A typical RTD consists of a used RTD, namely one that exhibits
fine platinum wire wrapped around a 100 ohms resistance at 0°C.
(c) mandrel and covered with a
Thermistors: The resistance-
Figure 1c temperature relationship of a
thermistor is negative and highly
Figure 1. Assuming that nonlinear. This poses a serious
certain conditions are problem for engineers who must
A D met (text), thermocouple
performance is not design their own circuitry. However,
V1 V2 affected by temperature the difficulty can be eased by using
changes in wiring (a), the thermistors in matched pairs, in such
B E composition of
T1 T2
the junction (b), nor
a way that the nonlinearities offset
T2 T3 the insertion of each other. Furthermore, vendors
non-thermocouple alloys offer panel meters and controllers
in the leads (c). As also that compensate internally for
discussed in text, thermistors’ lack of linearity.
D thermocouple readings
A can be additive (d). Thermistors are usually designated
V1 T3 = V1+ V2 in accordance with their resistance
B at 25°C. The most common of these
T1 E ratings is 2252 ohms; among the
T2 others are 5,000 and 10,000 ohms.
T3
(d) If not specified to the contrary, most
instruments will accept the 2252
Figure 1d type of thermistor.
Z-14
Practical Guidelines for
Temperature Measurement Cont'd
α = .00392
Resistance
(American Curve)
100
ohms
0°C
Figure 2. A given RTD embodies either of two standard resistance-vs.-temperature
relationships, often referred to as alpha values. The wise engineer will not use an RTD,
especially for high-temperature measurements, without being aware of its alpha value
Infrared sensors: These measure
the amount of radiation emitted by a
surface. Electromagnetic energy
radiates from all matter regardless
of its temperature. In many process
situations, the energy is in the infrared
region. As the temperature goes up,
the amount of infrared radiation and
its average frequency go up.
Different materials radiate at
different levels of efficiency. This
efficiency is quantified as emissivity,
a decimal number or percentage
ranging between 0 and 1 or 0% and
100%. Most organic materials,
including skin, are very efficient,
frequently exhibiting emissivities of
0.95. Most polished metals, on the
other hand, tend to be inefficient
radiators at room temperature, with
emissivity or efficiency often 20% or
less.
To function properly, an infrared
measurement device must take into
account the emissivity of the surface
being measured. This can often be
looked up in a reference table.
However, bear in mind that tables
cannot account for localized
conditions such as oxidation and
surface roughness. A sometimes
practical way to measure
temperature with infrared when the
emissivity level is not known is to
α = .00385
(European Curve)
Temperature
“force” the emissivity to a known
level, by covering the surface with
masking tape (emissivity of 95%) or
a highly emissive paint.
Some of the sensor input may well
consist of energy that is not emitted
by the equipment or material whose
surface is being targeted, but
instead is being reflected by that
surface from other equipment or
materials. Emissivity pertains to
energy radiating from a surface,
whereas “reflection” pertains to
energy reflected from another
source. Emissivity of an opaque
material is an inverse indicator of its
reflectivity – substances that are
good emitters do not reflect much
incident energy, and thus do not
pose much of a problem to the
sensor in determining surface
temperatures. Conversely, when one
measures a target surface with only,
say, 20% emissivity, much of the
energy reaching the sensor might
be due to reflection from, e.g., a
nearby furnace at some other
temperature. In short, be wary of
hot, spurious reflected targets.
An infrared device is like a camera,
and thus covers a certain field of
view. It might, for instance, be able
to “see” a 1-degree visual cone or a
100-degree cone. When measuring
Z-15
a surface, be sure that the surface
completely fills the field of view. If
the target surface does not at first fill
the field of view, move closer, or use
an instrument with a more narrow
field of view. Or, simply take the
background temperature into
account (i.e., adjust for it) when
reading the instrument.
Selection guides
RTD’s are more stable than
thermocouples. On the other hand,
as a class, their temperature range is
not as broad: RTD’s operate from
about -250 to 850°C, whereas
thermocouples range from about
-270 to 2,300°C. Thermistors have a
more restrictive span, being
commonly used between -40 and
150°C, but offer high accuracy in that
range.
Thermistors and RTD’s share a very
important limitation. They are
resistive devices, and accordingly
they function by passing a current
through a sensor. Even though only a
very small current is generally
employed, it creates a certain
amount of heat and thus can throw
off the temperature reading. This self-
heating in resistive sensors can be
significant when dealing with a still
fluid (i.e., one that is neither flowing
nor agitated), because there is less
carry-off of the heat generated. This
problem does not arise with
thermocouples, which are essentially
zero-current devices.
Infrared sensors, though relatively
expensive, are appropriate when the
temperatures are extremely high.
They are available for up to 3,000°C
(5,400°F), far exceeding the range of
thermocouples or other contact
devices.
The infrared approach is also
attractive when one does not wish to
make contact with the surface whose
temperature is to be measured.
Thus, fragile or wet surfaces, such as
painted surfaces coming out of a
drying oven, can be monitored in this
way. Substances that are chemically
reactive or electrically noisy are ideal
candidates for infrared
measurement. The approach is
likewise advantageous in measuring
temperature of very large surfaces,
such as walls, that would require a
large array of thermocouples or ®
RTD’s for measurement.
 Physical Properties of
Thermoelement Materials
Thermoelement Material
Property J J, C, T T K, E K N N R J R,E B B
Iron Constantan Copper Chromel Alumel Nicrosil Nisil Pt13% Rh Pt10% Rh Platinum Pt30% Rh Pt6% Rh
Melting point
(solidus temp.)
°C 1490 1220 1083 1427 1399 1420 1330 1860 1850 1769 1927 1826
°F 2715 2228 1981 2600 2550 2590 2425 3380 3362 3216 3501 3319
Z
Resistivity
µΩ·cm 8.57 48.9 1.56 70 28.1 97.4 32.5 19.0 18.4 9.83
at 0°C 9.67 48.9 1.724 70.6 29.4 97.8 34.6 19.6 18.9 10.4 19.0 17.5
at 20°C 51.5 294.2 9.38 421 169 114.3 110.7 59.1
Ω cmil/ft 58.2 294 10.37 425 177 117.7 114.0 62.4 114.5 106
at 0°C
at 20°C
Temperature
coefficient of 65 x 10-4 -0.1 x 10-4 4.3 x 10-4 4.1 x 10-4 23.9 x 10-4 13.3 x 10-4 12.1 x 10-4 15.6 x 10-4 16.6 x 10-4 39.2 x 10-4 13.3 x 10-4 20.6 x 10-4
resistance, Ω/Ω·
°C (0 to 100°C)
Coefficient of
thermal expansion 11.7 x 10-6 14.9 x 10-6 16.6 x 10-6 13.1 x 10-6 12.0 x 10-6 9.0 x 10-6 9.0 x 10-6 9.0 x 10-6
in./in. °C
(20 to 100°C)
Thermal
conductivity
at 100°C
Cal·cm/s·cm2·°C 0.162 0.0506 0.901 0.046 0.071 0.0358 0.0664 0.088 0.090 0.171
BTU·ft/h·ft2·°F 39.2 12.2 218 11.1 17.2 8.67 16.07 21.3 21.8 41.4
Specific heat at
20°C, cal/ 0.107 0.094 0.092 0.107 0.125 0.11 0.12 0.032
g·°C 8.52 8.70
Density 8.73
g/cm3 7.86 8.92 8.92 0.315 8.60 0.3143 19.61 19.97 21.45 17.60 20.55
lb/in3 0.284 0.322 0.322 0.311 0.3078 0.708 0.721 0.775 0.636 0.743
Tensile strength
(annealed) MPa 345 552 241 655 586 690 621 317 310 138 483 276
psi 50,000 80,000 35,000 95,000 85,000 100,000 90,000 46,000 45,000 20,000 70,000 40,000
Magnetic attraction strong none none none moderate none none none none none none none

Nominal Chemical Composition of Thermoelements

13% Rhodium

10% Rhodium

30% Rhodium
CHROMEGA®

6% Rhodium
Omegalloy®

Omegalloy®
ALOMEGA®
Constantan

Platinum

Platinum

Platinum

Platinum

Platinum
Nicrosil
Copper

Pure
Nisil
Iron

N=Neg JN,TN KP, RN,

P=Pos JP ENa TP EP KN NP NN RP SP SN BP BN
ElementNominal Chemical Composition, %
Iron 99.5 … … … … … … … … … … …
Carbon b … … … … … … … … … … …
Manganese b … … … 2 … … … … … … …
Sulfur b … … … … … … … … … … …
Phosphorus b … … … … … … … … … … …
Silicon b … … … 1 1.4 4.4 … … … … …
Nickel b 45 … 90 95 84.4 95.5 … … … … …
Copper b 55 100 … … … … … … … … …
Chromium b … … 10 … 14.2 … … … … … …
Aluminum … … … … 2 … … … … … … …
Platinum … … … … … … … 87 90 100 70.4 93.9
Rhodium … … … … … … … 13 10 … 29.6 6.1
Magnesium … … … … … … 0.15 … … … … …
aTypes JN, TN and EN thermoelements usually contain small amounts of various elements for control of thermal emf, with corresponding reductions in the nickel or copper content, or both.
bThemoelectric iron ((JP) contains small but varying amounts of these elements.

Z-16
OMEGACLAD® SHEATH
SELECTION GUIDE
APPLICATIONS
U Heat Treating Metal Parts
U Gas or Oil Fired Furnaces
U Fuel Fired Heat Exchangers
U Ceramic Materials Firing
U Powder Metal Sintering
U Steel Carburizing Furnaces
U Vacuum/Atmosphere
Melting & Annealing
U Solid Waste Incinerators
U Heat Process Fluidized Beds
U R&D Tube or Box Furnaces
The metallic sheath on the outside
of an OMEGACLAD® probe is used
to protect the internal thermocouple
wires from chemically active
atmospheres. In some cases, even
hot air can damage thermocouple
wires and cause them to
permanently lose calibration.
Selection of the best type of metal
sheath to employ is based on our
customers’ intended use, the
industry in which they work, and the
country where they are located. For
instance, the most common
OMEGA® metal sheaths are 304
stainless steel and Inconel 600.
These are accepted in most
industries, including food
processing. Stainless steel 304 is a
common alloy, readily available and
low in the cost of both materials and
manufacture. Some industries,
however, such as petroleum,
medical, nuclear, aircraft, and power
generation, have their own
standards and may require more
complicated and expensive alloys.
Listed below are the sheath materials
that OMEGA Engineering uses to
make OMEGACLAD®. Any materials
not on this list must be customized;
direct inquiries will have to made to
OMEGA South for pricing, availability
and size limitations.
304 Stainless Steel
OMEGA Engineering uses a low-
carbon version of 304 stainless,
called 304L, mainly because it is
easier to weld. In general, it is
interchangeable with plain 304.
Applications:
Food & beverage processing
Chemical processing
Dairy
Hospital equipment
Pharmaceutical equipment
Nuclear reactor equipment
Containers for mild corrosives
Temperature limitations: up to
1,600°F for cyclic processes.
Use Inconel 600 for extended use
around or above 1,650°F
Inconel 600
This high nickel and chromium
content alloy is more expensive
than most stainless steels. It is good
for extended use at high
temperatures and resists corrosion
by most simple acids and very pure
water.
Applications:
Furnace components
Chemical & food processing
Nuclear power generation
Caustic chemicals
Temperature limitations:
up to 2,100°F
Z-17
OMEGA SUPERCLAD™
This alloy has excellent resistance
to air at high temperatures. It has an
aluminum oxide layer on the surface
that prevents further oxidation. This
oxidation resistance allows
thermocouple probes to operate for
extended periods before EMF drift
“decalibrates” the thermocouple. It
is also popular for its resistance to
hydrogen gas and its high strength
at high temperatures. Because of
form limitations and difficulty in
processing, it is more expensive
than any of the alloys discussed
above.
Applications:
Furnace components
Gas turbine industry
Catalytic converter components
Aerospace jet & rocket engines
Refractory anchors
Waste incinerators
Temperature limitations:
Approx. 2,220°F
Also is acceptable in heated
hydrogen, ≈ 2000°F
 SUPER OMEGACLAD® SHEATH

THERMOCOUPLE
WIRE
Z

CERAMIC
INSULATION

310 Stainless Steel 321 Stainless Steel Hastelloy-X

This is commonly used at higher This alloy is similar to 304 stainless This alloy is expensive due to the
temperatures because it resists except that it incorporates titanium. addition of iron, chromium and
scaling up to 1,900°F. It is stronger It is intended for welded molybdenum. It has very good high
and resists air attack better than components that are exposed to temperature strength and good
304SS at these higher high temperatures, and is especially oxidation resistance. It is a relatively
temperatures. Also good in fossil well suited to long exposure to air old alloy, less costly and with better
fuel gases at elevated and combustion atmospheres of performance than some newer
temperatures. around 800°F. alloys.
Applications: (Higher temperatures) Applications: Applications:
Air heaters Aircraft exhausts & manifolds Gas Turbines for power
Baking equipment Jet engine parts generation
Chemical processing equipment Stack liners Aerospace applications
Furnace parts Welded equipment Industrial furnaces
Heat exchangers and electric Chemical processing equipment Boiler & pressure vessels
power equipment (that does not
Temperature limitations: Temperature limitations:
come in contact with sulphur)
up to 1,600°F up to 2,150°F
Petroleum refining
Temperature limitations:
up to 1,900°F
316 (& 316L) Stainless Steel
Better corrosion resistance to most
chemicals, salts, and acids than
most stainless steels due to the
addition of molybdenum. It has good
resistance to sulphur- or chlorine-
bearing liquids.
Applications:
Marine trim exteriors
Chemical and food processing
Petroleum refining equipment
Pharmaceutical equipment
Paper & pulp
Textile finishing
Temperature limitations:
up to 1,600°F continuously in air or
in cyclic corrosive environments,
slightly higher in air.
Thermocouple Wire Stripper for OMEGACLAD® wire. See PST Series Strippers in Section H.

Z-18
Practical Temperature Measurements*
Thermocouple RTD Thermistor I. C. Sensor

V R R V or I

RESISTANCE

RESISTANCE

or CURRENT
VOLTAGE
VOLTAGE

T T T T
TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE
□ Self-powered □ Most stable □ High output □ Most linear
Advantages

□ Simple □ Most accurate □ Fast □ Highest output

□ Rugged □ More linear than □ Two-wire ohms □ Inexpensive
□ Inexpensive thermocouple measurement
□ Wide variety
□ Wide temperature
range
Disadvantages

□ Non-linear □ Expensive □ Non-linear □ T<200°C

□ Low voltage □ Current source re- □ Limited temperature □ Power supply re-
□ Reference required quired range quired
□ Least stable □ Small ∆ R □ Fragile □ Slow
□ Least sensitive □ Low absolute □ Current source re- □ Self-heating
resistance quired □ Limited configurations
□ Self-heating □ Self-heating
Figure 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
APPLICATION NOTES-PRACTICAL TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS
Page
Common Temperature Transducers ....................................................................................Z-19
Introduction ...........................................................................................................................Z-20
Reference Temperatures ...................................................................................................Z-21
The Thermocouple ................................................................................................................Z-21
Reference Junction............................................................................................................Z-22
Reference Circuit...............................................................................................................Z-23
Hardware Compensation...................................................................................................Z-24
Voltage-to-Temperature Conversion ..................................................................................Z-25
Practical Thermocouple Measurement ...............................................................................Z-27
Noise Rejection .................................................................................................................Z-27
Poor Junction Connection..................................................................................................Z-29
Decalibration......................................................................................................................Z-29
Shunt Impedance ..............................................................................................................Z-29
Galvanic Action..................................................................................................................Z-30
Thermal Shunting ..............................................................................................................Z-30
Wire Calibration .................................................................................................................Z-30
Diagnostics ........................................................................................................................Z-31
Summary ...........................................................................................................................Z-32
The RTD .................................................................................................................................Z-33
History ...............................................................................................................................Z-33
Metal Film RTD's ...............................................................................................................Z-33
Resistance Measurement..................................................................................................Z-34
3-Wire Bridge Measurement Errors...................................................................................Z-35
Resistance to Temperature Conversion.............................................................................Z-35
Practical Precautions.........................................................................................................Z-36
*Courtesy Hewlett Packard Company
Z-19
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
APPLICATION NOTES-PRACTICAL TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS
The Thermistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z-36
Linear Thermistors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z-37
Measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z-37
Monolithic Linear Temperature Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z-37
Appendix A-The Empirical Laws of Thermocouples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z-37
Appendix B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z-38
Thermocouple Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z-38
Base Metal Thermocouples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z-38
Standard Wire Errors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z-39
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z-40 Z
INTRODUCTION
Synthetic fuel research, solar energy conversion and Florentine thermometer, which incorporated sealed
new engine development are but a few of the burgeo- construction and a graduated scale.
ning disciplines responding to the state of our dwindling In the ensuing decades, many thermometric scales
natural resources. As all industries place new emphasis were conceived, all based on two or more fixed points
on energy efficiency, the fundamental measurement of One scale, however, wasn't universally recognized un-
temperature assumes new importance. The purpose of til the early 1700's, when Gabriel Fahrenheit, a Dutch
this application note is to explore the more common instrument maker, produced accurate and repeatable
temperature monitoring techniques and introduce pro mercury thermometers. For the fixed point on the low
cedures for improving their accuracy. end of his temperature scale, Fahrenheit used a mix-
We will focus on the four most common tem- ture of ice water and salt (or ammonium chloride). This
perature transducers: the thermocouple, the RTD, the was the lowest temperature he could reproduce, and he
thermistor and the integrated circuit sensor. Despite the labeled it "zero degrees". For the high end of his scale,
widespread popularity of the thermocouple, it is fre- he chose human blood temperature and called it 96
quently misused. For this reason, we will concentrate degrees.
primarily on thermocouple measurement techniques. Why 96 and not 100 degrees? Earlier scales had
Appendix A contains the empirical laws of ther- been divided into twelve parts. Fahrenheit, in an ap-
mocouples which are the basis for all derivations used parent quest for more resolution divided his scale into
herein. Readers wishing a more thorough discussion of 24, then 48 and eventually 96 parts.
thermocouple theory are invited to read REFERENCE The Fahrenheit scale gained popularity primarily
17 in the Bibliography. because of the repeatability and quality of the ther-
For those with a specific thermocouple applica- mometers that Fahrenheit built.
tion, Appendix B may aid in choosing the best type Around 1742, Anders Celsius proposed that the
of thermocouple. melting point of ice and the boiling point of water be
Throughout this application note, we will emphasize used for the two benchmarks. Celsius selected zero
the practical considerations of transducer placement, degrees as the boiling point and 100 degrees as the
signal conditioning and instrumentation. melting point. Later, the end points were reversed and
the centigrade scale was born. In 1948 the name was
Early Measuring Devices - Galileo is credited with
officially changed to the Celsius scale.
inventing the thermometer, circa 1592.1 In an open
In the early 1800's William Thomson (Lord Kelvin),
container filled with colored alcohol he suspended a
developed a universal thermodynamic scale based
long narrow-throated glass tube, at the upper end of
upon the coefficient of expansion of an ideal gas. Kelvin
which was a hollow sphere. When heated, the air in
established the concept of absolute zero and his scale
the sphere expanded and bubbled through the liquid.
remains the standard for modern thermometry.
Cooling the sphere caused the liquid to move up the
The conversion equations for the four modern
tube1 Fluctuations in the temperature of the sphere
temperature scales are:
could then be observed by noting the position of the
°C = 5/9 (°F - 32) °F= 9/5 °C + 32
liquid inside the tube. This "upside-down" ther-
mometer was a poor indicator since the level changed K = °C + 273.15 °R= °F + 459.67
with barometric pressure and the tube had no scale. The Rankine Scale (ºR) is simply the Fahrenheit
Vast improvements were made in temperature equivalent of the Kelvin scale, and was named after an
measurement accuracy with the development of the early pioneer in the field of thermodynamics, W.J.M.
Rankine.
1
Refer to Bibliography 1,2,3.

Z-20
 Reference Temperatures

We cannot build a temperature divider as we can a Metal A

voltage divider, nor can we add temperatures as we +
would add lengths to measure distance. We must rely eAB
upon temperatures established by physical phenomena
which are easily observed and consistent in nature. The –
International Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS) is
Metal B
based on such phenomena. Revised in 1968, it
eAB = SEEBECK VOLTAGE
establishes eleven reference temperatures. Figure 3
Since we have only these fixed temperatures to use All dissimilar metals exhibit this effect. The most
as a reference, we must use instruments to interpolate common combinations of two metals are listed in
between them. But accurately interpolating between Appendix B of this application note, along with their
these temperatures can require some fairly exotic important characteristics. For small changes in
transducers, many of which are too complicated or temperature the Seebeck voltage is linearly proportional
expensive to use in a practical situation. We shall limit to temperature:
our discussion to the four most common temperature
transducers: thermocouples, resistance-temperature ∆eAB = α∆T
detector’s (RTD’s), thermistors, and integrated Where α, the Seebeck coefficient, is the constant of
circuit sensors. proportionality.
Measuring Thermocouple Voltage - We can’t
measure the Seebeck voltage directly because we must
IPTS-68 REFERENCE TEMPERATURES first connect a voltmeter to the thermocouple, and the
EQUILIBRIUM POINT K C
0
voltmeter leads themselves create a new
Triple Point of Hydrogen 13.81 -259.34
thermoelectric circuit.
Liquid/Vapor Phase of Hydrogen 17.042 -256.108
at 25/76 Std. Atmosphere Let’s connect a voltmeter across a copper-constantan
Boiling Point of Hydrogen 20.28 -252.87 (Type T) thermocouple and look at the voltage output:
Boiling Point of Neon 27.102 -246.048
J3
Triple Point of Oxygen 54.361 -218.789
Fe
Boiling Point of Oxygen 90.188 -182.962 Cu Cu
+ +
Triple Point of Water 273.16 .01 v V1 J1
– C –
Boiling Point of Water 373.15 100 Cu
Freezing Point of Zinc 692.73 419.58 Fe
Freezing Point of Silver 1235.08 961.93 J2
Freezing Point of Gold 1337.58 1064.43 EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

Table 1 Cu + – Cu Cu
V3

THE THERMOCOUPLE
When two wires composed of dissimilar metals are
J3 +
V1
–
J1 +
V1
–
J1

+ – + –
joined at both ends and one of the ends is heated, there Cu V2 C Cu V2 C
is a continuous current which flows in the thermoelectric J2 J2
circuit. Thomas Seebeck made this discovery in 1821.
MEASURING
V3 = 0 JUNCTION VOLTAGE WITH A DVM
Figure 4
Metal A Metal C
We would like the voltmeter to read only V1, but by
connecting the voltmeter in an attempt to measure the
output of Junction J1, we have created two more
Metal B metallic junctions: J2 and J3. Since J3 is a copper-to-
THE SEEBECK EFFECT copper junction, it creates no thermal EMF (V3 = 0), but
Figure 2 J2 is a copper-to-constantan junction which will add an
EMF (V2) in opposition to V1. The resultant voltmeter
If this circuit is broken at the center, the net open reading V will be proportional to the temperature
circuit voltage (the Seebeck voltage) is a function of the difference between J1 and J2. This says that we can’t
junction temperature and the composition of the two find the temperature at J1 unless we first find the
metals. temperature of J2.
Z-21
 The Reference Junction

Cu Cu + + T
+ + V1 J1
v V1 J1 v –
– + – –
Cu Cu V2 C + –
–
V2
Voltmeter
J2 J2
T=0°C

Ice Bath Z
EXTERNAL REFERENCE JUNCTION
Figure 5 The copper-constantan thermocouple shown in
Figure 5 is a unique example because the copper wire
One way to determine the temperature of J2 is to is the same metal as the voltmeter terminals. Let’s use
physically put the junction into an ice bath, forcing its an iron-constantan (Type J) thermocouple instead of the
temperature to be 0ºC and establishing J2 as the copper-constantan. The iron wire (Figure 6) increases
Reference Junction. Since both voltmeter terminal the number of dissimilar metal junctions in the circuit, as
junctions are now copper-copper, they create no both voltmeter terminals become Cu-Fe thermocouple
thermal emf and the reading V on the voltmeter is junctions.
proportional to the temperature difference between J1
and J2.
V3
J3
Now the voltmeter reading is (see Figure 5): -+
V = (V1 - V2) ≅ α(tJ1 - tJ2) +
v V1
If we specify TJ1 in degrees Celsius: –
-+
TJ1 (ºC) + 273.15 = tJ1 V1 = V
Voltmeter V4 J4
if V3 = V4
then V becomes: i.e., if
V = V1 - V2 = α [(TJ1 + 273.15) - (TJ2+ 273.15)] TJ3 = TJ4
= α (TJ1 - TJ2) = α (TJ1 - 0) JUNCTION VOLTAGE CANCELLATION
V = αTJ1 Figure 7

We use this protracted derivation to emphasize that If both front panel terminals are not at the same
the ice bath junction output, V2, is not zero volts. It is a temperature, there will be an error. For a more precise
function of absolute temperature. measurement, the copper voltmeter leads should be
By adding the voltage of the ice point reference extended so the copper-to-iron junctions are made on
junction, we have now referenced the reading V to 0ºC. an isothermal (same temperature) block:
This method is very accurate because the ice point
Isothermal Block
temperature can be precisely controlled. The ice point is J3
used by the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) as the Cu
fundamental reference point for their thermocouple Cu Fe
+
tables, so we can now look at the NBS tables and v T1
directly convert from voltage V to Temperature TJ1. – Fe C
Cu V2
Voltmeter Cu
J3 J4
TREF
Fe
Cu
+
v J1
–
Ice Bath
Cu C
Fe REMOVING JUNCTIONS FROM DVM TERMINALS
J4 Figure 8
J2
The isothermal block is an electrical insulator but a
good heat conductor, and it serves to hold J3 and J4 at
Ice Bath the same temperature. The absolute block temperature
is unimportant because the two Cu-Fe junctions act in
IRON-CONSTANTAN COUPLE opposition. We still have
Figure 6 V = α (T1 - TREF)

Z-22
 Reference Circuit
Let’s replace the ice bath with another isothermal This is a useful conclusion, as it completely eliminates
block the need for the iron (Fe) wire in the LO lead:
Isothermal Block
Cu Fe
Cu Fe +
HI
v J3 J1
J3 J1 Cu C
LO
–
Cu Fe C
Voltmeter J4 J REF J4
TREF Isothermal Block
TREF
ELIMINATING THE ICE BATH
Figure 9a EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Figure 11
The new block is at Reference Temperature TREF, and
because J3 and J4 are still at the same temperature, we Again, V = α (TJ1 - TREF), where α is the Seebeck
can again show that coefficient for an Fe-C thermocouple.|
V = α (T1-TREF) Junctions J3 and J4, take the place of the ice bath.
These two junctions now become the Reference
This is still a rather inconvenient circuit because we
Junction.
have to connect two thermocouples. Let’s eliminate the
Now we can proceed to the next logical step: Directly
extra Fe wire in the negative (LO) lead by combining the
measure the temperature of the isothermal block (the
Cu-Fe junction (J4) and the Fe-C junction (JREF).
Reference Junction) and use that information to
We can do this by first joining the two isothermal
compute the unknown temperature, TJ1.
blocks (Figure 9b).
Block Temperature = TREF
Cu Fe
HI
Cu J3
J1 Fe
J3
LO + +
Cu Fe C v V1 J1
J4 – –
J REF J4 C
Voltmeter Cu
Isothermal Bloc k @ TREF RT
JOINING THE ISOTHERMAL BLOCKS
Figure 9b EXTERNAL REFERENCE JUNCTION-NO ICE BATH
Figure 12
We haven’t changed the output voltage V. It is still
V = α (TJ1 - TJREF ) A thermistor, whose resistance RT is a function of
Now we call upon the law of intermediate metals (see temperature, provides us with a way to measure the
Appendix A) to eliminate the extra junction. This absolute temperature of the reference junction.
empirical “law” states that a third metal (in this case, Junctions J3 and J4 and the thermistor are all assumed
iron) inserted between the two dissimilar metals of a to be at the same temperature, due to the design of the
thermocouple junction will have no effect upon the isothermal block. Using a digital multimeter under
output voltage as long as the two junctions formed by computer control, we simply:
the additional metal are at the same temperature: 1) Measure RT to find TREF and convert TREF
to its equivalent reference junction
Metal A Metal B Metal C Metal A Metal C voltage, VREF , then
=
2) Measure V and subtract VREF to find V1,
and convert V1 to temperature TJ1.
Isothermal Connection This procedure is known as Software Compensation
because it relies upon the software of a computer to
compensate for the effect of the reference junction. The
Thus the low lead in Fig. 9b: Becomes:
isothermal terminal block temperature sensor can be
Cu C any device which has a characteristic proportional to
Cu Fe C = absolute temperature: an RTD, a thermistor, or an
integrated circuit sensor.
TREF
It seems logical to ask: If we already have a device
TREF that will measure absolute temperature (like an RTD or
thermistor), why do we even bother with a thermocouple
LAW OF INTERMEDIATE METALS
that requires reference junction compensation? The
Figure 10
Z-23
single most important answer to this question is that the
thermistor, the RTD, and the integrated circuit
transducer are only useful over a certain temperature Fe

range. Thermocouples, on the other hand, can be used

C
over a range of temperatures, and optimized for various
atmospheres. They are much more rugged than + HI

thermistors, as evidenced by the fact that RT

– LO
thermocouples are often welded to a metal part or
clamped under a screw. They can be manufactured on
Voltmeter
Pt
the spot, either by soldering or welding. In short,
thermocouples are the most versatile temperature
transducers available and, since the measurement
All Copper Wires
Pt - 10% Rh Z
system performs the entire task of reference
Isothermal Block
compensation and software voltage to-temperature (Zone Box)

conversion, using a thermocouple becomes as easy as ZONE BOX SWITCHING

connecting a pair of wires.
Thermocouple measurement becomes especially
convenient when we are required to monitor a large
number of data points. This is accomplished by using
the isothermal reference junction for more than one
thermocouple element (see Figure 13).
A reed relay scanner connects the voltmeter to the
various thermocouples in sequence. All of the voltmeter
and scanner wires are copper, independent of the type
of thermocouple chosen. In fact, as long as we know
what each thermocouple is, we can mix thermocouple
types on the same isothermal junction block (often
called a zone box) and make the appropriate
modifications in software. The junction block
temperature sensor RT is located at the center of the
block to minimize errors due to thermal gradients.
Software compensation is the most versatile
technique we have for measuring thermocouples. Many
thermocouples are connected on the same block,
copper leads are used throughout the scanner, and the
technique is independent of the types of thermocouples
chosen. In addition, when using a data acquisition
system with a built-in zone box, we simply connect the
thermocouple as we would a pair of test leads. All of the
conversions are performed by the computer. The one
disadvantage is that the computer requires a small
amount of additional time to calculate the reference
junction temperature. For maximum speed we can use
hardware compensation.
Figure 13
Hardware Compensation
Rather than measuring the temperature of the
reference junction and computing its equivalent voltage
as we did with software compensation, we could insert
a battery to cancel the offset voltage of the reference
junction. The combination of this hardware
compensation voltage and the reference junction
voltage is equal to that of a 0ºC junction.
The compensation voltage, e, is a function of the
temperature sensing resistor, RT. The voltage V is now
referenced to 0ºC, and may be read directly and
converted to temperature by using the NBS tables.
Another 2name for this circuit is the electronic ice point
reference. These circuits are commercially available for
use with any voltmeter and with a wide variety of
thermocouples. The major drawback is that a unique ice
point reference circuit is usually needed for each
individual thermocouple type.
Figure 15 shows a practical ice point reference circuit
that can be used in conjunction with a reed relay
scanner to compensate an entire block of thermocouple
inputs. All the thermocouples in the block must be of the
same type, but each block of inputs can accommodate
a different thermocouple type by simply changing gain
resistors.

Cu Fe + Cu Fe
+ Cu Fe
T T +
C C T
v v
Fe
= = C
Cu Fe Cu Fe
– – Cu
– + Cu
– RT
+
Cu
-

0°C

HARDWARE COMPENSATION CIRCUIT

2
Refer to Bibliography 6. Figure 14
Z-24
OMEGA TAC-Electronic Ice Point and
Thermocouple Preamplifier/Linearizer Plugs
into Standard Connector
OMEGA Electronic Ice Point Built into Thermocouple Connector -”MCJ”

Cu Fe

OMEGA Ice Point Reference Chamber.

Electronic Refigeration Eliminates Ice Bath
Cu C
RH

we can easily see that using one constant scale factor

Integrated Temperature
would limit the temperature range of the system and
Sensor restrict the system accuracy. Better conversion accuracy
PRACTICAL HARDWARE COMPENSATION can be obtained by reading the voltmeter and consulting
Figure 15 the National Bureau of Standards Thermocouple
Tables3 in Section T of the OMEGA TEMPERATURE
The advantage of the hardware compensation circuit MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK - see Table 3.
or electronic ice point reference is that we eliminate the
T = a0 +a1 x + a2x2 + a3x3 . . . +anxn
need to compute the reference temperature. This saves
us two computation steps and makes a hardware where
compensation temperature measurement somewhat T = Temperature
faster than a software compensation measurement. x = Thermocouple EMF in Volts
a = Polynomial coefficients unique to each
HARDWARE COMPENSATION SOFTWARE COMPENSATION
thermocouple
Fast Requires more computer
Restricted to one thermocouple manipulation time n = Maximum order of the polynomial
type per card Versatile - accepts any thermocouple
As n increases, the accuracy of the polynomial
improves. A representative number is n = 9 for ± 1ºC
TABLE 2
accuracy. Lower order polynomials may be used over a
narrow temperature range to obtain higher system
Voltage-To-Temperature Conversion speed.
We have used hardware and software compensation Table 4 is an example of the polynomials used to
to synthesize an ice-point reference. Now all we have to convert voltage to temperature. Data may be utilized in
do is to read the digital voltmeter and convert the packages for a data acquisition system. Rather than
voltage reading to a temperature. Unfortunately, the directly calculating the exponentials, the computer is
temperature-versus-voltage relationship of a programmed to use the nested polynomial form to save
thermocouple is not linear. Output voltages for the more execution time. The polynomial fit rapidly degrades
common thermocouples are plotted as a function of outside the temperature range shown in Table 4 and
temperature in Figure 16. If the slope of the curve (the should not be extrapolated outside those limits.
Seebeck coefficient) is plotted vs. temperature, as in
Figure 17, it becomes quite obvious that the 80
E
thermocouple is a non-linear device. Type
+
Metals
–
60
A horizontal line in Figure 17 would indicate a K
Millivolts

E Chromel vs. Constantan

constant α, in other words, a linear device. We notice 40
J J
K
Iron vs. Constantan
Chromel vs. Alumel
that the slope of the type K thermocouple approaches a R
R Platinum vs. Platinum
13% Rhodium
20
constant over a temperature range from 0ºC to 1000ºC. S S Platinum vs. Platinum
10% Rhodium
Consequently, the type K can be used with a multiplying T Copper vs. Constantan
0° 500° 1000° 1500° 2000°
voltmeter and an external ice point reference to obtain a
Temperature °C
moderately accurate direct readout of temperature. That
is, the temperature display involves only a scale factor. THERMOCOUPLE TEMPERATURE
This procedure works with voltmeters. vs.
By examining the variations in Seebeck coefficient, VOLTAGE GRAPH
Figure 16
3
Refer to Bibliography 4.
Z-25
 100 mV .00 .01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09 .10 mV
TEMPERATURES IN DEGREES C (IPTS 1968)
0.00 0.00 0.17 0.34 0.51 0.68 0.85 1.02 1.19 1.36 1.53 1.70 0.00

Seebeck Coefficient mV/°C

80
0.10 1.70 1.87 2.04 2.21 2.38 2.55 2.72 2.89 3.06 3.23 3.40 0.10
E 0.20 3.40 3.57 3.74 3.91 4.08 4.25 4.42 4.58 4.75 4.92 5.09 0.20
J
0.30 5.09 5.26 5.43 5.60 5.77 5.94 6.11 6.27 6.44 6.61 6.78 0.30
T 0.40 6.78 6.95 7.12 7.29 7.46 7.62 7.79 7.96 8.13 8.30 8.47 0.40
60
Linear Region 0.50 8.47 8.63 8.80 8.97 9.14 9.31 9.47 9.64 9.81 9.98 10.15 0.50
0.60 10.15 10.31 10.48 10.65 10.82 10.98 11.15 11.32 11.49 11.65 11.82 0.60
(SeeText) 0.70 11.82 11.99 12.16 12.32 12.49 12.66 12.83 12.99 13.16 13.33 13.49 0.70
40 0.80 13.49 13.66 13.83 13.99 14.16 14.33 14.49 14.66 14.83 14.99 15.16 0.80
K 0.90 15.16 15.33 15.49 15.66 15.83 15.99 16.16 16.33 16.49 16.66 16.83 0.90
1.00 16.83 16.99 17.16 17.32 17.49 17.66 17.82 17.99 18.15 18.32 18.48 1.00
20
1.10 18.48 18.65 18.82 18.98 19.15 19.31 19.48 19.64 19.81 19.97 20.14 1.10
R
1.20 20.14 20.31 20.47 20.64 20.80 20.97 21.13 21.30 21.46 21.63 21.79 1.20
1.30 21.79 21.96 22.12 22.29 22.45 22.62 22.78 22.94 23.11 23.27 23.44 1.30
S 1.40 23.44 23.60 23.77 23.93 24.10 24.26 24.42 24.59 24.75 24.92 25.08 1.40

–500° 0° 500° 1000° 1500° 2000°

Temperature °C
SEEBECK COEFFICIENT vs. TEMPERATURE TYPE E THERMOCOUPLE
Figure 17 Table 3
TYPE E TYPE J TYPE K TYPE R TYPE S TYPE T
Z
Nickel-10% Chromium(+) Iron(+) Nickel-10% Chromium(+) Platinum-13% Rhodium(+) Platinum-10% Rhodium(+) Copper(+)
Versus Versus Versus Versus Versus Versus
Constantan(-) Constantan(-) Nickel-5%(-) Platinum(-) Platinum(-) Constantan(-)
(Aluminum Silicon)
-100ºC to 1000ºC 0ºC to 760ºC 0ºC to 1370ºC 0ºC to 1000ºC 0ºC to 1750ºC -160ºC to 400ºC
± 0.5ºC ± 0.1ºC ± 0.7ºC ± 0.5ºC ± 1ºC ±0.5ºC
a0
9th order 5th order 8th order 8th order 9th order 7th order
a1
0.104967248 -0.048868252 0.226584602 0.263632917 0.927763167 0.100860910
a2
17189.45282 19873.14503 24152.10900 179075.491 169526.5150 25727.94369
a3
-282639. 0850 -218614.5353 67233.4248 -48840341.37 -31568363.94 -767345.8295
a4
12695339.5 11569199.78 2210340.682 1.90002E + 10 8990730663 78025595.81
a5
-448703084.6 -264917531.4 -860963914.9 -4.82704E + 12 -1.63565E + 12 -9247486589
a6
1.10866E + 10 2018441314 4.83506E + 10 7.62091E + 14 1.88027E + 14 6.97688E + 11
a7
-1. 76807E + 11 -1. 18452E + 12 -7.20026E + 16 -1.37241E + 16 -2.66192E + 13
a8
1.71842E + 12 1.38690E + 13 3.71496E + 18 6.17501E + 17 3.94078E + 14
a9
-9.19278E + 12 -6.33708E + 13 -8.03104E + 19 -1.56105E + 19
2.06132E + 13 1.69535E + 20

TEMPERATURE CONVERSION EQUATION: T = a0 +a1 x + a2x2 + . . . +anxn

NESTED POLYNOMIAL FORM: T = a0 + x(a1 + x(a2 + x (a3 + x(a4 + a5x)))) (5th order)
where x is in Volts, T is in °C
NBS POLYNOMIAL COEFFICIENTS
Table 4
The calculation of high-order polynomials is a time- All the foregoing procedures assume the
consuming task for a computer. As we mentioned thermocouple voltage can be measured accurately and
before, we can save time by using a lower order easily; however, a quick glance at Table 3 shows us that
polynomial for a smaller temperature range. In the thermocouple output voltages are very small indeed.
software for one data acquisition system, the Examine the requirements of the system voltmeter:
thermocouple characteristic curve is divided into eight
THERMOCOUPLE SEEBECK DVM SENSITIVITY
sectors, and each sector is approximated by a third- TYPE COEFFICIENT FOR 0.1ºC
order polynomial.* (µV/ºC) @ 20ºC (µV)
E 62 6.2
Temp.

J 51 5.1
K 40 4.0
R 7 0.7
S 7 0.7
T 40 4.0
{

a
REQUIRED DVM SENSITIVITY
Voltage
Table 5
Even for the common type K thermocouple, the
voltmeter must be able to resolve 4 µV to detect a
0. 1ºC change. The magnitude of this signal is an open
2 3
invitation for noise to creep into any system. For this
Ta = bx + cx + dx reason, instrument designers utilize several
CURVE DIVIDED INTO SECTORS fundamental noise rejection techniques, including tree
Figure 18 switching, normal mode filtering, integration and
guarding.
* HEWLETT PACKARD 3054A.

Z-26
 PRACTICAL THERMOCOUPLE MEASUREMENT
Noise Rejection

C DVM
C HI
+ Tree
Signal (20 Channels)
– Switch1

+ +
= –
Signal
DVM
~
= Signal
DVM
–
Noise 20 C C HI C HI
~ C
Sour ce Noise ~ ~
Source
Next 20 Channels Stray capacitance to noise
source is reduced nearly
C 20:1 by leaving Tree
Tree Switch 2 open.
Switch2
TREE SWITCHING
Figure 19

Tree Switching - Tree switching is a method of
organizing the channels of a scanner into groups, each
with its own main switch.
Without tree switching, every channel can contribute
noise directly through its stray capacitance. With tree
switching, groups of parallel channel capacitances are
in series with a single tree switch capacitance. The
result is greatly reduced crosstalk in a large data
acquisition system, due to the reduced interchannel
capacitance.
Analog Filter - A filter may be used directly at the
input of a voltmeter to reduce noise. It reduces
interference dramatically, but causes the voltmeter to
respond more slowly to step inputs.
Integration - Integration is an A/D technique which
essentially averages noise over a full line cycle; thus,
power line related noise and its harmonics are virtually
eliminated. If the integration period is chosen to be less
than an integer line cycle, its noise rejection properties
are essentially negated.
Since thermocouple circuits that cover long distances
are especially susceptible to power line related noise, it
is advisable to use an integrating analog-to-digital
converter to measure the thermocouple voltage.
Integration is an especially attractive A/D technique in
light of recent innovations which allow reading rates of
48 samples per second with full cycle integration.
Z-27
Guarding - Guarding is a technique used to reduce
interference from any noise source that is common to
both high and low measurement leads, i.e., from
common mode noise sources.
Let’s assume a thermocouple wire has been pulled
through the same conduit as a 220 Vac supply line. The
capacitance between the power lines and the
thermocouple lines will create an AC signal of
approximately equal magnitude on both thermocouple
wires. This common mode signal is not a problem in an
ideal circuit, but the voltmeter is not ideal. It has some
capacitance between its low terminal and safety ground
(chassis). Current flows through this capacitance and
through the thermocouple lead resistance, creating a
normal mode noise signal. The guard, physically a
floating metal box surrounding the entire voltmeter
circuit, is connected to a shield surrounding the
thermocouple wire, and serves to shunt the interfering
current.
VIN VOUT
t t
ANALOG FILTER
Figure 20
 Distributed
Capacitance
Distributed
Resistance
GUARD SHUNTS INTERFERING WITH CURRENT
Figure 21
Each shielded thermocouple junction can directly
contact an interfering source with no adverse effects,
since provision is made on the scanner to switch the
guard terminal separately for each thermocouple
channel. This method of connecting the shield to guard
serves to eliminate ground loops often created when
the shields are connected to earth ground.
The dvm guard is especially useful in eliminating
noise voltages created when the thermocouple junction
comes into direct contact with a common mode noise
source.
240 VRMS
Figure 22
In Figure 22 we want to measure the temperature at
the center of a molten metal bath that is being heated
by electric current. The potential at the center of the
bath is 120 V RMS. The equivalent circuit is:
RS
HI
120VRMS
Noise Current
Figure 23
The stray capacitance from the dvm Lo terminal to
chassis causes a current to flow in the low lead, which
in turn causes a noise voltage to be dropped across the
series resistance of the thermocouple, Rs. This voltage
appears directly across the dvm Hi to Lo terminals and
causes a noisy measurement. If we use a guard lead
connected directly to the thermocouple, we drastically
reduce the current flowing in the Lo lead. The noise
current now flows in the guard lead where it cannot
affect the reading:
Z-28
220 VAC Line
HI
LO
Without Guard
DVM
HI
LO
Z
Without Guard Guard
DVM
HI
R S
LO
Guard
Noise Current
Figure 24
Notice that we can also minimize the noise by
minimizing Rs. We do this by using larger thermocouple
wire that has a smaller series resistance.
To reduce the possibility of magnetically induced
noise, the thermocouple should be twisted in a uniform
manner. Thermocouple extension wires are available
commercially in a twisted pair configuration.
Practical Precautions - We have discussed the
concepts of the reference junction, how to use a
polynomial to extract absolute temperature data, and
what to look for in a data acquisition system, to
minimize the effects of noise. Now let’s look at the
thermocouple wire itself. The polynomial curve fit relies
upon the thermocouple wire’s being perfect; that is, it
must not become decalibrated during the act of making
a temperature measurement. We shall now discuss
LO some of the pitfalls of thermocouple thermometry.
Aside from the specified accuracies of the data
acquisition system and its zone box, most measurement
errors may be traced to one of these primary sources:
1. Poor junction connection
2. Decalibration of thermocouple wire
3. Shunt impedance and galvanic action
4. Thermal shunting
5. Noise and leakage currents
6. Thermocouple specifications
7. Documentation

Poor Junction Connection
There are a number of acceptable ways to connect
two thermocouple wires: soldering, silver-soldering,
welding, etc. When the thermocouple wires are
soldered together, we introduce a third metal into the
thermocouple circuit, but as long as the temperatures
on both sides of the thermocouple are the same, the
solder should not introduce any error. The solder does
limit the maximum temperature to which we can subject
this junction. To reach a higher measurement
temperature, the joint must be welded. But welding is
not a process to be taken lightly.3 Overheating can
degrade the wire, and the welding gas and the
atmosphere in which the wire is welded can both diffuse
into the thermocouple metal, changing its
characteristics. The difficulty is compounded by the very
different nature of the two metals being joined.
Commercial thermocouples are welded on expensive
machinery using a capacitive-discharge technique to
insure uniformity.
Fe
C Solder (Pb, Sn)
Junction: Fe - Pb, Sn - C = Fe - C
SOLDERING A THERMOCOUPLE
Figure 25
A poor weld can, of course, result in an open
connection, which can be detected in a measurement
situation by performing an open thermocouple check.
This is a common test function available with
dataloggers. While the open thermocouple is the
easiest malfunction to detect, it is not necessarily the
most common mode of failure.
Decalibration
Decalibration is a far more serious fault condition than
the open thermocouple because it can result in a
temperature reading that appears to be correct.
Decalibration describes the process of unintentionally
altering the physical makeup of the thermocouple wire
so that it no longer conforms to the NBS polynomial
within specified limits. Decalibration can result from
diffusion of atmospheric particles into the metal caused
by temperature extremes. It can be caused by high
temperature annealing or by cold-working the metal, an
effect that can occur when the wire is drawn through a
conduit or strained by rough handling or vibration.
Annealing can occur within the section of wire that
undergoes a temperature gradient.
3 Refer to Bibliography 5
4 Refer to Bibliography 9
5 Refer to Bibliography 7
Z-29
Robert Moffat in his Gradient Approach to
Thermocouple Thermometry explains that the
thermocouple voltage is actually generated by the
section of wire that contains the temperature gradient,
and not necessarily by the junction.4 For example, if we
have a thermal probe located in a molten metal bath,
there will be two regions that are virtually isothermal
and one that has a large gradient.
In Figure 26, the thermocouple junction will not
produce any part of the output voltage. The shaded
section will be the one producing virtually the entire
thermocouple output voltage. If, due to aging or
annealing, the output of this thermocouple were found
25˚C 100˚C
200
300
400
500
500˚C
Metal Bath
GRADIENT PRODUCES VOLTAGE
Figure 26
to be drifting, then replacing the thermocouple junction
alone would not solve the problem. We would have to
replace the entire shaded section, since it is the source
of the thermocouple voltage.
Thermocouple wire obviously can’t be manufactured
perfectly; there will be some defects which will cause
output voltage errors. These inhomogeneities can be
especially disruptive if they occur in a region of steep
temperature gradient. Since we don’t know where an
imperfection will occur within a wire, the best thing we
can do is to avoid creating a steep gradient. Gradients
can be reduced by using metallic sleeving or by careful
placement of the thermocouple wire.
Shunt Impedance
High temperatures can also take their toll on
thermocouple wire insulators. Insulation resistance
decreases exponentially with increasing temperature,
even to the point that it creates a virtual junction.5
Assume we have a completely open thermocouple
operating at a high temperature.
The leakage Resistance, RL, can be sufficiently low to
complete the circuit path and give us an improper
voltage reading. Now let’s assume the thermocouple is
not open, but we are using a very long section of small
diameter wire.
 ( )
To DVM RL
LEAKAGE RESISTANCE
Figure 27
RS RS
To DVM RL
T2
RS T1 RS
VIRTUAL JUNCTION
Figure 28
If the thermocouple wire is small, its series resistance,
RS, will be quite high and under extreme conditions RL
< < RS. This means that the thermocouple junction will
appear to be at RL and the output will be proportional to
T1 not T2.
High temperatures have other detrimental effects on
thermocouple wire. The impurities and chemicals within
the insulation can actually diffuse into the thermocouple
metal causing the temperature-voltage dependence to
deviate from published values. When using
thermocouples at high temperatures, the insulation
should be chosen carefully. Atmospheric effects can be
minimized by choosing the proper protective metallic or
ceramic sheath
Galvanic Action
The dyes used in some thermocouple insulation will
form an electrolyte in the presence of water. This
creates a galvanic action, with a resultant output
hundreds of times greater than the Seebeck effect.
Precautions should be taken to shield thermocouple
wires from all harsh atmospheres and liquids.
Thermal Shunting
No thermocouple can be made without mass. Since it
takes energy to heat any mass, the thermocouple will
slightly alter the temperature it is meant to measure. If
the mass to be measured is small, the thermocouple
must naturally be small. But a thermocouple made with
small wire is far more susceptible to the problems of
contamination, annealing, strain, and shunt impedance.
To minimize these effects, thermocouple extension wire
can be used. Extension wire is commercially available
wire primarily intended to cover long distances between
the measuring thermocouple and the voltmeter.
Extension wire is made of metals having Seebeck
coefficients very similar to a particular thermocouple
type. It is generally larger in size so that its series
resistance does not become a factor when traversing
long distances. It can also be pulled more readily
through a conduit than can very small thermocouple
Z-30
Z
wire. It generally is specified over a much lower
temperature range than premium grade thermocouple
wire. In addition to offering a practical size advantage,
extension wire is less expensive than standard
thermocouple wire. This is especially true in the case of
platinum-based thermocouples.
Since the extension wire is specified over a narrower
temperature range and it is more likely to receive
mechanical stress, the temperature gradient across the
extension wire should be kept to a minimum. This,
according to the gradient theory, assures that virtually
none of the output signal will be affected by the
extension wire.
Noise - We have already discussed line-related noise
as it pertains to the data acquisition system. The
techniques of integration, tree switching and guarding
serve to cancel most line-related interference.
Broadband noise can be rejected with the analog filter.
The one type of noise the data acquisition system
cannot reject is a dc offset caused by a dc leakage
current in the system. While it is less common to see dc
leakage currents of sufficient magnitude to cause
appreciable error, the possibility of their presence
should be noted and prevented, especially if the
thermocouple wire is very small and the related series
impedance is high.
Wire Calibration
Thermocouple wire is manufactured to a certain
specification, signifying its conformance with the NBS
tables. The specification can sometimes be enhanced
by calibrating the wire (testing it at known
temperatures). Consecutive pieces of wire on a
continuous spool will generally track each other more
closely than the specified tolerance, although their
output voltages may be slightly removed from the center
of the absolute specification.
If the wire is calibrated in an effort to improve its
fundamental specifications, it becomes even more
imperative that all of the aforementioned conditions be
heeded in order to avoid decalibration.
 Documentation - It may seem incongruous to speak
of documentation as being a source of voltage
measurement error, but the fact is that thermocouple
systems, by their very ease of use, invite a large number
of data points. The sheer magnitude of the data can
become quite unwieldy. When a large amount of data is
taken, there is an increased probability of error due to
mislabeling of lines, using the wrong NBS curve, etc.
Since channel numbers invariably change, data
should be categorized by measureand, not just channel
number.6 Information about any given measureand,
such as transducer type, output voltage, typical value
and location, can be maintained in a data file. This can
be done under computer control or simply by filling out
a pre-printed form. No matter how the data is
maintained, the importance of a concise system should
not be underestimated, especially at the outset of a
complex data gathering project.
Diagnostics
Most of the sources of error that we have mentioned
are aggravated by using the thermocouple near its
temperature limits. These conditions will be
encountered infrequently in most applications. But what
about the situation where we are using small
thermocouples in a harsh atmosphere at high
temperatures? How can we tell when the thermocouple
is producing erroneous results? We need to develop a
reliable set of diagnostic procedures.
Through the use of diagnostic techniques, R.P. Reed
has developed an excellent system for detecting faulty
thermocouples and data channels.6 Three components
of this system are the event record, the zone box test,
and the thermocouple resistance history.
Event Record - The first diagnostic is not a test at all,
but a recording of all pertinent events that could even
remotely affect the measurements. An example would be:
MARCH 18 EVENT RECORD
10:43 Power failure
10:47 System power returned
11:05 Changed M821 to type K thermocouple
13:51 New data acquisition program
16:07 M821 appears to be bad reading
Figure 29
We look at our program listing and find that measurand
#M821 uses a type J thermocouple and that our new data
acquisition program interprets it as a type J. But from the
event record, apparently thermocouple M821 was
changed to a type K, and the change was not entered into
the program. While most anomalies are not discovered
this easily, the event record can provide valuable insight
into the reason for an unexplained change in a system
measurement. This is especially true in a system
configured to measure hundreds of data points.
6 Refer to Bibliography 10 Z-31
Zone Box Test - A zone box is an isothermal terminal
block of known temperature used in place of an ice bath
reference. If we temporarily short-circuit the
thermocouple directly at the zone box, the system
should read a temperature very close to that of the zone
box, i.e., close to room temperature.
If the thermocouple lead resistance is much greater
than the shunting resistance, the copper wire shunt
forces V = 0. In the normal unshorted case, we want to
measure TJ, and the system reads:
V ≅ α (TJ - TREF)
But, for the functional test, we have shorted the terminals
so that V=0. The indicated temperature T’J is thus:
0 = α (T’J - TREF)
T’J = TREF
Thus, for a dvm reading of V = 0, the system will
indicate the zone box temperature. First we observe the
temperature TJ (forced to be different from TREF), then
we short the thermocouple with a copper wire and
make sure that the system indicates the zone box
temperature instead of TJ.
TREF
Cu
Cu Fe
+
v Copper Wire Short TJ
– C
Cu
Voltmeter Cu
Zone Box
Isothermal Block
SHORTING THE THERMOCOUPLE AT THE TERMINALS
Figure 30
This simple test verifies that the controller, scanner,
voltmeter and zone box compensation are all operating
correctly. In fact, this simple procedure tests everything
but the thermocouple wire itself.
Thermocouple Resistance - A sudden change in the
resistance of a thermocouple circuit can act as a
warning indicator. If we plot resistance vs. time for each
set of thermocouple wires, we can immediately spot a
sudden resistance change, which could be an indication
of an open wire, a wire shorted due to insulation failure,
changes due to vibration fatigue, or one of many failure
mechanisms.
For example, assume we have the thermocouple
measurement shown in Figure 31.
We want to measure the temperature profile of an
underground seam of coal that has been ignited. The
wire passes through a high temperature region, into a
cooler region. Suddenly, the temperature we measure
rises from 300°C to 1200°C. Has the burning section of
the coal seam migrated to a different location, or has
the thermocouple insulation failed, thus causing a short
circuit between the two wires at the point of a hot spot?

To Data
Acquisition
System
T = 1200˚C T = 300˚C
BURNING COAL SEAM
Figure 31
If we have a continuous history of the thermocouple
wire resistance, we can deduce what has actually
happened.
R
t1 Time
THERMOCOUPLE RESISTANCE vs. TIME
Figure 32
The resistance of a thermocouple will naturally
change with time as the resistivity of the wire changes
due to varying temperature. But a sudden change in
resistance is an indication that something is wrong. In
this case, the resistance has dropped abruptly,
indicating that the insulation has failed, effectively
shortening the thermocouple loop.
TS
Short
CAUSE OF THE RESISTANCE CHANGE
Figure 33
The new junction will measure temperature Ts, not T1.
The resistance measurement has given us additional
information to help interpret the physical phenomenon
detected by a standard open thermocouple check.
Measuring Resistance - We have casually
mentioned checking the resistance of the thermocouple
wire as if it were a straightforward measurement. But
keep in mind that when the thermocouple is producing a
voltage, this voltage can cause a large resistance
measurement error. Measuring the resistance of a
thermocouple is akin to measuring the internal
resistance of a battery. We can attack this problem with
a technique known as offset compensated ohms
measurement.
As the name implies, the voltmeter first measures the
thermocouple offset voltage without the ohms current
source applied. Then the ohms current source is
switched on and the voltage across the resistance is
measured again. The voltmeter software compensates
T1 for the offset voltage of the thermocouple and
calculates the actual thermocouple source resistance.
Special Thermocouples - Under extreme conditions,
we can even use diagnostic thermocouple circuit
configurations. Tip-branched and leg-branched
thermocouples are four-wire thermocouple circuits that
allow redundant measurement of temperature, noise,
voltage and resistance for checking wire integrity. Their
respective merits are discussed in detail in REF. 8. Z
Only severe thermocouple applications require such
extensive diagnostics, but it is comforting to know that
there are procedures that can be used to verify the
integrity of an important thermocouple measurement.
Leg-Branched Thermocouple
Tip-Branched Thermocouple
Figure 34
T1 Summary
In summary, the integrity of a thermocouple system
can be improved by following these precautions:
• Use the largest wire possible that will not
shunt heat away from the measurement area.
• If small wire is required, use it only in the region
of the measurement and use extension wire for
the region with no temperature gradient.
• Avoid mechanical stress and vibration which
could strain the wires.
• When using long thermocouple wires, connect
the wire shield to the dvm guard terminal and use
twisted pair extension wire.
• Avoid steep temperature gradients.
• Try to use the thermocouple wire well within its
temperature rating.
• Use a guarded integrating A/D converter.
• Use the proper sheathing material in hostile
environments to protect the thermocouple wire.
• Use extension wire only at low temperatures and
only in regions of small gradients.
• Keep an event log and a continuous record of
thermocouple resistance.
Z-32
 THE RTD
History
The same year that Seebeck made his discovery
about thermoelectricity, Sir Humphrey Davy announced
that the resistivity of metals showed a marked
temperature dependence. Fifty years later, Sir William
Siemens proffered the use of platinum as the element in
a resistance thermometer. His choice proved most
propitious, as platinum is used to this day as the
primary element in all high-accuracy resistance
thermometers. In fact, the Platinum Resistance
Temperature Detector, or PRTD, is used today as an
interpolation standard from the oxygen point
(-182.96°C) to the antimony point (630.74°C).
Platinum is especially suited to this purpose, as it can
withstand high temperatures while maintaining excellent
stability. As a noble metal, it shows limited susceptibility
to contamination.
The classical resistance temperature detector (RTD)
construction using platinum was proposed by C.H.
Meyers in 1932.7 He wound a helical coil of platinum on
a crossed mica web and mounted the assembly inside
a glass tube. This construction minimized strain on the
wire while maximizing resistance.
MYERS RTD CONSTRUCTION
Figure 35
Although this construction produces a very stable
element, the thermal contact between the platinum and
the measured point is quite poor. This results in a slow
thermal response time. The fragility of the structure
limits its use today primarily to that of a laboratory
standard.
Another laboratory standard has taken the place of
Meyers’ design. This is the bird-cage element proposed
by Evans and Burns.8 The platinum element remains
largely unsupported, which allows it to move freely
when expanded or contracted by temperature
variations.
Strain-induced resistance changes over time and
temperature are thus minimized, and the bird-cage
becomes the ultimate laboratory standard. Due to the
unsupported structure and subsequent susceptibility to
vibration, this configuration is still a bit too fragile for
industrial environments.
7 Refer to Bibliography 12
8 Refer to Bibliography 16
Z-33
A more rugged construction technique is shown in
Figure 37. The platinum wire is bifilar wound on a glass
or ceramic bobbin. The bifilar winding reduces the
effective enclosed area of the coil to minimize magnetic
pickup and its related noise. Once the wire is wound
onto the bobbin, the assembly is then sealed with a
coating of molten glass. The sealing process assures
that the RTD will maintain its integrity under extreme
vibration, but it also limits the expansion of the platinum
metal at high temperatures. Unless the coefficients of
expansion of the platinum and the bobbin match
perfectly, stress will be placed on the wire as the
temperature changes, resulting in a strain-induced
resistance change. This may result in a permanent
change in the resistance of the wire.
There are partially supported versions of the RTD
which offer a compromise between the bird-cage
approach and the sealed helix. One such approach
uses a platinum helix threaded through a ceramic
cylinder and affixed via glass-frit. These devices will
maintain excellent stability in moderately rugged
vibrational applications.
Typical RTD Probes
Thick Film Omega Film Element
Thin Film Omega TFD Element
Glass sealed Biflar Winding
TYPICAL RTD’s
FIgures 36 and 37
Metal Film RTD’s
In the newest construction technique, a platinum or
metal-glass slurry film is deposited or screened onto a
small flat ceramic substrate, etched with a laser-
trimming system, and sealed. The film RTD offers
substantial reduction in assembly time and has the
further advantage of increased resistance for a given
size. Due to the manufacturing technology, the device
size itself is small, which means it can respond quickly
to step changes in temperature. Film RTD’s are
presently less stable than their hand-made
counterparts, but they are becoming more popular
because of their decided advantages in size and
production cost. These advantages should provide the
impetus for future research needed to improve stability.
 Metals - All metals produce a positive change in temperature measurement.
resistance for a positive change in temperature. This, of A ten ohm lead impedance implies 10/.385 ≅ 26ºC
course, is the main function of an RTD. As we shall error in measurement. Even the temperature coefficient
soon see, system error is minimized when the nominal of the lead wire can contribute a measurable error. The
value of the RTD resistance is large. This implies a classical method of avoiding this problem has been the
metal wire with a high resistivity. The lower the resistivity use of a bridge.
of the metal, the more material we will have to use.
Table 6 lists the resistivities of common RTD
materials.
+ DVM
METAL
_________
RESISTIVITY OHM/CMF
___________________
(cmf = circular mil foot) – Z
Gold Au 13.00 RTD
Silver Ag 8.8
Copper Cu 9.26
Platinum Pt 59.00 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Tungsten w 30.00
Nickel Ni 36.00 Figure 39
Table 6
The bridge output voltage is an indirect indication of
Because of their lower resistivities, gold and silver are the RTD resistance. The bridge requires four connection
rarely used as RTD elements. Tungsten has a relatively wires, an external source, and three resistors that have
high resistivity, but is reserved for very high temperature a zero temperature coefficient. To avoid subjecting the
applications because it is extremely brittle and difficult three bridge-completion resistors to the same
to work. temperature as the RTD, the RTD is separated from the
Copper is used occasionally as an RTD element. Its bridge by a pair of extension wires:
low resistivity forces the element to be longer than a
platinum element, but its linearity and very low cost
make it an economical alternative. Its upper + DVM
temperature limit is only about 120ºC.
– RTD
The most common RTD’s are made of either platinum,
nickel, or nickel alloys. The economical nickel derivative
wires are used over a limited temperature range. They
are quite non-linear and tend to drift with time. For Figure 40
measurement integrity, platinum is the obvious choice. These extension wires recreate the problem that we
had initially: The impedance of the extension wires
Resistance Measurement affects the temperature reading. This effect can be
The common values of resistance for a platinum RTD minimized by using a three-wire bridge configuration:
range from 10 ohms for the bird-cage model to several
thousand ohms for the film RTD. The single most
common value is 100 ohms at 0ºC. The DIN 43760
standard temperature coefficient of platinum wire is α = DVM
A

.00385. For a 100 ohm wire, this corresponds to + 0.385 C

ohms/ºC at 0ºC. This value for α is actually the average

slope from 0ºC to 100ºC. The more chemically pure B
platinum wire used in platinum resistance standards
has an α of +.00392 ohms/ohm/ºC. 3-WIRE BRIDGE
Both the slope and the absolute value are small Figure 41
numbers, especially when we consider the fact that the
If wires A and B are perfectly matched in length, their
measurement wires leading to the sensor may be
impedance effects will cancel because each is in an
several ohms or even tens of ohms. A small lead
opposite leg of the bridge. The third wire, C, acts as a
impedance can contribute a significant error to our
sense lead and carries no current.
R=5Ω
Lead
The Wheatstone bridge shown in Figure 41 creates a
100 Ω RTD non-linear relationship between resistance change and
bridge output voltage change. This compounds the
Lead
already non-linear temperature-resistance characteristic
R=5Ω of the RTD by requiring an additional equation to convert
EFFECT OF LEAD RESISTANCE bridge output voltage to equivalent RTD impedance.
Figure 38
Z-34
 4-Wire Ohms - The technique of using a current The error term will be small if Vo is small, i.e., the
source along with a remotely sensed digital voltmeter bridge is close to balance. This circuit works well with
alleviates many problems associated with the bridge. devices like strain gauges, which change resistance
value by only a few percent, but an RTD changes
+ resistance dramatically with temperature. Assume the
i =0
i
RTD resistance is 200 ohms and the bridge is designed
DVM 100 W RTD
i =0
for 100 ohms:
–
1Ω
4-WIRE OHMS MEASUREMENT 200Ω
- +
Figure 42 6V
+
- 3V
VO
The output voltage read by the dvm is directly portional 2.0066V
1Ω
to RTD resistance, so only one conversion equation is 100Ω

necessary. The three bridge-completion resistors are

Figure 45
replaced by one reference resistor. The digital voltmeter
measures only the voltage dropped across the RTD and
Since we don’t know the value of RL, we must use
is insensitive to the length of the lead wires.
equation (a), so we get:
The one disadvantage of using 4-wire ohms is that we
need one more extension wire than the 3-wire bridge.
This is a small price to pay if we are at all concerned ( )
6 - 1.9868 = 199.01 ohms
Rg = 100 —————
6 + 1.9868
with the accuracy of the temperature measurement.
RTD = Rg
The correct answer is of course 200 ohms. That’s a
R1 temperature error of about 2.5ºC.
VS + - +
- VO
Unless you can actually measure the resistance of RL
R2 or balance the bridge, the basic 3-wire technique is not
R3
an accurate method for measuring absolute
Figure 43 temperature with an RTD. A better approach is to use a
4-wire technique.
3-Wire Bridge Measurement Errors
If we know VS and VO, we can find Rg and then solve for Resistance to Temperature
temperature. The unbalance voltage Vo of a bridge built
with R1 = R2 is:
Conversion
The RTD is a more linear device than the
R3 1 thermocouple, but it still requires curve-fitting. The
VO= VS
( ———
R3 + Rg) – VS —
2 () Callendar-Van Dusen equation has been used for years
If Rg = R3, VO= 0 and the bridge is balanced. This can to approximate the RTD curve:9
be done manually, but if we don’t want to do a manual
[ ( )(——
100) (100 )(100) ]
3
T -1
RT=R0+R0 α T-δ- —— T -β ——
T -1 ——
T
bridge balance, we can just solve for Rg in terms of VO: 100
VS - 2VO
Rg = R3
(————
V + 2V )
S O Where:
This expression assumes the lead resistance is zero. If RT = Resistance at Temperature T
Rg is located some distance from the bridge in a 3-wire Ro = Resistance at T = 0ºC
configuration, the lead resistance RL will appear in α = Temperature coefficient at T = 0ºC
series with both Rg and R3: (typically +0.00392Ω/Ω/ºC)
δ = 1.49 (typical value for .00392 platinum)
β
RL
Rg
= 0 T>0
V3 + - +
2 - VO
0. 11 (typical) T < 0

RL The exact values for coefficients α , β , and δ are

R3
determined by testing the RTD at four temperatures and
Figure 44 solving the resultant equations. This familiar equation
Again we solve for Rg: was replaced in 1968 by a 20th order polynomial in
order to provide a more accurate curve fit.
Vs - 2Vo 4Vo
Rg = R3
9 Refer
(————
V + 2V )
S (Vs + 2V )
- R ————
o
to Bibliography 11 and 13.
L
o
The plot of this equation shows the RTD to be a more
linear device than the thermocouple:
Z-35
 16
THE THERMISTOR
Type S µv/°C Seebeck Coefficient

Like the RTD, the thermistor is also a temperature

12 sensitive resistor. While the thermocouple is the most

Resistance Temperature
.390
versatile temperature transducer and the PRTD is the

8
Equivalent Linearities
4 Type S Thermocouple
vs.
Platinum RTD
0 200 400
Temperature, °C
Figure 46
Practical Precautions
The same practical precautions that apply to
thermocouples also apply to RTD’s, i.e., use shields
and twisted-pair wire, use proper sheathing, avoid
stress and steep gradients, use large extension wire,
keep good documentation and use a guarded
integrating dvm. In addition, the following precautions
should be observed.
Construction - Due to its construction, the RTD is
somewhat more fragile than the thermocouple, and
precautions must be taken to protect it.
Self-Heating - Unlike the thermocouple, the RTD is
Coefficient - RTD
.344
most stable, the word that best describes the thermistor
.293 is sensitive. Of the three major categories of sensors,
the thermistor exhibits by far the largest parameter
change with temperature.
Thermistors are generally composed of
semiconductor materials. Although positive temperature
coefficient units are available, most thermistors have a
negative temperature coefficient (TC); that is, their
Z
resistance decreases with increasing temperature. The
600 800 negative T.C. can be as large as several percent per
degree Celsius, allowing the thermistor circuit to detect
minute changes in temperature which could not be
observed with an RTD or thermocouple circuit.
The price we pay for this increased sensitivity is loss
of linearity. The thermistor is an extremely non-linear
device which is highly dependent upon process
parameters. Consequently, manufacturers have not
standardized thermistor curves to the extent that RTD
and thermocouple curves have been standardized.
An individual thermistor curve can be very closely
approximated through use of the Steinhart-Hart
equation:18
v or R

not self-powered. A current must be passed through the Thermistor

device to provide a voltage that can be measured. The
current causes Joule (I2R) heating within the RTD,
changing its temperature. This self-heating appears as
a measurement error. Consequently, attention must be RTD
paid to the magnitude of the measurement current
supplied by the ohmmeter. A typical value for self- Thermocouple
heating error is 12ºC per milliwatt in free air. Obviously,
an RTD immersed in a thermally conductive medium
will distribute its Joule heat to the medium, and the error
due to self-heating will be smaller. The same RTD that T
rises 1ºC per milliwatt in free air will rise only 110 ºC per
milliwatt in air which is flowing at the rate of one meter Figure 47
per second.10
To reduce self-heating errors, use the minimum ohms 1
measurement current that will still give the resolution T = A + BlnR + C (In R)3
you require, and use the largest RTD you can that will
still give good response time. Obviously, there are where:
compromises to be considered. T = Degrees Kelvin
Thermal Shunting - Thermal shunting is the act of R = Resistance of the thermistor
altering the measurement temperature by inserting a
measurement transducer. Thermal shunting is more a A,B,C = Curve-fitting constants
problem with RTD’s than with thermocouples, as the
physical bulk of an RTD is greater than that of a
thermocouple.

Small RTD Large RTD

Fast Response Time Slow Response Time
Low Thermal Shunting Poor Thermal Shunting
High Self-Heating Error Low Self-Heating Error

Thermal EMF - The platinum-to-copper connection that

is made when the RTD is measured can cause a
thermal offset voltage. The offset-compensated ohms
technique can be used to eliminate this effect.
10 Refer to Bibliography 6.
Z-36
A, B, and C are found by selecting three data points on
the published data curve and solving the three MONOLITHIC LINEAR
simultaneous equations. When the data points are
chosen to span no more than 100ºC within the nominal
center of the thermistor’s temperature range, this
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
equation approaches a rather remarkable ±.02°C curve A recent innovation in thermometry is the integrated
fit. circuit temperature transducer. It is available in both
voltage and current-output configurations. Both supply
Somewhat faster computer execution time is achieved an output that is linearily proportional to absolute
through a simpler equation: temperature. Typical values are 1 µA/K and 10 mV/K.
B Except for the fact that they offer a very linear output
T= ——— - C with temperature, these devices share all the
In R-A
disadvantages of thermistor devices and thus have a
where A, B, and C are again found by selecting three limited temperature range. The same problems of self-
(R,T) data points and solving the three resultant heating and fragility are evident, and they require an
simultaneous equations. This equation must be applied external power source.
over a narrower temperature range in order to approach These devices provide a convenient way to produce
the accuracy of the Steinhart-Hart equation. an analog voltage proportional to temperature. Such a
need arises in a hardware thermocouple reference
junction compensation circuit (see Figure 15).
Linear Thermistors
A great deal of effort has gone into the development + +
of thermistors which approach a linear characteristic.
These are typically 2- or 4-leaded devices requiring i = 1µ A/K
external matching resistors to linearize the
characteristic curve. The modern data acquisition
system with its computing controller has made this kind 10mv/
K To DVM
of hardware linearization unnecessary.
10kΩ To DVM
Measurement
The high resistivity of the thermistor affords it a
distinct measurement advantage. The four-wire A B
resistance measurement is not required as it is with
RTD’s. For example, a common thermistor value is 5000
ohms at 25’C. With a typical T.C. of 4%/ºC, a CURRENT SENSOR VOLTAGE SENSOR
measurement lead resistance of 100 produces only a Figure 48
.05°C error. This error is a factor of 500 times less than
the equivalent RTD error.
Disadvantages - Because they are semiconductors,
thermistors are more susceptible to permanent
decalibration at high temperatures than are RTD’s or
thermocouples. The use of thermistors is generally
limited to a few hundred degrees Celsius and
manufacturers warn that extended exposures even well
below maximum operating limits will cause the
thermistor to drift out of its specified tolerance.
Thermistors can be made very small which means
they will respond quickly to temperature changes. It also
APPENDIX A
means that their small thermal mass makes them The Empirical Laws of
especially susceptible to self-heating errors. Thermocouples11
Thermistors are a good deal more fragile than RTD’s The following examples illustrate the empirically
or thermocouples and they must be carefully mounted derived “laws” of thermocouples which are useful in
to avoid crushing or bond separation. understanding and diagnosing thermocouple circuits.

11
Refer to Bibliography 2.

Z-37
 APPENDIX B
+
v
Fe Cu
T
Fe

Tl
Thermocouple Characteristics
Cu C
--
C
Over the years, specific pairs of thermocouple alloys
Isother mal Block have been developed to solve unique measurement
T1
problems. Idiosyncrasies of the more common
thermocouples are discussed here.
THE LAW OF INTERMEDIATE METALS We will use the term standard wire error to refer to
Inserting the copper lead between the iron and the common commercial specifications published in the
constantan leads will not change the output voltage V, Annual Book of ASTM Standards. It represents the
regardless of the temperature of the copper lead. The
voltage V is that of an Fe-C thermocouple at
allowable deviation between the actual thermocouple
output voltage and the voltage predicted by the tables in Z
temperature T1. NBS Monograph 125.
Noble Metal Thermocouples - The noble metal
thermocouples, types B, R, and S, are all platinum or
+ Fe Fe platinum-rhodium thermocouples and hence share
v T T
many of the same characteristics.
C
--
C C
Diffusion - Metallic vapor diffusion at high
T1
Isother mal Block temperatures can readily change platinum wire
calibration; therefore, platinum wires should only be
used inside a non-metallic sheath such as high-purity
alumina. The one exception to this rule is a sheath
made of platinum, but this option is prohibitively
expensive.
Stability - The platinum-based couples are by far the
THE LAW OF INTERIOR TEMPERATURES most stable of all the common thermocouples. Type S is
The output voltage V will be that of an Fe-C couple at so stable that it is specified as the standard for
Temperature T, regardless of the external heat source temperature calibration between the antimony point
applied to either measurement lead. (630.74°C) and the gold point (1064.43ºC).
Type B - The B couple is the only common
thermocouple that exhibits a double-valued ambiguity.
C C
+
T T
Due to the double-valued curve and the extremely low
v
Fe Fe Fe
Seebeck coefficient at low temperatures, Type B is
-- virtually useless below 50°C. Since the output is nearly
Isother mal Block
T1 zero from 0°C to 42°C, Type B has the unique
advantage that the reference junction temperature is
Pt
almost immaterial, as long as it is between 0º and
40ºC. Of course, the measuring junction temperature is
typically very high.

THE LAW OF INSERTED METALS v

The voltage V will be that of an Fe-C thermocouple at
temperature T, provided both ends of the platinum wire
Double-Value Region
are at the same temperature. The two thermocouples
created by the platinum wire (FePt and Pt -Fe) act in
opposition. 0 42 T, ˚C

All of the above examples assume the measurement

wires are homogeneous; that is, free of defects and
impurities. Base Metal Thermocouples
Unlike the noble metal thermocouples, the base metal
couples have no specified chemical composition. Any
combination of metals can be used which results in a
voltage vs. temperature curve fit that is within the
standard wire errors. This leads to some rather
interesting metal combinations. Constantan, for example,
is not a specific metal alloy at all, but a generic name for
a whole series of copper-nickel alloys. Incredibly, the
Constantan used in a type T (copper- Constantan)
thermocouple is not the same as the Constantan used in
12
Refer to Bibliography 3 the type J (iron -Constantan) couple.12

Z-38
 Type E - Although Type E standard wire errors are not
specified below 0°C, the type E thermocouple is ideally ASTM STANDARD WIRE
suited for low temperature measurements because of
its high Seebeck coefficient (58 µV/°C), low thermal ERRORS14
conductivity and corrosion resistance.
871 170 °C
The Seebeck coefficient for Type E is greater than all
other standard couples, which makes it useful for
detecting small temperature changes.
± 4.4 ± 8.5 °C
Type J - Iron, the positive element in a J couple, is an
inexpensive metal rarely manufactured in pure form. J
thermocouples are subject to poor conformance 1
/2 % Slope
characteristics because of impurities in the iron. Even
so, the J couple is popular because of its high Seebeck TYPE B 24 AWG
coefficient and low price.
The J couple should never be used above 760°C due 0 538 1482 °C
to an abrupt magnetic transformation that can cause
decalibration even after the instrument cools.
Cu
± 3.7 °C
± 1.4
T1
Cu 1
+ /4 %
v= (T1 _ T2) C
TYPE R,S 24 AWG
_
Cu T2 (Ambient Reference) 0 316 871 °C
Voltmeter Cu

TYPE T ± 4.4 °C
Type T - This is the only couple with published ± 1.7
standard wire errors for the temperature region below 1
0°C; however, type E is actually more suitable at very /2 %
low temperatures because of its higher Seebeck TYPE E 8 AWG
coefficient and lower thermal conductivity.
_ _
Type T has the unique distinction of having one 101 59 93 371 °C
copper lead. This can be an advantage in a specialized
monitoring situation where a temperature difference is 2%
all that is desired. ± 1.2 ± 2.8 °C
The advantage is that the copper thermocouple leads ± .8
are the same metal as the dvm terminals, making lead 3
/4 %
compensation unnecessary.
Types K & Nicrosil-Nisil - The Nicrosil-Nisil
thermocouple, type N, is similar to type K, but it has TYPE T 14 AWG
been designed to minimize some of the instabilities in 0 277 760 °C
the conventional Chromel-Alumel combination.
Changes in the alloy content have improved the
order/disorder transformations occurring at 500˚C, and
a higher silicon content in the positive element improves ± 5.7 °C
the oxidation resistance at elevated temperatures. A full ± 2.2
description with characteristic curves is published in 3
/4 %
NBS Monograph 161.13
Tungsten - Tungsten-rhenium thermocouples are TYPE J 8 AWG
normally used at high temperature in reducing or
vacuum environments, but never in an oxidizing 0 277 °C 1260
atmosphere because of the high reaction rates. Pure
tungsten becomes very brittle when heated above its At high temperatures,
recrystallization temperature (about 1200°C). To make small thermocouple wire
is affected by diffusion, ± 9.5
the wire easier to handle, rhenium alloys are used in
both thermocouple legs. Types G (tungsten vs. tungsten impurities, and ± 2.2
26% rhenium), C (tungsten 5% rhenium vs. tungsten inhomogeneity more so 3
than large wire. The /4 %
26% rhenium) and D (tungsten 3% rhenium vs.
tungsten 25% rhenium) thermocouples are available in standard wire errors
reflect this relationship. TYPE K 8 AWG
bare wire forms as well as complete probe assemblies.
All materials conform to published Limits of Error. ®
Note that each NBS wire error specification carries with it a
wire size. The noble metal thermocouples (B, R, and S) are
13
Refer to Bibliography 14.
specified with small (24 ga.) wire for obvious cost reasons.
14
Refer to Bibliography 3.

Z-39
 TYPE K AWG DIA, MILS DIA, mm

1260
1093

°C
8 128 3.3

982
871
277°C
10 102 2.6
0°C

12 81 2.1

±9.5°C
14 64 1.6
16 51 1.3

Error
18 40 1
±2.2°C 20 32 0.8
34 % 24
Wire Size AWG or
22 25 0.6
28 20 14 8 24 20 0.5
26 16 0.4 Z
TEMPERATURE RANGE vs. WIRE SIZE vs. ERROR
28 13 0.3
°C
STANDARD STANDARD NBS SPECIFIED
TYPE METAL COLOR CODE Ω/DOUBLE FOOT SEEBECK COEFFICIENT WIRE ERROR MATERIAL RANGE††
+ - + - 20 AWG S(µV/ºC) @ T (ºC) (SEE APPENDIX B) (ºC)
Platinum - Platinum -
B 6% Rhodium 30% Rhodium – 0.2 6 600 4.4 to 8.6 0 to 1820*
Nickel -
E 10% Chromium Constantan Violet Red 0.71 58.5 0 1.7 to 4.4 -270 to 1000
J Iron Constantan White Red 0.36 50.2 0 1.1 to 2.9 - 210 to 760
Nickel -
K I0% Chromium Nickel Yellow Red 0.59 39.4 0 1.1 to 2.9 -270 to 1372
N (AWG Nicrosil Nisil – – 39 600 – 0 to 1300
14)
N (AWG Nicrosil Nisil – – 26.2 0 – -270 to 400
28)
Platinum-
R 13% Rhodium Platinum – 0.19 11.5 600 1.4 to 3.8 -50 to 1768
Platinum -
S 10% Rhodium Platinum – 0.19 10.3 600 1.4 to 3.8 -50 to 1768
T Copper Constantan Blue Red 0.30 38 0 0.8 to 2.9 -270 to 400
Tungsten - Tungsten -
W-Re 5% Rheniurn 26% Rhenium – – 19.5 600 – 0 to 2320
* Type B double-valued below 42°C - curve fit specified only above 130°C
† Material range is for 8 AWG wire; decreases with decreasing wire size

Connector: Composed of same metals as thermocouple, for
minimum connection error.
Exposed
Exposed Junction: Wires unprotected, faster response.
Ungrounded Junction: Best protection, electronically isolated.
Grounded Junction: WIres protected, faster response.
Thermocouple Washers:
Couple built into washer;
convenient mounting.
1.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Charles Herzfeld, F.G. Brickwedde: Temperature - Its
Thermocouple Well: Lower
Measurement and Control in Science and Industry, Vol. 3, Part 1,
gradient, protects wire and allows Reinhold, New York, 1962.
user to change thermocouple 2. Robert P. Benedict: Fundamentals of Temperature, Pressure and
without interrupting process. Flow Measurements, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1969.
3. Manual on the Use of Thermocouples in Temperature Measurement,
ASTM Special Publication 470A, Omega Press, Stamford,
Connecticut 06907, 1974.
4. Thermocouple Reference Tables, NBS Monograph 125, National
Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C., 1979. Also, Temperature-
Millivolt Reference Tables-Section T, Omega Temperature
Measurement Handbook, Omega Press, Stamford Connecticut
06907,1983.
5. H. Dean Baker, E.A. Ryder, N.H. Baker: Temperature Measurement in
Engineering, Omega Press, Stamford, Connecticut 06907, 1953.
6. Temperature Measurement Handbook, Omega Engineering, Inc.,
Stamford, Connecticut.
7. R.L. Anderson: Accuracy of Small Diameter Sheathed
Thermocouples for the Core Flow Test Loop, Oak Ridge National
Laboratories, ORNL-54011 (available from National Information
Service), April, 1979.
8. R. R Reed: Branched Thermocouple Circuits in Underground Coal
Gasification Experiments, Proceedings of the 22nd ISA International
Instrumentation Symposium, Instrument Society of America, 1976.
9. R.J. Moffat: The Gradient Approach to Thermocouple Circuitry, from
Temperature - Its Measurement and Control in Science and Industry,
Reinhold, New York, 1962
10. R.P. Reed: A Diagnostics-Oriented System for Thermocouple
Thermometry, Proceedings of 24th ISA International Instrumentation
Symposium, Instrument Society of America, 1978.
11. Harry R. Norton: Handbook of Transducers for Electronic Measuring
Systems, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
12. C.H. Meyers: Coiled Filament Resistance Thermometers, NBS
Journal of Research, Vol. 9, 1932.
13. Bulletin 9612, Rev. B: Platinum Resistance Temperature Sensors,
Rosemount Engineering Co., 1962.
14. Burley, Powell, Burns & Scroger: The Nicrosil vs. Nisil Thermocouple:
Properties and Thermoelectric Reference Data, NBS Monograph 161,
Ungrounded Grounded U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Washington, D.C., 1978
15. J.P Tavener: Platinum Resistance Temperature Detectors - State of the
Art, Measurements & Control, Measurements & Data Corporation,
Pittsburgh, PA., April, 1974.
16. J.P. Evans and G.W. Burns: A Study of Stability of High Temperature
Platinum Resistance Thermometers, in Temperature - Its Measurement
and Control in Science and Industry, Reinhold, New York, 1962.
17. D.D. Pollock: The Theory and Properties of Thermocouple Elements,
ASTM STP 492, Omega Press, Stamford, Connecticut 06907, 1979.
18. YSI Precision Thermistors, Yellow Springs Instruments, Yellow Springs,
Ohio, 1977.
* Hewlett Packard Company makes no warranty as to the
accuracy or completeness of the foregoing material and
disclaims any responsibility therefor. (Editor’s Note:
Thermocouple data which conform to ITS-90 are given in
“ITS-90 Thermocouple Direct and Inverse Polynomials.”)
OMEGA ENGINEERING, INC. gratefully acknowledges the
HEWLETT PACKARD COMPANY for permission to reproduce
Application Note 290-Practical Temperature Measurements.
Z-40
Nicrosil/Nisil Type N
Thermocouples
The Nicrosil/Nisil Type N thermocouple offers better
stability than existent base-metal Types E, J, K and T.
It is now available and in widespread use worldwide.
DR. NOEL A. BURLEY
T he ANSI standard base-metal ther mocouples,
designated E, J, K and T (Ref. 1), show inherent
ther moelectric instability related to time- and/or
temperature-dependent instabilities in several of their
physical, chemical, nuclear, structural and electronic
properties. This paper reviews the major thermoelectric
properties of the new nickel-base thermocouple system
Nicrosil versus Nisil (designated type N), in which very
high thermoelectric stability has been achieved by a
judicious choice of elemental component
concentrations.
INSTABILITY OF CONVENTIONAL
BASE-METAL THERMOCOUPLES
There are three principal characteristic types and
causes of thermoelectric instability in the standard
base-metal thermoelement materials:
1. A gradual and generally cumulative drift in thermal
EMF on long exposure at elevated temperatures. This is
observed in all base-metal thermoelement materials
and is majnly due to compositional changes caused by
oxidation, in particular internal oxidation (Figures 1 and
2), and to neutron irradiation which can produce
transmutation in nuclear reactor environments.
2. A short-term cyclic change in thermal EMF on
heating in the temperature range about 250º to 650ºC,
which occurs in types KP (or EP) and JN (or TN and
EN). This kind of EMF instability is thought to be due to
some form of structural change like magnetic short-
range order (Figures 3 and 4).
3. A time-independent perturbation in thermal EMF in
specific temperature ranges. This is due to composition-
dependent magnetic transformations which perturb the
thermal EMF’s in type KN in the range of about 25º to
225ºC (Figure 5), and in type JP above about 730ºC.
Z-41
ULTRA-HIGH STABILITY OF
NICROSILINISIL (TYPE N)
THERMOCOUPLE
Nicrosil and Nisil thermocouple alloys (Ref. 2) show
greatly enhanced thermoelectric stability (Ref. 3)
relative to the other standard base-metal thermocouple
alloys because their compositions (Table 1) are such as
to virtually eliminate or substantially reduce the causes
of thermoelectric instability described above. This is
achieved primarily by increasing component solute
concentrations (chromium and silicon) in a base of
nickel above those required to cause a transition from
internal to external modes of oxidation, and by selecting
solutes (silicon and magnesium) which preferentially
oxidize to form a diffusion-barrier, and hence oxidation
inhibiting films.
The thermal EMF instabilities of the short-term cyclic
kind occurring in KP and JN alloys have virtually been
eliminated in nicrosil (NP) by setting the chromium
content at 14.2 weight-%.
The increase in the silicon content of nisil (NN) to 4.4
weight-% has suppressed the magnetic transformation
of this new alloy to below room temperature.
Virtual freedom from nuclear transmutation effects is
achieved by eliminating such elements as manganese,
cobalt and iron from the specified compositions of both
alloys.
The ver y high ther moelectric stability of the
Nicrosil/Nisil (type N) thermocouple is illustrated in
Figures 1 and 2. The influence of thermoelement
conductor cross-sectional area upon the thermal-EMF
constancy of Nicrosil/Nisil is shown in Figure 6.
 300
#8K #8K
(KP/KN) 6
100
(KP/KN) #14K
200
4
Z
0
#14 NIC/NIS
100
(KP/JN) #8 NIC/NIS 2
#14 E

–200 (KP/JN) #8E 0 0

200
#8K
4
(JP/JN)
–400 100
(JP/JN) #8J #10 NIC/NIS 2

0 0

THERMAL EMF DRIFT (uv)

–600 200
CALIBRATION TEMPERATURE 497°C #8K
THERMAL EMF DRIFT (uv)

#12 NIC/NIS 4

DRIFT (°C)
#14 J 100
2
–800

250 0 0
200
#14 #8K
0 4
NIC/NIS #14 E
100
#8 E #14 NIC/NIS 2

–500 0 0
300

6
#8J #8K
–1000 200

CALIBRATION TEMPERATURE 777°C 4

100 #16 NIC/NIS

–1500 2
#14 J

0 0
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

EXPOSURE TIME AT 777°C (h) EXPOSURE TIME (h)

AT 1077°C, 1152°C, 1202°C

FIGURE 2. Long-term thermal-EMF drifts in air,

FIGURE 1. Long-term thermal-EMF drifts in air, at three constant aging (and calibration) tem-
at two calibration temperatures, for 14 AWG (#14) peratures for Nicrosil/Nisil T/Cs in five wire
Nicrosil/Nisil (N) and E, J and K T/Cs. Thermal- gauges (#). Corresponding thermal-EMF drifts
EMF drifts for 8 AWG (#8) E and J T/Cs are also for 8 AWG (#8) type K T/Cs at two of these
given. The drifts are changes from EMF output temperatures are also given. The drifts are
values existent after 20 hrs of exposure at con- changes from EMF output values existent after
stant aging temperature of 777°C (Ref. 3). 80 hours of exposure at the constant aging tem-
perature (Ref. 3).

As Figure 2 shows, 8 AWG type K thermocouples demonstrated (Ref. 4) that, in oxidizing atmospheres,
appear to be markedly more unstable as temperatures the ther moelectric stability of the Nicrosil/Nisil
progressively exceed about 1050ºC. In contrast, it is thermocouple, in wire sizes not finer than 10 AWG, is
clear from Figure 6 that type N thermocouples, in a about the same as that of the noble-metal
range of wire sizes finer than 8 AWG, can be used thermocouples of ANSI types R and S up to about
reliably for extended periods of time at temperatures up 1200ºC.
to at least 1200ºC. Indeed, it has recently been

Z-42
Type N Thermocouples

PROMULGATION AS A STANDARD
0.6
0.2 No new ther mocouple will sur vive for
universal adoption and use unless it is formally
promulgated by national standards authorities
30 Days
0.5 0.1 around the world. It is for tunate that the
0.05
Nicrosil/Nisil thermocouple system is in vigorous
process of being so promulgated.
∆S (uV/°C)

0.4
0
The ASTM, through its Committee E-20 on
–0.05
5 min
Temperature Measurement, has shown
0.3
–0.1 considerable interest in Nicrosil versus Nisil, and
45 min
has kept matters relating to the development,
0.2
3 Days availability and use of the new thermocouple
–0.2 3 Days under continual review.
30 Days
0.1
7h Recently, relevant subcommittees of ASTM
45 min –0.3
E-20 have produced several publications
ground state
containing information on the properties and
0
200 400 600 800 200 400 600
characteristics of the Nicrosil versus Nisil
thermocouple. A document quoting several of the
TEMPERATURE EMF-temperature tables from NBS Monograph
(°C)
161 (Ref. 2) was published (Ref. 6) for
FIGURE 3 (Left). Changes in the Seebeck coefficient information. A formal ASTM Standard (E1223) is
(∆S) of a typical type KP thermoelement vs. platinum on promulgated, while Type N data is now included
initial heating, as a function of constant aging tempera- in ASTM Standard E230. Again, in the recently
ture for the indicated times (Ref. 3). published third edition of the ASTM Manual on
the Use of Thermocouples (Ref. 8), various
FIGURE 4 (Right). Similar changes of a type JN thermo- properties and characteristics of Nicrosil versus
Nisil are summarized.
element (Ref. 3).
Based mainly on the above information,
several crucial actions now have been taken by
the supreme standardizing bodies in several
TABLE.1- NOMINAL COMPOSITIONS OF ANSI important countries:
STANDARD BASE-METAL THERMOELEMENT 1. The Instrument Society of America (ISA),
ALLOYS, AND NICROSIL AND NISIL ALLOYS in October 1983, promulgated the Nicrosil/Nisil
system as a U.S. Standard Ther mocouple
ALLOY CHEMICAL COMPOSITION (WEIGHT-%) bearing the letter-designation “type N.”
ANSI (1) Cr Si Mn Al Co Mg Cu Ni Fe
2. The British Standards Institute (BSI) has
DESIGNATION recently promulgated a standard on the type N
(+)KP, EP 9.5 0.4 bal thermocouple identified as B.S.4937: Part 8.
(-)KN 1.0 3.0 2.0 0.4 0.015 bal 3. The Japan Society for the Promotion of
Science, through its Committee TC19
(+)JP 0.3 bal (Temperature), is nearing the conclusion of its
(-)JN, EN, TN 1.0 0.5 54 44 0.5 deliberation on type N, leading to the issue of a
Japan Industrial Standard (JIS).
(+)TP 100
(+)NP (nicrosil) 14.2 1.4 bal These actions have ensured that the type N
ther mocouple and its allied pyrometric
(-)NN (nisil) 4.4 0.10 bal instrumentation and ancillary circuitry elements
are now commercially available in a number of
major countries around the world.
TABLE 2-VARIANTS OF TYPE KN DISCUSSION
ALLOY CHEMICAL COMPOSITION (WEIGHT-%) The various types of ther moelectric
Mn Al Si co Ni instability described in this paper can cause
KN1 3.02 1.90 1.19 0.41 balance substantial changes in thermoelectromotive force
and, hence, calibration in ANSI-standard letter-
KN2 1.67 1.25 1.56 0.72 balance designated base-metal thermocouples types E,
KN3 - - 2.50 1.00 balance J, K and T. In the case of Nicrosil/Nisil, however,
KN4 0.43 - 2.39 0.23 balance thermoelectric instability due to these causes is

Z-43
virtually eliminated or substantially attenuated over the
entire temperature range up to 1230˚C. ANSI-standard TEMPERATURE (K)
base-metal thermocouples types E, J, K and T can, 60
280 320 360 400 440 480 520

therefore, be regarded as obsolescent. Their

replacement by Nicrosil/Nisil thermocouples would lead,

TEMPERATUREDEVIATION (K)
40
in most cases, to demonstrable technological and KN2 1

economic advantages for science and industry at large.

Z

DEVIATION (uV)
Indeed, the enhanced calibration stability and longevity 0 0
of the type N thermocouple, taken into account with its KN1
ability to operate at considerably higher upper operating
temperatures than conventional base-metal –40 KN3 –1

thermocouples, make it ideally suited to scientific,

technological and industrial applications where –80 –2
temperature measurements are critical.
Use of type N thermocouples in several countries –120 KN4 –3
has already demonstrated a number of advantages:
enhanced pyrometric accuracy, improved product
quality and performance, lower reject rates, enhanced 0 40 80 120 160 200 240

energy utilization, lower pyrometric maintenance costs, TEMPERATURE (°C)

and improved productivity. FIGURE 5. Deviations of the measured values

of the thermal EMFs of several type KN ther-
moelements vs. platinum from reference table
REFERENCES values (Ref. 5). Variants of type KN are given
1. American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in Table 2.
Standard MC96.1-1975, Instrument Society of
America (1976), pp. vi and 1. WIRE GAUGE (A W G)
2. N.A. Burley, et al., U.S. National Bureau of 250
16 14 12 10 8

Standards Monograph 161, NBS* Washington 6

(1978).
3. N.A. Burley, et al., Temperature, Its 200 5
THERMAL EMF DRIFT (uv)

Measurement and Control in Science and Industry, 1202°C

vol. 5, part 2, Instrument Society of America (1982), 4

150
p. 1159.

DRIFT (°C)
1152°C
4. N.A. Burley, Proc. 11th IMEKO Conference 3
(Sensors), Houston, TX, 1988, p. 155. 100
5. R.L. Powell, et al., U.S. National Bureau of 2
1077°C
Standards Monograph 125, NBS* Washington
(1974). 50
1
6. American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM), Annual Book of Standards, vol. 14.01 0
0
(1983), p. 859. 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
7. ASTM Standard E 1223-87. LOG CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA
8. Manual on the Use of Thermocouples in FIGURE 6. Relationship between total thermal-
Temperature Measurement, ASTM Special EMF drift (after 1000 hrs of exposure in air at
Technical Publication 470 B (1981). each of three test temperatures) and cross-
9. N.A. Burley, et al., “The Nicrosil versus Nisil Type N sectional area of Nicrosil/Nisil T/C wires. The
Thermocouple: A Commercial Reality,” Australian drifts are changes from EMF output values ex-
Department of Defence Report MRL-R-903 (1983). istent after 80 hours of exposure (Ref. 3).

*The NBS is now NIST (National Institute of Standards and
Technology).
Reproduced with permission of H.L. Daneman, Box 31056,
Sante Fe, NM 87594
THE AUTHOR
DR. NOEL A. BURLEY, D.App.Sc., C. Eng., F.I.M., F.A.I.M.,
is General Manager, Research and Development, for Bell-
IRH Pty., Ltd., an Australian company specializing in the
manufacture of electrical and electronic components,
instruments and sensors. It has considerable expertise and
established reputation in temperature control. Contact Dr.
Burley at Bell-IRH Pty., Ltd., 32 Paramatta Rd., Lidcombe
NSW 2141, Sydney, Australia, phone: 02 648 5455.

Z-44
The Choice Of Sheathing
For MineraI Insulated Thermocouples
H.L. Daneman, P.E.
INTRODUCTION
The mineral-insulated integrally metal-
sheathed (MIMS) form of thermocouple
consists of matched thermocouple wires
surrounded by insulating material (typically
MgO) compacted by rolling, drawing or
swaging until the sheath is reduced in
diameter. The advantages of MIMS
thermocouples are:
• Chemical isolation of wires from the
surrounding atmosphere.
• Shielding of thermoelements from
sources of electrical interference.
• Protection of the wires and
insulation from damage due to shock.
• Flexibility of the final assembly allowing
bending.
For two decades, people have credited
MIMS construction with a greater
capability than deserved. Quite frequently,
this form has shown less stability, less
durability and lower temperature limits
than corresponding unsheathed elements.
The nickel bearing MIMS thermocouples
used above 400ºC (750ºF) are especially
vulnerable to calibration instability and
shortened lifetime - factors which bear
heavily on thermocouple use and
selection.
HYSTERESIS
Thermoelectric hysteresis is one
contributor toward calibration instability.
Hysteresis is a form of short-range
order/disorder phenomenon occurring
between 200 and 600ºC (peaking at ≈
400ºC) for Ni-Cr alloys such as Type K. It
is evidenced by a calibration change of
several degrees as the thermocouple
temperature is cycled within this
temperature band. Type N thermocouples
exhibit hysteresis of up to 5ºC when
heated and cooled between 200 and
1000ºC (peaking around 750ºC). At
900ºC hysteresis is 2 to 3ºC. If the type K
thermocouple, for example, will be used
below 500ºC, hysteresis can be reduced
by annealing overnight at 450ºC.
OXIDATION
Another phenomenon affecting calibration
is oxidation. Ni-Cr-AI alloys (e.g.,
Chromel*) have limited life in air above
500ºC because of oxidation. A special
form of oxidation is so-called “green rot”
which is preferential oxidation of Cr in
atmospheres with low oxygen content
(e.g., sheaths in which the volume of air is
limited and stagnant). Nicrosil resists
oxidation up to about 1,250ºC (2,300ºF)
and does not exhibit green rot.
Several new sheath materials called
“Nicrobell” (**) consist of Nicrosil with 1.5%
or 3.0% niobium. Nicrobell “A” is
particularly formulated to be resistant to
oxidation. Another new oxidation resistant
sheath material called Nicrosil + (***)
consists of Nicrosil plus 0.15%
magnesium. It is reported (ref. 4) to exhibit
less spalling and probably have a longer
life than some Nicrobell version(s) tested.
Nicrosil, itself, does not have satisfactory
resistance to reducing atmospheres, such
as encountered in most combustion or
many heat treating processes. Other
adaptations of Nicrosil for use as sheath
material (such as Nicrobells B, C and D)
can be expected to deal with typical
nonoxidizing atmospheres.
CONTAMINATION
A third influence on calibration stability is
contamination. The idea behind the
mineral-insulated, integrally designed,
metal-sheathed thermocouple is that the
uniform compression of finely divided
mineral oxides (typically MgO) insulation
surrounding the wires and filling the
sheath would seal the internal volume,
thereby eliminating contamination. The
volume of the insulation compressed by
swaging, rolling or drawing is on the order
of 85% of solid material. This is useful,
permitting the tubing to be bent and also
permitting the manufacture of smaller
diameter assemblies. It does, however,
permit the intrusion of gas such as water
vapor or air. It also permits vapor diffusion
of elements composing the wires or
sheath. Bentley and Morgan determined
that the vapor-phase diffusion of Mn
(manganese) through the MgO insulation
has the greatest influence on
thermocouple decalibration.
METAL FATIGUE
Metal fatigue is another cause of
shortened thermocouple life. Differing
temperature coefficients of linear
expansion between sheaths and wires
causes strain during heating or cooling.
These strains result in eventual fracture
+25
0
DRIFT (°C)
Type K
(310 SS)
–25
–50
0 200
Figure 1. Drift of 3 mm diameter stainless steel sheathed and Inconel 600 sheathed type K and
Nicrosil vs. Nisil thermocouples in 1200°C in vacuum. The dips in the drift curve are the result of
the "in-place inhomogeneity test" where the samples were extracted from the furnace by 5 cm.
Z-45
due to metal fatigue. On heating to 900ºC,
the thermal expansion of Nisil differs from
SS 304 by 0.4% of length. Nicrosil has
only 0.05% difference in thermal
expansion compared to Nisil (the leg most
likely to fracture). A sheath of Nicrosil,
Nicrosil + or Niobell would therefore induce
less metal fatigue in either leg of the Type
N thermocouple than would stainless
steel.
COMPOSITION
Composition changes in SS sheathed
couples are generally greater than in
Inconel (****) sheathed couples. In tests
performed by Anderson, et al., the KN leg
showed an increase in chromium but a
decrease in aluminum. These changes in
composition contributed the major portion
of the resulting change in calibration of the
thermocouple.
Most stainless steels have from 1 to 2% of
manganese. Type 304 has ≈ 2%
manganese. Others have manganese
concentrations varying from 1% to 10%.
Inconel has up to 1% Mn. As a rule of
thumb, each 1% of Mn in the sheath
material contributes -10ºC calibration shift
for 1,000 hours at 1,100ºC. According to
Bentley, at 1,200ºC, Type N in a 3 mm
diameter SS sheath drifted -24ºC in 1,000
hours.
HUMIDITY
There is a multiple effect of water vapor
within the sheath. It is rapidly absorbed in
the MgO, reducing the insulation
resistance. Humidity intrusion can ruin a
MIMS thermocouple assembly in as short
a time as a few minutes. In lesser
amounts, it destroys a protective oxide
coating on Nickel-Chromium alloys,
subjecting them to more rapid
deterioration. The changes due to water
Type K
(Inconel)
Type N
(310 SS) Type N
(Inconel)
400 600 800 1000 1200
ElapsedTime (h)
 20 1.6 mm Bare Wire 5. Bentley, R.E., private communication,
3 mm OD Mineral Insulated 11/22/90
Metal Sheathed Thermocouple 6. Burley, N. A., HIGHLY STABLE
NICKEL-BASE ALLOYS FOR
1100°C THERMOCOUPLES, J. of the
Australian Institute of Metals, May
10
(1972), pp 101-113
7. Burley, N. A., Burns, G. W., Powell,
R. L., NICROSIL AND NISIL:
THEIR DEVELOPMENT AND
Insitu Drift (°C)

NCR
STANDARDIZATION, Inst. Physical
0 Conf. Ser. No. 26, (1975), pp 162-171
8. Burley, N. A., Jones, T.P.,
PRACTICAL PERFORMANCE OF
NICROSIL-NISIL THERMOCOUPLES, Z
Inst. Physical Conf. Ser. No. 26, (1975),
SS pp 172-180
-10 9. Burley, N. A., Powell, R. L., Burns,
G. W., Scroger, M. G., THE NICROSIL
VS NISIL THERMOCOUPLE:
PROPERTIES AND
THERMOELECTRIC DATA, NBS
-20
Monograph 161, April (1978), pp 1-156
0 1000 2000 3000
10.Burley, N. A., THE NICROSIL VS
NISIL THERMOCOUPLE: THE FIRST
Time (h)
TWO DECADES, (1986) private
communication
Figure 2. The insitu drift in type N thermocouples with tips held at 1100°C. Curves refer to 11. Burley, N. A., N-CLAD-N: A NOVEL
mineral insulated metal sheathed thermocouples with 3mm OD sheaths of 310 stainless steel ADVANCED TYPE N
(SS) or Nicrosil (NCR) and 1.6mm bare wire thermocouples in air. The range in drift for the
latter is also indicated. INTEGRALLY-SHEATHED
THERMOCOUPLE OF ULTRA-HIGH
vapor can be sufficiently severe as to problems caused by the vapor diffusion of THERMOELECTRIC STABILITY, High
make affected couples useless by manganese from stainless steels or Temperatures-High Pressures, (1986)
reducing insulation resistance. This Inconel. pp 609-616
reduced resistance can result in 12.Burley, N. A., NICROSIL/NISIL TYPE N
misleading temperature readings, Considering the current state of supply of THERMOCOUPLE, Measurements &
premature failure or even erroneous the newer materials, one could well Control, April (1989), pp 130-133
readings after open circuiting. choose a low manganese (0.3% or less) 13.Burley, N. A., ADVANCED
Inconel sheathed Type K MIMS INTEGRALLY SHEATHED TYPE N
Water vapor can be introduced during thermocouple until such time as modified THERMOCOUPLE OF ULTRA-HIGH
thermocouple fabrication or repair, or even Nicrosil sheathed Type K or N and THERMOELECTRIC STABILITY,
by changes in atmospheric pressure appropriate supporting data become Measurement, Jan-Mar 1990, pp 36-
during air shipment or during long periods readily available. 41
of storage (e.g., six months) at 14.Daneman, H. L., THERMOCOUPLES,
construction sites. Care must be taken of (*) CHROMEL is a trademark of the
Hoskins Manufacturing Co. Measurements & Control, June (1988),
hermetic seals during shipment and (**) NICROBELL is a trademark of pp 242-243
installation. NICROBELL Pty. Ltd. NICROBELL 15.Frank, D.E., AS TEMPERATURES
sheath alloys are patented in a number INCREASE, SO DO THE
RECOMMENDATIONS of countries including the USA PROBLEMS!, Measurements &
Although not mentioned above , there is (***) NICROSIL + is a trademark of Control, June (1988), p 245
some relationship between the diameter Pyrotenax Australia Pty. Ltd. 16.Hobson, J. W., THE INTRODUCTION
of these thermocouple materials and (****) INCONEL is a trademark of the OF THE NICROSIL/NISIL
stability and longevity at elevated International Nickel Co. THERMOCOUPLES IN AUSTRALIA,
temperatures. The surface of the Reproduced with the permission of: Australian Journal of Instrumentation
brickwork on which electrical heaters are H.L. Daneman and Control, October (1982), pp 102-
supported becomes conductive at P.O. Box 31056 104
elevated temperatures. This leads to flow Sante Fe, NM 87594 17.Hobson, J. W., THE K TO N
of electrical currents through TRANSITION - BUILDING ON
thermocouple sheaths to ground, perhaps REFERENCES SUCCESS, Australian Journal of
through the measuring instrument. 1. Anderson, R. L., Ludwig, R.L.,FAILURE Instrumentation and Control, (1985) pp
The temptation to use the finest sheathed OF SHEATHED THERMOCOUPLES 12-15
thermocouples (as fine as 1 mm) should DUE TO THERMAL CYCLING, 18.Northover, E. W., Hitchcock, J. A., A
be resisted for higher temperature or Temperature, (1982) pp 939-951 NEW HIGH-STABILITY NICKEL
corrosive industrial environments. 2. Anderson, R. L., Lyons, J. D., ALLOY, Instrument Practice,
Kollie, T G., Christie, W. H., Eby, R., September (1971), pp 529-531
Stainless steel is a poorer sheath for DECALIBRATION OF SHEATHED 19.Paine, A., TYPE N AND K MIMS
mineral-insulated, metal-sheathed THERMOCOUPLES, Temperature, T/C’S, fax LNA5195, 11/23/90
thermocouples than either Inconel 600 or (1982) pp 977-1007 20.Wang, T P., Starr, C. D., NICROSIL-
modified Nicrosil when used with Ni-Cr 3. Bentley, R. E., NEW-GENERATION NISIL THERMOCOUPLES IN
thermocouples such as Type K or Type N. TEMPERATURE PROBES, Materials PRODUCTION FURNACES, ISA
The modified Nicrosil sheathed Australasia, April (1987), pp. 10-13 (1978) Annual conference, pp 235-254
thermocouples offer improved oxidation 4. Bentley, R. E., THEORY AND 21.Wang, T. P., Starr, C. D., EMF
resistance up to 1,100ºC (1,200 to PRACTICE OF THERMOELECTRIC STABILITY OF NICROSIL-NISIL AT
1,250ºC for Type N), reduced failures due THERMOMETERY, 2nd Edition, CSIRO 500˚C, ISA (1978) Annual conference,
to differential thermal expansion, improved Div. of Applied Physics, (1990) 152 pp 221-233
ductility and the elimination of the drift pages.
Z-46
 Material Selection Guide
This chart is a guide to selection of thermocouple sheath and thermowell materials according to process fluid. It includes factors such as catalytic
reaction, contamination and electrolysis. However, there are many instances where factors other than these must be considered. It is recommended
that such special applications be submitted to OMEGA ENGINEERING for recommendations.
These recommendations are only guides based on the most economical material selection. OMEGA ENGINEERING cannot be held responsible if
these recommendations are not satisfactory for specific applications.

SUBSTANCE CONDITIONS RECOMMENDED SUBSTANCE CONDITIONS RECOMMENDED SUBSTANCE CONDITIONS RECOMMENDED

METAL METAL METAL
Acetate Solvents Crude or Pure Monel or Nickel Ethyl Acetate Monel Picric Acid 70°F 304 Stainless Steel
Acetic Acid 10% - 70°F 304 Stainless Steel Ethyl Chloride 70°F 304 Stainless Steel Potassium Bromide 70°F 316 Stainless Steel
" " 50% - 70°F 304 Stainless Steel Ethylene Glycol Steel (C1018) Potassium Carbonate 1% - 70°F 304 Stainless Steel
" " 50% - 212°F 316 Stainless Steel Ethyl Sulphate 70°F Monel Potassium Chlorate 70°F 304 Stainless Steel
" " 99% - 70°F 430 Stainless Steel Ferric Chloride 1% - 70°F 316 Stainless Steel Potassium Chloride 5% - 70°*F 304 Stainless Steel
" " 99% - 212°F 430 Stainless Steel " " 5% - 70°F Tantalum " " 5% - 212°F 304 Stainless Steel
Acetic Anhydride Monel " " 5% - Boiling Tantalum Potassium Hydroxide 5% - 70°F 304 Stainless Steel
Acetone 212°F 304 Stainless Steel Ferric Sulphate 5% - 70°F 304 Stainless Steel " " 25% - 212°F 304 Stainless Steel
Acetylene 304, Monel, Nickel Ferrous Sulphate Dilute 70°F 304 Stainless Steel " " 50% - 212°F 316 Stainless Steel
Alcohol Ethyl 70°F 304 Stainless Steel Formaldehyde 304 Stainless Steel Potassium Nitrate 5% - 70°F 304 Stainless Steel
" " 212°F 304 Stainless Steel Freon Steel (C1018) " " 5% - 212°F 304 Stainless Steel
Alcohol Methyl 70°F 304 Stainless Steel Formic Acid 5% - 70°F 316 Stainless Steel Potassium
" " 212°F 304 Stainless Steel " " 5% - 150°F 316 Stainless Steel Permanganate 5% - 70°F 304 Stainless Steel
Aluminum Molten Cast iron Gallic Acid 5% - 70°F Monel Potassium Sulphate 5% - 70°F 304 Stainless Steel
Aluminum Acetate Saturated 304 Stainless Steel " " 5% - 150°F Monel " " 5% - 212°F 304 Stainless Steel
Aluminum Sulphate 10% - 70°F 304 Stainless Steel Gasoline 70°F 304 Stainless Steel Potassium Sulphide 70°F 304 Stainless Steel
" " Saturated 70°F 304 Stainless Steel Glucose 70°F 304 Stainless Steel Propane 304 Stainless Steel
" " 10% - 212°F 316 Stainless Steel Glycerine 70°F 304 Stainless Steel Pyrogallic Acid 304 Stainless Steel
" " Saturated 212°F 316 Stainless Steel Glycerol 304 Stainless Steel Quinine Bisulphate Dry 316 Stainless Steel
Ammonia All concentrations 70°F 304 Stainless Steel Heat Treating 446 Stainless Steel Quinine Sulphate Dry 304 Stainless Steel
Ammonium Chloride All concentrations 212°F 316 Stainless Steel Hydrobromic Acid 48% - 212°F Hastelloy B Resin 304 Stainless Steel
Ammonium Nitrate All concentrations 70°F 304 Stainless Steel Hydrochloric Acid 1% - 70°F Hastelloy C Rosin Molten 304 Stainless Steel
" " All concentrations 212°F 304 Stainless Steel " " 1% - 212°F Hastelloy B Sea Water Monel
Ammonium Sulphate 5% - 70°F 304 Stainless Steel " " 5% - 70°F Hastelloy C Salommoniac Monel
" " 10% - 212°F 316 Stainless Steel " " 5% - 212°F Hastelloy B Salicylic Acid Nickel
" " Saturated 212°F 316 Stainless Steel " " 25% - 70°F Hastelloy B Shellac 304 Stainless Steel
Aniline All concentrations 70°F 304 Stainless Steel " " 25% - 212°F Hastelloy B Soap 70°F 304 Stainless Steel
Amylacetate Monel Hydrocyanic Acid 316 Stainless Steel Sodium Bicarbonate All concentrations 70°F 304 Stainless Steel
Asphalt Steel (C1018) Hydrofluoric Acid Hastelloy C " " 5% - 150°F 304 Stainless Steel
Phosphor Bronze, Hydrogen Peroxide 70°F 316 Stainless Steel Sodium Bisulphate Monel
Monel, Nickel " " 212°F 316 Stainless Steel Sodium Carbonate 5% - 70°F 304 Stainless Steel
Barium Carbonate 70°F 304 Stainless Steel Hydrogen Sulphide Wet and dry 316 Stainless Steel " " 5% - 150°F 304 Stainless Steel
Barium Chloride 5% - 70°F Monel Iodine 70°F Tantalum Sodium Chloride 5% - 70°F 316 Stainless Steel
" " Saturated 70°F Monel Kerosene 70°F 304 Stainless Steel " " 5% - 150°F 316 Stainless Steel
" " Aqueous - Hot 316 Stainless Steel Lactic Acid 5% - 70°F 304 Stainless Steel " " Saturated - 70°F 316 Stainless Steel
Barium Hydroxide Steel (C1018) " " 5% - 150°F 316 Stainless Steel " " Saturated - 212°F 316 Stainless Steel
Barium Sulphite Nichrome " " 10% - 212°F Tantalum Sodium Fluoride 5% - 70°F Monel
Benzaldehyde Steel (C1018) Lacquer 70°F 316 Stainless Steel Sodium Hydroxide 304 Stainless Steel
Benzene 70°F 304 Stainless Steel Latex Steel (C1018) Sodium Hypochlorite 5% still 316 Stainless Steel
Benzine Steel (C1018), Lime Sulphur Steel (C1018), 304, Sodium Nitrate Fused 317 Stainless Steel
Monel, Inconel Monel Sodium Peroxide 304 Stainless Steel
Benzol Hot 304 Stainless Steel Linseed Oil 70°F 304 Stainless Steel Sodium Phosphate Steel (C1018)
Boracic Acid 5% Hot or Cold 304 Stainless Steel Magnesium Chloride 5% - 70°F Monel Sodium Silicate Steel (C1018)
Bromine 70°F Tantalum " " 5% - 212°F Nickel Sodium Sulphate 70°F 304 Stainless Steel
Butadiene Brass, 304 Magnesium Sulphate Cold and Hot Monel Sodium Sulphide 70°F 316 Stainless Steel
Butane 70°F 304 Stainless Steel Malic Acid Cold and Hot 316 Stainless Steel Sodium Sulphite 150°F 304 Stainless Steel
Butylacetate Monel Mercury Steel (C1018) , 304, Steam 304 Stainless Steel
Butyl Alcohol Copper Monel Stearic Acid 304 Stainless Steel
Butylenes Steel (C1018), Methane 70°F Steel (1020) Sulphur Dioxide Moist Gas - 70°F 316 Stainless Steel
Phosphor Bronze Milk 304, Nickel " " Gas - 575°F 304 Stainless Steel
Butyric Acid 5% - 70°F 304 Stainless Steel Mixed Acids Carpenter #20 Sulphur Dry - Molten 304 Stainless Steel
" " 5% - 150°F 304 Stainless Steel (Sulphuric and Nitric " Wet 316 Stainless Steel
Calcium Bisulfite 70°F 316 Stainless Steel - all temp. and %) Sulphuric Acid 5% - 70°F Carp. 20, Hastelloy B
Calcium Chlorate Dilute 70°F 304 Stainless Steel Molasses Steel (C1018), 304, " " 5% - 212°F Carp. 20, Hastelloy B
" " Dilute 150°F 304 Stainless Steel Monel, Nickel " " 10% - 70°F Carp. 20, Hastelloy B
Calcium Hydroxide 10% - 212°F 304 Stainless Steel Muriatic Acid 70°F Tantalum " " 10% - 212°F Carp. 20, Hastelloy B
" " 20% - 212°F 304 Stainless Steel Nap 70°F 304 Stainless Steel " " 50% - 70°F Carp. 20, Hastelloy B
" " 50% - 212°F 317 Stainless Steel Natural Gas 70°F 304 Stainless Steel " " 50% - 212°F Carp. 20, Hastelloy B
Carbolic Acid All 212°F 316 Stainless Steel Neon 70°F 304 Stainless Steel " " 90% - 70°F Carp. 20, Hastelloy B
Carbon Dioxide Dry Steel (C1018), Monel Nickel Chloride 70°F 304 Stainless Steel " " 90% - 212°F Hastelloy D
" " Wet Aluminum,Monel,Nickel Nickel Sulphate Hot and Cold 304 Stainless Steel Tannic Acid 70˚F 304 Stainless Steel
Carbon Tetrachloride 10% - 70°F Monel Nitric Acid 5% - 70°F 304 Stainless Steel Tar Steel (C1018), 304,
Chlorex Caustic 316SS, 317SS " " 20% - 70°F 304 Stainless Steel Monel, Nickel
Chlorine Gas Dry 70°F 317 Stainless Steel " " 50% - 70°F 304 Stainless Steel Tartaric Acid 70°F 304 Stainless Steel
" " Moist 70°F Hastelloy C " " 50% - 212°F 304 Stainless Steel " " 150°F 316 Stainless Steel
" " Moist 212°F Hastelloy C " " 65% - 212°F 316 Stainless Steel Tin Molten Cast Iron
Chromic Acid 5% - 70°F 304 Stainless Steel " " Concentrated - 70°F 304 Stainless Steel Tolvene Aluminum, Phosphor
" " 10% - 212°F 316 Stainless Steel " " Concentrated - 212°F Tantalum Bronze, Monel
" " 50% - 212°F 316 Stainless Steel Nitrobenzene 70°F 304 Stainless Steel Trichloroethylene Steel (C1018)
Citric Acid 15% - 70°F 304 Stainless Steel Nitrous Acid 304 Stainless Steel Turpentine 304 Stainless Steel
" " 15% - 212°F 316 Stainless Steel Oleic Acid 70°F 316 Stainless Steel Varnish 304 Stainless Steel
" " Concentrated 212°F 317 Stainless Steel Oleum 70°F 316 Stainless Steel Vegetable Oils Steel (C1018), 304,
Coal Tar Hot 304 Stainless Steel Oxalic Acid 5% - Hot and Cold 304 Stainless Steel Monel
Coke Oven Gas Aluminum " " 10% - 212°F Monel Vinegar 304 Stainless Steel
Copper Nitrate 304, 316 Oxygen 70°F Steel (C1018) Water Fresh Copper, Steel (C1018),
Copper Sulphate 304, 316 " Liquid 304 Stainless Steel Monel
Core Oils 316 Stainless Steel Palmitic Acid 316 Stainless Steel " Salt Aluminum
Cottonseed Oil Steel (C1018), Petroleum Ether Whiskey, Wine 304, Nickel
Monel, Nickel PhenoI 304 Stainless Steel Xylene Copper
Creosols 304 Stainless Steel Pentane 304 Stainless Steel Zinc Molten Cast Iron
Creosote Crude Steel (C 1018), Phosphoric Acid 1% - 70°F 304 Stainless Steel Zinc Chloride Monel
Monel, Nickel " " 5% - 70°F 304 Stainless Steel Zinc Sulphate 5% - 70°F 304 Stainless Steel
Cyanogen Gas 304 Stainless Steel " " 10% - 70°F 316 Stainless Steel " " Saturated - 70°F 304 Stainless Steel
Dowtherm Steel (C1018) " " 10% - 212°F Hastelloy C " " 25% - 212°F 304 Stainless Steel
Epsom Salt Hot and Cold 304 Stainless Steel " " 30% - 70°F Hastelloy B
Ether 70°F 304 Stainless Steel

Z-47
Melting Temperatures Very High
of Some Important Temperature
Metals Sheath Materials
Approximate melting points are given only as a guide for Sheath Rec. Melting Environmental Conditions
Material Useful Point
material selection since many factors including Temp. Oxidizing Hydrogen Inert Vacuum
atmosphere, type of process, mounting, etc., all affect the
operating maximum.
Molybdenum 4000ºF 4730ºF Not Fair Fair Good
Rec.
Tantalum 4500ºF 5425ºF Not Not Not Good
°F Rec. Rec. Rec.
Tungsten ............ 6000 Platinum 3050ºF 3223ºF Very Poor Poor Poor

Tantalum............
Molybdenum .......
Niobium ........... .
(Columbium)
..................... Rhenium Good
Z
5000
..................... Osmium
..................... Iridium

Chromium ....... ...
Titanium ............
Zirconium ...........
Iron...................
Cobalt ...............
Nickel ...............
Beryllium ...........
Manganese .........
4000
..................... Rhodium
..................... Platinum
..................... Vanadium
3000
..................... Palladium Thermometry Fixed Points
.................... Stainless
....................} Steels THERMOELECTRIC MELTING POINTS FROM
.................... FIXED POINT THE PRACTICAL INTERNATIONAL
}
.................... Cast Irons TEMPERATURE SCALE IPTS-68

Uranium ............ 2000 Boiling point of oxygen -183.0 ºC -297.3 ºF

Copper .............. ................Gold (24 Karat) Sublimation point of carbon dioxide - 78.5 -109.2
Freezing point of mercury - 38.9 - 38
Silver ................

Brasses {
18 Karat
12 Karat
10 Karat
} Gold Alloys
Ice Point
Triple point of water
Boiling point of water
0
0.01
100.0
32
32
212
Triple point of benzoic acid 122.4 252.3
Boiling point of naphthalene 218 424.4
Magnesium.........
1000
}
.........Aluminum Silver
Solders
Freezing point of tin
Boiling point of benzophenone
Freezing point of cadmium
231.9
305.9
321.1
449.4
582.6
610
Zinc................... Freezing point of lead 327.5 621.5
Lead ................. Freezing point of zinc 419.6 787.2
Bismuth ............. Boiling point of sulfur 444.7 832.4
Tin.................... ........ Cadmium Freezing point of antimony 630.7 1167.3
Freezing point of aluminum 660.4 1220.7
Indium .............. 500 Freezing point of siIver 961.9 1763.5
Common
Gallium ............. }
...................... Solders
Freezing point of gold
Freezing point of copper
Freezing point of palladium
1064.4
1084.5
1554
1948
1984.1
2829
Freezing point of platinum 1772 3222
Mercury ............. 0ºF

Extension Grade Wires for Platinum

and Tungsten-Rhenium Alloys
+ Copper Pt/Rh • The alloy 405/426 combination is used with
Tungsten 5% Re vs Tungsten 26% Re.
Compensating alloys made into extension • The alloy 200/226 combination is used with
wire for tungsten-rhenium thermocouples Tungsten vs Tungsten 26% Re.
and platinum-rhodium thermocouples Lead Hot
Junctions Junction • The alloy 203/225 combination is used with
closely match the emf of the Tungsten 3% Re vs Tungsten 25%.
thermocouples over limited range
• The Combination copper/alloy #11 is used
– Alloy No. 11 Pt. with platinum-rhodium alloys vs pure platinum.

Z-48
 RESISTIVITY TEMP COEEF. TENSILE

Thermoelectric ALLOY or
DESIGNATION Notes
PERCENT PURITY
or
composition
Ω cmil/ft OF RESISTANCE STRENGTH ELONGATION Melting
(at 0ºC) (0-100ºC)
Hard Annld Hard Annld
(psi x 1000) (percent)
Hard Annld Hard Annld
point Density
0
C (g/cm3)

Alloy Property Pure Metals

Iron 99.9+% 66 60 .0062 .0065 90 34 2 40 1536 7.9

Data Nickel
Molybdenum
Aluminum (H-P)
99.98%
99.9+%
99.99+%
39
42
17.4
37
31
15
.0064
.0036
.0038
.0068
.0047
.0044
100
250
16.3
48
120
6.8
2
2
5
36
16
60
1452
2610
660
8.9
10.2
2.71
Copper 99.98% 9.44 9.24 .0041 .0043 76 32 1.5 46 1083 8.93
Gold 99.999% 13.4 13.17 .0039 .0040 46 19 1.5 36 1063 19.30
Silver 99.99% 9.3 8.83 .0038 .0041 52 24 1.5 46 960.8 10.5
Tungsten 99.99% 42 33 .0036 .0048 285 80 - 3 3410 19.3
Rhenium 99.99% - 117 - - 360 170 - 10 3170 20.0
Platium Ref 99.999+% 61.2 59.13 .00386 .00393 60 24 2 38 1769 21.45
Rhodium 99.99% 33.0 25.8 .0029 .0046 275 120 2 16 1966 12.42

Platinum
Pt- 6%Rh 94%Pt- 6%Rh 101 95 .0019 .0020 85 37 1.5 34 1810 20.51
Pt-10%Rh 90% Pt-10% Rh 114 111 .0016 .0017 95 46 1.5 32 1830 19.95
Pt-13% Rh 87% Pt-13% Rh 119 114 .0015 .0016 105 48 1.5 32 1840 19.55
Pt-20% Rh 80% Pt-20% Rh 124 116 .0013 .0014 140 72 1.5 32 1870 18.65
Pt-30% Rh 70% Pt-30% Rh 116 112 .0013 .0014 160 74 1.5 26 1910 17.52
Pt-40% Rh 60% Pt-40% Rh 108 101 .0013 .0014 190 78 1.5 26 1920 16.54

Nickel Alloys
Constantan 55% Cu-45% Ni 315 294 .00003 .00002 150 80 2 32 1270 8.86
CHROMEGA® P 90% Ni-10% Cr - 425 .00032 .00032 165 95 2 27 1430 8.73
ALOMEGA® 95% Ni-2% Mn-2% Al - 177 .00188 .00188 170 85 2 32 1400 8.60

Tungsten Alloys
Tungsten-3% Re 97% W- 3% Re - 55 - - 320 180 - 10 3410 19.4
Tungsten-5% Re 95% W- 5% Re - 70 - - 320 200 - 10 3350 19.4
Tungsten-25% Re 75% W-25% Re - 165 - - 300 210 - 10 3130 19.7
Tungsten-26% Re 74% W-26% Re - 170 - - 300 200 - 10 3120 19.7

Compensating
Alloys
Alloy #11 (1) Pt alloys - 30 - .0014 105 50 2 30 1090 8.91
Alloy #200 Tungsten - 470 - - - - - - 1430 8.73
Alloy #203 Tungsten- 3% Re - 470 - .0003 - - - - 1400 8.60
Alloy #205 Tungsten- 5% Re - 510 - - - - - - 1410 8.58
Alloy #225 Tungsten-25% Re - 180 - .0012 - - - - 1370 8.88
Alloy #226 Tungsten-26% Re - 160 - - - - - - 1450 8.85
Alloy #260 Tungsten-26% Re - 750 - - - - - - 1520 7.42
1. “Percent purity or composition” column refers to
matching thermocouple grade alloy.

Changes in N=Neg
P=Pos
Ratio of Resistance at Temperature Indicated to Resistance at 0°C (32°F)

0°C 20°C 200°C 400°C 600°C 800°C 1000°C 1200°C 1400°C 1500°C

Thermocouple JP
Thermoelements (32°F) (68°F)
1.00
(392°F) (752°F) (1112°F) (1472°F) (1832°F) (2192°F) (2552°F) (2732°F)
1.13 2.46 4.72 7.84 12.0 13.07 … … …

Resistance JN, TN, EN

TP
KP, EP
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.999
1.11
1.01
0.996
1.86
1.09
0.994
2.75
1.19
1.02
3.70
1.25
1.056
4.75
1.30
1.092
5.96
1.37
…
…
1.43
…
…
…
…
…
…

with Increasing KN
NP
NN
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.05
1.01
1.07
1.43
1.02
1.13
1.64
1.07
1.27
1.82
1.08
1.39
1.98
1.08
1.55
2.15
1.10
1.68
2.32
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…

Temperature RP
SP
RN, SN
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.03
1.03
1.06
1.31
1.33
1.77
1.60
1.65
2.50
1.89
1.95
3.18
2.16
2.23
3.81
2.41
2.50
4.40
2.66
2.76
4.94
2.90
3.01
5.42
3.01
3.13
5.66
BP 1.00 1.03 1.26 1.51 1.76 1.98 2.20 2.41 2.62 2.73
BN 1.00 1.03 1.40 1.78 2.14 2.47 2.78 3.08 3.37 3.51

N=Neg, P=Pos Resistance of Thermocouples, ohms per foot at 20°C ( 68°F)

Awg. Diameter
No. in. KN KP,EP TN,JN,EN TP JP NP NN RN, SN RP SP BP BN
16 0.0508 0.0683 0.164 0.1113 0.00402 0.0276 .2230 .08458 0.0247 0.0456 0.0445 0.0447 0.0414
20 0.0320 0.173 0.415 0.287 0.0102 0.0699 .5664 .2148 0.0624 0.1149 0.1125 0.1130 0.1046
24 0.0201 0.438 1.05 0.728 0.0257 0.1767 1.436 .5445 0.1578 0.4656 0.2847 0.2859 0.2647
30 0.0100 1.77 4.25 2.94 0.1032 0.710 5.800 2.20 0.6344 2.965 1.144 1.149 1.064
36 0.0050 7.08 17.0 11.8 0.4148 2.86 23.20 8.800 2.550 12.25 4.600 4.620 4.277

Z-49
Thermocouple Trade Names of Alloys
Types ANSI DESIGNATION ALLOY (Generic or Trade Names)
Iron-Constantan (ANSI Symbol J) The Iron-Constantan
“J” curve thermocouple with a positive iron wire and a JP Iron
negative Constantan wire is recommended for reducing JN, EN, or TN Constantan, Cupron, Advance
atmospheres. The operating range for this alloy
combination is 1600°F for the largest wire sizes. Smaller KP or EP CHROMEGA®, Tophel, T1, Thermokanthal KP
size wires should operate in correspondingly lower
temperatures. KN ALOMEGA®, Nial, T2, Thermokanthal KN
Copper-Constantan (ANSI Symbol T) The Copper- TP Copper
Constantan “T” curve thermocouple, with a positive copper
wire and a negative Constantan wire, is recommended for
use in mildly oxidizing and reducing atmospheres up to
750°F. They are suitable for applications where moisture is
RN or SN
RP
Pure Platinum
Platinum 13% Rhodium
Z
present. This alloy is recommended for low temperature
work since the homogeneity of the component wires can SP Platinum 10% Rhodium
be maintained better than with other base metal wires.
Therefore, errors due to inhomogeneity of wires in zones of
temperature gradients are greatly reduced. Trade Names: Advance T - Driver Harris Co., CHROMEGA® and ALOMEGA® - OMEGA Engineering, Inc., Cupron, Nial and
Trophel -Wilbur B. Driver Co., Thermokanthal KP and Thermokanthal KN -The Kanthal Corporation.
CHROMEGA -ALOMEGA (ANSI Symbol K) The
® ®

CHROMEGA®-ALOMEGA® “K” curve thermocouple with a ANSI LETTER DESIGNATIONS -Currently thermocouple and extension wire is ordered and specified by an ANSI letter
positive CHROMEGA® wire and a negative ALOMEGA® designation. Popular generic and trade name examples are CHROMEGA®/ALOMEGA® -ANSI Type K: Iron/Constantan -
ANSI Type J: Copper/Constantan - ANSI Type T CHROMEGA®/Constantan -ANSI Type E: Platinum/Platinum 10% Rhodium
wire is recommended for use in clean oxidizing - ANSI Type S: Platinum/Platinum 13% Rhodium -ANSI Type R. The positive and negative legs are identified by letter suffixes
atmospheres, The operating range for this alloy is 2300°F P and N, respectively, as listed in the tables.
for the largest wire sizes. Smaller wire sizes should operate
in correspondingly lower temperatures.
CHROMEGA®-Constantan (ANSI Symbol E) The
CHROMEGA®-Constantan thermocouple may be used for
temperatures up to 1600°F in a vacuum or inert, mildly 80 E ANSI Symbol
oxidizing or reducing atmosphere. At sub-zero
temperatures, the thermocouple is not subject to corrosion. 70 T Copper vs. Constantan
This thermocouple has the highest emf output of any E CHROMEGA® vs. Constantan
standard metallic thermocouple. 60 J Iron vs. Constantan
K K CHROMEGA® vs. ALOMEGA®
Platinum-Rhodium Alloys (ANSI Symbols S, R and B) 50
Three types of “noble-metal” thermocouples are in common J N* N* OMEGALLOY®
Millivolts

use; they are: 1) a positive wire of 90% platinum and 10% Nicrosil-Nisil
rhodium used with a negative wire of pure platinum, 2) a 40 G* G* Tungsten vs. Tungsten 26%
positive wire of 87% platinum and 13% rhodium used with C* Rhenium
a negative wire of pure platinum, and 3) a positive wire of 30 C* Tungsten 5% Rhenium vs.
70% platinum and 30% rhodium used with a negative wire Tungsten 26% Rhenium
T
of 94% platinum and 6% rhodium. They have a high 20 R S D* Tungsten 3% Rhenium vs.
resistance to oxidation and corrosion. However, hydrogen,
carbon and many metal vapors can contaminate a B Tungsten 25% Rhenium
10 R Platinum 13% Rhodium vs.
platinum-rhodium thermocouple. The recommended
operating range for the platinum-rhodium alloys is 2800°F, 0 Platinum
although temperatures as high as 3270°F can be 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 S Platinum 10% Rhodium vs.
measured with the Pt-30% Rh vs. Pt-6% Rh alloy Platinum
combination. Temperature (Fahrenheit) B Platinum 30% Rhodium vs.
Tungsten-Rhenlum Alloys Three types of tungsten- Platinum 6% Rhodium
rhenium thermocouples are in common use for measuring *Not an ANSI Symbol
temperatures up to 5000°F. These alloys have inherently
poor oxidation resistance and should be used in vacuum,
hydrogen or inert atmospheres.

Resistance Vs. Wire Diameter

Type K Type J Type T Type E Type S Type R Type RX/SX Type C† Type CX Type G† Type D† Type BX
AWG Diameter CHROMEGA® Iron/ Copper/ CHROMEGA® Pt/ Pt/ Copper W5%Re/ Alloy 405 W/ W3%Re/ Copper/
No. inches ALOMEGA® Constantan Constantan Constantan PT110%Rh PT113%Rh Alloy11** W26%Re Alloy 426 W26%Re W25%Re Copper*
6 0.162 0.023 0.014 0.012 0.027 0.007 0.007 0.003 0.009 0.014 0.008 0.009 0.000790
8 0.128 0.037 0.022 0.019 0.044 0.011 0.011 0.004 0.015 0.023 0.012 0.015 0.001256
10 0.102 0.058 0.034 0.029 0.069 0.018 0.018 0.007 0.023 0.037 0.020 0.022 0.001998
12 0.081 0.091 0.054 0.046 0.109 0.028 0.029 0.011 0.037 0.058 0.031 0.035 0.00318
14 0.064 0.146 0.087 0.074 0.175 0.045 0.047 0.018 0.058 0.093 0.049 0.055 0.00505
16 0.051 0.230 0.137 0.117 0.276 0.071 0.073 0.028 0.092 0.146 0.078 0.088 0.00803
18 0.040 0.374 0.222 0.190 0.448 0.116 0.119 0.045 0.148 0.238 0.126 0.138 0.01277
20 0.032 0.586 0.357 0.298 0.707 0.185 0.190 0.071 0.235 0.371 0.200 0.220 0.02030
24 0.0201 1.490 0.878 0.7526 1.78 0.464 0.478 0.180 0.594 0.941 0.560 0.560 0.05134
26 0.0159 2.381 1.405 1.204 2.836 0.740 0.760 0.288 0.945 1.503 0.803 0.890 0.08162
30 0.0100 5.984 3.551 3.043 7.169 1.85 1.91 0.727 2.38 3.800 2.03 2.26 0.2064
32 0.0080 9.524 5.599 4.758 11.31 1.96 3.04 1.136 3.8 5.94 3.22 3.60 0.3282
34 0.0063 15.17 8.946 7.66 18.09 4.66 4.82 1.832 6.04 9.57 5.10 5.70 0.5218
36 0.0050 24.08 14.20 12.17 28.76 7.40 7.64 2.908 9.6 15.20 8.16 9.10 0.8296
38 0.0039 38.20 23.35 19.99 45.41 11.6 11.95 4.780 15.3 24.98 12.9 15.3 1.3192
40 0.00315 60.88 37.01 31.64 73.57 18.6 19.3 7.327 24.4 38.30 20.6 23.0 2.098
44 0.0020 149.6 88.78 76.09 179.20 74.0 76.5 18.18 60.2 95.00 51.1 56.9 5.134
50 0.0010 598.4 355.1 304.3 716.9 185 191 72.7 240 380.0 204 227 20.64
56 0.00049 2408 1420 1217 2816 740 764 302.8 1000 1583 850 945 86.38
*Increase the resistance by 19% for nickel plated, type RTD wire **Maximum Resistance of reviewed wire †Not ANSI symbol

Z-50
 Comparison of Time Constant* vs. Overall
Outside Diameter of Bare Thermocouple Wires
or Grounded Junction Thermocouples In Air
Time constants calculated for air at
room temperature and atmospheric 1.2

pressure moving with velocity of 1.1 2.1

65 feet per second for thermocouples
shown in Figures #1 and #2. 1.0 2.0

For beaded-type and ungrounded .9 1.9

TIME CONSTANT - SECONDS

TIME CONSTANT - SECONDS

junctions (Figures #3 or #4), multiply .8 1.8
time constants by 1.5.
.7 1.7
Time constant of thermocouple made
with exposed butt welded 0.001 inch .6 1.6
dia. wire = .003 sec. Time constant of 1.5
.5
* The “Time Constant” or “Response TIme” is defined thermocouple made with
as the time required to reach 63.2% of an instantaneous .4 exposed, butt welded 1.4
temperature change. 0.001 in. dia. wire
= .003 sec.
.3 1.3

.2 1.2

.1 1.1
1/64 in. 1/32 in.
0.0 1.0
.002 .004 .006 .008 .010 .012 .014 .016 .018 .020 .022 .024 .026 .028 .030 .032 .034
.001
WIRE OR SHEATH DIAMETER - INCHES “D”
D
D D D
BARE WIRE GROUNDED BEADED-TYPE UNGROUNDED-
Butt Welded Junction Thermocouple
Fig. #1 Fig. #2 Fig. #3
TYPE
Thermocouple
Because of space limitations,
Fig. #4 time constant curve is divided
into 4 separate curves.
Figure M Sheath Diameter 1⁄32" to 3⁄8 "
11.0 110

10.0 100

9.0 90

8.0 80
TIME CONSTANT - SECONDS

TIME CONSTANT - SECONDS

7.0 70

6.0 60

5.0 50

4.0 40

3.0 30

2.0 20
1.8 sec.
1.0 10

.03125 .0625 .09375 .125 .15625 .1875 .21875 .250 .28125 .3125 .375
1/32 1/16 3/32 1/8 5/32 3/16 7/32 1/4 9/32 5/16 3/8

WIRE OR SHEATH DIAMETER - INCHES “D”

Note:
These comparisons apply to either bare “butt-welded” or “grounded” junction thermocouples. If the thermocouples are the “beaded” type or
“ungrounded,” the time constant is longer. These times are only approximate and are provided for comparison purposes only. Multiply values
from Time Constants by 1.5 for junctions shown in Fig. #3 and Fig. #4.

Z-51
Metal Sheathed
Thermocouple Probe
Time Response Study in Water
2.25
.250 Ungrounded Z

2.00

1.75

1.50
Time in Seconds

1.25
.188

1.00 Grounded

.75

.125
.50

.062 Exposed
.040
.25

.05 .10 .15 .20 .25

Probe Diameter in Inches

Z-52
OMEGA® Interchangeable
Thermistor Applications

variable thermistor variable

resistor resistor
thermistor for battery for battery
control control
variable resistor
for setting desired
temperature relay
high gain
amplifier

thermistor
thermistor

Fig. 1 Fig. 4 Fig. 6

variable variable
oven room resistor resistor
#1 temperature for battery for battery
reference slave
control control
thermistor thermistor
selector
oven switch variable resistor
#2 for adjusting slave
temperature slightly
above or below relay
temperature
high gain
refrigerator difference difference amplifier
chamber #1
#2
master
pressure thermistor
chamber

Fig. 2 Fig. 5 Fig. 7

thermistor
1000 ohms at 25°C

meter coil
2150 ohms
at 25°C resistor
1000 ohms
at 25°C

Thermistors can be used in a variety of ways. Here are a can be placed at various points and the difference
few typical applications. If you have questions concerning between these temperatures and the original
these or other thermistor uses, we will be happy to temperature monitored at a convenient location.
discuss them.
Measuring air temperature at different elevations with
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT-A thermistor in one reference to ground temperature is useful for temperature
leg of a Wheatstone bridge circuit will provide precise inversion data and geological studies. See Figure 5.
temperature information. Accuracy is limited in most
applications only by the readout device. See Figure 1. TEMPERATURE CONTROL-A system can be designed
using a thermistor with a known temperature/ resistance
Since lead length between thermistor and bridge is not curve to form one leg of an AC bridge and a variable
normally a limiting factor, this basic system can be resistor calibrated in temperature to form another leg.
expanded to measure temperature at several locations When the resistor is set to a desired temperature, bridge
from a central point. Thermistor interchangeability and unbalance occurs. This unbalance is fed into an amplifier
large resistance change eliminate any significant error which actuates a relay to provide a source of heat or
from switches or lead length. See Figure 2. cold. When the thermistor senses the desired
temperature, the bridge is balanced, opening the relay
METER COMPENSATION - The coil resistance of a and turning off the heat or cold. See Figure 6.
meter movement changes with temperature, making the
meter temperature dependent. Using the thermistor’s MASTER-SLAVE CONTROL-Occasionally there is a
property of a high negative temperature coefficient, the need to control one temperature with respect to another,
coil can be compensated so total resistance due to such as a product going through a series of baths. The
temperature rise is essentially constant, allowing the first bath acts as a master and uses a thermistor to sense
meter to be used over a wide temperature range with temperature. Succeeding baths, also using thermistors,
minimal error. See Figure 3. are slaves. When these thermistors are placed in the
controller bridge, the slave baths can be kept at a
DIFFERENTIAL THERMOMETERS-For accurate temperature relative to the master bath.
indication of temperature differential, two thermistors can
be used in a Wheatstone bridge circuit. Thermistor The master bath can be controlled with the system
interchangeability simplifies circuit design and reduces described earlier. The master-slave controller can be
the number of components. See Figure 4. used for as many baths as necessary. See Figure 7.
To measure heat loss in a piping network, thermistors
®

Z-53
Resistance Elements and RTD’s
David J. King
INTRODUCTION
Resistance elements come in many
types conforming to different standards,
capable of different temperature
ranges, with various sizes and
accuracies available. But they all
function in the same manner: each has
a pre-specified resistance value at a
known temperature which changes in a
predictable fashion. In this way, by
measuring the resistance of the
element, the temperature of the
element can be determined from
tables, calculations or instrumentation.
These resistance elements are the
heart of the RTD (Resistance
Temperature Detector). Generally, a
bare resistance element is too fragile
and sensitive to be used in its raw form,
so it must be protected by incorporating
it into an RTD. A
Resistance Temperature Detector is
a general term for any device that
senses temperature by measuring the
change in resistance of a material.
RTD’s come in many forms, but usually
appear in sheathed form. An RTD
probe is an assembly composed of a
resistance element, a sheath, lead wire
and a termination or connection. The
sheath, a closed end tube, immobilizes
the element, protecting it against
moisture and the environment to be
measured. The sheath also provides
protection and stability to the transition
lead wires from the fragile element
wires.
Some RTD probes can be combined
with thermowells for additional
protection. In this type of application,
the thermowell may not only add
protection to the RTD, but will also seal
whatever system the RTD is to
measure (a tank or boiler for instance)
from actual contact with the RTD. This
becomes a great aid in replacing the
RTD without draining the vessel or
system.
Thermocouples are the old tried and
true method of electrical temperature
measurement. They function very
differently from RTD’s but generally
appear in the same configuration: often
sheathed and possibly in a thermowell.
Basically, they operate on the Seebeck
effect, which results in a change in
thermoelectric emf induced by a
change in temperature. Many
applications lend themselves to either
RTD’s or thermocouples.
Thermocouples tend to be more
rugged, free of self-heating errors and
they command a large assortment of
instrumentation. However, RTD’s,
especially platinum RTD’s, are more
stable and accurate.
RESISTANCE ELEMENT
CHARACTERISTICS
There are several very important
details that must be specified in order
to properly identify the characteristics
of the RTD:
1. Material of Resistance
Element (Platinum,
Nickel, etc.)
2. Temperature Coefficient
3. Nominal Resistance
4. Temperature Range of
Application
5. Physical Dimensions or
Size Restrictions
6. Accuracy
1. Material of Resistance Element
Several metals are quite common for
use in resistance elements and the
purity of the metal affects its
characteristics. Platinum is by far the
most popular due to its linearity with
temperature. Other common materials
are nickel and copper, although most of
these are being replaced by platinum
elements. Other metals used, though
rarely, are Balco (an iron-nickel alloy),
tungsten and iridium.
2. Temperature Coefficient
The temperature coefficient of an
element is a physical and electrical
property of the material. This is a term
that describes the average resistance
change per unit of temperature from ice
point to the boiling point of water.
Different organizations have adopted
different temperature coefficients as
their standard. In 1983, the IEC
(International Electrotechnical
Commission) adopted the DIN
(Deutsche Institute for Normung)
standard of Platinum 100 ohm at 0ºC
with a temperature coefficient of
0.00385 ohms per ohm degree
centigrade. This is now the accepted
standard of the industry in most
countries, although other units are
widely used. A quick explanation of
how the coefficient is derived is as
follows: Resistance at the boiling point
(100ºC) =138.50 ohms. Resistance at
ice point (0ºC) = 100.00 ohms. Divide
the difference (38.5) by 100 degrees
and then divide by the 100 ohm
Z-54
nominal value of the element. The
result is the mean temperature
coefficient (alpha) of 0.00385 ohms per
ohm per ºC.
Some of the less common materials
and temperature coefficients are:
Pt TC = .003902 (U.S. Industrial
Standard)
Pt TC = .003920 (Old U.S.
Standard)
Pt TC
Pt TC
=
=
.003923 (SAMA)
.003916 (JIS)
Z
Copper TC = .0042
Nickel TC = 0.00617 (DIN)
Nickel TC = .00672 (Growing
Less Common in U.S.)
Balco TC = .0052
Tungsten TC = 0.0045
Please note that the temperature
coefficients are the average values
between 0 and 100ºC. This is not to
say that the resistance vs. temperature
curves are truly linear over the
specified temperature range.
3. Nominal Resistance
Nominal Resistance is the pre-
specified resistance value at a given
temperature. Most standards, including
IEC-751, use 0ºC as their reference
point. The IEC standard is 100 ohms at
0ºC, but other nominal resistances,
such as 50, 200, 400, 500, 1000 and
2000 ohm, are available.
4. Temperature Range of Application
Depending on the mechanical
configuration and manufacturing
methods, RTD’s may be used from
-270ºC to 850ºC. Specifications for
temperature range will be different, for
thin film, wire wound and glass
encapsulated types, for example.
5. Physical Dimensions or Size
Restrictions
The most critical dimension of the
element is outside diameter (O.D.),
because the element must often fit
within a protective sheath. The film type
elements have no O.D. dimension. To
calculate an equivalent dimension, we
need to find the diagonal of an end
cross section (this will be the widest
distance across the element as it is
inserted into a sheath).
 Resistance Elements and RTD’s Cont’d
FIGURE 1. LOCATION OF THIN FILM ELEMENT IN CYLINDRICAL SHEATH
10,000 hours at maximum temperature
(1 year, 51 days, 16 hours continuous).
DIAGONAL OF ELEMENT WALL THICKNESS
Vibration Resistance: 50 g @ 500ºC;
200 g @ 20ºC; at frequencies from 20
to 1000 cps.
THICKNESS OF ELEMENT
Temperature Shock Resistance: In
forced air: over entire temperature
range. In a water quench: from 200 to
20ºC.
W W = WIDTH OF ELEMENT
Pressure Sensitivity: Less than 1.5 x
OD 10-4 C/PSI, reversible.
1/ " O.D. sheath with 0.010" walls,
Permissible deviations from basic 8 Self Heating Errors & Response
values generally speaking. Elements which are Times: Refer to specific Temperature
1.5 mm wide will typically fit into a Handbook pages for the type of
Class A sheath with 0.084" bore. Refer to Figure element selected.
Temperature Deviation 1.
Self Inductance From Sensing
ºC ohms ºC 6. Accuracy Current: Can be considered negligible
-200 ±0.24 ±0.55 IEC 751 specifications for Platinum for thin film elements; typically less than
-100 ±0.14 ±0.35 Resistance Thermometers have 0.02 microhenry for wire wound
adopted DIN 43760 requirements for elements.
0 ±0.06 ±0.15 accuracy. DIN-IEC Class A and Class B Capacitance: For wire wound elements:
100 ±0.13 ±0.35 elements are shown in the chart on this calculated to be less than 6 PicoFarads;
page. for film-type elements: capacitance is too
200 ±0.20 ±0.55
7. Response Time small to be measured and is affected by
300 ±0.27 ±0.75 lead wire connection. Lead connections
50% Response is the time the with element may indicate about 300 pF
400 ±0.33 ±0.95 thermometer element needs in order to capacitance.
500 ±0.38 ±1.15 reach 50% of its steady state value.
600 ±0.43 ±1.35
90% Response is defined in a similar LEAD WIRE
manner. These response times of CONFIGURATIONS
650 ±0.46 ±1.45 elements are given for water flowing
with 0. 2 m/s velocity and air flowing at As stated previously, a Resistance
1 m/s. They can be calculated for any Temperature Detector (RTD) element
other medium with known values of generally appears in a sheathed form.
Class B thermal conductivity. In a 1/4" diameter Obviously, all of the criteria applicable to
Temperature Deviation sheath immersed in water flowing at resistance elements also apply here,
3 feet per second, response time to but rather than element size, the
ºC ohms ºC 63% of a step change in temperature is construction and dimensions of the
-200 ±056 ±1.3 less than 5.0 seconds. entire RTD assembly must be
considered. Since the lead wire used
-100 ±0.32 ±0.8 8. Measurement Current and Self between the resistance element and the
0 ±0.12 ±0.3 Heating measuring instrument has a resistance
Temperature measurement is carried itself, we must also supply a means of
100 ±0.30 ±0.8 compensating for this inaccuracy. Refer
out almost exclusively with direct
200 ±0.48 ±1.3 current. Unavoidably, the measuring to Figure 2 for the 2-wire configuration.
300 ±0.64 ±1.8 current generates heat in the RTD. The
permissible measurement currents are
400 ±0.79 ±2.3 determined by the location of the BLACK
R2
500 ±0.93 ±2.8 element, the medium which is to be
measured, and the velocity of moving RE
600 ±1.06 ±3.3 media. A self-heating factor, “S”, gives
650 ±1.13 ±3.6 the measurement error for the element RED
in ºC per milliwatt (mW). With a given R1
700 ±1.17 ±3.8 value of measuring current, I, the ELEMENT
800 ±1.28 ±4.3 milliwatt value P can be calculated from
P = I2R, where R is the RTD’s FIGURE 2. 2-WIRE
850 ±1.34 ±4.6 resistance value. The temperature CONFIGURATION (STYLE 1)
For example, using an element that is measurement error ∆T (ºC) can then be
10 x 2 x 1.5 mm, the diagonal can be calculated from ∆T = P x S. The circle represents the resistance
found by taking the square root of (22 + element boundaries to the point of
1.52). Thus, the element will fit into a RESISTANCE ELEMENT calibration. 3- or 4-wire configuration
2.5 mm (0.98") inside diameter hole. For SPECIFICATIONS must be extended from the point of
practical purposes, remember that any calibration so that all uncalibrated
element 2 mm wide or less will fit into a Stability: Better than 0.2ºC after resistances are compensated.

Z-55
The resistance RE is taken from the provided to each end of the sensor. case.
resistance element and is the value This construction is used for
that will supply us with an accurate measurements of the highest Still another configuration, now rare,
temperature measurement. precision. is a standard 2-wire configuration
Unfortunately, when we take our with a closed loop of wire alongside
resistance measurement, the (Figure 5). This functions the same
instrument will indicate as the 3-wire configuration, but uses
an extra wire to do so. A separate
RTOTAL: pair of wires is provided as a loop to
Where provide compensation for lead
RT = R1 + R2 + RE BLACK R
4
resistance and ambient changes in
BLACK R lead resistance.
This will produce a temperature 3
readout higher than that actually
being measured. Many systems can
RE Z
be calibrated to eliminate this. Most RED R
2 BLACK R
RTD’s incorporate a third wire with RED R 4
resistance R3. This wire will be ELEMENT
1

connected to one side of the RE

resistance element along with lead
2 as shown in Figure 3.
This configuration provides one
connection to one end and two to
the other end of the sensor.
Connected to an instrument
designed to accept 3-wire input,
compensation is achieved for lead
resistance and temperature change
in lead resistance. This is the most
commonly used configuration.
BLACK R
3
BLACK
R2
RE
RED
R1
ELEMENT
RED
R3
ELEMENT
R2
FIGURE 4. 4-WIRE BLACK
CONFIGURATION (STYLE 3)
R1
LEAD RESISTANCE LOOP
With the 4-wire configuration, the
instrument will pass a constant
current (I) through the outer leads, 1
and 4. FIGURE 5. 2-WIRE
CONFIGURATION PLUS LOOP
(STYLE 4)
The voltage drop is measured
across the inner leads, 2 and 3. So
from V = IR we learn the resistance
of the element alone, with no effect
from the lead wire resistance. This ®
offers an advantage over 3-wire
configurations only if dissimilar lead
wires are used, and this is rarely the

FIGURE 3. 3-WIRE
CONFIGURATION (STYLE 2)
If three identical type wires are used
and their lengths are equal, then R1
= R2 = R3. By measuring the
resistance through leads 1, 2 and
the resistance element, a total
system resistance is measured (R1
+ R2 + RE ). If the resistance is also
measured through leads 2 and 3 (R2
+ R3), we obtain the resistance of
just the lead wires, and since all
lead wire resistances are equal,
subtracting this value (R2 + R3) from
the total system resistance (R1 + R2
+ RE) leaves us with just RE, and an
accurate temperature measurement
has been made. A 4-wire
configuration is also used. (See
Figure 4.) Two connections are

Z-56
Introduction to
Infrared Pyrometers
Why should I use an infrared pyrometer to measure
temperature in my application?
Infrared pyrometers allow users to measure temperature in
applications where conventional sensors cannot be employed.
Specifically, in cases dealing with moving objects (i.e., rollers,
moving machinery, or a conveyer belt), or where non-contact
measurements are required because of contamination or
hazardous reasons (such as high voltage), where distances
are too great, or where the temperatures to be measured are
too high for thermocouples or other contact sensors.
Emissivity (ε), a major but not uncontrollable factor in IR
temperature measurement, cannot be ignored. Related to
emissivity are reflectivity (R), a measure of an object’s ability
to reflect infrared energy, and transmissivity (T), a measure of
an object’s ability to pass or transmit IR energy. All radiation
energy must be either emitted (E) due to the temperature of
the body, transmitted (T) or reflected (R). The total energy, the
sum of emissivity, transmissivity and reflectivity is equal to 1:
E + T + R = 1.0

What should I consider about my application when selecting

an infrared pyrometer?
The critical considerations for any infrared pyrometer include
field of view (target size and distance), type of surface being
measured (emissivity considerations), spectral response
(for atmospheric effects or transmission through surfaces),
temperature range and mounting (handheld portable or
fixed mount). Other considerations include response time,
environment, mounting limitations, viewing port or window
applications, and desired signal processing.
FIELD OF VIEW
What is meant by Field of View, and why is it important?
The field of view is the angle of vision at which the instrument
operates, and is determined by the optics of the unit. To
obtain an accurate temperature reading, the target being
measured should completely fill the field of view of the
instrument. Since the infrared device determines the average
temperature of all surfaces within the field of view, if the
background temperature is different from the object
temperature, a measurement error can occur (figure 1).
Object A Object B
Wall
R
E Hot
Source
T
Infrared
Pyrometer
Total infrared radiation reaching pyrometers
The ideal surface for infrared measurements is a perfect
radiator, or a blackbody with an emissivity of 1.0. Most objects,
however, are not perfect radiators, but will reflect and/or
transmit a portion of the energy. Most instruments have
the ability to compensate for different emissivity values,
for different materials. In general, the higher the emissivity
of an object, the easier it is to obtain an accurate temperature
measurement using infrared. Objects with very low emissivities
(below 0.2) can be difficult applications. Some polished, shiny
metallic surfaces, such as aluminum, are so reflective in the
infrared that accurate temperature measurements are not
always possible.

Figure 1: Field of view

Most general purpose indicators have a focal distance

between 20 and 60". The focal distance is the point at which
the minimum measurement spot occurs. For example, a unit
with a distance-to-spot size ratio of 120:1, and a focal length
of 60" will have a minimum spot size of 0.5" at 60" distance.
Close-focus instruments have a typical 0.1 to 12" focal length,
while long-range units can use focal distances on the order
of 50'. Many instruments used for long distances or small
spot sizes also include sighting scopes for improved focusing.
Field of view diagrams are available for most instruments to
help estimate spot size at specific distances.

EMISSIVITY
What is emissivity, and how is it related to infrared
temperature measurements?
Emissivity is defined as the ratio of the energy radiated by
an object at a given temperature to the energy emitted by
a perfect radiator, or blackbody, at the same temperature.
The emissivity of a blackbody is 1.0. All values of emissivity
fall between 0.0 and 1.0.

Z-57
Reflectivity is usually a more important consideration than
transmission except in a few special applications, such as
thin film plastics. The emissivity of most organic substances
(wood, cloth, plastics, etc.) is approximately 0.95. Most rough
or painted surfaces also have fairly high emissivity values.

FIVE WAYS TO DETERMINE EMISSIVITY

There are five ways to determine the emissivity of the
material, to ensure accurate temperature measurements:
1. Heat a sample of the material to a known temperature,
using a precise sensor, and measure the temperature using
the IR instrument. Then adjust the emissivity value to force
the indicator to display the correct temperature. Z
2. For relatively low temperatures (up to 500°F), a piece of
masking tape, with an emissivity of 0.95, can be measured.
Then adjust the emissivity value to force the indicator to
display the correct temperature of the material.
3. For high temperature measurements, a hole (depth of which
is at least 6 times the diameter) can be drilled into the object.
This hole acts as a blackbody with emissivity of 1.0. Measure
the temperature in the hole, then adjust the emissivity to force
the indicator to display the correct temperature of the material.
4. If the material, or a portion of it, can be coated, a dull
black paint will have an emissivity of approx. 1.0. Measure
the temperature of the paint, then adjust the emissivity to
force the indicator to display the correct temperature.

5. Standardized emissivity values for most materials are

available (see pages 114-115). These can be entered into
the instrument to estimate the material’s emissivity value.
SPECTRAL RESPONSE
What is spectral response, and how will it affect my readings?
The spectral response of the unit is the width of the infrared
spectrum covered. Most general purpose units (for
temperatures below 1000°F) use a wideband filter in the 8 to
14 micron range. This range is preferred for most
measurements, as it will allow measurements to be taken
without the atmospheric interference (where the atmospheric
temperature affects the readings of the instrument). Some
units use wider filters such as 8 to 20 microns, which can be
used for close measurements, but are ‘‘distance-sensitive’’
against longer distances. For special purposes, very narrow
bands may be chosen. These can be used for higher
temperatures, and for penetrations of atmosphere, flames,
and gases. Typical low band filters are at 2.2 or 3.8 microns.
High temperatures above 1500°F are usually measured with
2.1 to 2.3 micron filters. Other bandwidths that can be used
are 0.78 to 1.06 for high temperatures, 7.9 or 3.43 for limited
transmissions through thin film plastics, and 3.8 microns to
penetrate through clean flames with minimum interference.
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT THROUGH GLASS
I want to measure the temperature through a glass or quartz
window; what special considerations are there?
Transmission of the infrared energy through glass or quartz
is an important factor to be considered. The pyrometer must
have a wavelength where the glass is somewhat transparent,
which means they can only be used for high temperature.
Otherwise, the instrument will have measurement errors
due to averaging of the glass temperature with the desired
product temperature.
MOUNTING
How can I mount the infrared pyrometer?
The pyrometer can be of two types, either fixed-mount or
portable. Fixed mount units are generally installed in one
location to continuously monitor a given process. They
usually operate on line power, and are aimed at a single
point. The output from this type of instrument can be a local
or remote display, along with an analog output that can be
used for another display or control loop.
Battery powered, portable infrared ‘‘guns’’ are also available;
these units have all the features of the fixed mount devices,
usually without the analog output for control purposes.
Generally these units are utilized in maintenance, diagnostics,
quality control, and spot measurements of critical processes.
RESPONSE TIME
What else should I take into account when selecting and
installing my infrared measurement system?
First, the instrument must respond quickly enough to process
changes for accurate temperature recording or control.
Typical response times for infrared thermometers are in
the 0.1 to 1 second range. Next, the unit must be able to
function within the environment, at the ambient temperature.
Other considerations include physical mounting limitations,
viewing port/window applications (measuring through glass),
and the desired signal processing to produce the desired
output for further analysis, display or control.

Z-58
Principles of Infrared
Thermometry
W. R. Barron, Williamson Corporation
The fundamentals of IR thermometry
are an important prerequisite for
specifying an accurate monitoring
system. Unfortunately, many users
do not take the time to understand
the basic guidelines, and consequently
reject the concept of noncontact
temperature measurement as inaccurate.
THEORY AND FUNDAMENTALS
Temperature measurement can be
divided into two categories: contact and
noncontact. Contact thermocouples,
RTDs, and thermometers are the most
prevalent in temperature measurement
applications. They must contact the
target as they measure their own
temperature and they are relatively slow
responding, but they are inexpensive.
Noncontact temperature sensors
measure IR energy emitted by the
target, have fast response, and are
commonly used to measure moving and
intermittent targets, targets in a vacuum,
and targets that are inaccessible due
to hostile environments, geometry
limitations, or safety hazards. The cost
is relatively high, although in some
cases is comparable to contact devices.
Infrared radiation was discovered in
1666 by Sir Isaac Newton, when he
separated the electromagnetic energy
from sunlight by passing white light
through a glass prism that broke up the
beam into colors of the rainbow. In
1800, Sir William Herschel took the next
step by measuring the relative energy of
each color. He also discovered energy
beyond the visible. In the early 1900s,
Planck, Stefan, Boltzmann, Wien, and
Kirchhoff further defined the activity
of the electromagnetic spectrum and
developed quantitative data and equations
to identify IR energy.
This research makes it possible to define
IR energy using the basic blackbody
emittance curves (See Figure 1). From
this plot it can be seen that objects (of a
temperature greater than -273°C) emit
radiant energy in an amount proportional
to the fourth power of their temperature.
The concept of blackbody emittance
is the foundation for IR thermometry.
There is, however, the term “emissivity”
that adds a variable to the basic laws of
physics. Emissivity is a measure of the
ratio of thermal radiation emitted by a
0.8
RADIATION EMITTANCE (W/cm2/mm-1)
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
VISIBLE
0.1
0 – IR sensors are inherently colorblind.
0 1
BLACKBODY RADIATION
CHARACTERISTICS
STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW Q = sT4
WIEN'S DISPLACEMENT LAW l M = K/T
PLANCK'S LAW Ql = Cl -5 (ec2 / lT-1) -1
Figure 1: As shown in curves representing the
distribution of energy emitted by blackbodies
ranging in temperature from 600°F to 1200°F,
the predominant radiation is in the IR region
of 0.5-14 µm, well beyond the visible region.
graybody (non-blackbody) to that of a
blackbody at the same temperature.
(A graybody refers to an object that has
the same spectral emissivity at every
wavelength; a non-graybody is an object
whose emissivity changes with
wavelength, e.g. aluminum.)
The law of conservation of energy states
that the coefficient of transmission,
reflection, and emission (absorption)
of radiation must add up to 1:
and the emissivity equals absorptivity:
Therefore:
1200°F
El = 1 - tl - rl
This emissivity coefficient fits into Planck’s
equation as a variable describing the
object surface characteristics relative
to wavelength. The majority of targets
measured are opaque and the emissivity
coefficient can be simplified to:
1000°F El = 1 - rl
Exceptions are materials like glass,
plastics, and silicon, but through proper
selective spectral filtering it is possible
to measure these objects in their
opaque IR region.
600°F
There is typically a lot of confusion
regarding emissivity error, but the user
need remember only four things:
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
– If the target is visually reflective (like a
WAVELENGTH (mm)
mirror), beware – you will measure not
only the emitted radiation, as desired,
but also reflected radiation.
– If you can see through it, you need to
select IR filtering (e.g., glass is
opaque at 5µm).
– Nine out of ten applications do not require
absolute temperature measurement.
Repeatability and drift-free operation
yield close temperature control.
If the surface is shiny, there is an
emissivity adjustment that can be made
either manually or automatically to correct
for emissivity error. It is a simple fix
for most applications. In cases where
emissivity varies and creates processing
problems, consider dual- or multiwave-
length radiometry to eliminate the
emissivity problem.
L
E = GB
LBB DESIGN ELEMENTS
IR thermometers come in a wide variety
of configurations pertaining to optics,
electronics, technology, size, and
protective enclosures. All, however,
have a common chain of IR energy in
and an electronic signal out. This basic
chain consists of collecting optics, lenses,
tl + rl + al = 1 and/or fiber optics, spectral filtering, and
a detector as the front end. Dynamic
processing comes in many forms, but
can be summarized as amplification,
El = al thermal stability, linearization, and
signal conditioning. Normal window
Z-59

glass is usable at the short wavelength,
quartz for the midrange, and germanium
or zinc sulfide for the 8-14 µm range.
Fiber optics are available to cover the
0.5-5.0 µm region.
From an applications standpoint, the
primary characteristic of the optics is
the field of view (FOV), i.e., what is the
target size at a prescribed distance?
A very common lens system, for example,
would be a 1 in. dia. target size at a
15 in. working distance. Using the inverse
square law, by doubling the distance
(30 in.) the target area theoretically
doubles (2 in. dia.). The actual definition
of target size (area measured) will vary
depending upon the supplier, and it
is price dependent. Other optical
configurations vary from small spot
(0.030 in dia.) for close-up pinpoint
measurement, to distant optics (3 in.
at 30 ft) for distant aiming. It is important
to note that working distance should not
affect the accuracy if the FOV is filled by
the target. In one technique for measuring
FOV, the variable is signal loss vs.
diameter. A strict rule is a 1% energy
reduction, although some data are
presented at half power, or 63.2%
Alignment (aiming) is another optical
factor. Many sensors lack that
capability; the lens is aligned to the
surface and measures surface temperature.
This works with sizable targets, e.g.,
paper web, where pinpoint accuracy
is not required. For small targets that
use small-spot optics, and for distant
optics used in remote monitoring, there
are options of visual aiming, aim lights,
and laser alignment.
Selective spectral filtering typically
uses short-wavelength filters for high-
temperature applications (>1000°F,
and long-wavelength filters for low
temperatures –50°F). This obviously
fits the blackbody distribution curves,
and there are some technological
advantages. For example, high
temperature/short wavelength uses
a very thermally stable silicon detector,
and the short-wavelength design
minimizes temperature error due to
emissivity variations. Other selective
filtering is used for plastic films (3.43 µm
and 7.9 µm), glass (5.1 µm), and flame
insensitivity (3.8 µm).
A variety of detectors are used to
maximize the sensitivity of the sensor.
As shown in Figure 2, PbS has the
greatest sensitivity, while the thermopile
has the least sensitivity. Most detectors
are either photovoltaic, putting out
a voltage when energized, or
photoconductive, changing resistance
when excited. These fast-responding,
high sensitive detectors have a tradeoff
thermal drift that can be overcome in
many ways, including temperature
compensation (thermistors) circuitry,
temperature regulation, auto null
circuitry, chopping (AC vs. DC output),
and isothermal protection. Drift-free
operation is available in varying degrees
and is price dependent.
106
105
RELATIVE SENSIVITY
104
3
10
THERMISTOR BOLOMETER
102
(PYRO-
ELECTRIC
DETECTOR)
101
1 many variations in size, performance,
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 1.0
WAVELENGTH (mm)
CHOPPED
Figure 2: To optimize the respone of IR sensing
systems, the detector’s spectral response and
modulation characteristics must be considered.
In the IR thermometer’s electronics
package, the detector’s nonlinear output
signal, on the order of 100-1000 µV,
is processed. The signal is amplified
1000 x, regulated, and linearized, and
the ultimate output is a linear mV or mA
signal. The trend is toward 4-20 mA
output to minimize environmental
electrical noise interference.
This signal can also be transposed to
RS 232 or fed to a PID controller, remote
display, or recorder. Additional signal
conditioning options involve on/off alarms,
adjustable peak hold for intermittent
targets, adjustable response time,
and/or sample-and-hold circuitry.
Z
On the average, IR thermometers have
a response time on the order of 300 ms,
although signal outputs on the order
of 10 ms can be obtained with silicon
detectors. In the real world, many
instruments have an adjustable response
capability that permits damping of noisy
incoming signals and field adjustment
on sensitivity. It is not always necessary
to have the fastest response available.
There are cases involving induction
heating and other types of applications,
however, where response times on the
order of 10-50 ms are required, and they
are attainable through IR thermometry.
SINGLE-WAVELENGTH
THERMOMETRY
The basic single-wavelength design
measures total energy emitted from a
surface at a prescribed wavelength.
PbS The configurations range from handheld
probes with a simple remote meter to
Ge sophisticated portables with simultaneous
viewing of target and temperature, plus
Si
InAs
memory and/or printout capabilities.
InSb On-line, fixed-mount sensors range
from simple small detectors with remote
electronics (OEM designs) to rugged
devices with remote PID control.
Fiber optics, laser aiming, water cooling,
THIN FILM
THERMOPILE CRT display, and scanning systems are
among the options for process monitoring
and control applications. There are
METAL THERMOPILE
2 3 5 7 10 20
ruggedness, adaptability, and signal
conditioning.
UNCHOPPED
Process sensor configuration, IR
spectral filtering, temperature range,
optics, response time, and target
emissivity are important engineering
elements that affect performance and
which must be given careful consideration
during the selection process.
The sensor configuration can be a
portable, a simple two-wire transmitter,
a sophisticated ruggedized sensing unit,
or a scanning device. Visual aiming,
laser alignment, non-aiming, fiber
optics, water cooling, output signals,
and remote displays represent an
overview of the various options. These
are somewhat subjective, but demand
engineering review. In most cases, if
it is a simple application, e.g., web
temperature, a simple low-cost sensor
would do the job; if the application is
Z-60
Infrared Thermometry Principles Cont’d
complicated, e.g., vacuum chamber or
small target, then a more sophisticated
sensor is a better choice.
The selection of IR spectral response
and temperature range is related to a
specific application. Short wavelengths
are for high temperature and long
wavelengths are for low temperature, to
coincide with the blackbody distribution
curves. If transparent-type targets
are involved, e.g., plastics and glass,
then selective narrow-band filtering is
required. For example, polyethylene film
has a CH absorption band of 3.43 µm,
where it becomes opaque. By filtering
in this region, the emissivity factor is
simplified. Likewise, most glass-type
materials become opaque at 4.6 µm and
narrow-band filtering at 5.1 µm permits
accurate measurement of glass surface
temperature. On the other hand, to look
through a glass window, a sensor filtered
in the 1-4 µm region would allow easy
access via viewing ports into vacuum
and pressure chambers. Another option,
in the case of chambers, is to use a
fiber-optic cable with a vacuum or
pressure bushing.
Optics and response time are two
sensor characteristics that are, in most
applications, nonissues, in that the
standard FOV of approximately 1 in. at
15 in. is acceptable, and response time
of <1 s is adequate. If the application
requires a small target or a fast-moving
intermittent target, however, then small
spot (0.125 in dia.) and very small spot
(0.030 in. dia.) may be applicable at a
premium. Likewise, distant sighting
(10-1000 ft away from the target) will
also require an optical adjustment, as
the standard FOV will become very large.
In some instances, dual-wavelength
radiometry is used for these applications,
.e.g., wire and distant sighting. The
fiber-optic front-end offers engineering
flexibility by remoting the electronics
from hostile environments, eliminating
electrical noise interference and resolving
accessibility concerns. It is an intriguing
engineering tool that helps solve some
unique application problems.
Most sensors have adjustable response
in the 0.2-5.0 s range, and typical
settings are in the midrange. Fast
response can expose application noise,
while slow response affects sensitivity.
Induction heating requires fast response,
while conveyor or web monitoring
requires a slower response to reduce
application noise. A fast-responding
sensor requires a fast-responding
controller, SCR power pack, and other
regulators. Integrated system dynamics
can be defined by the following equation:
T = 1.1 =+++++++
t12 + t22 ....tn2
where:
T = total response
t1,t2= individual elements of the loop
Considering the element of time, there
are two types of process dynamics:
steady state variations, where there is a
fast-moving product that requires close
temperature control due to the dynamics
of the process, e.g., induction heating
of wire. Step changes or ramp response
pertains to the very quick heating of a
product in a batch process, e.g., rapid
thermal annealing of silicon wafers.
In these dynamic applications, system
responsivity and sensor FOV are critical
parameters.
In many cases, target emissivity is
not a significant factor. With the proper
selection of narrow-band spectral filtering,
most materials have a constant emissivity
in the 0.90 ±0.05 range. Setting the
emissivity at 0.9 µm, the sensor will tend
to read within ±5° or 10° of absolute
temperature. This application error
represents an accuracy variation of about
1% or 2% but, in the real world of IR
thermometry, repeatability is critical
for control. If, for example, a product is
heated to 410°F and the sensor reads
400°F, and you make quality product
when the sensor indicates 390-410°F,
use the 400 setpoint for control. Most
applications do not require NIST calibration
standards to produce quality product.
If an application requires accurate,
absolute temperature measurement
and documentation, the instruments can
be calibrated and certified to referenced
NIST standards. In addition, there is the
need to fully define the application error
due to surface emissivity. If a shiny
roll must be measured, e.g., the first
recommendation is to measure the
product passing on the shiny roll.
Second, the emissivity adjustment
can be made on the sensor using static
testing conditions to determine the
proper setting. Third, dual-wavelength
radiometry may be a viable option.
Single-wavelength IR thermometry
represents a very diversified, yet simple,
selection technique used in thousands
of applications where product temperature
control is vital for consistent, high-quality
products.
Z-61
DUAL-WAVELENGTH
THERMOMETRY
For more sophisticated applications
where absolute accuracy is critical,
and where the product is undergoing a
physical or chemical change, dual- and
multi-wavelength radiometry should be
considered. The concept of the ratioing
radiometer has been around since
the early 1950s, but recent design
and hardware changes are yielding
higher performance, low-temperature
capabilities, and reduced cost.
Dual-wavelength (ratio) thermometry
involves measuring the spectral energy
at two different wavelengths (spectral
bands). The target temperature can be
read directly from the instrument if the
emissivity has the same value at both
wavelengths. This type of instrument
can also indicate the correct temperature
of a target when the FOV is partially
occluded by relatively cold materials
such as dust, wire screens, and gray
translucent windows in the sight path.
The theory of this design is quite simple
and straightforward, and is illustrated by
the following equations, where we take
Planck’s equation for one wavelength
and ratio it to the energy at a second
wavelength.
L e • C1 • l1 -5 • e-C2 / l1T
R = l1 = l1
Ll2 el2 • C1 • l2 -5 • e-C2 / l2T
e -5
R=
l1
—– •
el2
[ ll21]
—– • e
[-—C2–(1–-1)]
T l1 l2
-5
R= [ ll21]
—– • e
[-—C2–(1–-1)]
Tr l1 l2
1 = 1 + 1n (el1/el2)
— — ——————–
T Tr 1 1
C2 (l–1 - l–2 )
If el1 = el2, then T = Tr
where:
R = spectral radiance ratio
Tr = ratio temperature of the surface
el = spectral emissivity
In this process, if the emissivity at both
wavelengths is equal (graybody condition),
the emissivity factor cancels out of the
equation and we find the ratio is directly
proportional to temperature.
The same concept can be viewed also in Dual-wavelength thermometers have SUMMARY
a graphic presentation by taking a small many applications throughout industry A review of the basic application
segment of the blackbody distribution and research as simple, unique sensor elements is outlined in Figure 5. The
curve and measuring some ratios at that can reduce application error surface of a target to be measured is
various emissivities (see Figure 3). involving graybody surfaces. Figure 4 the prime concern. When selecting the
Using 0.7 µm and 0.8 µm as the narrow- illustrates examples of total emissivity instrument, the user must take into
band filters, the ratio factor remains for a variety of products that have account target size, temperature limits,
constant at 1.428 for the range of
emissivities down to 0.1.
temperature-related varying emissivity.
For example, most users would consider
emissivity, and process dynamics as
they relate to FOV, spectral response,
Z
8
graphite to have a high constant emissivity. and response time. It is also essential
RELATIVE RADIANT ENERGY

e = 1.0
The fact is, however, that graphite’s to characterize the surroundings, e.g.,
7 emissivity varies from 0.4 to 0.65 flames, IR heaters, induction coils, and
6
over the temperature range of ambient the atmosphere (dust, dirty windows,
to 2000°F. For accurate product flames, excessive heat) in order to
e = 0.7 temperature measurement and control,
5 select the optimum instrument for
dual-wavelength thermometers should
4
be used when these types of graybody
3 e = 0.5 materials are being processed at high SURROUNDINGS, Tsur
temperatures.
2
0.9
e = 0.1
1 RADIATION
THERMOMETER
0 0.8
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1
IRON
WAVELENGTH, mm OXIDIZED COPPER
OXIDIZED
S.T l
Figure 3: The dual-wavelength system 0.7
ATMOSPHERE
automatically eliminates measurement errors TARGET, EMISSION AND
by computing the ratio of the radiant energies TS, el ABSORPTION
emitted by the target in two adjacent 0.6
wavebands, e.g., 0.7 µm and 0.8 µm. Figure 5: When selecting noncontact
TOTAL EMITTANCE

temperature measurement instruments, it

Similarly, any other changes that 0.5 GRAPHITE is necessary to take into account not only
are gray in nature will not affect the INCONEL X
the target and its emissivity, but also the
temperature determined by the dual- POLISHED surroundings and the invtervening atmosphere.
wavelength thermometer. These 0.4
variations include changes in target IRON, ARMCO this application.
size such as a wire or a stream of POLISHED
molten glass whose diameters vary 0.3 With regard to performance specifications,
during measurement, even in the case calibration accuracy will typically be in
of targets smaller than the thermometer’s the 0.5-0.1% range, while the repeatability
FOV. For instance, suppose that a 0.2 COBALT ALLOY of most sensors will be in the 0.25-0.75%
blackbody target fills only half the DOW N-155 range. Pricing on the basic sensor will
POLISHED
thermometer’s FOV; instead of a 50% METAL
COPPER start at $500 and could go as high as
POLISHED
reduction in emittance, this analysis is 0.1 POLISHED $5000-$6000. In the majority of the
LEAD
unchanged. Another example is a case POLISHED GOLD applications, price is not an issue; when
where a target is obscured with smoke POLISHED the sensor is properly installed and
or dust, or where an intervening window 0 used, payback typically is on the order
(e.g., of a vacuum chamber) becomes 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 of one or two months.
clouded. As long as the obscured TEMPERATURE. F
medium is not spectrally selective in Figure 4: Many materials have emissivity levels
its attenuation of radiation, at least in that vary with temperature. Several of the most
the wavelength region used by the commonly used are compared here. Reproduced from
thermometer, the analysis remains the Sensors Magazine with permission of
same. The temperature inferred by the There are also multi-wavelength HELMERS PUBLISHING, INC.
dual-wavelength radiometer remains thermometers available for non-graybody 174 Concord St.
unaffected. materials where the emissivity varies Peterborough, NH 03458
with wavelength. In these applications
Nonetheless, there are always limits there is a detailed analysis of the product’s
that must be recognized. The dual- surface characteristics regarding emissivity
wavelength does not perform on vs. wavelength vs. temperature vs.
non-graybodies, e.g., aluminum; it surface chemistry. With these data,
has difficulty looking through non-gray algorithms can be generated relating
windows or heated Pyrex; and it tends to spectral emittance at various wavelengths
measure background temperatures where to temperature.
the background is hotter than the target.

Z-62
Infrared Temperature
Measurement Theory and Application
Author and Presenter: John Merchant, Sales Manager, Mikron Instrument Company Inc.
ABSTRACT
Infrared thermometers for non-contact
temperature measurement are highly
developed sensors which have
wide-spread application in industrial
processing and research. This paper
describes, in non-mathematical terms,
the theory upon which the measurement
technology is based, and how this
is used to deal with the variety of
application parameters which confront
the intending user.
INTRODUCTION
An infrared thermometer measures
temperature by detecting the infrared
energy emitted by all materials which
are at temperatures above absolute
zero, (0°Kelvin). The most basic design
consists of a lens to focus the infrared
(IR) energy on to a detector, which
converts the energy to an electrical
signal that can be displayed in units of
temperature after being compensated
for ambient temperature variation. This
configuration facilitates temperature
measurement from a distance without
contact with the object to be measured.
As such, the infrared thermometer is
useful for measuring temperature under
circumstances where thermocouples
or other probe type sensors cannot be
used or do not produce accurate data
for a variety of reasons. Some typical
circumstances are where the object to
be measured is moving; where the
object is surrounded by an EM field, as
in induction heating; where the object
is contained in a vacuum or other
controlled atmosphere; or in applications
where a fast response is required.
Designs for an infrared thermometer
(IRT), have existed since at least the
late nineteenth century, and various
concepts by Féry were featured by
Charles A. Darling (1) in his book
“Pyrometry,” published in 1911.
10 –12
10 –10
10
gamma rays
x-ray
Infrared spectrum 0.7 to 1000 micrometers (microns)
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Figure 1
emission
hot
Figure 2
However it was not until the 1930’s that
the technology was available to turn
these concepts into practical measuring
instruments. Since that time there
has been considerable evolution in
the design and a large amount of
measurement and application expertise
has accrued. At the present time, the
technique is well accepted and is widely
used in industry and in research.
MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES
As previously stated IR energy is emitted
by all materials above 0°K. Infrared
radiation is part of the Electromagnetic
Spectrum and occupies frequencies
between visible light and radio waves.
The IR part of the spectrum spans
wavelengths from 0.7 micrometers to
1000 micrometers (microns). Figure 1.
Within this wave band, only frequencies
of 0.7 microns to 20 microns are used
for practical, everyday temperature
measurement. This is because the IR
detectors currently available to industry
are not sensitive enough to detect the
very small amounts of energy available
at wavelengths beyond 20 microns.
Wavelength (meters)
–8
10 –6 10 –4 10 –2 1 102
ultraviolet
visible
infrared
radio
Z-63
absorption reflection transmission
emitted
incident
cold
reflected
RADIATIVE HEAT EXCHANGE
Though IR radiation is not visible to the
human eye, it is helpful to imagine it as
being visible when dealing with the
principles of measurement and when
considering applications, because in
many respects it behaves in the same
way as visible light. IR energy travels in
straight lines from the source and can
be reflected and absorbed by material
surfaces in its path. In the case of most
solid objects which are opaque to the
human eye, part of the IR energy
striking the object’s surface will be
absorbed and part will be reflected. Of
the energy absorbed by the object, a
proportion will be re-emitted and part
will be reflected internally. This will also
apply to materials which are transparent
to the eye, such as glass, gases and
thin, clear plastics, but in addition, some
of the IR energy will also pass through
the object. The foregoing is illustrated in
Figure 2. These phenomena collectively
contribute to what is referred to as the
Emissivity of the object or material.
Materials which do not reflect or
transmit any IR energy are know as
Blackbodies and are not known to exist
naturally. However, for the purpose of
theoretical calculation, a true blackbody
is given a value of 1.0. The closest
104 approximation to a blackbody emissivity
of 1.0, which can be achieved in real life
is an IR opaque, spherical cavity with a
small tubular entry as shown in Figure 3.
The inner surface of such a sphere will
have an emissivity of 0.998.
Different kinds of materials and gases
have different emissivities, and will
therefore emit IR at different intensities
for a given temperature. The emissivity
of a material or gas is a function of
its molecular structure and surface
characteristics. It is not generally a
function of color unless the source of
the color is a radically different substance
to the main body of material. A practical
example of this is metallic paints which
incorporate significant amounts of
aluminum. Most paints have the same
emissivity irrespective of color, but
aluminum has a very different emissivity
which will therefore modify the emissivity
of metallized paints.
1 The wavelength at which the
1
0
theoretical blackbody practical blackbody
EMISSIVITY
Figure 3
Just as is the case with visible light,
the more highly polished some surfaces
are, the more IR energy the surface will
reflect. The surface characteristics of a
material will therefore also influence its
emissivity. In temperature measurement
this is most significant in the case of
infrared opaque materials which have
an inherently low emissivity. Thus a
highly polished piece of stainless steel
will have a much lower emissivity than
the same piece with a rough, machined
surface. This is because the grooves
created by the machining prevent as
much of the IR energy from being
reflected. In addition to molecular
structure and surface condition, a third
factor affecting the apparent emissivity
of a material or gas is the wavelength
sensitivity of the sensor, known as the
sensor’s spectral response. As stated
earlier, only IR wavelengths between
0.7 microns and 20 microns are used
for practical temperature measurement.
Within this overall band, individual
sensors may operate in only a narrow
part of the band, such as 0.78 to 1.06,
or 4.8 to 5.2 microns, for reasons which
will be explained later.
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR IR
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
The formulas upon which infrared
temperature measurement is based are
old, established and well proven. It is
unlikely that most IRT users will need
to make use of the formulas, but a
knowledge of them will provide an
appreciation of the interdependency
of certain variables, and serve to clarify
the foregoing text. The important
formulas are as follows:
1. Kirchoff’s Law
When an object is at thermal
equilibrium, the amount of absorption
will equal the amount of emission.
a=e
2. Stephan Boltzmann Law
The hotter an object becomes the
more infrared energy it emits.
W = eoT4
3. Wien’s Displacement Law
maximum amount of energy is
emitted becomes shorter as the
temperature increases.
lmax = 2.89 x 103mmK/T
4. Planck’s Equation
Describes the relationship between
spectral emissivity, temperature and
radiant energy.
C2
Wl = C1el[l5(elT-1)]-1
INFRARED THERMOMETER
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
A basic infrared thermometer (IRT)
design, comprises a lens to collect the
energy emitted by the target; a detector
to convert the energy to an electrical
signal; an emissivity adjustment to
match the IRT calibration to the emitting
characteristics of the object being
measured; and an ambient temperature
compensation circuit to ensure that
temperature variations within the IRT,
due to ambient changes, are not
transferred to the final output. For many
years, the majority of commercially
available IRT’s followed this concept.
They were extremely limited in
application, and in retrospect did
not measure satisfactorily in most
DET
A.T.C.
E
INFRARED TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
Figure 4
Z-64
circumstances, though they were very
durable and were adequate for the
standards of the time. Such a concept
is illustrated in Figure 4.
The modern IRT is founded on this Z
concept, but is more technologically
sophisticated to widen the scope of its
application. The major differences are
found in the use of a greater variety of
detectors; selective filtering of the IR
signal; linearization and amplification
of the detector output; and provision
of standard, final outputs such as
4-20mA, 0-10Vdc, etc. Figure 5 shows
a schematic representation of a typical
contemporary IRT.
Probably the most important advance
in infrared thermometry has been the
introduction of selective filtering of the
incoming IR signal, which has been
made possible by the availability of
more sensitive detectors and more
stable signal amplifiers. Whereas the
early IRT’s required a broad spectral
band of IR to obtain a workable detector
output, modern IRT’s routinely have
spectral responses of only 1 micron.
The need to have selected and narrow
spectral responses arises because it is
often necessary to either see through
some form of atmospheric or other
interference in the sight path, or in fact
to obtain a measurement of a gas or
other substance which is transparent to
a broad band of IR energy.
Some common examples of selective
spectral responses are 8-14 microns,
which avoids interference from
atmospheric moisture over long path
measurements; 7.9 microns which is
used for the measurement of some thin
film plastics; and 3.86 microns which
avoids interference from CO2 and H2O
Infrared Temperature Cont’d

for the above stated reasons may often

a.t.c. amp benefit from a narrow spectral response
thermistor as close to 0.7 microns as possible.
This is because the effective emissivity
of a material is highest at shorter
filter prw. amp prw. amp signal amp wavelengths and the accuracy of
lens
chopper sensors with narrow spectral responses
is less affected by changes in target
surface emissivity.
signal ground
It will be apparent from the foregoing
motor information that emissivity is a very
d.c. motor control important factor in infrared temperature
led optical measurement. Unless the emissivity of
interrupter
the material being measured is known,
and incorporated into the measurement,
it is unlikely that accurate data will be
obtained. There are two methods for
power supply
obtaining the emissivity of a material:
±12 vdc a) by referring to published tables and
b) by comparing the IRT measurement
with a simultaneous measurement
obtained by a thermocouple or resistance
phase control thermometer and adjusting the emissivity
±15 vdc setting until the IRT reads the same.
Fortunately, the published data available
MODERN INFRARED THERMOMETER from the IRT manufacturers and some
research organizations is extensive,
Figure 5 so it is seldom necessary to experiment.
As a rule of thumb, most opaque,
1 non-metallic materials have a high
and stable emissivity in the 0.85 to 9.0
range; and most un-oxidized, metallic
materials have a low to medium
Spectral radiant emittance (W cm–2 m–1)

emissivity from 0.2 to 0.5, with the

exception of gold, silver and aluminum
which have emissivities in the order of
0.75 900°K 0.02 to 0.04 and are, as a result, very
difficult to measure with an IRT.
While it is almost always possible to
establish the emissivity of the basic
material being measured, a complication
arises in the case of materials which have
0.50 emissivities that change with temperature
such as most metals, and other materials
800°K such as silicon and high purity, single
crystal ceramics. Some applications
which exhibit this phenomena can be
solved using the two color, ratio method.
0.25 700°K
TWO COLOR-RATIO
THERMOMETRY
600°K Given that emissivity plays such a vital
500°K role in obtaining accurate temperature
data from infrared thermometers,
it is not surprising that attempts have
0 been made to design sensors which
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 would measure independently of this
Wavelength (microns) variable. The best known and most
commonly applied of these designs
Blackbody Spectral Distribution Curves is the Two Color-Ratio Thermometer.
This technique is not dissimilar to the
Figure 6 infrared thermometers described so far,
vapor in flames and combustion gases. the peak energy shifts towards shorter but measures the ratio of infrared
The choice between a shorter, or longer wavelengths as the temperature energy emitted from the material at two
wavelength spectral response is also increases. The graph in Figure 6 wavelengths, rather than the absolute
dictated by the temperature range illustrates this phenomenon. Applications energy at one wavelength or wave
because, as Planck’s Equation shows, which do not demand selective filtering band. The use of the word “color” in this

Z-65
 ratio
Dl1
Dl2 beam
splitter
Figure 7
context is somewhat outdated, but
nevertheless has not been superseded.
It originates in the old practice of
relating visible color to temperature,
hence “color temperature.”
The basis for the effectiveness of two-
color thermometry is that any changes
in either the emitting property of the
material surface being measured, or in
the sight path between the sensor and
the material, will be “seen” identically by
the two detectors, and thus the ratio and
therefore the sensor output will not
change as a result. Figure 7 shows a
schematic representation of a simplified
two-color thermometer.
Because the ratio method will, under
prescribed circumstances, avoid
inaccuracies resulting from changing or
unknown emissivity, obscuration in the
sight path and the measurement of
objects which do not fill the field of view,
it is very useful for solving some difficult
application problems. Among these are
the rapid induction heating of metals,
cement kiln burning zone temperature
and measurements through windows
which become progressively obscured,
such as vacuum melting of metals. It
should be noted however, that these
dynamic changes must be “seen”
identically by the sensor at the two
wavelengths used for the ratio, and this
is not always the case. The emissivity
O/P
colimator
TWO COLOR THERMOMETRY
(ratio thermometry)
of all materials does not change equally
at two different wavelengths. Those
materials that do are called “Greybodies.”
The ones that do not are called
“Non-Greybodies.”
Not all forms of sight path obscuration
attenuate the ratio wavelengths equally
either. The predominance of particulates
in the sight path which are the same
micron size as one of the wavelengths
being used will obviously unbalance the
ratio. Phenomena which are non-dynamic
in nature, such as the “non-greybodyness”
of a material, can be dealt with by
biassing the ratio, an adjustment
referred to as “Slope.” However, the
appropriate slope setting must generally
be arrived at experimentally. Despite
these limitations, the ratio method works
well in a number of well established
applications, and in others is the best,
if not the most preferred solution.
SUMMARY
Infrared thermometry is a mature but
dynamic technology that has gained
the respect of many industries and
institutions. It is an indispensable
technique for many temperature
measurement applications, and the
preferred method for some others.
When the technology is adequately
understood by the user, and all the
relevant application parameters are
properly considered, a successful
Z-66
Z
target
application will usually result, providing
the equipment is carefully installed.
Careful installation means ensuring
that the sensor is operated within its
specified environmental limits, and
that adequate measures are taken to
keep the optics clean and free from
obstructions. A factor in the selection
process, when choosing a manufacturer,
should be the availability of protective
and installation accessories, and also
the extent to which these accessories
allow rapid removal and replacement
of the sensor for maintenance. If these
guidelines are followed, the modern
infrared thermometer will operate
more reliably than thermocouples or
resistance thermometers in many cases.
REFERENCES
1. Darling, Charles R.; “Pyrometry. A
Practical Treatise on the Measurement
of High Temperatures.” Published by
E.&F.N. Spon Ltd. London. 1911.
Reproduced with permission of
the author, John Merchant,
Sales Manager, MIKRON
INSTRUMENT COMPANY, INC.
Noncontact Temperature
Measurement Theory and Application
Walter Glockmann, Capintec
Instruments, Inc.
Noncontact temperature measurement
is the preferred technique for small,
moving, or inaccessible objects;
dynamic processes that require fast
response; and temperatures <1000°C
(1832°F). To select the best noncontact
temperature measurement device for a
particular application, it is essential to
understand the basics of temperature
measurement technology, temperature
measurement parameters, and the features
offered by the various measurement
systems currently available.
DEFINING THE TERMS
Temperature. Temperature is one
expression for the kinetic energy of
the vibrating atoms and molecules of
matter. This energy can be measured
by various secondary phenomena, e.g.,
change of volume or pressure, electrical
resistance, electromagnetic force,
electron surface charge, or emission of
electromagnetic radiation. The most
frequently used temperature scales are
Celsius and Fahrenheit, which divide
the difference between the freezing
and boiling points of water into 100°
and 180°, respectively.
The thermodynamic scale begins at
absolute zero, or 0 Kelvin, the point at
which all atoms cease vibrating and
no kinetic energy is dissipated.
0 K = –273.15°C = –459.67°F
IR Radiation. Infrared is that portion of
the electromagnetic spectrum beyond
the visible (blue to red, 0.4-0.75 µm)
response of the human eye. IR
wavelengths extend from 0.75 µm
to 1000 µm, where the shortest
microwaves (radar) begin. Because
IR radiation is predominantly generated
by heat, it is called thermal radiation.
For the purpose of radiation thermometry,
only portions of the IR spectrum are
important. The spectrum is frequently
divided into “atmospheric windows” that
provide maximum loss-free transmission
through water vapor in air:
0.7-1.3 µm; 1.4-1.8 µm; 2.0-2.5 µm;
3.2-4.3 µm; 4.8-5.3 µm; 8-14 µm
Thermometer. Most of the well-known
thermometers, e.g., glass bulb mercury
or alcohol, thermocouple, or resistance
thermometer, must be placed in direct
contact with the temperature source.
Their useful measurement range is
–100°C to 1500°C.
Radiation Thermometer. This noncontact
thermometer determines the surface
temperature of an object by intercepting
and measuring the thermal radiation it
emits.
Emissivity. This quality defines the
fraction of radiation emitted by an object
as compared to that emitted by a perfect
radiator (blackbody) at the same
temperature. Emissivity is determined
in part by the type of material and its
surface condition, and may vary from
close to zero (for a highly reflective
mirror) to almost 1 (for a blackbody
simulator). Emissivity is used to
calculate the true temperature of an
object from the measured brightness
or spectral radiance. Because an
object’s emissivity may also vary with
wavelength, a radiation thermometer
with spectral response matching regions
of high emissivity should be selected for
Table 1: On-Line Temperature Measurement Instruments
LOW TEMPERATURE
General Purpose
0 to 500°C (30 to 1000°F)
8-14 mm wide band radiation thermometers
• thermopile detector
• optical resolution: 4 mm target
(15:1 D-ratio)
• response time: 0.5 sec
• emissivity adjustment
• analog output (mv/°C, mV/°F)
Extended Temperature Ranges
– 30°C to 800°C (–20°F to 1500°F)
high-stability, 8-14 µm thermometers
• pyroelectric detector
• chopper stabilized to compensate for
rapid changes in ambient temperature
• optical resolution: 3 mm dia. (30:1 D-ratio)
• response time: 50 msec
• analog output 4-20 mA
High-Precision/Complex Applications
50°C to 800°C (–60°F to 1500°F)
narrow spectral band radiation thermometers
• for thin plastic films with CH absorption
bands (3.4 µm; 6.8 µm)
• for polyester/fluorocarbon films (8.0 µm)
• for thin glass and ceramics (7.8 µm)
• optical resolution: 1.5 mm dia.
(100:1 D-ratio)
Programmable/High-Performance
–100°C to 2500°C (–150°F to 4500°F)
with built-in signal conditioning and digital
computing, spectral band choices in wide
or narrow bands between 2 µm and 20 µm
• digital RS 232 bidirectional interface
• max./min./differential/hold functions
• programmable ambient temperatures
• choice of through-lens-sighting, LED,
or laser
Z-67
a specific application. Emissivity values
are listed in the literature for a variety of
materials and spectral bands, or these
values can be determined empirically.
Brightness/Single-Color Pyrometer.
These devices measure and evaluate
the intensity, or brightness, of the
intercepted thermal radiation. Intensity,
or, more generally, spectral radiance, is
measured in a narrow wavelength band
of the thermal spectrum. Band selection
is dictated by the temperature range and
the type of material to be measured.
The oldest brightness pyrometers
compared optical brightness in the
visible (red) spectrum at 0.65 µm by
matching the glowing object to a hot
“disappearing” filament. The term
“single-color” derives from the single
HIGH TEMPERATURE
General Purpose
400 to 2000°C (750 to 3600°F)
narrow spectral band radiation
thermometers (0.7-1.1 µm; 0.9-1.9 µm)
• solid-state photoelectric detectors (Si, Ge)
• optical resolution 1 mm target
(60:1 D-ratio)
• response time 3 msec
• emissivity adjustment
• analog output (mV°C, mV/°F)
High-Stability/Complex Applications
300 to 2500°C (600 to 4500°F)
narrow spectral band radiation thermometers
• for glass and/or through hot gas (3.9 µm)
• for glass surfaces (5.0 µm)
• for combustion gases (4.2, 4.5, 5.3 µm)
• pyroelectric detector
• chopper stabilized
• optical resolution: 1 mm target
(100:1 D-ratio)
• response time: 30 msec
• analog output 4-20 mA
High-Speed, Two-Color Ratio
150 to 2500°C (300 to 4500°F) narrow
spectral bands (0.8/0.9 µm; 2.1/2.4 µm)
• greatly independent of emissivity
fluctuations and/or sight path
disturbances
• automatic compensation for moving targets
• internal calibration check
narrow wavelength band of red seen
by the user. Instruments sensitized to
measure in the IR region are also called
spectral radiation pyrometers or spectral
radiation thermometers.
Ratio/Two-Color Pyrometer. This
radiation thermometer measures
temperatures on the basis of two
(or more) discrete wavelengths. The
ratio of the brightnesses in separate
wavelengths corresponds to color in
the visible spectrum. The use of two
distinct, visible colors – typically red and
green – has long been popular to infer
color temperatures. More recently,
the term has broadened from its
initial usage to include wavelengths
in the infrared. The advantage of ratio
measuring is that temperature readings
are greatly independent of emissivity
fluctuations and/or sight path obscurations.
The technique is generally used for
temperatures above incandescence
(700°C,1300°F ), but measurements down
to 200°C (400°F) are also possible.
MEASUREMENT PARAMETERS
Advanced optical and electronic signal
processing modules greatly extend the
accuracy and performance capabilities
of noncontact temperature measuring.
For process control, standardized
interfaces are available that provide
conditioned signal outputs optimized
for specific applications.
RADIATION DETECTION
Emissivity Adjustment. Temperature
reading accuracy depends on the
correct adjustment of the instrument to
the target emissivity. Preset emissivity
values can be used for on-line sensors
to monitor targets of constant emissivity.
Measurements on those materials with
changing emissivities require an
accurate and reproducible emissivity
adjustment.
Surrounding Area Temperature.
Thermal target radiation always
contains stray radiation emitted by the
environment surrounding the target area
and reflected by the target’s surface. In
practice, the ambient temperature is
frequently presumed to be the same as
the temperature of the sensor. If the
target is exposed to a different thermal
environment, e.g., inside a heated
furnace, inside a cooled chamber, or
outdoors facing the open sky, adjustments
are necessary for accurate measurement.
Separate sensors for the area surrounding
the target may be used for automatic
temperature calculation.
Sight Path Obscuration. Gases, water
vapor, dust, and other aerosols in the
sight path of a sensor may affect the
temperature reading. Using one of the
“atmospheric windows” in the IR region
greatly reduces measurement errors.
Since both optical channels are equally
attenuated, ratio pyrometers are generally
immune to sight path obscuration, and
the signal color ratio remains unaffected.
Ambient Temperature Drift. By the
nature of their design, radiation
detectors are strongly affected by
ambient temperature changes. To
maintain high measurement accuracy,
precise compensation of this temperature
drift is required. Temperature drift is
specified in error/°C or error/°F of
ambient temperature change.
OPTICAL SYSTEMS
Optics. Reflective (mirror) and
refractive (lens) optics are used in
noncontact temperature sensors to
isolate and define radiation from the
measured target.
Field of View. The field of view (FOV)
is expressed in degrees solid angle or
in radians. The FOV allows easy
calculation of the minimum target size
for each working distance. A convenient
measure is the distance-to-target ratio,
e.g., 20:1, indicating a minimum target
of 1 in. at a 20 in. measuring distance.
Focusing on Target. Optics in
noncontact temperature sensors
are generally of the fixed-focus type.
Focusing at longer measuring distances
is not required if the target area is
smaller than the entrance aperture
(lens diameter) of the instrument.
Small Targets. For miniature objects,
fixed-focus close-up optics are used,
and the minimum target size is
Table 2: On-Line Temperature Measurement Instruments
LOW TEMPERATURE
General Purpose
0 to 500°C (30 to 1000°F) 8-14 µm wide band –50 to 1400°C (–60 to 2550°F) 8-14µm
• thermopile detector
• optical resolution: 4 mm dia.
(15:1 D-ratio)
• emissivity adjustment
• max./min. value
High Stability
– 30 to 800°C (–30 to 1500°F) 8-14 µm
• pyroelectric detector
• chopper stabilized
• choice of optics
HIGH TEMPERATURE
General Purpose
250 to 2500°C (500 to 4500°F)
narrow spectral band radiation thermometers
(0.65 µm; 0.7-1.1 µm; 0.9-1.9 µm)
• solid-state photoelectric detectors (Si, Ge) • greatly independent of emissivity
• optical resolution 0.9 mm dia. (250:1
D-ratio)
Z-68
specified. Targets as small as 0.5 mm
can be isolated.
Fiber Optics. Fiber optics permits
a physical separation of the lens
assembly from the detector and signal
processing electronics in restricted
spaces or hostile environments. The
useful measuring range of fiber optics
starts at 400°C (750°F). Minimum target
areas are as defined above.
Target Scanning. Reflective surface
Z
mirrors are used to change the viewing
angle of the measuring sensor if direct
viewing is difficult or impractical. An
oscillating mirror can be employed to
deflect the intercepted radiation and to
scan a predetermined temperature
profile across a target area.
A sequence of scanned temperature
profiles taken at preset spatial intervals
over the target can be displayed as a
thermal image or in the form of a
thermal map.
Aiming on Target. A variety of optical
aiming techniques are used with
noncontact temperature sensors:
• Simple bead-and-groove gun sights
• Integrated or detachable optical view
finders
• Through-the-lens sighting
• Integrated or detachable light beam
markers
SIGNAL PROCESSING
Direct Output. Noncontact temperature
sensors convert the intercepted thermal
radiation into an electrical signal
Extended Temperature Ranges
with built-in signal conditioning
• optical resolution: 32 mm target
(30:1 D-ratio)
• data collection
• peak/valley/averaging functions
• digital RS-232 output
Miniature Probe
–50 to 500°C (–60 to 1000°F) 8-14 µm
with interchangeable probes for long
distance or small target applications
• large LCD information display
• max./min./differential/hold signal
conditioning
• optical resolution: 2.5 mm dia.
(7:1 D-ratio)
• LED or laser aided target aiming
High-Precision, Two-Color Ratio
Pyrometer
650 to 2500°C (1200 to 4500°F) spectral
bands 0.8/0.9 µm
fluctuations and/or sight path
disturbances
• automatic compensation for moving
targets
Noncontact Temperature Measurement Cont’d
proportional to the spectral radiance optimized for their operating Portable Instruments. Portables are
emitted from the target surface. temperature range: typically favored for process checks,
• Stirred water bath: 30-100°C preventive/predictive maintenance,
Linearized Output. An electronic (86-212°F) thermal surveys, R&D, and temporary
network converts the thermal radiance • Aluminum core: 50-400°C (122-752°F) temperature monitoring. The low- and
signal into an electrical current/voltage • Stainless steel core: 350-1000°C high-temperature versions differ in
proportional to temperature. (662-1832°F ) performance, as shown in Table 2.
Sample and Hold. The momentary • Portable, battery operated field
temperature reading, selected by an calibrator: fixed temperature choices APPLICATIONS
external trigger is held (frozen) until from 40°C-100°C (104-212°F) Successful applications of both on-line
replaced by a new value in the next and portable noncontact temperature
sampling cycle. ON-LINE OR PORTABLE? measurement instruments are
On-Line Instruments. These devices summarized in Table 3.
Maximum Value or Peak Hold. The are generally used for continuous
highest temperature reading over the process monitoring and control. They Reproduced with permission of
specific measuring period is displayed. are available in low- and high- Capintec, Inc.
Reset is triggered by an external signal. temperature models, each with its
own operating specs (see Table 1).
Minimum Value or Valley Hold. The
lowest temperature reading during a
specific measurement period is Table 3: Temperature Measurement in Process Control
displayed. Rest is triggered by an SUCCESSFUL APPLICATIONS ON-LINE PORTABLES
external signal.
R H L R H L
Peak to Peak. The difference between
the maximum and the minimum Cement kiln
X X X X
temperature readings during a specific burning zones, preheaters
measurement period is displayed. Energy conservation
X X
insulation and heat flow studies, thermal mapping
Speed of Response. Short response
time is needed to follow rapidly changing Filaments
X X
dynamic temperature processes. Long annealing, drawing, heat treating
response time integrates all signal Food
variations during a specific measurement baking, candy-chocolate processing, canning, freezing, X X
period and enhances temperature frying, mixing, packing, roasting
resolution in order to average changing
values or to improve measurement Furnaces
X X X X
precision. flames, boiler tubes, catalytic crackers
Glass
Automatic Trigger (Wave Function). drawing, manufacturing/processing bulbs, containers, X X X X X X
The highest temperature reading is TV tubes, fibers
detected and displayed. Reset is
triggered automatically when the signal Maintenance
reaches an adjustable threshold, but the appliances, bearings, current overloads, driving shafts, X X
last peak value is held on display until it insulation, power lines, thermal leakage detection
is replaced by the following peak value. Metals (ferrous and nonferrous)
This technique is appropriate for rapid annealing, billet extrusion, brazing, carbonizing, casting, X X X X
sampling and analysis of intermittent forging, heat treating, inductive heating, rolling/strip mills,
target values, without the use of sintering, smelting
external trigger signals. Quality control
Alarms. An output signal (relay) is printed circuit boards, soldering, universal joints, welding, X X X X X X
metrology
activated when the signal reaches a
preset temperature value. Two Paint
X
independent set points – HI/LO – are curing, drying
generally provided. Paper
coating, ink drying, printing X X
ACCESSORIES photographic emulsions, web profiles
Water Coolable Jackets. Water
cooling extends the sensor’s ambient Plastic
temperature range up to 400°C (752°F) blow-molding, RIM, film extrusion, X X
or beyond. sheet thermoforming, casting
Remote sensing (thermal mapping)
Air Purge Fittings. Lens barrels or clouds, earth surfaces, lakes, rivers, roads, volcanic surveys X X X
attachments with fittings for compressed
air are designed to direct a clean air Rubber
flow across the lens surface. They keep calendering, casting, molding, profile extrusion X X
the optical sight paths free of vapors, tires, latex gloves
fumes, and dust. Silicon
crystal growing, strand/fiber, wafer annealing, X X X X
BLACKBODY CALIBRATORS epitaxial deposition
Deep cavities controlled at a
homogeneously distributed temperature Textile
curing, drying, fibers, spinning X X
serve as blackbody simulators for the
calibration of radiation thermometers. Vacuum chambers X X
To accommodate the variety of refining, processing, deposition
instruments, they provide an effective R=Ratio/Two-Color H=High-Temperature L=Low Temperature
aperture of ~ 1 in. (25 mm) and are
Z-69
Fiber Optics
A New Approach to Monitor and Control
Process Temperature
The coupling of optical fibers to infrared
detectors and signal processing
electronics represents the latest
progress in the field of non-contact
temperature measurement and control.
Only recently have fiber optics become
the object of widespread interest thanks
mainly to their ability to carry optical
information signals over long distances
and around unavoidable obstructions.
For years infrared detectors have been
used in conjunction with conventional
optical elements (lenses, mirrors,
prisms). Fiber optics were excluded
from consideration since they are made
of either glass or plastics, both of which
are opaque throughout most of the
infrared spectral region. Thus, according
to fundamental laws of physics, their
marriage to infrared detectors could
never work.
Months of painstaking development
proved the reality and practicality of
transmitting IR with fiber optics. And
thus it happened that coupling fiber
optics with infrared detectors resulted in
several new families of instrumentation
and control systems endowed with
superior performance characteristics.
Since most if not all of you are currently
familiar with the theory of infrared
radiation and the variety of methods
for monitoring IR this discussion will
deal mainly with the application of fiber
optics in conjunction with IR detectors,
i.e. their construction, advantages,
disadvantages and applications.
A typical optical fiber is usually
constructed of a silicon (glass) material,
however, plastic and quartz are
also available but normally for data
transmission. Today most of all optical
fibers manufactured consist of a light-
conducting glass core surrounded by a
thin layer of glass cladding with
a lower refractive index. This cladding
serves to protect the core finish.
Cladding
Acceptance
angle B
(72°)
A
23°
35°
Light A
ray
B
Figure 1
All fibers used in infrared instrumentation
are made of glasses especially chosen
for their ability to transmit the radiation
comprised in the chosen spectral region.
All rays entering the front surface that
acquire an inclination smaller than the
critical angle are totally reflected inside
the fiber core, and keep propagating in
this fashion until they reach the opposite
end or are totally absorbed, whichever
comes first. For a fiber having a critical
angle of X° means that all rays incident
onto the fiber's front surface at the same
angle or less with its axis are trapped
inside the fiber by total internal reflection.
On the other hand, all incident rays
entering the fiber with an inclination
larger than the same angle will leave
the first contact with its internal surface.
This behavior is commonly called
“spilling” (See Figure 1).
The value of the critical angle is a function
of the ratio between the refractive indexes
of the glass of which the core is made
and of the medium surrounding it. By
controlling the ratio we can increase
or decrease the acceptance angle of
fiber optics, thus obtaining special
performance characteristics.
For most IR monitoring applications,
optical fibers are assembled into fiber
bundles consisting of many hundreds
of individual fibers contained within
a flexible or rigid sheathing of either
metallic or nonmetallic material. Each
end of the bundle is held in place using
a high temperature epoxy. The end
surface is then highly polished to assure
a clearly defined angle of acceptance
and diminish reflectance losses due to
irregular surfaces. Using such a large
number of narrow fibers in a bundle
allows us to gather and transmit more
signal to the detector while retaining
mechanical flexibility. Typically, the
outside diameter of a single fiber is 25m.
S "spilled" ray
67° A A
Opaque coating
Z-70
Generally speaking, in the majority
of applications where optical fibers
are used with infrared radiometers,
the lengths are 1 or 2 meters long.
On occasion fibers will be made up Z
to approximately 10 meters in length.
The determining factors in using fiber
bundles to transmit IR, are MMT
(minimum measurable temperature),
target distance and spot size. The
higher the temperature the longer
the fiber, conversely low temperatures
require a shorter fiber due to the glass
attenuation.
Unfocused fibers (those without a
viewing lens) have a field of view or angle
of acceptance of 60°. This is the target
area viewed by the detector which is
slightly larger than the distance between
the front end of the fiber and the target
surface. This can be easily verified by
backlighting the target with visible light
which will project onto the target surface.
Unfocused fibers are used when the
target area is large and it is desirable to
measure its average temperature.
Focused fibers (those with a viewing
lens assembly attached to the front end)
are used to measure targets as small as
.01 cm from as far away as 4.5 meters
or further. The determining factor as
with fiber length is the amount of energy
being collected. By backlighting we
can be assured the lens is properly
focused and aligned on the target. In
some applications, where vibration or
other type movement may alter the
lens's alignment, a bifurcated fiber is
preferable. One branch of the fiber
is connected to a high intensity light
source and activated by a momentary-
on switch which will verify to the operator
the correct alignment of the fiber. The
other branch will allow the infrared
detector to “see” the target at exactly
the same spot that was illuminated.
Fiber Optics Cont'd
FIBER ASSEMBLY VARIETIES
The wide selection of fibers and lens
configurations available allows for a
satisfying and endless number of
applications.
Following are some of the many
components that make up a fiber optic
system and allow for such versatility.
Sheathing
– Single, bifurcated or trifurcated fiber
optic systems
– Flexible stainless steel (standard)
– Heavy duty S.S. wire braid
– Heavy duty braided fiber Imperial
Eastman
– Teflon (for use in high RF fields)
– Protective tubing
Lenses
– 1.27 cm, 1.90 cm, 2.54 cm x 8.59 cm
to 27.7 cm max.
– Natural - black anodized aluminum
– Angular lens configurations available
Replaceable Tips
– Glass or quartz, 7.62 cm, 15.24 cm &
22.86 cm long
– Ceramic or stainless steel jacket
Optical Rods
– Glass, 15.24 cm, 30.48 cm &
60.96 cm long
– Ceramic or stainless steel jacket
Specials
– Right angle prisms, high speed
scanners, angled bundle configurations
APPLICATIONS
Since virtually every manufactured
product – from automobiles to the safety
pin – requires the application of heat
treatment in some form, the use for non-
contact temperature monitoring and
control is virtually limitless.
INDUCTION HEATING
Because of the strong RF inductive
energy field needed to heat the metal
parts being treated, conventional
measuring devices are of little value
since they will be heated directly by
the induction coil.
Figures 2 and 3 show typical applications
of fiber optic systems used to monitor
and control induction treatment of metal
objects either stationary in, or moving
through induction furnaces.
Precise control of the temperature
needed for perfect heat treatment of
metal parts is essential to produce
the crystal structure that will ensure
meeting or exceeding the mechanical
characteristic specifications.
This control function is achieved either
by on/off or high speed proportional
control incorporated in the fiber optic
Figure 2: Monitoring steel rod continues
induction heating.
Figure 3: Controlling induction treating of
automotive crankshafts.
and Thermal Monitoring System.
Using fiber optics vs. the conventional
direct line of sight infrared detection
systems allows placing the viewing end
of the fiber optic in close proximity of the
target. The tip of the fiber in many cases
may be positioned between the induction
coils to view the processed material. To
eliminate the adverse effects of the RF
field a ceramic replaceable tip is utilized.
In those instances where the design
of the system won't allow room for
the fibers, a lens system will then be
provided to view and monitor targets
from a distance.
The fiber and electronics normally are
not affected by induction energy fields,
however, in unusual circumstances
when the electrical noise environment
is excessively high, a synchronous
demodulation system is specified.
The sync. demod, converts the 400 Hz
AC signal from the detector head to
DC. This conversion differs from
conventional AC to DC converters in
that it selects only the signal component
at 400 Hz and discriminates against
noise components of other frequencies.
CONTINUOUS CASTING
These operations utilize fiber optic
Z-71
Figure 4: Five-channel multiplexing,
signal-processing and display system.
assemblies up to thirty feet in length
that are installed between the rollers
themselves to within one or two inches
of the slab surface. A remotely located
automatic multiplexing chassis monitors
several points on a time shared basis,
achieving significant savings in terms
of cost and space. Due to the shielded
path of constant transmissivity provided
by the optical fibers and the short wave
length 0.8 to 1 silicon detector, the system
“watches” the target through smoke,
fumes, vapors and water. (See Figure 4.)
Quite often in this type of application
the fibers are exposed to substantially
elevated temperatures and mechanical
abuse necessitating the need for air
purging and special heavy duty protective
sheathing. The purge tube is designed
to allow the air flow to exit the front
end of the fibers at a right angle thus
preventing the build up of contaminants.
METAL FORGING, HOT STAMPING,
PIPE BENDING
Forging of metal parts includes both
rough shape as well as precision forging,
which requires less material removal
and waste. Pipe bending and shaping is
also included in this application. These
operations are carried out by heating
the parts to be worked upon to the
optimum temperature with any of
the several means available (ovens,
flame, induction field, etc.) If the part
temperature is below the optimum,
cracks and internal tensions will develop,
while if it is above the optimum, drooping
will take place. The precise temperature
control afforded by the use of infrared
fiber optic controllers will:
– Avoid the formation of defective
parts (from cracks or drooping), thus
eliminating rejects and waste due to
these defects;
– Save thermal energy by ensuring that
no heat is wasted by heating the parts
 Z
Figure 5

beyond the optimum level;

– Speed up production by allowing a
faster rate of heating the parts without
danger of temperature overshoot.

METAL DIE CASTING

The die temperature is of critical
importance in die casting of metals.
Thermal cycling of aluminum products, optics system (EITM) aimed at the spot
Figure 6
with reference to die temperature has of laser beam impact. (See Figure 6.)
been successfully implemented with the The infrared system is made blind to
help of optical fibers. Figure 5 shows the emissivity variations of the target the laser wavelength, and in this way it
schematically and in detail how the front surface. These variations, in turn, affect measures precisely the target temperature
end of the fiber is inserted through the the amount of laser power absorbed by at the same spot and, via a feedback
mold frame and held in a corner of the the target, and consequently the target's loop, it controls the laser power to
runner plate, in contact with the aluminum temperature, which is of paramount ensure that the operation is carried out
flowing through it. importance for good operating at the optimum temperature.
performance.
The major advantages offered by this Among the advantages offered by the
solution are: fiber optics infrared approach are the
– Substantial savings of thermal energy, following:
by eliminating overheating and
drastically reducing production rejects.
– Increased production due to the
speedup of the casting cycle. The
operation is automatically controlled
by the temperature of the casting
material and not solely by time, This difficulty is overcome by the use of
resulting in faster operation. an emissivity-independent infrared fiber
– Improvement in the quality of the
casting due to the control of the Cutting Oxygen Preheating Gas
process as a function of temperature,
results in simpler operation and
automatic compensation for a cold Cutting Nozzle
die start-up or interrupted cycles.
Cutting Direction
Direct indication of the die and furnace
pot temperature of the metal. Low
level and blocked water lines are Lens
easily indicated several shots before Assembly
the casting can display conditions
visibly.
Pre-heating Flame
CONTROL OF 150 ° Cutting Oxygen Jet
METAL-WORKING LASER
Lasers, generally high-power CO2 lasers,
are used for welding, surface treating and Reaction
finishing metals of various types. The Zone
conventional approach is to periodically
sample the beam to keep its power at Base Metal
the desired level. This approach, however,
cannot automatically take into account Figure 7

Z-72
Fiber Optics Cont'd

– Non-contact temperature Substantial savings are realized by

measurement in real time.
– Fiber optics allow easy access to view
the laser heating area because of their
relatively small size.
– EITM compensates for variations in
emissivity as the part is being heated.
– EITM response can be matched to the
response speed of the laser.
Additional applications of interest:
FLAME CUTTING
Automated flame cutting involves either
pattern tracing or computer control to
repetitively cut steel plates into a variety
of shapes. (See Figure 7.)
During start-up, a natural gas or
propane flame heats the metal plate
until a “puddle” of molten metal is
detected by the operator; on multiple
heat cutters the time may vary between
torches. The puddle having been
formed, oxygen is injected into the gas
stream and blows the molten metal
through the plate at which time the
cutting cycle begins.
If the oxygen is injected prematurely
a defective cut is made leaving an
objectionable rough and wide pitlike
depression in the plate.
By positioning a fiber optic bundle
with lens assembly to look through
the “clean” flame at the plate surface,
the temperature is monitored and
controlled to maintain the necessary
temperature. By multiplexing and using
hi-lo logic with relays tied in series, the
oxygen is not turned on until all setpoints
and associated relays are closed, insuring
high quality cuts.
FLAME HARDENING OF
STEEL WHEELS
Hardening the surfaces of steel wheels
used on heavy construction equipment
such as drive & idler wheels for
bulldozers, backhoes, and other track
type equipment is presently being
accomplished by flame hardening.
A flame head is positioned on either
side of the wheel (Figure 8). As the
wheel is rotated the flame impinges on
the surface elevating the temperature to
approximately 976°C. Within close
proximity to the flame the surface is
rapidly quenched with cooling water
(Figure 9).
Flame Heads
Lens
Assembly
Figure 8
Flame
Quench
Figure 9
By optically looking through the “clean”
natural gas flame at the optimum point
on the wheel, Figure 10, the variations
in the temperature determined by the
Thermal Monitor provide a proportional
signal which is fed to a pneumatic
transducer which pneumo/mechanically
moves the head to the correct position.
eliminating a previous costly process of
destructive testing.
COKE GUIDE PYROMETER
By monitoring both level and
temperature, the Coke Guide Pyrometer
assures the optimum efficiency in the
manufacture of coke. The multiplexing
of several detectors on a vertical plane
allows the operator to measure both
height and temperature of the coke in
the processing oven.
When desired parameters are met, a
controller signal activates the pusher
to dump the processed coke into an
awaiting transfer car, thus assuring
a quality product and energy
conservation.
The above are but a few of the many
and varied uses of fiber optics. The
range and applications for these
systems is only limited by one's
imagination. The technology is
expanding exponentially. Fiber optics
are no longer viewed with doubts and
misgivings. Like IC's, chips, bubble
memories, RAM's, ROM's and PROM's,
they are here to stay, they are the
future.
Reproduced with permission of
Vanzetti Instruments.
Optimum
Measuring
Point

Because of the variations in the wheels,

both in roundness and lateral
distortions, if the flame head were fixed
the hardening process would not be
uniform throughout the critical areas. Figure 10

Z-73
 Handheld
Infrared Thermometers
for All Applications
The new OS520/OS530 series handheld infrared
thermometers from OMEGA Engineering
adapt to virtually all remote temperature
measurement applications. These
universal instruments combine the features Z
found in many specialized units into one
high performance design. Rugged
assembly and state-of-the-art
measurement techniques are an integral
part of these dependable and portable
temperature measuring tools.

IMPROVED MEASUREMENT ACCURACY

Select from models of the OS520/OS530 series with
temperature ranges from –18 to 2482°C (0 to 4500°F).
Temperature readings are switchable from °F to °C via the
keypad. Reading accuracy is to 1%. This accuracy is
obtained through a unique keypad emissivity adjustment. The
operator sets the infrared gun to match target material emissivity
(0.10 to 1.00 in 0.01 increments) thus eliminating target
emissivity error.

Units have standard “V” groove gun sights for proper aiming
accuracy. Laser sighting is an available option. Measurable target
distances are from a few inches to approximately 200 feet (limited by
line of sight and target size).

To assure the operator that the target fills the field of view, near and
far field-of-view diagrams are supplied with each unit and all
instruments are labeled with a distance versus spot size chart. The
distance to spot size ratio is from 10:1 to 110:1 depending on the model.

VERSATILE DISPLAY AND PROGRAMMING FEATURES

The Custom backlit LCD display provides a dual parameter presentation.
When the unit is turned on, the emissivity setting is displayed. Target
temperature is then displayed simultaneously with either minimum,
maximum, differential, or average temperature as selected
by the operator.

Non-volatile memory assures that all set parameters,

such as target material emissivity, alarm setpoints,
etc., remain in memory until reset.

An electronic lock feature on the control panel keypad sets a trigger

mechanism for continuous measurements. With the trigger
programmed in the lock position, the instrument reads and displays
temperature data up to 4 times per second. The electronic trigger is also used to
enable/disable special functions like the audible/visual alarms.
PATENT NOTICE

ANALOG AND DIGITAL OUTPUTS FOR
DATA PROCESSING
Analog and digital outputs are available for data recording and processing. The analog
output is 1 mV/°C or °F (0.5mV/degree for OS524); the digital output interface is RS-232.
This product may be protected by one or more of the following patents:
U.S. PAT. D357, 194, 5,368,392, 5,524,984, 5,527,880, 5,465,838/Canada
75811VOMEGA
D ENGINEERING, INC./Czech Republic 25372/France
0378411 to 0378446/Germany M 94 06 478.4/Italy RM9400000913/Japan
988.378/Netherlands 25009-00/Spain med. ut. 133292/Slovak Republic
24565/U.K. Registered 2041153
Other U.S. and Foreign Patents Pending.

High and low audible and visible alarms indicate preset temperature setpoints.

Z-74
THERMOCOUPLE INPUT
FEATURE
The OS530 Series thermometers offer
thermocouple input. This allows
measurement of target temperatures
either by contact or non-contact means.
RUGGED AND FUNCTIONAL
DESIGN EASES HANDLING
For safety and ease of carrying, a
soft holster and wrist strap are supplied
with each infrared thermometer. Rubber
boots encapsulate the lens and the
display to ensure mechanical integrity
during rough handling or mechanical
shock.
The OS520/OS530 series features a
sealed keypad display. Unique
packaging and styled design provide
ease of handling and convenient trigger
operation. The laser sighting option
ensures added accuracy for target
acquisition and definition.
UNIVERSAL PROBLEM SOLVER
Handheld infrared thermometers
are ideal for applications where non-
contact temperature measurements
are required. Typical examples
include moving objects, materials
in contaminated or hazardous areas,
and locations of high voltage or very
high temperature. In each of these
environments, accurate and repeatable
measurements are obtained at a safe
distance using the OS520/OS530
infrared thermometers.
DIVERSE APPLICATION
EXAMPLES
Example 1:
Predict and Prevent Process Failure
Manufacturing and processing facilities,
such as chemical and petrochemical
plants, utilize solenoid valves to control
critical functions. The solenoids are
often inaccessible and difficult to test.
Process engineers know that an upward
shift in solenoid temperature is
indicative of a pending malfunction. The
portable OS520/OS530 thermometers
are used to remotely sense the
temperature of the solenoid housings.
Utilizing the instrument’s audible and
visual alarm system, a temperature shift
from a pre-set norm signals the
operator. The suspect solenoid valve is
identified and replaced before a critical
process failure occurs.
Example 2:
Perform Energy Auditing
Plant and maintenance engineering
are required to reduce building heating
costs by locating wall insulation voids.
Variations in wall temperatures indicate
areas of improper insulation. The
OS520/OS530 series measures wall
temperatures to identify areas of heat
leakage. A unique target ambient
temperature compensation feature
allows precise target (wall) temperature
measurement. Data is downloaded to a
computer for mapping of wall
temperature gradients.
Example 3:
Identify Permanent Test Sights
Engineering must determine if a process
warrants permanent temperature
monitoring. Wide variations in process
temperature indicate the need for tighter
controls. The OS520/OS530 series
mounts on a tripod for preliminary
evaluation of that process (integral
tripod mount is standard). Temperatures
are measured and updated
automatically using a unique trigger lock
feature. Data can be transmitted to a
recorder or a computer for evaluation.
The need for permanent temperature
monitoring is evaluated using the
analyzed data.
Example 4:
Prevent Contamination
Many processes in the food industry
are sensitive to temperature limits and
variations. Maintaining tight temperature
controls of the processing, canning,
packaging or freezing of food is critical
to prevent spoilage and to ensure
elimination of contaminant’s. Placement
of temperature measuring devices
within the food is discouraged due to
possible introduction of impurities and
contaminant’s. A remote temperature
indicating instrument is required. The
OS520/OS530 handheld infrared
thermometers take accurate
temperature readings without direct
contact to food or packaging material.
The instrument is adaptable to either a
temporary or permanent installation.
Intermittent measurements are
performed utilizing the handheld
configuration. A permanent setup is
established using the tripod mount and
the data downloading/ recording
capabilities.
Z-75
ENGINEERING SUPPORT
Unlimited applications and system
support are provided by the full
resources of OMEGA Engineering.
Petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, steel
production, food processing, paper
manufacturing and laboratory testing
are just a few of the industries where
OMEGA applications and systems
personnel are currently providing close
customer support.
ALL-IN-ONE INDUSTRY LEADER
The OMEGA Engineering
OS520/OS530 series handheld infrared
thermometers respond to the need for a
comprehensive remote temperature
measuring instrument. Unique features
such as ambient target temperature
compensation, electronic trigger lock,
adjustable emissivity set, themocouple
input and audible/visual alarms ensure
accurate and dependable readings. The
OS520/OS530 series are competitively
priced, are manufactured and tested in
the United States and are CE approved
for the European Market.
COMMON SPECIFICATIONS
Repeatability: ±(1% of reading + 1 digit)
Resolution: 1°F or 1°C
Response Time: 250 to 500 msec
Display: Backlit LCD, displays current
and min., max., diff., or average
temperature simultaneously
Spectral Response: 8 to 14 microns
Emissivity: 0.10 to 1.00 in 0.01
increments
Distance to Spot Size Ratio: From
10:1 to 110:1 depending on the model
Temperature Range: –18 to 2482°C
(0 to 4500°F)
Operating Ambient: 0 to 50°C
(32 to 122°F)
Power: 4 “AA” size batteries or
AC adaptor
Battery Life: 60 hrs., alkaline;
10 days, lithium under normal operation
Principles of Infrared
Thermocouples
How do they measure temperature?
INTRODUCTION
All IRt/c’s have a proprietary infrared
IRt/c INFRARED detection system which receives the
THERMOCOUPLES – heat energy radiated from objects the
A REVOLUTIONARY NEW
TEMPERATURE SENSING
sensor is aimed at, and converts the
heat passively to an electrical potential.
Z
TECHNOLOGY A millivolt signal is produced, which is
scaled to the desired thermocouple
The IRt/c product line represents a characteristics.
dramatic breakthrough in temperature
sensing technology. The IRt/c sensors Since all IRt/c’s are self-powered
are unpowered, low cost, and can devices, and rely only on the incoming
measure surface temperatures of infrared radiation to produce the signal
materials without touching. They can through thermoelectric effects, the
be directly installed on conventional signal will follow the rules of radiation
thermocouple controllers, PLCs, thermal physics, and be subject to the
transmitters, and other readout devices. non-linearities inherent in the process.

However, over a range of temperatures,

the IRt/c output is sufficiently linear
Actual IR/tc Signal to produce a signal which can be
millivolt interchanged directly for a conventional
output t/c signal. For example, specifying a
2% match to t/c linearity results in a
temperature range in which the IRt/c OS36 Series
will produce a signal within 2% of the

yy
,,
conventional t/c operating over that
Target Temperature
range. Specifying 5% will produce a
The actual signal generated by the IRt/c can somewhat wider range, etc.
be approximated with a fourth order polynomial

,y
y,
function of target temperature. This fourth power
dependence is due to radiation physics, and Linear Range ***
not a limitation of the IRt/c. 2% 5%
Conventional thermocouple > 5%

millivolt Linear region

output

millivolt
output
Actual IR/tc Signal
Target Temperature
The linear region matches the conventional
t/c to a specified tolerance. Target Temperature

,,
yy
Temperature Selection Guide
90.00 Linear Range ***

,
y
yy
,,
,
y
yy,,,
yy
80.00 2% 5%
> 5%
70.00
millivolts of signal output

Sensor - Type - Temperature 0° 50° 100° 150° 200° 250° 300° C

60.00

yyy,
,,,
yy,
,,
,
y,,
yyy
,
50.00 * - ** - 220C/440F
* - ** - 170C/340F
40.00 * - ** - 140C/280F
30.00 * - ** - 120C/240F

yyyy
,,yy
,,
20.00 * - ** - 90C/180F
* - ** - 60C/140F
10.00
* - ** - 27C/80F
0.00 * - ** - 10C/50F
–10.00 * - ** - 37C/98.6F Special Biomedical Calibration ±0.2 C (35.5-39.4), ±0.3 C (25-40C)
–50 50 150 250 350 450 550 650
0° 100° 200° 300° 400° 500° 600° F
Actual Temperature (C) * Select OS36, OS36-2, or OS36-5 Target Temperature
** Select Type J, K, E, T
The OS36-K-80 has its 2% linear range *** Temperature Range in which IRt/c output is linear
centered at 80°F (27°C), but produces a compared to conventional t/c, within stated % (of reading).
repeatable signal to 1200°F (650°C).

Z-76
Principles of Infrared Thermocouples Cont'd
Each IRt/c model is specifically
designed for optimum performance
in the region of best linear fit with
conventional t/c’s, but can be used
outside of those ranges by simply
calibrating the readout device
appropriately. The output signal is
smooth and continuous over its entire
rated temperature range, and maintains
1% repeatability over its entire range.
The Temperature Selection Guide
is a summary of the linear range
performance of each IRt/c model. The
user selects the IRt/c model and type,
and the target temperature range for
the application. The normal offset
adjustments on the thermocouple
readout device are used to calibrate
the installation for emissivity and
background effects.
How reliable are these new devices?
Of fundamental interest in temperature
control is the ability of the measuring
device to maintain its calibration under
service conditions, and over a long
period of time. The IRt/c is rated at
1% (of reading) repeatability and to
have no measurable long term
calibration change, which makes it well
suited for reliable temperature control.
These attributes are inherent in the
basic design and construction of each
IRt/c.
IRt/c at Room Temperature
Thermocouple Probe at Product Temperature
Conventional thermocouple operating at elevated
temperature is subject to long-term drift, while the
IRt/c operating at room temperature is stable.
Repeatability is defined as the ability
of a measuring device to reproduce its
calibration under identical conditions.
The IRt/c is a solid, hermetically sealed,
fully potted system that does not change
either mechanically or metallurgically
during service. There are no active
electronic components and no power
source to produce the signal – only the
thermoelectric effects that produce a
thermocouple signal. The 1% rating
is a conservative value based on the
practical difficulty of demonstrating
tighter tolerances under test conditions,
rather than a true limitation of the device.
Long term accuracy is influenced by the
same things that influence repeatability:
mechanical changes and metallurgical
changes. It is well known that
thermocouples can change calibration
over time due to these effects.
Mechanical changes occur because
conventional thermocouples are
constructed generally as small and
light as possible to enhance response
time, thus making them vulnerable
to deformations that can change
the thermoelectric properties. More
importantly, the conventional
thermocouple must operate at
elevated temperature since it merely
measures its own temperature.
The IRt/c gives repeatable static
and dynamic readings.
The metallurgical changes which affect
thermoelectric properties are a strong
function of temperature, being negligible
at room temperature, and of serious
concern at high temperature.
The IRt/c solves both problems by
its design and basic operation. Its
solid fully potted construction in a
mechanically rigid stainless steel
housing, and operation at near room
temperature conditions, essentially
eliminates the classical drift problems of
conventional thermocouples. Every IRt/c
is double annealed at temperatures
above 100° C to ensure long term
stability, and tested 5 times prior to
packaging. Barring a very small
Quick Installation Guide
3 1
Z-77
percentage of failure, the IRt/c has
essentially unlimited long term
calibration accuracy.
QUICK INSTALLATION GUIDE
All infrared-based sensing systems
must be calibrated for specific material
surface properties (for example, the
amount of heat radiated from the target
surface, environmental heat reflections,
etc.). This calibration is performed by
measuring the target surface temperature
with a reliable independent surface
temperature probe. The easiest and
fastest method of accurately calibrating
out these effects is to use an OMEGA
OS91 hand-held Infrared Thermometer
with a patented Automatic Emissivity
Compensation System to give a true
reading regardless of emissivity.
The following procedure is recommended:
1. Install IRt/c as close as practical to
view the target material to be measured.
2. Wire IRt/c to controller, PLC
Transmitter, etc. in standard fashion
(including shield). As in conventional
t/c’s, red wire is always (–).
3. Bring process up to normal operating
temperature and measure actual
temperature of target material with
OS90 Series Infrared Thermometer.
4. Adjust “input offset,” “zero,”
“low cal,” on the readout device to
match the OS91 reading.
Installation complete.
2
+
–
4
IRt/c SETUP WITH AUTO-TUNE
TEMPERATURE CONTROLLERS
In many applications, heating elements
are employed to heat a product in an
oven, furnace, or with jets of hot air.
Conventional control devices using
contact thermocouples measure and
control the oven air temperature, IR
heating element temperature, or air jet
temperature in an effort to maintain
product temperature and therefore,
quality; often with less than satisfactory
results.
Heat Input
Product Temperature
Time
Replacing the contact thermocouple,
(for example measuring oven
temperature) with a non-contact IRt/c
measuring product temperature directly,
will insure that product temperature is
maintained. Some readjustment of the
controller parameters is required
because of differences in sensor
response times (an IRt/c is much
faster), and time required to heat the
product compared to the original sensor
(slower). After installing the IRt/c and
calibrating the controller reading using
an OS91 Infrared Scanner (see Quick
Installation Guide below), initiate the
self-tuning cycle of the controller and
check to see that the control is stable
and accurate. If it will not self tune
properly, manually adjust the control
coefficients to achieve stable control.
Because the product temperature is
likely to change temperature more
slowly than the original sensor, start
with slowly increasing the “D” of the
PID coefficients.
IRt/c’s are intrinsically safe when used
with barriers
IRt/c
IRt/c
1000 ft (300 m)
Twisted Shield Pair t/c Wire
IRt/c CAN BE USED WITH
UP TO 1,000 FT (300 M) OF
THERMOCOUPLE EXTENSION
WIRE
With twisted shielded pair thermocouple
extension wire, an IRt/c can be mounted
as far as 300 meters (1,000 ft) from
the readout device, even in a very
fierce electrical noise environment. A
demonstration test was performed with
a 300 m (1000 ft) coil of twisted shielded
pair of extension wire, with 30 m (100 ft)
unwound, connecting an IRt/c to a fast
(100 msec. response) A/D conversion
module to a computer. As a noise
generator, a 60 Hz 10,000 volt transformer
and spark generator was set up to spark
within 15 cm (6 inches) of the wire.
The test results showed less than 0.1°C
of noise at any relative position of the
wire, spark, and transformer. The
extraordinary noise suppression
characteristics designed into the IRt/c
make it possible to locate it at very long
distances, without the necessity of a
transmitter. The IRt/c housing is electrically
isolated from the signal leads and is
connected to the shielded ground of the
extension cable. For long distances,
twisted shielded extension cable should
be used, and the shield connected to a
good electrical ground.
Barrier
Z-78
10,000 V
60 Hz
Fast
Meter
Z
IRt/c’S ARE INTRINSICALLY SAFE
WHEN USED WITH BARRIERS
“Field Apparatus having energy storing
or generating characteristics of <1.2V,
0.1A, 25 mW or 25 microJ shall be
considered Simple Apparatus (non-
energy storing). These general purpose
devices may be used in a hazardous
(classified) location without further
approval when connected to a certified
intrinsically safe circuit.” – Quote from
R. Stahl, Inc. Comprehensive Product
Manual On Intrinsic Safety Barrier
and Repeater Relays. Examples of
non-energy storing Intrinsically Safe
Apparatus are:
• Thermocouples • RTD’s • LED’s
• Dry Switch Contacts
• NAMUR Inductive Proximity Switches
• Non-inductive Strain Gage Devices
and Resistors
The IRt/c falls into the category of
thermocouples, since it generates its
signal by converting the radiated heat
energy to an electrical signal via
Seebeck effects, the basic driving
force of thermocouples. Like all
thermocouples, it requires no power
source and generates signals measured
in millivolts of voltage, microamps of
current and nanowatts of power. IRt/c’s
have a small capacitance, but at one
microFarad, the energy storage is
measured in nanojoules and is a
thousand times lower than the
25 microjoule criterion.
Accordingly, the IRt/c qualifies as a
Simple Apparatus for use in hazardous
locations, and with the appropriate
barrier, qualifies as Intrinsically Safe.
Principles of Infrared Thermocouples Cont'd
IRt/c
APPLICATION NOTES
IRt/c MONITORS
TIRE TEMPERATURES FOR
RACING PERFORMANCE
Tire temperature is of critical concern in
automotive racing for two reasons: the
tire temperature directly affects its
adhesion and its wear characteristics;
and tire temperature patterns provide
valuable information on the set-up and
performance of the suspension. For
example, excessive loading of a tire
caused by out-of-tune suspension will
cause that tire to become considerably
warmer than the others.
The IRt/c is an ideal measuring device
for on-board data acquisition, due to its
small size, ruggedness, and low cost.
It may be connected to standard
thermocouple read-out systems.
Installation should include connecting
the shield to a suitable ground in order
to avoid interference from the
electrically harsh environment of a
racing automobile. Mechanical
installation should include attention to
air flow patterns to minimize dirt building
on the lens. The OS36-2 or OS36-5 are
recommended due to their narrower
field of view, thus allowing you to
position it further away.
Relative Humidity Measurement
Air Flow
IRt/c RELATIVE HUMIDITY
MEASUREMENT
IRt/c’s can be used to measure actual
relative humidity in many situations
where there is a convenient source
of water and flowing air, and measure
it accurately and reliably.
An IRt/c aimed at a wet porous surface
with ambient air blowing across the wet
surface, can actually measure what is
called “wet bulb” temperature for that
ambient area. (More precisely, wet
bulb temperature is the equilibrium
temperature of the air-water interface
when a water film is evaporated. When
air is moved over a wet surface, the
water cools by evaporation until it
reaches wet-bulb temperature, then
the cooling stops, no matter how much
more air is moved over the surface. The
temperature at which the cooling stops
is the wet bulb temperature.)
The IRt/c measures the temperature
of the air-water interface on a surface
directly. The quality of the water or of
the absorbing material does not affect
the reading, since the IRt/c can directly
view the air-water interface, and the wet
bulb equilibrium temperature is not
materially affected by impurities.
The highest precision method is to
employ an IRt/c wired differentially
with a conventional thermocouple
to measure the quantity “wet bulb
depression”. The differential pair
arrangement guarantees high
accuracy, since RH is a strong function
of wet bulb depression and a weak
function of dry bulb temperature.
Standard psychrometric tables,
charts, and software algorithms
can be used with the data to obtain
accurate relative humidity for your
environmental measurements.
+ 3. Non-metallic Surfaced Rollers –
+ Wet Bulb
– Depression
– Temperature
+ –
+
Dry Bulb
Temperature
–
Z-79
CONTROLLING WEB ROLLER
TEMPERATURE
The IRt/c infrared thermocouples have
quickly become the sensors of choice
for monitoring and controlling both web
and roller temperatures. Tips on accurate
roller temperature measurement:
1. Uncoated Metal or Chrome Rolls –
Shiny, uncoated metal rolls are difficult
for any infrared sensor to properly
sense the true temperature (the sensor
will see too many environmental
reflections). The solution to the problem
is to simply: paint a small black stripe
on an unused end of the roller. Aim the
IRt/c sensor at the black paint stripe.
It will then measure the temperature
accurately and reliably regardless of
changes in the surface conditions of the
rest of the roller.
+
If there is very little space on the edge
of the roller, move the sensor closer and
paint a very small black stripe. The
minimum spot size of the IRt/c is 8 mm
(0.3 inches) and for the OS36-2 it is
4 mm (0.16 inches) when the sensor is
brought close to the surface.
2. Dull Metal Rollers – Dull metal
rollers can provide a reliable signal.
It is best to test the surface for reliability,
though, as the surface emissive
properties may shift via dirt, moisture,
cleaning, etc. It is best, if in doubt, to
simply paint a stripe to eliminate these
variations.
These will provide a reliable IR signal at
any point the IRt/c is aimed. No painted
stripe is required.
CONTROLLING
VACUUM FORMING AND
THERMOFORMING PROCESSES
For forming plastics, an excellent
combination of heating method and
control is radiant heat with an IRt/c for
control. They work extraordinarily well
together, since both the heating and
measuring occur right at the surface –
where the plastic is located. The IRt/c
reading is unaffected by reflections from
the heater, since the spectral response
of the 6-14 micron IRt/c lens filters out
the shorter wavelengths of the radiant
,yy,y,y,
heater energy.
OS36-2
y,y,y,y
,
Air
The IRt/c may be mounted in between
ceramic heaters, or in the shroud or
reflector of the radiant heater, such that
it can see in between the elements.
Select the IRt/c standard, OS36-2
or OS36-5 model, depending on the
field-of-view required to see past the
elements to the painted surface. Care
should be taken in mounting the IRt/c in
such a way as to keep its temperature
below 93°C (200°F) and to keep the
lens clean. The OS36-2 is the preferred
model for this application because of
its small physical size with built-in air
purge. It can be used in temperatures to
121°C (250°F) environments when the
air purge system is used. Its narrower
field-of-view allows more leeway in
positioning, and thus more flexibility in
installation. For still narrower fields of
view, use the OS36-5 with its 5:1 FOV.
OS36-2 and OS36-5
models feature
built-in air purge
to keep these quality
thermocouples functioning
efficiently and accurately,
even in dirty environments
IRt/c CONTROLS PRINTED
CIRCUIT BOARD PREHEAT
DURING WAVE SOLDERING
An excellent solution to the problem of
proper heater control for PC board
preheat is an IRt/c. They work
extraordinarily well together, since both
the heating and measuring occur right
at the surface – where the solder must
flow. The IRt/c reading is unaffected by
reflections from the heater, since the
spectral response of the 6-14 micron
IRt/c lens filters out any shorter
wavelengths of the radiant heater energy.
Air
OS36-2
Ceramic Heaters
For this application, the IRt/c may
be mounted identically to Vacuum
Forming/Thermoforming (above).
INDUCTION HEATER CONTROL
The induction heating process can be
readily controlled by the temperature
of the part as measured by an IRt/c
non-contact infrared thermocouple.
Several issues should be considered
in an installation.
IRt/c
Cooling Water
OS36-5
OS36-2
1. The effect of the field on the IRt/c:
since the measuring signal is electrically
isolated from the housing, the IRt/c will
operate in even a very strong field.
The shield wire should be attached to
a proper signal ground. If there is
excessive heating from the field,
consider using the optional cooling
jacket kit, with the same water source
as is used to cool the coil.
Z-80
2. The field-of-view: the preferred
method is to view the part between
the coil turns or from the end. Select
the IRt/c model that best suits the
requirements.
3. Part temperature: both the OS36-2
and OS36-5 models can be used to
target temperatures of 1100°C (2000°F),
and have linear ranges to 260°C (500°F).
ASPHALT TEMPERATURE
Z
MONITORING
Asphalt properties are particularly
sensitive to temperature, and it is
important that the asphalt is applied
at the correct temperature in order
to perform to its specifications.
Accordingly, temperature monitoring
is a common requirement, but the
thermocouples normally used have
severe breakage problems due to the
harsh abrasiveness of the material, and
must constantly be replaced at high cost
and interruption of production.
Air
yyy
,,,
OS36-2
,,,
yyy
Air
OS36-5
The IRt/c solves this problem directly,
since the temperature is monitored
without contact. The normal thermocouple
controller can be used – simply calibrate
offset if necessary. The OS36-2 and
OS36-5 models are recommended due
to their built-in air purge, which will keep
the lens clean by preventing vapors
from condensing on the lens. The
OS36-2 can be mounted in the chute
to view the asphalt through a small
hole, while the OS36-5 can be mounted
some distance away due to its narrow
5:1 field of view.
Reproduced with permission of
Exergen Corp.
Microcomputer Based IR
Temperature Transducers
Charles E. Everest, Everest Interscience, Inc.
Microcomputer based IR temperature
transducers are superior to the readily
available analog types because in situ
computing can be used to correct
detector imperfections, provide three-
figure emissivity compensation settings
(including real-time control of emissivity
compensation during individual
measurements), and process transducer
data, transmitting only salient information
and thereby reducing data load on the data
acquisition system (DAS) (see Figure 1).
The µC makes it possible also to
calibrate the transducer in real time
without bothering the DAS unless a
failure mode is detected. In situ data
logging and buffering for asynchronous
polling by the DAS is available. The
data rate of the transducer can be
matched to the data rate of the DAS.
CORRECTING DETECTOR
IMPERFECTIONS
The thermal-type IR detectors used in
moderate-temperature IR thermometers
all suffer from shortcomings, but these
can be corrected by sophisticated data
processing techniques available with
digital computers. The sensitive area of
the detector and its image spot on the
target are conjugate images of each
other formed by the optics. Also, since
Planck’s equation defines a spectral
quantity, an increment of radiant power,
dWT, for each micron of spectral
bandwidth in the IR spectrum is radiated
from the target spot to the IR detector
according to the equation:
dWT =
eTC1f
dl
l (eC2/lTT-1)
5 is highly nonlinear, and, although
Furthermore, since the optical system
and its media are linear, bilateral
OPTICAL ASSY. LOW NOISE
IR
SENSOR
REAMP
A O
MUX
REFERENCE
THERMISTOR
OPTICAL
CHOPPER +9 VDC
Figure 1
systems, an increment of radiant The output signal from the IR detector
power dWD is transmitted from the is a minute voltage proportional to the
detector’s sensitive area to the target difference in temperature between the
spot according to the equation: target and the detector body itself. To
eDC1f obtain an accurate measurement of
dWD = dl the target temperature, it is therefore
l (eC2 / lTD-1)
5 necessary to accurately measure the
detector body temperature and add
the processed difference temperature
The net incremental radiant power flow provided by the IR detector.
from the target spot to the sensitive area
is: If our embedded computer can improve
the accuracy of either of these component
dWnet = dWT - dWD temperature measurements, the overall
target temperature measurement is
or: enhanced. In fact, the accuracy of
C1f eT both of these component temperature
dWnet= [ measurements is significantly improved
l5 eC2/lTT-1 using computer enhancements, as
explained later.
- eD
] dl Another troublesome detector error
eC2/lTD-1 source that can be completely corrected
with the computer is DC drift caused
where: by ambient temperature variations.
The detector body temperature TD is
C1, C2 = absolute constants probably the most important variable
f = optical gain of the IR focusing
the computer uses to improve overall
optics system accuracy. The techniques by
l = wavelength in microns
which the computer obtains this variable
eT = emissivity of the target surface with greatly enhanced accuracy are
eD = emissivity of the detector
outlined below.
surface
TD spans the range of the natural
then: l = l2 environment, from roughly -50 to 100°C.
Wnet =
C1f
*
l = l1
Over this range, the most precise and
accurate temperature measuring
l5 transducer is the thermistor. It is rarely
used as the temperature reference
[ eC2e/lT eD element for IR thermometers, however,
T
-
T-1 eC2 /lTD-1
] dl because its output signal
extremely stable, its as-manufactured
nominal values vary widely from unit
From this basic energy balance equation, to unit (production spread).
the target temperature is an exponential
function of the detector temperature TD. Most IR thermometer manufacturers
are limited to simple analog correction
techniques for their detector reference
A
ASCII elements and so must abandon the
N more accurate and stable thermistor
A BCD
L MICRO– for a less accurate but easier to use
ADC COMPUTER RS232-C element such as an integrated circuit,
G
RS232-C
which outputs a linear current with
temperature.
OUTPUT
CONNECTOR
Highly nonlinear transducer responses
are no problem for a computer,
however, because they can be
characterized with a Taylor series
polynomial of the form shown in
Equation 6 with an order, n, high
Z-81
enough to give arbitrarily perfect
linearization correction for any
transducer’s curve:
A + BX + CX2 + DX3 + ... ZXn
An algorithm for a general solution of
the equation is held as a subroutine in
program memory, while the transducer-
specific coefficients A,B,D,C ... Z are
held in firmware (EEPROM). Given
the power of modern µC’s, complex
mathematical operations like this are
practically free of hardware costs and
can be performed in real time quickly
enough not to affect the overall reading
speed. The bottom line is that actual
detector case temperature measurements
of 0.05°C absolute accuracy are routine.
The IR detector itself is another
temperature transducer with a highly
nonlinear and temperature-dependent
response:
E0 = R • W
where:
E0 = detector output in volts
W = IR electromagnetic radiant power
in W/m2
R = responsivity (constant of
proportionality)
Responsivity is also a nonlinear function
of TD. It is typically grossly corrected in
the industry with a simple linear gain
correction produced by a temperature
sensitive resistor in the preamplifier
feedback network. With an embedded
µC, a third-order Taylor series correction
using the real-time values computed for
TD will effect a complete error correction
for less cost than the temperature
sensitive feedback resistor. These
techniques allow the price of new
computer based digital IR temperature
transducers to be no greater than that
of their analog predecessors, even
with greatly enhanced performance
and accuracy.
WT, the net radiant target signal power
impinging on the detector, is highly
nonlinear with target temperature TT; for
low-temperature targets (TT<1000°F), it
is also highly dependent on the detector
temperature itself (TD). WT is a spectral
quantity that depends on the spectral
window it passes through, as calculated
from Planck’s equation. For very wide
band IR thermometers measuring high-
temperature targets, this characteristic
approaches the fourth order of the
Stefan-Boltzmann law:
; KoTT4
W;
where:
TT = absolute target temperature
o = Stefan-Boltzmann constant
K = a nonlinear function of TD
In present-day IR thermometers, K is
usually combined with R of Equation 7 and
a single linear compensation correction
is applied, even though they have differing
slopes in TD. With Taylor series digital
corrections, only three or four coefficients
need to be stored for use with the
general purpose Taylor series algorithm
to effect nearly perfect corrections of
both coefficients independently.
The critical linearization of the TT4
term (in the equation above) is usually left
to linear approximation techniques. The
instrument’s entire scale span is divided
into a convenient number of curved
sections, usually between 6 and 12,
and each section is approximated by a
straight line that can be easily handled
by analog techniques. Unfortunately,
each section is accurately corrected
at only two temperatures; other
temperatures in the section can be read
out in error by as much as the entire
accuracy specification of the instrument,
which was fixed at one of the accurate
points of the highest section. Thus the
± linearity error specification is usually
equal to, and in addition to, the span
accuracy specification of the instrument.
In digital IR thermometers with embedded
µC’s, a Taylor series polynomial with
as many as 7 terms, solved in real time,
can effectively solve the fourth-power
relationship between detector output
voltage and target temperature.
Detector zero (or DC) drift is another
imperfection that can be effectively
corrected with an embedded µC.
Thermal detectors usually have
negligible long-term zero drift under
stable ambient conditions but are quite
susceptible to thermal transients. Errors
of several degrees are common when
taking an instrument with a simple thermal
detector from one room to another with
a different ambient temperature.
Z-82
An effective way to correct this error
is periodically to completely block the Z
incoming IR radiation signal from the
target with an optical chopper, while
measuring the remaining error signal
and storing its value in computer memory
for later subtraction from the measured
composite signal. This procedure can
be performed as often as necessary or
convenient under adaptive computer
control. Whenever an inactive time
interval can be identified by the computer,
the procedure can be cycled without
interrupting the useful flow of information.
If this asynchronous chopping is done
frequently as compared to the drift rate
of the detector, nearly perfect DC zero
restoration can be achieved.
DIGITAL TARGET EMISSIVITY
COMPENSATION
Extremely precise (three-figure) emissivity
corrections can be called up either from
as many as 10 values stored in resident
EEPROM, or from complex, real-time
programs dependent on target time-
temperature relationships. An example
of the latter is a program for compensation
of the emissivity of an induction heated
steel part, which oxidized as it heats
to higher temperatures. The emissivity
may be quite low (;0.1) at low
temperatures, but as it is rapidly heated,
an oxide film forms on its surface, which
raises the emissivity according to its
time-temperature history. This time-
temperature integral can be easily
calculated by the computer and the
corresponding emissivity value applied
to the temperature readout in real time.
EMBEDDED DATA PROCESSING
CHORES
Transducer data can be preprocessed
at the point of measurement to extract
the pertinent information for transmission
to the mainframe data processing
system. For instance, only excess limit
or out-of-range data may be desired.
In this case, set point values can be
programmed into the embedded computer
firmware so that only data above (or
below) the set point will be transmitted,
perhaps on a priority interrupt basis.
On a serial digital interface bus, a
priority interrupt hierarchy can be
defined that will maximize the number
of drops (transducers) a single wire will
accommodate.
Microcomputer Based IR
Temperature Transducers Cont'd
AUTOMATIC CALIBRATION
A smart transducer can be programmed
to identify windows in data flow patterns
where a preprogrammed calibration
procedure can be performed without
affecting useful data flow. For instance,
if the IR thermometer is measuring the
temperature of cans proceeding down a
conveyor belt, a gap between successive
cans is sensed and the dead time during
the gap is used to cycle the calibration
procedure. The master DAS need not
be aware of the individual transducer’s
calibration details unless an out-of-limits
condition occurs and the affected
transducer initiates a priority interrupt
alarm.
INTEGRAL DATA LOGGING
AND BUFFERING
Both volatile and nonvolatile data
logging are built into the transducer.
Volatile data logging with the resident
RAM is used to assemble and
temporarily store on-line data either for
use in computations or to wait for bus
polling. This ability to locally process
and format data reduces the data
transfer time to the processor.
Furthermore, because even fast IR
thermometers are relatively slow (;ms)
compared to electronic DASs (;µs),
very little time is needed to service
an individual digital IR thermometer
on a data bus. The data can often be
compressed into 50 µs/s, allowing
dozens of drops (transducers) on a
single-wire pair (see section on
Interface Management). Nonvolatile
data logging, via the embedded
EEPROM, is used to store significant
historical data such as maximum,
minimum, average, mean, and out-of-
limit values for indefinite times.
IN SITU DIGITAL CONTROL
INTELLIGENCE
The powerful integral microcontroller
can also be programmed to act on the
incoming temperature data to perform
external control functions. There are 16
multipurpose µC control ports available
for command inputs from external
signals such as simple switch closures
or photo-detector signals, or for control
outputs such as power relays. Each port
can directly drive an optically isolated
solid-state relay capable of controlling
a 10 kW load operating at 1600 V
differential from the transducer.
There are also four precision, low-level SUMMARY
analog inputs available that can accept The superiority of µC based IR
auxiliary inputs from thermocouples, temperature sensing instruments
RTDs, or other IR detectors for support over present generation analog IR
functions. The simplest of these might thermometers is apparent. This
be detection of temperatures above or statement is supported by the enhanced
below a preset threshold that has been accuracy of temperature measurements
programmed into EEPROM. This set of the difference between the target and
point could even be automatically detector body, and the measurement of
programmed by the computer in the detector body itself. Also to be noted
response to input variable history. is the ability of the microcomputer based
As many as four set points can be instrumentation to replace the linear
monitored and controlled simultaneously. approximation techniques. Extremely
Among the more complex control precise emissivity correction is another
functions are complete local closed-loop plus, as are the automatic calibration,
PID control of a process temperature integral data logging, and in situ digital
entirely by the transducer with no external control intelligence capabilities. The
help from other control electronics. reduction in the cost of the interface
between the host computer and the
INTERFACE MANAGEMENT transducers can be substantial. An
The computer’s data processing power extremely sophisticated IR temperature
minimizes the hardware complexity of measurement system can be provided
the transmission lines by managing both at a cost that is equal to or less than
electrical power and data transmission previously available analog systems
flow for the transducer. For example, with limited capabilities.
the computer can function as a traffic
cop to time share a single line among
several dozen transducers for both
power and two-way data transmission.
In addition, when the line is used for
power transmission, other transducers
can be connected to it and powered up
at the same time. When the computer
disconnects line power, data can be
transmitted so quickly that many
connected transducers can be polled
before the next power up. The bottom Reproduced with permission of
line is that inexpensive BNCs can be EVEREST INTERSCIENCE, INC.
used with the transducers and a simple
2-wire party line can service up to 16
transducers over a distance of 1000 ft.
Another performance advantage accrues
from the all-digital data transmission,
which is far less susceptible to RFI/EMI
than is analog data transmission.
Because the binary data transmission
is serial in nature and is formatted for
bilateral transmission on a single line, a
single fiber-optic line can be substituted
to provide complete immunity from
RFI/EMI, up to and including lightning
strikes. Finally, the savings on multipin
connectors and individual multiconductor
cables is enough to pay for the µC,
not to mention the greatly enhanced
reliability from a single line system
vs. six conductors.
Z-83
Infrared Thermocouples,
Extended Temperature Ranges

Infrared thermocouples can be used with most

thermocouple meters or controller over a specified
temperature range. For example, the OS36-J-50F
would have a 2% accuracy over the range of -18 to
27°C (0 to 80°F).
The following table shows the series of equations that
permit a determination of measured temperature by
measuring the IR-TC’s output voltage. If desired, the
cold junction (CJ) correction can be set at any known
constant temperature, e.g., 25°C. If the CJ temperature
is not known and constant, it is suggested you use an
OMEGA CJ connection device like a TRC IIIA or CJ-K.
This will correct to 0°C and allow use of a standard
voltmeter without other cold junction compensation.
The CJT term can then be dropped in the following
polynomial table.

Z-84
Polynomial Table for OS36, 37 and 38 Signal Output
TT = A·(mV)6 + B·(mV)5 + C·(mV)4 + D·(mV)3 + E·(mV)2 + F·(mV) + CJT
A B C D E F
OS36-J-50F/10C -6.14473E-09 2.08199E-06 -2.72953E-04 1.75317E-02 -5.84883E-01 1.53003E+01
OS36-J-80F/27C -2.83996E-08 7.41635E-06 -7.54046E-04 3.79224E-02 -1.00406E+00 2.06592E+01
OS36-J-140F/60C -4.31591E-08 1.06077E-05 -1.01002E-03 4.72155E-02 -1.14872E+00 2.20397E+01
OS36-J-180F/90C -7.03138E-08 1.59337E-05 -1.39844E-03 6.02655E-02 -1.35167E+00 2.39075E+01
OS36-J-240F/120C -1.05707E-07 2.23776E-05 -1.83521E-03 7.38926E-02 -1.54843E+00 2.55885E+01
OS36-J-280F/140C -1.89514E-07 3.63996E-05 -2.70839E-03 9.89395E-02 -1.88106E+00 2.82034E+01
OS36-J-340F/170C -2.99852E-07 5.33519E-05 -3.67751E-03 1.24452E-01 -2.19192E+00 3.04447E+01
OS36-J-440F/220C -5.20472E-07 8.44263E-05 -5.30444E-03 1.63572E-01 -2.62438E+00 3.31770E+01
OS36-K-50F/10C -1.59875E-08 4.63673E-06 -5.20959E-04 2.87368E-02 -8.24991E-01 1.86777E+01
OS36-K-80F/27C -6.09875E-08 1.41502E-05 -1.27187E-03 5.61266E-02 -1.28905E+00 2.33472E+01
OS36-K-140F/60C -1.42546E-07 2.87094E-05 -2.24003E-03 8.58077E-02 -1.71070E+00 2.68960E+01
OS36-K-180F/90C -3.22615E-07 5.67063E-05 -3.86135E-03 1.29089E-01 -2.24604E+00 3.08183E+01
OS36-K-240F/120C -5.08511E-07 8.28536E-05 -5.22978E-03 1.62069E-01 -2.61390E+00 3.32464E+01
OS36-K-280F/140C -9.34497E-07 1.37576E-04 -7.84637E-03 2.19704E-01 -3.20171E+00 3.67952E+01
OS36-K-340F/170C -1.62369E-06 2.18012E-04 -1.13401E-02 2.89601E-01 -3.84908E+00 4.03439E+01
OS36-K-440F/220C -2.90564E-06 3.54076E-04 -1.67152E-02 3.87409E-01 -4.67308E+00 4.44530E+01
OS37-K -7.13085E-08 2.30925E-05 -2.88585E-03 1.75033E-01 -5.35670E+00 8.58605E+01
OS38-K -2.17588E+04 7.42505E+04 -9.73319E+04 6.14482E+04 -1.92711E+04 2.97242E+03
OS38-K -3.01228E-08 9.50466E-06 -1.17636E-03 7.27752E-02 -2.41603E+00 4.88735E+01

OS38-K Alternative: Power Law Fit=298.0514(mV)0 2864

Maximum Minimum Test Conditions

Range Range
mV TT mV TT mV TT CJT
OS36-J-50F/10C 70 466 -4 -47 5 89 25
OS36-J-80F/27C 70 577 -3 -47 5 107 25
OS36-J-140F/60C 70 634 -3 -47 5 112 25
OS36-J-180F/90C 70 674 -3 -47 5 117 25
OS36-J-240F/120C 65 671 -2 -46 5 122 25
OS36-J-280F/140C 60 678 -2 -47 5 130 25
OS36-J-340F/170C 55 674 -2 -46 5 136 25
OS36-J-440F/220C 50 667 -2 -49 5 143 25
OS36-K-50F/10C 70 551 -3 -47 5 101 25
OS36-K-80F/27C 70 664 -3 -45 5 116 25
OS36-K-140F/60C 65 685 -2 -47 5 126 25
OS36-K-180F/90C 55 678 -2 -47 5 137 25
OS36-K-240F/120C 50 671 -2 -49 5 143 25
OS36-K-280F/140C 45 670 -2 -48 5 152 25
OS36-K-340F/170C 45 681 -2 -45 5 160 25
OS36-K-440F/220C 40 685 -1 -48 5 169 25
OS37-K 70 957 0 0 5 341 25
OS38-K 1 334 0 0 1 334 25
OS38-K 80 1035 1 309 80 1035 262

OS38xxx-K Power Law 80 1046 0 0 5 473 25

Notes: TT = Target Temperature

CJT = Cold junction temperature at input added via the input Device (controller, indicator, PLC, etc.).
A controlled constant 25°C is assumed here for most polynomials. It can be changed.
mV = Signal produced by infrared thermocouple in millivolts.
All temperatures in °C.
Assumed target emissivity is 0.9 for all models except OS38 which has assumed emissivity 0.2.
Z-85
Infrared Window Transmission
Refractive Indexes for IR Windows
Material n at wavelength µm
Barium Fluoride 1.45 5
Cesium Bromide 1.66251 10
Cesium Iodide 1.73916 10
Calcium Fluoride 1.399 5
Germanium 4.003 10
Lithium Fluoride 1.39 0.5 Z
Magnesium Fluoride No = 1.379 Ne = 1.391 0.5
Potassium Bromide 1.526 10
Potassium Chloride 1.454 10
Sapphire 1.755 1
Silicon 3.4179 10
Silver Bromide 2.31 0.5
Silver Chloride 1.980 10
Sodium Chloride 1.49482 10
Sodium Fluoride 1.238 10
Strontium Fluoride 1.439 0.5
Thallium Bromide 2.338 10
Thallium Bromide-Chloride KRS6 2.1767 10
Thallium Bromide-Iodide KRS5 2.37069 10
Thallium Chloride 2.193 10
Zinc Selenide 2.40 10
Zinc Sulphide 2.2 10
Transmission Range

Wavelength (µm)
Reproduced with permission of Optovac Corporaton
Z-86
 Infrared Quick Help
When to Use Infrared Temperature
Measurement:
Surface Is:
U Too Hot to Be Measured U Too Fragile or Wet to
With Thermocouples Accommodate
U Too Large to Be Thermocouple Contact
Measured Without a U Too Active (Chemically)
Very Large Number of to Accept a
Thermocouples Thermocouple or Its
U Moving Too Much for Probe
Thermocouple Lead U In an Atmosphere
Wire to Accept Without That Is Hostile to a
Breaking Thermocouple
U At So High an Electrical U Inaccessible to a
Potential That Use of a Thermocouple or Its
Thermocouple Would Be Instrumentation
Dangerous U Near Noise Producing
OS520 Series Handheld Infrared U So Low in Mass That Electric or Magnetic
Thermometer The Thermocouple Itself Fields
Will Affect the Unknown
Surface Temperature

Key Infrared Application

Factors
U Target Spot Size and
Distance
U Target Material (for
Emissivity)
U Fixed or Handheld Unit
U Temperature Range
U Response Time
U Sighting System
U Environment
U Viewing Port
U Options Needed

OS550 Sensor Head Industrial
Noncontact Infrared
Thermometer/Transmitter and
OS550-MB Mounting Bracket
Determination of Infrared
Emissivity
U Measure Surface U Paint Surface Dull Black
Temperature by Some (M IR Region)
Other Means (After U Look up Emissivity in
Stopping Motion) Table (Last Resort)
U Place Masking Tape on
Surface (Emissivity 0.95)
U Drill Hole in Surface At
Least Six Times as Deep
as It Is Wide
(Emissivity 0.95)

BB704 Series Blackbody Calibration

Source with Portable Design
Z-87
Table of Total Emissivity
These tables are presented for use as a guide when making Since the emissivity of a material will vary as a function of
infrared temperature measurements with the OMEGASCOPE® temperature and surface finish, the values in these tables should
or other infrared pyrometers. The total emissivity (ε) for Metals, be used only as a guide for relative or delta measurements.
Non-metals and Common Building Materials are given. The exact emissivity of a material should be determined when
absolute measurements are required.
METALS
Material Temp °F (°C) ε–Emissivity Material Temp °F (°C) ε–Emissivity Material Temp °F (°C) ε–Emissivity
Alloys Polished 100 (38) .03 Monel, Ni-Cu Oxid. at 1110°F 1110 (599) .46
20-Ni, 24-CR, 55-FE, Oxid. 392 (200) .90 Highly Polished 100 (38) .02 Nickel
20-Ni, 24-CR, 55-FE, Oxid. 932 (500) .97 Rolled 100 (38) .64 Polished 100 (38) .05
60-Ni , 12-CR, 28-FE, Oxid. 518 (270) .89 Rough 100 (38) .74 Oxidized 100-500 (38-260) .31-.46
60-Ni , 12-CR, 28-FE, Oxid. 1040 (560) .82 Molten 1000 (538) .15 Unoxidized 77 (25) .05
80-Ni, 20-CR, Oxidized 212 (100) .87 Molten 1970 (1077) .16 Unoxidized 212 (100) .06
80-Ni, 20-CR, Oxidized
80-Ni, 20-CR, Oxidized
1112 (600)
2372 (1300)
.87
.89
Molten
Nickel Plated
2230 (1221)
100-500 (38-260)
.13
.37
Unoxidized
Unoxidized
932 (500)
1832 (1000)
.12
.19
Z
Aluminium Dow Metal 0.4-600 (–18-316) .15 Electrolytic 100 (38) .04
Unoxidized 77 (25) .02 Gold Electrolytic 500 (260) .06
Unoxidized 212 (100) .03 Enamel 212 (100) .37 Electrolytic 1000 (538) .10
Unoxidized 932 (500) .06 Plate (.0001) Electrolytic 2000 (1093) .16
Oxidized 390 (199) .11 Plate on .0005 Silver 200-750 (93-399) .11-.14 Nickel Oxide 1000-2000 (538-1093) .59-.86
Oxidized 1110 (599) .19 Plate on .0005 Nickel 200-750 (93-399) .07-.09 Palladium Plate (.00005
Oxidized at 599°C (1110°F) 390 (199) .11 Polished 100-500 (38-260) .02 on .0005 silver) 200-750 (93-399) .16-.17
Oxidized at 599°C (1110°F) 1110 (599) .19 Polished 1000-2000 (538-1093) .03
Heavily Oxidized 200 (93) .20 Platinum 100 (38) .05
Haynes Alloy C, " 500 (260) .05
Heavily Oxidized 940 (504) .31
Oxidized 600-2000 (316-1093) .90-.96 " 1000 (538) .10
Highly Polished 212 (100) .09
Roughly Polished 212 (100) .18 Haynes Alloy 25, Platinum, Black 100 (38) .93
Commercial Sheet 212 (100) .09 Oxidized 600-2000 (316-1093) .86-.89 " 500 (260) .96
Highly Polished Plate 440 (227) .04 Haynes Alloy X, " 2000 (1093) .97
Highly Polished Plate 1070 (577) .06 Oxidized 600-2000 (316-1093) .85-.88 " Oxidized at 1100°F 500 (260) .07
Bright Rolled Plate 338 (170) .04 Inconel Sheet 1000 (538) .28 " 1000 (538) .11
Bright Rolled Plate 932 (500) .05 Rhodium Flash (0.0002
Inconel Sheet 1200 (649) .42
Alloy A3003, Oxidized 600 (316) .40 on 0.0005 Ni) 200-700 (93-371) .10-.18
Alloy A3003, Oxidized 900 (482) .40 Inconel Sheet 1400 (760) .58
Silver
Alloy 1100-0 200-800 (93-427) .05 Inconel X, Polished 75 (24) .19
Plate (0.0005 on Ni) 200-700 (93-371) .06-.07
Alloy 24ST 75 (24) .09 Inconel B, Polished 75 (24) .21 Polished 100 (38) .01
Alloy 24ST, Polished 75 (24) .09
Iron " 500 (260) .02
Alloy 75ST 75 (24) .11
Oxidized 212 (100) .74 " 1000 (538) .03
Alloy 75ST, Polished 75 (24) .08
Oxidized 930 (499) .84 " 2000 (1093) .03
Bismuth, Bright 176 (80) .34 Oxidized 2190 (1199) .89 Steel
Bismuth, Unoxidized 77 (25) .05 Unoxidized 212 (100) .05 Cold Rolled 200 (93) .75-.85
Bismuth, Unoxidized 212 (100) .06 Red Rust 77 (25) .70 Ground Sheet 1720-2010 (938-1099) .55-.61
Brass Rusted 77 (25) .65 Polished Sheet 100 (38) .07
73% Cu, 27% Zn, Polished 476 (247) .03 Liquid 2760-3220 (1516-1771) .42-.45 " 500 (260) .10
73% Cu, 27% Zn, Polished 674 (357) .03 Cast Iron " 1000 (538) .14
62% Cu, 37% Zn, Polished 494 (257) .03 Oxidized 390 (199) .64 Mild Steel, Polished 75 (24) .10
62% Cu, 37% Zn, Polished 710 (377) .04 Oxidized 1110 (599) .78 Mild Steel, Smooth 75 (24) .12
83% Cu, 17% Zn, Polished 530 (277) .03 Unoxidized 212 (100) .21 Mild Steel,
Matte 68 (20) .07 Strong Oxidation 40 (104) .95 Liquid 2910-3270 (1599-1793) .28
Burnished to Brown Colour 68 (20) .40 Strong Oxidation 482 (250) .95 Steel, Unoxidized 212 (100) .08
Cu-Zn, Brass Oxidized 392 (200) .61 Liquid 2795 (1535) .29 Steel, Oxidized 77 (25) .80
Cu-Zn, Brass Oxidized 752 (400) .60
Wrought Iron Steel Alloys
Cu-Zn, Brass Oxidized 1112 (600) .61
Dull 77 (25) .94 Type 301, Polished 75 (24) .27
Unoxidized 77 (25) .04
Dull 660 (349) .94 Type 301, Polished 450 (232) .57
Unoxidized 212 (100) .04
Smooth 100 (38) .35 Type 301, Polished 1740 (949) .55
Cadmium 77 (25) .02 Polished 100 (38) .28 Type 303, Oxidized 600-2000 (316-1093) .74-.87
Carbon Lead Type 310, Rolled 1500-2100 (816-1149) .56-.81
Lampblack 77 (25) .95 Polished 100-500 (38-260) .06-.08 Type 316, Polished 75 (24) .28
Unoxidized 77 (25) .81 Rough 100 (38) .43 Type 316, Polished 450 (232) .57
Unoxidized 212 (100) .81 Oxidized 100 (38) .43 Type 316, Polished 1740 (949) .66
Unoxidized 932 (500) .79 Oxidized at 1100°F 100 (38) .63 Type 321 200-800 (93-427) .27-.32
Candle Soot 250 (121) .95 Gray Oxidized 100 (38) .28 Type 321 Polished 300-1500 (149-815) .18-.49
Filament 500 (260) .95 Type 321 w/BK Oxide 200-800 (93-427) .66-.76
Graphitized 212 (100) .76 Magnesium 100-500 (38-260) .07-.13 Type 347, Oxidized 600-2000 (316-1093) .87-.91
Graphitized 572 (300) .75 Magnesium Oxide1880-3140 (1027-1727) .16-.20 Type 350 200-800 (93-427) .18-.27
Graphitized 932 (500) .71 Mercury 32 (0) .09 Type 350 Polished 300-1800 (149-982) .11-.35
Chromium 100 (38) .08 " 77 (25) .10 Type 446, Polished 300-1500 (149-815) .15-.37
" 100 (38) .10 Type 17-7 PH 200-600 (93-316) .44-.51
Chromium 1000 (538) .26
" 212 (100) .12 Type 17-7 PH
Chromium, Polished 302 (150) .06
Molybdenum 100 (38) .06 Polished 300-1500 (149-815) .09-.16
Cobalt, Unoxidized 932 (500) .13 Type C1020,
" 500 (260) .08
Cobalt, Unoxidized 1832 (1000) .23 " 1000 (538) .11 Oxidized 600-2000 (316-1093) .87-.91
Columbium, Unoxidized 1500 (816) .19 " 2000 (1093) .18 Type PH-15-7 MO 300-1200 (149-649) .07-.19
Columbium, Unoxidized 2000 (1093) .24 " Oxidized at 1000°F 600 (316) .80 Stellite, Polished 68 (20) .18
" Oxidized at 1000°F 700 (371) .84 Tantalum, Unoxidized 1340 (727) .14
Copper
" Oxidized at 1000°F 800 (427) .84 " 2000 (1093) .19
Cuprous Oxide 100 (38) .87
" Oxidized at 1000°F 900 (482) .83 " 3600 (1982) .26
Cuprous Oxide 500 (260) .83
" Oxidized at 1000°F 1000 (538) .82 " 5306 (2930) .30
Cuprous Oxide 1000 (538) .77
Black, Oxidized 100 (38) .78 Monel, Ni-Cu 392 (200) .41 Tin, Unoxidized 77 (25) .04
Etched 100 (38) .09 Monel, Ni-Cu 752 (400) .44 " 212 (100) .05
Matte 100 (38) .22 Monel, Ni-Cu 1112 (600) .46 Tinned Iron, Bright 76 (24) .05
Roughly Polished 100 (38) .07 " 212 (100) .08
Monel, Ni-Cu Oxidized 68 (20) .43

Z-88
Table of Total Emissivity Cont’d
METALS
Material Temp °F (°C) ε–Emissivity Material Temp °F (°C) ε–Emissivity Material Temp °F (°C) ε–Emissivity
Titanium Tungsten Uranium Oxide 1880 (1027) .79
Alloy C110M, Unoxidized 77 (25) .02 Zinc
Polished 300-1200 (149-649) .08-.19 Unoxidized 212 (100) .03 Bright, Galvanized 100 (38) .23
" Oxidized at Unoxidized 932 (500) .07 Commercial 99.1% 500 (260) .05
538°C (1000°F) 200-800 (93-427) .51-.61 Unoxidized 1832 (1000) .15 Galvanized 100 (38) .28
Alloy Ti-95A, Unoxidized 2732 (1500) .23 Oxidized 500-1000 (260-538) .11
Oxid. at Unoxidized 3632 (2000) .28 Polished 100 (38) .02
538°C (1000°F) 200-800 (93-427) .35-.48 Filament (Aged) 100 (38) .03 Polished 500 (260) .03
Anodized onto SS 200-600 (93-316) .96-.82 Filament (Aged) 1000 (538) .11 Polished 1000 (538) .04
Filament (Aged) 5000 (2760) .35 Polished 2000 (1093) .06

NON-METALS
Material Temp °F (°C) ε–Emissivity Material Temp °F (°C) ε–Emissivity Material Temp °F (°C) ε–Emissivity
Adobe 68 (20) .90 Granite 70 (21) .45 Paints, Oil
Asbestos Gravel 100 (38) .28 All colors 200 (93) .92-.96
Board 100 (38) .96 Black 200 (93) .92
Gypsum 68 (20) .80-.90
Cement 32-392 (0-200) .96 Black Gloss 70 (21) .90
Ice, Smooth 32 (0) .97 Camouflage Green 125 (52) .85
Cement, Red 2500 (1371) .67
Cement, White 2500 (1371) .65 Ice, Rough 32 (0) .98 Flat Black 80 (27) .88
Cloth 199 (93) .90 Lacquer Flat White 80 (27) .91
Paper 100-700 (38-371) .93 Black 200 (93) .96 Gray-Green 70 (21) .95
Slate 68 (20) .97 Blue, on Al Foil 100 (38) .78 Green 200 (93) .95
Asphalt, pavement 100 (38) .93 Clear, on Al Foil (2 coats) 200 (93) .08 (.09) Lamp Black 209 (98) .96
Asphalt, tar paper 68 (20) .93 Clear, on Bright Cu 200 (93) .66 Red 200 (93) .95
Clear, on Tarnished Cu 200 (93) .64 White 200 (93) .94
Basalt 68 (20) .72
Red, on Al Foil (2 coats) 100 (38) .61 (.74) Quartz, Rough, Fused 70 (21) .93
Brick
White 200 (93) .95 Glass, 1.98 mm 540 (282) .90
Red, rough 70 (21) .93
White, on Al Foil (2 coats) 100 (38) .69 (.88) Glass, 1.98 mm 1540 (838) .41
Gault Cream 2500-5000 (1371-2760) .26-.30
Yellow, on Al Foil (2 coats) 100 (38) .57 (.79) Glass, 6.88 mm 540 (282) .93
Fire Clay 2500 (1371) .75
Lime Mortar 100-500 (38-260) .90-.92 Glass, 6.88 mm 1540 (838) .47
Light Buff 1000 (538) .80
Opaque 570 (299) .92
Lime Clay 2500 (1371) .43 Limestone 100 (38) .95
Opaque 1540 (838) .68
Fire Brick 1832 (1000) .75-.80 Marble, White 100 (38) .95
Magnesite, Refractory 1832 (1000) .38 Red Lead 212 (100) .93
" Smooth, White 100 (38) .56
Gray Brick 2012 (1100) .75 " Polished Gray 100 (38) .75 Rubber, Hard 74 (23) .94
Silica, Glazed 2000 (1093) .88 Mica 100 (38) .75 Rubber, Soft, Gray 76 (24) .86
Silica, Unglazed 2000 (1093) .80
Oil on Nickel Sand 68 (20) .76
Sandlime 2500-5000 (1371-2760) .59-.63
0.001 Film 72 (22) .27 Sandstone 100 (38) .67
Carborundum 1850 (1010) .92 0.002 " 72 (22) .46 Sandstone, Red 100 (38) .60-.83
Ceramic 0.005 " 72 (22) .72
Alumina on Inconel 800-2000 (427-1093) .69-.45 Sawdust 68 (20) .75
Thick " 72 (22) .82
Earthenware, Glazed 70 (21) .90 Shale 68 (20) .69
Oil, Linseed
Earthenware, Matte 70 (21) .93 On Al Foil, uncoated 250 (121) .09 Silica,Glazed 1832 (1000) .85
Greens No. 5210-2C 200-750 (93-399) .89-.82 On Al Foil, 1 coat 250 (121) .56 Silica, Unglazed 2012 (1100) .75
Coating No. C20A 200-750 (93-399) .73-.67 On Al Foil, 2 coats 250 (121) .51
Porcelain 72 (22) .92 Silicon Carbide 300-1200 (149-649) .83-.96
On Polished Iron, .001 Film 100 (38) .22
White Al2O3 200 (93) .90 Silk Cloth 68 (20) .78
On Polished Iron, .002 Film 100 (38) .45
Zirconia on Inconel 800-2000 (427-1093) .62-.45 On Polished Iron, .004 Film 100 (38) .65 Slate 100 (38) .67-.80
Clay 68 (20) .39 On Polished Iron, Thick Film 100 (38) .83 Snow, Fine Particles 20 (–7) .82
" Fired 158 (70) .91 Paints Snow, Granular 18 (–8) .89
" Shale 68 (20) .69 Blue, Cu2O3 75 (24) .94 Soil
" Tiles, Light Red 2500-5000 (1371-2760) .32-.34 Black, CuO 75 (24) .96 Surface 100 (38) .38
" Tiles, Red 2500-5000 (1371-2760) .40-.51 Green, Cu2O3 75 (24) .92 Black Loam 68 (20) .66
" Tiles, Red, Fe2O3 75 (24) .91 Plowed Field 68 (20) .38
Dark Purple 2500-5000 (1371-2760) .78 White, Al2O3 75 (24) .94 Soot
Concrete White, Y2O3 75 (24) .90 Acetylene 75 (24) .97
Rough 32-2000 (0-1093) .94 White, ZnO 75 (24) .95 Camphor 75 (24) .94
Tiles, Natural 2500-5000 (1371-2760) .63-.62 White, MgCO3 75 (24) .91 Candle 250 (121) .95
" Brown 2500-5000 (1371-2760) .87-.83 White, ZrO2 75 (24) .95 Coal 68 (20) .95
" Black 2500-5000 (1371-2760) .94-.91 White, ThO2 75 (24) .90
White, MgO 75 (24) .91 Stonework 100 (38) .93
Cotton Cloth 68 (20) .77
White, PbCO3 75 (24) .93 Water 100 (38) .67
Dolomite Lime 68 (20) .41
Yellow, PbO 75 (24) .90 Waterglass 68 (20) .96
Emery Corundum 176 (80) .86
Yellow, PbCrO4 75 (24) .93 Wood Low .80-.90
Glass
Paints, Aluminium 100 (38) .27-.67 Beech P!aned 158 (70) .94
Convex D 212 (100) .80
10% Al 100 (38) .52 Oak, Planed 100 (38) .91
Convex D 600 (316) .80
26% Al 100 (38) .30 Spruce, Sanded 100 (38) .89
Convex D 932 (500) .76
Dow XP-310 200 (93) .22
Nonex 212 (100) .82
Nonex 600 (316) .82 Paints, Bronze Low .34-.80
Nonex 932 (500) .78 Gum Varnish (2 coats) 70 (21) .53
Smooth 32-200 (0-93) .92-.94 Gum Varnish (3 coats) 70 (21) .50
Cellulose Binder (2 coats) 70 (21) .34

Z-89
Cryogenic Temperature Sensors
CY7 Series Silicon Diodes

MADE IN

USA

The new CY7 Series Sensors from OMEGA represent

the first truly new cryogenic sensor technology
introduced in the last decade. The sensors incorporate
uniform sensing elements that exhibit precise,
repeatable, monotonic temperature response over a
wide range. The elements are mounted into rugged,
hermetically sealed packages that have been
specifically designed for proper behavior in a cryogenic
environment.
The result is a family of sensors with temperature
responses so predictable, tightly grouped, and stable
that the sensors can be routinely interchanged with one
another. Precise thermal response of the sensing element itself
A New Proprietary Silicon Diode Chip is of little benefit if thermal errors generated in installing
and using the sensor swamp out its capability. It is in
The key to the sensor’s temperature response lies with minimizing these frequently unsuspected errors that the
the basic sensing element itself. The small silicon chip CY7 excels.
in each sensor has a temperature characteristic that is
so stable, so predictable, and conforms so well from A Sensor Package Designed for Cryogenics
chip to chip, that the CY7’s sensors are the first mass- Sensors for higher temperatures fall far short for
produced, interchangeable cryogenic sensors. cryogenic use. The complex thermal link between the
As shown on the graph on page Z-93, the temperature sensing element and its entire environment must be
response profile of a CY7 is comprised of two distinct taken into account, as must the effect of any
elements. With their inherent dual sensitivity, CY7 measurement-induced self-heating of the sensor, if one
sensors can cover a wide temperature range (up to 475 is to achieve accurate results. In addition, the package
Kelvin) and at the same time exhibit high sensitivity for must also withstand repeated cycling to low
critical low temperature measurement. temperatures without mechanical failure.

Z-90
Cryogenic Temperature Sensors
CY7 Series
The development of the CY7 Series has included the
design of unique sensor packages to solve many of the
problems encountered in low temperature thermometry.
For example, the CY7 hermetic package incorporates a
sapphire substrate for high electrical isolation yet good 2.0
thermal conductivity. The base bottom is metallized for

Tolerance, K (kelvin)
easy anchoring to a sample. Large strong leads form an
integral part of the package and are thermally sunk into the 1.5
substrate. This simplifies making connections to the sensor BAND 4
and at the same time helps reduce measurement errors 1.0
that could be caused by heat conduction along the leads. BAND 2
10 Microampere Excitation Current 0.5
Key to the achievement of error-free measurement is low BAND 1
excitation current. The lower the current, the less power is 0.0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
dissipated in the sensor and the less self-heating occurs. Temperature, K (kelvin)
One measure of the effectiveness of a cryogenic sensor’s
thermal design is the variation in reading obtained Tolerance Bands for CY7 Series Sensors allow
between operation in a vacuum at liquid helium selection of appropriate (and economical)
temperature and immersion directly in the liquid. In a field accuracy levels for a given application.
where discrepancies of a degree or more have been
reported, OMEGA® CY7 sensors exhibit variations as low
as 5 millikelvin.
1.8

1.6

Average
1.4 Slope
-26mV/K
Forward Voltage –– Vf (volts)

1.2

1.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

0.8

0.6
Average
Slope
-2.3mV/K
0.4

0.2

0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 200 300 400
Temperature, K (kelvin)
Standard Temperature Response (Curve 10) for CY7 Series Sensors.
All Sensors Track this Curve Within Specified Tolerance Bands.
Z-91
 Select the Sensor Configuration Best Suited to Your Application

CY7-SD The SD configuration is the CY7-LR With a CY7-SD sensor

smallest package in this series, and is mounted on a slightly more than half-
designed primarily for bonding or clamping to a flat round cylinder, this package is
surface. Since the sensing element is in best thermal designed to be inserted into a 1/8 inch (3.2 mm) diameter
contact with the base (largest surface) of the package, hole. Low temperature epoxy can also be used to install
the package should be mounted with that same surface the sensor, although the mounting is much more
in good contact with the sample. Mounting materials permanent in that case. As with other soldered down
and methods which will not expose the sensor to sensors, the temperature range of the CY7-LR extends
temperatures above 200ºC are required. Low to 325 K.
temperature indium-lead-tin based solder or low
temperature epoxy is recommended. The SD package
style is usable at temperatures up to 475 K.
Z
CY7-ET This convenient
screw-in package is formed
by soldering a basic SD
configuration into a recess in one flat of a hexagonal
cylinder. The cylinder terminates in a standard 6-32
SAE thread. Thus the sensor can be threaded (finger
tight only) into a mounting hole in the sample. A light
coating of vacuum grease on the threads further
enhances the thermal contact between the sensor
package and the sample. The solder used in mounting CY7-CU In this configuration, the SD sensor is
the SD package to this adaptor constrains the upper epoxied into a flat cylindrical disk and the sensor leads
useful temperature of this configuration to 325 K. are thermally anchored to that same disk. The unit can
be mounted to any flat surface with a 4-40 brass screw
(not supplied). The CU style sensor is wired in a four-
CY7-MT The MT package lead configuration with the leads comprised of a 36-inch
is similar to the ET version length of OMEGA’s color coded cryogenic wire.
except the SD package is Temperature range is 1.4 to 325 K.
mounted in a slot in the center of the cylinder and the
stud is a 3 mm x 0.5 metric thread.

CY7-CO A spring-loaded
clamp holds a standard SD sensor
in contact with the surface of the
sample in this configuration. This
allows the sensor to be easily
changed or replaced. It also
enables the sensor to be used over its full operational
temperature range of 1.4 to 475 K. Extra clamps are
available to accommodate applications where frequent
relocation of the sensor is desirable. The 4-40 brass
screw used with this clamp has a formed shoulder so
that, once the screw is properly seated, the spring
applies correct pressure to the clamp.
CY7-D1 This is a two-lead version of the the CY7-CU.
CY7-CY Some applications are best served by a
relatively large, robust sensor, and the CY7-CY fills that
bill. It is very similar to the CU style except that the disk
has a larger center diameter with the mounting hole
directly in the center. The CY sensor has 36-inch heavy
duty (30 AWG, PTFE coated) leads. Special attention
must be paid to thermally anchoring the leads to
prevent heat leak induced measurement error.

CY7-BO In addition to being

soldered to the mounting block,
the SD sensor in this design has
its leads thermally anchored
(without epoxy) to the block via
a beryllium oxide insert. Since
leads can be a significant heat
path to the sensing element, and
can lead to measurement errors when incorrectly
anchored, this configuration helps maintain the leads
at the same temperature as the sensor. Mounting of Probes The flexibility of the CY7 series sensors
this block is accomplished with a 4-40 screw (not makes them ideal candidates for incorporation into
supplied). Usable temperature range of the CY7-BO various probes and thermowells. However, the
sensor is 1.4 to 325 K. individualized nature of these applications usually
demands customized designs. ®

Z-92
Cryogenic Temperature Sensors
CY7 Series
Polynomial Representation
TABLE 1. Chebychev fit coefficients

2.0 to 12.0 K
A(0) = 7.556358 VL = 1.32412
Curve #10 can be represented by a polynomial equation based A(1) = -5.917261 VU = 1.69812
on the Chebychev polynomials which are described below. A(2) = 0.237238
Four separate ranges are required to accurately describe the A(3) = 0.334636
curve, with the parameters for these ranges given in Table 1. A(4) = -0.058642
The polynomials represent Curve #10 on the preceding page A(5) = -0.019929
with RMS deviations on the order of 10 mK. A(6) = -0.020715
A(7) = -0.014814
The Chebychev equation is of the form A(8) = -0.008789
T(x) = Σn=0an nt (x) (1)
A(9) = -0.008554

12.0 to 24.5 K
where T(x) represents the temperature in kelvin, tn(x) is a A(0) = 17.304227 VL = 1. 11732
Chebychev polynomial, and a n represents the Chebychev A(1) = -7.894688 VU = 1.42013
coefficients. The parameter x is a normalized variable given by A(2) = 0.453442
A(3) = 0.002243
x= (V-VL)-(VU-V) (2) A(4) = 0.158036
(VU-VL) A(5) = -0.193093
A(6) = 0.155717
where V is the voltage and VL and VU designate the lower and
A(7) = -0.085185
upper limits of the voltage over the fit range.
A(8) = 0.078550
The Chebychev polynomials can be generated from the A(9) = -0.018312
recursion relation A(10) = 0.039255
tn+1 (x)=2xtn(x)-tn-1(x), to(x)=1, t1(x)=x. (3) 24.5 to 100.0 K
Alternately, these polynomials are given by A(0) = 71.818025 VL = 0.923174
A(1) = -53.799888 VU = 1.13935
tn(x)=cos[n*arccos(x)]. (4) A(2) = 1.669931
A(3) = 2.314228
The use of Chebychev polynomials is no more complicated
A(4) = 1.566635
than the use of the regular power series, and they offer
A(5) = 0.723026
significant advantages in the actual fitting process. The first
A(6) = -0.149503
step is to transform the measured voltage into the normalized
A(7) = 0.046876
variable using equation (2). Equation (1) is then used in
A(8) = -0.388555
combination with equation (3) or (4) to calculate the
A(9) = 0.056889
temperature. Programs 1 and 2 give sample BASIC
A(10) = -0.116823
subroutines which will take the voltage and return the
A(11) = 0.058580
temperature T calculated from Chebychev fits.The subroutines
assume that the values VL and VU have been input along with
100 to 475 K
the degree of the fit, Ndegree. The Chebychev coefficients are
A(0) = 287.756797 VL = 0.079767
also assumed to be in an array A(0), A(1), ...,A(Ndegree).
A(1) = -194.144823 VU = 0.999614
An interesting property of the Chebychev fits is evident in the A(2) = -3.837903
form of the Chebychev polynomial given in equation (4). No A(3) = -1.318325
term in equation (1) will be greater than the absolute value of A(4) = -0.109120
the coefficient. This property makes it easy to determine the A(5) = -0.393265
contribution of each term to the temperature calculation and A(6) = 0.146911
where to truncate the series if the full accuracy is not required. A(7) = -0.111192
®
A(8) = 0.028877
A(9) = -0.029286
A(10) = 0.015619
PROGRAM 1. BASIC subroutine for evaluating the
temperature T from the Chebychev series using PROGRAM 2. BASIC subroutine for evaluating the
equations (1) and (3). An array Tc(Ndegree) should temperature T from the Chebychev series
be dimensioned. equations (1) and (4). ACS is used to represent the
100 REM Evaluation of Chebychev series arccosine function.
110 X= ((V-VL)-(VU-V))/(VU-VL)
120 Tc(0) = 1 100 REM Evaluation of Chebychev series
130 Tc(1) = X 110 X = ((V-VL)-(VU-V))/(VU-VL)
140 T = A(0) + A(1) *X 120 T=0
150 FOR I = 2 to Ndegree 130 FOR I = 0 to Ndegree
160 Tc(l) = 2*X*Tc(l-1)-Tc(l-2) 140 T = T + A(I)*COS(I*ACS(X))
170 T = T + A(l) *Tc(l) 150 NEXT I
180 NEXT 1 160 RETURN
190 RETURN

Z-93
Resolution and Accuracy of Cryogenic
Temperature Measurements
D. Scott Holmes and S. Scott Courts
Lake Shore Cryotronics, Inc., Westerville, Ohio 43081-2399
A procedure is outlined and typical data provided for calculation of achievable resolutions and accuracies using commercially
available cryogenic temperature sensors suitable for use as secondary or tertiary standards. Differences between resolutions
achievable in absolute temperature measurements as opposed to measurements of temperature changes are discussed.
Methods for estimating or determining errors are discussed and typical sensor calibration errors are given.
INTRODUCTION
Temperature resolution and accuracy are important, but are
not the only, considerations when choosing a temperature
sensor and its associated measurement system. Other
considerations include: sensor size or thermal mass, stability
over time, response time, mechanical shock resistance,
interchangeability, measurement system simplicity, cost,
magnetic field effects, and resistance to ionizing radiation.
The scope of this paper is limited to the estimation of
resolutions and accuracies possible when making cryogenic
temperature measurements with commercially available
temperature sensors.
Cryogenic temperature sensors have been developed based
on a variety of temperature-dependent properties (1).
Common, commercially available sensors include resistors,
capacitors, thermocouples, and semiconductor junction
devices such as diodes or transistors. The temperature-
dependent characteristics of such sensors are published
elsewhere (2,3). Such sensors, suitable for use as a
secondary or tertiary temperature standards, are of primary
concern in this paper. Primary standards-grade sensors are
very sensitive to thermal and mechanical shock and are
therefore not suitable for ordinary laboratory or industrial
temperature measurements. Other temperature measurement
techniques such as gas, vapor pressure, acoustic, noise, and
magnetic susceptibility thermometry, are not covered by this
paper as they require much greater effort to implement or they
severely constrain system design.
Temperature resolution is the smallest temperature change
that can be detected. The precision (or reproducibility or
stability) is a measure of how closely the measured values are
grouped. Accuracy is indicated by the difference between
measured and true values of a parameter. The accuracy of a
single measurement can be no better than the resolution, but
is degraded by calibration and measurement errors. The
relevant equations for determining resolution and accuracy
depend on whether the measurement is of the absolute
temperature or of a temperature change. In either case, the
achievable resolution depends on 1) the sensor
characteristics and 2) the measurement system resolution.
The accuracy of a temperature measurement can be
evaluated using error analysis.
ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE RESOLUTION
The temperature resolution εT of a thermometer measuring
a temperature T is limited by the measurement system
resolution εv according to the expression
εV
εT = ———— (1)
dV / dT
when the sensitivity dV/dT of the thermometer does not
change significantly within εT of the temperature, T. The
measured parameter and the system resolution, V, are
assumed to be voltages in Equation 1. The sensitivity dV/dT
can be written as I(dR/dT) in the case of a ohmic resistance
thermometer excited with a constant current, I. Equation 1 can
be put in dimensionless form by dividing both sides by T and
dividing the numerator and denominator of the right hand side
by V, yielding
Z-94
ε εV / V
—T = ———————
εrel
[ — (2)
T (T / V) (dV /dT) S Z
The dimensionless group in the numerator is the relative
measurement system resolution, εrel, consisting of the
measurement system resolution, εV, divided by the voltage
measured. The denominator consists of S [ (T/V)(dV/dT),
known as the specific sensitivity, giving the relative temperature
sensitivity of the thermometer at temperature T. The specific
sensitivity is also equal to (d InV/d InT), the slope of the
parameter versus temperature on a log-log plot. Note that
equations 1 and 2 can be made to apply to thermometers based
on other temperature-dependent properties (e.g., capacitance,
resistance or pressure) by replacing V with C, R or P.
The dimensionless nature of Equation 2 makes somewhat
easier the comparison of thermometers based on different
temperature-dependent properties. Specific sensitivities of
some representative cryogenic temperature sensors are
plotted in Figure 1. Sensors of the same type made by
different manufacturers may have similar characteristics. Non-
metallic sensors of the same type but different nominal
resistances usually have different S versus T characteristics.
Metallic resistance thermometers should all fall on the same
line with some exceptions: variations in residual resistance
cause differences in specific sensitivity at lower temperatures,
and the sensitivity of alloys such as Rh-Fe also depends on
the concentration of the active impurity.
A specific sensitivity in the 0.1 to 10 range is usually best for
temperature measurements over a wide range, although other
factors can be much more important. A large specific
sensitivity allows the resolution of small temperatures relative
to the temperature measured, but the temperature range
becomes limited if the value of the property measured
becomes too large or small to be determined accurately with
the measurement system.
The relative absolute temperature resolution is also a
function of the relative measurement system resolution, εrel =
εv /V (εc/C for capacitance measurements). As an example, a
germanium resistance sensor with a specific sensitivity of
-2.14 and resistance of 1000 Ω at a temperature of 4.2 K, 1
µA excitation current, and a measurement system with 1 µV
resolution would provide an absolute temperature resolution
of about 2 mK. Note that the sensor excitation current affects
the output voltage (V = IR), and thus the relative
measurement system resolution, so the sensor and the
measurement system are not independent. Absolute
temperature resolutions calculated using Equation 2, the
specific sensitivities plotted in Figure 1, and sample
excitations and system resolutions are plotted in Figure 2. The
temperature resolutions plotted in Figure 2 were calculated
only as a demonstration of how to calculate temperature
resolutions for a variety of different sensors; different
operating conditions, sensor models, or measurement
equipment can greatly affect the achievable resolution.
Optimization of the temperature resolution is dependent on
both the sensor properties and the measurement system. The
minimum resolvable temperature is not merely a matter of
finding a sensor with the highest specific sensitivity. Some
examples of interactions between sensor properties and
measurement system resolution follow.
 15
YSI
10
CGR
CS-501
GR
1 Au-Fe
Specific Sensitivity (S)
Thermocouple
Rh-Fe
0.1
GaAlAs
Diode
Si Diode
RO
Pt
CLTS
0.01
10 1 100 500
Temperature (K)
Figure 1. Absolute values of specific sensitivities of
representative commercial cryogenic temperature sensors.
Model numbers refer to Lake Shore sensors except where
noted. Au-Fe thermocouple: KP chromel vs. Au-0.07%Fe,
CGR: CGR-1-1000 carbon-glass resistor, CLTS: Vishay
Micro-Measurements CLTS-2 metal foil gauge, CS-501: CS-
501 capacitor, GaAlAs diode: TG-120P gallium-aluminum-
arsenide @ 10 µA, GR: GR-200A-1000 germanium resistor,
Pt: Pt-103 platinum resistor, Rh-Fe: RF-800-4 rhodium-iron
resistor, RO: Scientific Instruments RO-600 ruthenium oxide
sensor, Si diode: DT-470 @ 10 µA, YSI: Yellow Springs
Instruments 44003A thermistor.
As a first example, gold-iron versus chromel thermocouples
have what appears to be a nearly ideal specific sensitivity
near unity across the entire
1 to 300 K temperature range. Unfortunately, thermocouples
suffer from very small signal output, which can decrease the
temperature resolution possible from a given measurement
system. Thermocouples are also affected by nonuniformities
in the wire and require a good understanding of thermocouple
physics for proper installation and operation (4).
A sensor with large specific sensitivity, such as a
germanium resistor near 1 K, can be limited in resolution by
power dissipation constraints. The germanium crystal requires
strain-free mounting for accurate temperature readings and
long term stability, but the strain-free mounting reduces the
thermal contact between the sensor and the body whose
temperature is to be measured, making the sensor more
susceptible to self heating. The excitation current for
germanium and carbon-glass sensors is typically adjusted to
produce an output voltage in the 1 to 3 mV range, thereby
maintaining a balance between signal level and power
dissipation. Other sensors such as platinum or thick film
resistors do not require strain-free mounting, so signal levels
of thin film or encapsulated platinum sensors can be
increased by operating with higher power dissipation. The
trade off is that strain-free mounted platinum sensors are
more stable over time.
A diode is an example of a sensor that can have relatively
low specific sensitivity, but large signal level, typically on the
order of a volt. Potentials on the order of one volt can be
measured with great resolution. Diodes, however, are non-
ohmic and thus constrained to constant current operation,
which can lead to self-heating problems at low temperatures.
Optimization of the absolute temperature resolution can
require complex tradeoffs between sensor and measurement
system costs and capabilities.
Z-95
Absolute Temperature Resolution, T (K)
Temperature (K)
Figure 2. Absolute temperature resolutions of
representative commercial cryogenic temperature sensors
under the following operating conditions: Au-Fe
thermocouple: versus KP chromel, CGR: 1-3 mV or I = 0.1
µA minimum, CLTS: 10 µA, CS-501: 5 kHz charging current,
GaAlAs diode: 10 µA, GR: 1-3 mV or I = 0.1 µA minimum,
Pt: 100 µA, Rh-Fe: 300 µA, RO: 10 µA, Si diode: 10 µA, YSI:
1 µW. Relative measurement system resolution: capacitance:
εrel = 0.1 pF/C; voltage: εrel = 0.1 µV/V or 10-5, whichever is
larger. Refer to Figure 1 for sensor identification.
RELATIVE TEMPERATURE RESOLUTION
Better resolution is possible with the same measurement
system when measuring temperature changes (relative
temperatures) smaller than the absolute temperature. The
reason for this fact is that only the change in the value, and not
the entire value, must be measured. In this case, Equation 2 is
not valid since the specific sensitivity is defined using the full
parameter value (e.g., V) whereas the relative system response
requires the change in the measured value (e.g., ∆V). Equation
1 is valid, but provides little guidance for optimizing the
resolution of relative temperature measurements. Equation 2
can be modified to apply to relative temperature measurements
by multiplying the right hand side by (∆V/∆V), yielding the
expression
εT = ∆
–––
V  εV / ∆V
 ––  ––––––––––
 ∆V  εrel
[  ––  —– (3)
T  V  (T/V)(dV/dT)  V  S
The resolvable temperature is seen to be reduced by a factor
of (∆V/V) if εrel remains the same as for an absolute
temperature measurement. In practice, the system resolution,
εV, is ordinarily not reduced in proportion to the ratio (∆V/V) so
less resolution gain is realized. Note that both equations 1
and 3 implicitly or explicitly require knowledge of the absolute
temperature, T (the sensitivity dV/dT at temperature T is
required in Equation 1). This problem can be avoided by using
a thermometer with a linear response to temperature.
Alternately, the relative temperature can be measured with
one thermometer while the absolute temperature is measured
with a second thermometer, but the accuracy of the absolute
temperature measurement will affect the accuracy of the
relative temperature measurement.
 SOURCES OF MEASUREMENT ERROR
Equations 1 - 3 can be used to calculate the temperature
resolution (or error) once the measurement system resolution
(or error) is specified. This section discusses the sources of
the errors and how to determine their magnitudes. Error
sources include the sensor calibration, the applied excitation,
measurement system calibration, thermal voltages, noise,
sensor self-heating and poor thermal grounding of the sensor.
The total error arising from several independent error
sources is usually calculated in one of two ways. The worst-
case error, εWC, can be estimated by direct summation of all
errors
εWC = ε1 + ε2 +···+ εi +···+ εn (4)
where εi is the i th of n total errors.
The most probable error, εMP, can be estimated by
assuming a statistical distribution of errors, in which case the
errors are summed in quadrature according to
εMP = œ ßε1ß +ß ßε2ß+···+
2 2
ß ß ßεß +···εn2
i ß
2
(5)
The worst-case and most probable errors must be computed
from errors of the same dimensions. Dimensionless relative
system errors can be summed using either Equations 4 or 5 and
then translated to temperature errors using Equations 2 or 3.
Getting statistical data suitable for addition by quadrature
can be a problem; instrument and sensor specifications
commonly give maximum rather than most probable or typical
values for errors. Two approaches may be taken to dealing
with maximum error specifications. The conservative
approach is to use the specification limit value in worst case
or most probable error calculations. The less conservative
approach is to assume a statistical distribution within the
specification limits and assume the limit is roughly three
standard deviations, in which case one-third of the
specification limit is used in error calculations. The
manufacturer may be able to supply additional information to
help improve error estimates.
Voltage or Frequency Measurement Errors
The accuracy of instrumentation such as voltmeters and
frequency counters is subject to calibration uncertainty and
drift with time and operating temperature. Accuracies of such
instruments should be available from the manufacturer.
Excitation Current Error
The temperature measurement error due to an error in the
excitation current can be calculated from Equation 2 by
replacing the quantity εV /V by the relative voltage change due
to the current error. The resulting expression is
ε (εI /I)(Rd /Rs)
—T = ————— (6)
T S
where Rd and Rs are the dynamic and static resistances of the
sensor. Note that the dynamic and static resistances of an
ohmic sensor are equal. Typical dynamic resistances of a
Lake Shore DT-470 silicon diode are 3000 Ω at 300 K, 1000
Ω at 77 K, and 2800 Ω at 4.2 K, while the static resistances
are respectively 51.9 kΩ, 102 kΩ and 163 kΩ.
Thermal (Johnson) Noise
Thermal energy produces random motions of the charged
particles within a body, giving rise to electrical noise. The
minimum rms noise power available is given by Pn = 4kT∆fn,
where k is the Boltzmann constant and ∆fn is the noise
bandwidth. Peak-to-peak noise is approximately five times
greater than the rms noise. Metallic resistors approach this
fundamental minimum, but other materials produce somewhat
greater thermal noise. The noise power is related to current or
voltage noise by the relations: I = [Pn /R]1/2 and V = [PnR]1/2.
The noise bandwidth is not necessarily the same as the signal
bandwidth, but is approximately equal to the smallest of (5):
Z-96
• π/2 times the upper 3 db frequency limit of the analog dc
measuring circuitry, given as approximately 1/(4 Reff Cin)
where Reff is the effective resistance across the measuring
instrument (including the instrument’s input impedance in
parallel with the sensor resistance and wiring) and Cin is the
total capacitance shunting the input;
• 0.55/tr where tr is the instrument’s 10-90% rise time;
• one Hz if an analog panel meter is used for readout; or
• one-half the conversion rate (readings per second) of an
integrating digital voltmeter.
Thermoelectric Voltages and Zero Offsets
Voltages develop in electrical conductors with temperature
gradients when no current is allowed to flow (thermal EMF’s).
Z
Thermoelectric voltages appear when dissimilar metals are
joined and joints are held at different temperatures. Typical
thermoelectric voltages in cryogenic measurement systems
are on the order of microvolts.
A zero offset is the signal value measured with no input to
the measuring instrument. The zero offset can drift with time
or temperature and is usually included in the instrument
specifications.
Thermoelectric voltages and zero offsets can be eliminated
from voltage measurements on ohmic resistors by reversal of
the excitation current and use of the formula:
V = (V+ - V_)/2 (7)
where V+ and V_ are the voltages with respectively positive
and negative excitation currents. Alternating current (ac)
excitation can also be used with ohmic sensors to eliminate
zero offsets.
Measurements made in rapid succession might not allow
time for current switching and the required settling times. The
error can be reduced by measuring the offset before and after
a series of rapid measurements and subtracting the offset
voltage from the measured voltages. The sum of the
thermoelectric voltages and zero offset can be calculated as
Vo = (V+ + V_)/2 (8)
Note that the resolution of Vo is practically limited by the
resolution of the measurement system. The value of Vo can be
expected to vary little in a static system, but may change
during a thermal transient under study. The value of Vo should
be rechecked as often as is practical.
The offset voltage Vo is best measured by reversing the
current through a resistor. Measurement of Vo with zero
excitation current is also possible, but large resistances can
produce excessive time constants for discharge of any
capacitances in the circuit, requiring long waiting times before
Vo can be measured accurately.
Measurements on diodes do not allow current reversal. The
value of Vo can be estimated by shorting the leads at the
diode and measuring the offset voltage with zero excitation
current at operating temperature.
Ground Loops and Electromagnetic Noise
Improper grounding of instruments or grounding at multiple
points can allow current flows which result in small voltage
offsets. One common problem is the grounding of cable
shields at both ends. The current flow through ground loops is
not necessarily constant, resulting in a fluctuating error
voltage.
Electromagnetic pickup is a source of additional noise.
Alternating current noise is a serious problem in sensors with
nonlinear current-voltage characteristics (6). Measurement of
the ac noise across the terminals of the reading instrument
can give a quick indication of the magnitude of this noise
source (thermal noise will be included in this measurement).
Books on grounding and shielding can help to identify and
eliminate both ground loops and electromagnetic noise (7,8).
Self Heating
Heat dissipated within a temperature sensor causes its
temperature to rise, resulting in an error relative to the
sensor’s surroundings. Self heating errors might not affect
relative temperature measurements. Attempting to correct for
self heating errors by calculation or extrapolation is not
considered good practice. An estimate of the self heating error
should be included in the total error calculation instead. An
easy way to check for self heating is to increase the power
dissipation and check for an indicated temperature rise.
Unfortunately, this procedure will not work with diodes. An
indication of the self heating error can be made by reading the
diode temperature in both a liquid bath and in a vacuum at the
same temperature, as measured by a second thermometer not
dissipating enough power to self heat significantly.
Calibration Uncertainty
Commercially calibrated temperature sensors should have
calibrations traceable to international standards. Calibration
uncertainties for sensors calibrated by Lake Shore are
provided later in this paper. The calibration uncertainty of the
temperature sensor must be included in accuracy calculations.
Interpolation Errors
Once a calibration has been performed, an interpolation
function is required for temperatures which lie between
calibration points. The interpolation method must be chosen
with care since some fitting functions can be much worse than
others. Common interpolation methods include linear
interpolation, cubic splines and Chebychev polynomials.
Formulas based on the physics of the sensor material may
give the best fits when few fit parameters are used.
Use of an interpolation function adds to the temperature
measurement uncertainty. The additional uncertainty due to an
interpolation function can be gauged by the ability of the
interpolation function to reproduce the calibration point
temperatures from the calibration point resistances. Lake
Shore calibration reports include the mean and largest
deviations. Fitting with Chebychev polynomials is standard
practice. Each calibration can be broken up into several
ranges to decrease the fitting errors. Typical errors introduced
by the interpolation function are on the order of one-tenth the
calibration uncertainty.
CALIBRATION SYSTEM EXAMPLE
The example to be discussed in detail is the cryogenic
temperature calibration facility operated by Lake Shore. This
facility is designed to calibrate a variety of resistance and
diode temperature sensors over the temperature range of
1.2 to 330 K.
Physical Construction
Calibrations are performed by mounting sensors on a probe
to be inserted in a liquid helium cryostat (see Figure 3). The
sensors are mounted in a gold-plated OFHC copper
calibration block which provides an isothermal environment.
Special adapters and a variety of calibration blocks allow
calibration of sensors with varying shapes and sizes. The
electrical leads from the sensors are soldered to contacts
thermally anchored to a second gold-plated OFHC copper
block directly above the calibration block. The thermal
anchoring block is attached to a flange, on top of which is a
liquid helium subpot. Surrounding the thermal anchoring and
calibration blocks is an isothermal OFHC copper shield. The
shield has a resistance wire heater wound around the outside
with several layers of super-insulation overwrap to reduce
thermal radiation to or from the vacuum can. Thermoelectric
voltages are minimized by using continuous wire from the
thermal anchoring block to the low thermal EMF connectors at
the top of the probe which is at room temperature.
Operation
During cooldown, a small amount of helium gas is introduced
into the vacuum chamber to act as a transfer medium. The
cryostat is then filled with liquid helium and the calibration
Z-97
Figure 3. Calibration cryostat schematic
block and surrounding chamber cool to a nominal temperature
of 4.2 K. The transfer gas is then pumped out. To obtain
temperatures below 4.2 K, the subpot is filled with liquid
helium and vacuum pumped. As the vapor pressure of the
helium liquid in the subpot decreases, the temperature
decreases. The pumping is controlled by a high resolution
pumping valve. The subpot bath temperature is not actively
controlled. Depending on the pumping speed and base
pressure, temperatures as low as 1.05 K can be reached. To
obtain temperatures above 4.2 K, the subpot is pumped dry
and the heater is energized by the temperature controller. A
diode monitors the nominal temperature of the isothermal
shield and calibration block and the temperature is read by
the temperature controller. The heater is used to bring the
temperature to a point just below the desired temperature.
The heater power is then reduced so that the temperature is
increasing on the order of a millikelvin per minute. Data are
taken when the drift rate is sufficiently small (typically about
10 minutes).
Electronic Equipment
The electronic equipment used in this facility consists of a
HP3456A voltmeter, a Keithley model 224 variable current
source, five Lake Shore model 8085 scanners, a Lake Shore
DRC-82C temperature controller, five Guildline 9330 standard
resistors (10 Ω, 100 Ω, 1 kΩ, 10 kΩ and 100 kΩ values), a
1000 Ω germanium standard thermometer and a 100 Ω
platinum standard thermometer. Other electronic equipment
such as the computer used for system control has no effect
on the accuracy of the system. A block diagram of the
equipment connection scheme is shown in Figure 4. Data
acquisition is computer controlled. Two scanners are used to
switch between each of twenty unknown sensors, one
scanner is used to place one of the standard resistors into the
circuit, one scanner chooses between the germanium and
platinum standard, and the last scanner chooses whether the
voltmeter measures the voltage drop across the unknown
sensor or the standard resistor.
current
source
standard
resistors
computer scanners
temperature
sensors
voltmeter
Figure 4. Thermometer calibration facility instrumentation
block diagram
Resistance Measurements Nominal 1 Year Base Error From Total
The resistance of a sensor is measured by comparison with Value of Uncertainty Possible Uncertainty
a standard resistor. Long term stability of resistor standards Working of Primary Voltmeter Room for Working
tends to be somewhat better than the long term stability of Standard Standard Transfer Temperature Standard
current sources, so overall accuracy is improved over Resistor Resistor Accuracy Fluctuations Resistor
methods relying on a calibrated current source. R (Ω) A B C MP WC

The normal operating procedure is to place a resistor - -

standard in series with the sensor whose resistance is to be 100 15 6 5 17 26
measured. A voltmeter reading is taken with current in both
the forward and reverse directions across the sensor. 1000 15 6 5 17 26
Voltmeter readings are then taken with current in both the 10000 20 6 5 22 31
forward and reverse directions across the standard resistor.
The resistance of the sensor can be calculated using the
relation
Table I. Uncertainty estimates for calibrations of working
standard resistors. Errors and uncertainties are expressed in
Z
parts per million (±ppm). Typical values are calculated by
(V+ - V_)sensor quadrature (MP) and worst case (WC) values by direct
Rsensor = —————————— x Rstandard (9)
(V+ - V_)standard summation.

where V+ and V_ are the voltages measured with current in the

forward and reverse directions respectively. Measuring and
averaging voltage for current in both forward and reverse
directions serves two purposes: errors due to thermoelectric
voltages are eliminated and voltmeter offsets are canceled
out. In this situation, the voltmeter transfer specification, rather T CGR-1-1000 GR-200A-1000 PT-103
than the absolute measurement specification, applies. The (K) (mK) (mK) (mK)
gain in accuracy is about a factor of ten over using the 1.5 1 1 -
voltmeter as an absolute measurement device.
4.2 1 1 -
Diode Measurements 10. 3 2 -
Diode measurements are no more difficult to perform but 20. 10 6 14
typically less accurate. The reduced accuracy is a
consequence of the nonlinear current-voltage characteristic of 30. 19 10 5
diodes. The voltage across the diode can be measured only in 50. 41 20 3
the forward direction, so the voltmeter must now make an
absolute measurement. Without current reversal, 100. 110 76 6
thermoelectric voltages and voltmeter offsets may be present 300. 425 - 16
and these directly affect the achievable accuracy. The long-
term accuracy and stability of the current source is also a Table II. Temperature measurement uncertainties in
factor. Fortunately, the small dynamic resistance reduces the millikelvin for carbon glass (CGR), germanium (GR) and
error due to small current errors by a factor of 100 to 1000 (6). platinum (PT) sensors.

Calibration
Calibration is accomplished by comparison calibration
against standard thermometers. Two standard thermometers
are used: a germanium resistance thermometer for the 1 to 28
K range and a platinum resistance thermometer for the 28 to
330 K range. A standard sensor reading is taken before and T [K] <10 20 30 50 100 300
after every unknown sensor reading. The initial and final εT [mK]: 5 10 15 15 15 20
readings are averaged to compensate for temperature drifts
between the time the standard and unknown are read.
Table III. Uncertainties in realizing the ITS-90 temperature
scale at the Lake Shore calibration facility.
Total System Accuracy Calculation
The attainable accuracy for a temperature measurement
system depends on a number of variables. Lake Shore bases
its calibrations on a calibrated voltmeter and calibrated
working resistance standards to transfer a temperature scale
from working temperature standards to unknown resistance
temperature sensors. Calculating the total system accuracy CGR-1-1000 GR-200A-1000 PT-103
requires information such as absolute and transfer [mK] [mK] [mK]
specifications for equipment being used and a derating
T (K) MP WC MP WC MP WC
schedule for the calibration of the equipment. Some of this
information is normally supplied with the equipment, but other 1.5 4 5 4 5 - -
parts are not. The manufacturer is the best source for this 4.2 4 5 4 5 - -
information. Keep in mind, however, that the degradation of 10. 4 5 4 5 - -
the equipment is directly dependent upon its use and 20. 10 20 8 15 15 25
treatment. 30. 20 35 12 25 10 20
50. 30 55 20 35 10 20
Our voltmeters are calibrated every six months to ensure 100. 65 125 45 90 10 20
they meet their transfer specifications. Primary standard 300. 250 450 - - 20 35
resistors are calibrated once per year. The working resistance
standards are calibrated every six months against the primary Table IV. Total temperature measurement uncertainties
standard resistors.The following table lists typical uncertainties relative to ITS-90 in millikelvin for carbon glass (CGR),
for the 10 Ω, 100 Ω, 1000 Ω and 10 kΩ working standard germanium (GR) and platinum (PT) sensors.

Z-98
resistors. Uncertainties arise from shifts in the primary REFERENCES
standard resistances, limitations of the voltmeter as a transfer 1. L.G. Rubin, B.L. Brandt and H.H. Sample, “Cryogenic
device, and dependence of the voltmeter and standard thermometry: a review of recent progress, II,” Cryogenics
resistors on variations in room temperature. 22 (1982) 491-503.
The total errors from the standard resistors due to 2. L.L. Sparks, “Temperature, strain and magnetic field
calibration shifts and operating temperature variations are measurements,” in Materials at Low Temperatures, R.P.
listed in Table I in terms of parts per million (ppm). The Reed and A.F. Clark, eds., American Society for Metals,
uncertainty estimates can be converted into equivalent Ohio (1983) 515-571.
temperature uncertainties given the temperature and specific 3. S.S. Courts, D.S. Holmes, P.R. Swinehart and B.C.
sensitivity of the sensor measured using Equation 2. Dodrill, “Cryogenic thermometry—an overview,”
Applications of Cryogenic Technology, Vol. 10, Plenum
Using the voltmeter as a transfer standard gives an Press, New York (1991) 55-69.
improved accuracy over using it to make absolute 4. P.L. Walstrom, Spatial dependence of thermoelectric voltages
measurements. The transfer accuracy of the voltmeter is and reversible heats, Am. J. Phys. 56 (1988) 890-894.
roughly ±10 counts which translates to about ±1 µV on an 5. Low Level Measurements , Keithly Instruments, Inc.,
absolute scale in the millivolt range. Signals for carbon glass Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A. (1984).
and germanium sensors are kept between 1 and 3 mV so this 6. J.K. Krause and B.C. Dodrill, “Measurement system
is equivalent to a relative accuracy, εrel, of about 0.05%. induced errors in diode thermometry, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 57
Platinum sensors are read at a power somewhat less than (1986) 661-665.
10 µW and produce voltage signals ranging from 3.5 mV at 7. H.W. Ott, Noise Reduction Techniques in Electronic
30 K (1 mA current) to 27.5 mV at 300 K (0.25 mA). The Systems, John Wiley & Sons, New York (1976).
voltmeter relative accuracy for 100 Ω platinum sensors ranges 8. R. Morrison, Grounding and Sheilding Techniques in
from 0.03% at 30 K to about 0.0036% at 300 K. Higher Instrumentation, John Wiley & Sons, New York (1977).
accuracy at higher temperatures is also observed in rhodium-
iron sensors. Equivalent temperature uncertainties are given
in Table II for a typical carbon glass resistor (model CGR-1-
1000), germanium resistor (model GR-200A-1000) and a
platinum resistor (model PT-103). The uncertainties due to
calibration transfer of the resistance standards and that of the
voltmeter transfer accuracies have been added together in
this table.
Another important source of error comes from the error
limits assigned to the secondary temperature standards
calibrated by national standards laboratories. Based on
estimates given in NBS Monograph 126 concerning the
accuracy of the fixed points maintained at NIST (National
Institute for Standards and Technology, formerly NBS) and
the variations observed in platinum thermometers, an
uncertainty estimate of ±5 mK can be made. Added to this
uncertainty is the measurement uncertainty from Table II.
Germanium standards (1000 Ω) are used below 28 K and
platinum standards (100 Ω) are used above 30 K. The
measurement uncertainty added to the calibration uncertainty
of the secondary temperature standards gives the overall
uncertainty in realizing the ITS-90 temperature scale. The
uncertainty of Lake Shore calibrations relative to ITS-90 is
given in Table III at several temperatures. The temperature
resolution of the Lake Shore Calibration Facility is generally a
factor of 10 or more better than our accuracy specification.
The total error of a given calibration is the combination of
the first three tables. The total error is given in Table IV for the
same representative temperature sensors included in Table II.
The total uncertainty is expressed as millikelvin deviation from
ITS-90. Two columns are given for each sensor. The “MP”
column is the estimated most probable error of a given
calibration computed using summation by quadrature. The
“WC” column is the unlikely worst case error computed by
direct summation of all error sources.

CONCLUSION
The accuracies stated apply only to the sensors as calibrated.
An end user must be careful to distinguish between the desired
measurement accuracy and the calibration accuracy of the
sensor alone. Errors introduced by the user’s measurement
system, rough handling and inadequate thermal contact will add
to the calibration uncertainty.
An estimate of the accuracy of a temperature sensor can be
made by combining the errors due to calibration, interpolation
and the measurement system. Errors can be added in
quadrature to give the most probable error, or can be summed
directly to give worst case error.
Reproduced with permission of the American Institute of Physics and
Lake Shore Cryogenics.
Z-99
Heat Wave
A National Problem

Heat kills by taxing the human body beyond its abilities. Heat Index/Heat Disorders
In a normal year, about 175 Americans succumb to the
demands of summer heat. Among the large continental Heat Possible Heat Disorders for
family of natural hazards, only the cold of winter–not
lightning, hurricanes, tornadoes, floods or
Index People in Higher Risk Groups Z
130° or Heatstroke/sunstroke highly
earthquakes–takes a greater toll. In the 40-year period Higher likely with continued exposure
from 1936 through 1975, nearly 20,000 people were
killed in the United States by the effects of heat and 105° to Sunstroke, heat cramps or
solar radiation. In the disastrous heat wave of 1980, 130° heat exhaustion likely, with
more than 1,250 people died. heatstroke possible with
prolonged exposure and / or
And these are the direct casualties. No one can know physical activity
how many more deaths are advanced by heat wave 90° to Sunstroke, heat cramps and
weather - how many diseased or aging hearts surrender 105° heat exhaustion possible with
that under better conditions would have continued prolonged exposure and / or
functioning. physical activity
North American summers are hot; most summers see 80° to Fatigue possible with
heat waves in one section or another of the United 90° prolonged exposure and / or
States. East of the Rockies, they tend to combine both physical activity
high temperature and high humidity although some of
the worst have been catastrophically dry.
Summary of NWS’s Alert Procedures
NOAA’S National Weather Service Heat The NWS will initiate alert procedures when the HI is
Index Program expected to exceed 105°-110°F (depending on local
Considering this tragic death toll, the National Weather climate) for at least two consecutive days. The
Service (NWS) has stepped up its efforts to alert more procedures are:
effectively the general public and appropriate authorities • Include HI values in zone and city forecasts.
to the hazards of heat waves - those prolonged
excessive heat/humidity episodes. • Issue Special Weather Statements and/or Public
Information Statements presenting a detailed
Based on the latest research findings, the NWS has discussion of (1) the extent of the hazard including HI
devised the “Heat Index” (HI), (sometimes referred to as values, (2) who is most at risk, (3) safety rules for
the “apparent temperature”). The HI, given in degrees reducing the risk.
F, is an accurate measure of how hot it really feels
when relative humidity (RH) is added to the actual air • Assist state/local health officials in preparing Civil
temperature. Emergency Messages in severe heat waves.
Meteorological information from Special Weather
To find the HI, look at the Heat Index Chart. As an Statements will be included as well as more detailed
example, if the air temperature is 95°F (found on the left medical information, advice, and names and
side of the table) and the RH is 55% (found at the top of telephone numbers of health officials.
the table), the HI - or how hot it really feels - is 110°F.
This is at the intersection of the 95° row and the 55% • Release to the media and over NOAA’s own Weather
column. Radio all of the above information.
IMPORTANT: Since HI values were devised for shady, How Heat Affects the Body
light wind conditions, EXPOSURE TO FULL Human bodies dissipate heat by varying the rate and
SUNSHINE CAN INCREASE HI VALUES BY UP TO depth of blood circulation, by losing water through the
15°F. ALSO, STRONG WINDS, PARTICULARLY WITH skin and sweat glands, and - as the last extremity is
VERY HOT, DRY AIR, CAN BE EXTREMELY reached - by panting, when blood is heated above 98.6
HAZARDOUS. degrees. The heart begins to pump more blood, blood
Note on the HI chart the shaded zone above 105°F. vessels dilate to accommodate the increased flow, and
This corresponds to a level of HI that may cause the bundles of tiny capillaries are threading through the
increasingly severe heat disorders with continued upper layers of skin are put into operation. The body’s
exposure and/or physical activity. blood is circulated closer to the skin’s surface, and
excess heat drains off into the cooler atmosphere. At
The “Heat Index vs. Heat Disorder” table (next to the HI the same time, water diffuses through the skin as
chart) relates ranges of HI with specific disorders, perspiration. The skin handles about 90 percent of the
particularly for people in higher risk groups. body’s heat dissipating function.

Z-100
Heat Wave Cont’d

RELATIVE HUMIDITY (%)

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
140 125
135 120 128 Heat Index
130 117 122 131 (or Apparent
AIR TEMPERATURE (°F)

125 111 116 123 131 141 Temperature)

120 107 111 116 123 130 139 148
115 103 107 111 115 120 127 135 143 151
110 99 102 105 108 112 117 123 130 137 143 150
105 95 97 100 102 105 109 113 118 123 129 135 142 149
100 91 93 95 97 99 101 104 107 110 115 120 126 132 138 144
95 87 88 90 91 93 94 96 98 101 104 107 110 114 119 124 130 136
90 83 84 85 86 87 88 90 91 93 95 96 98 100 102 106 109 113 117 122
85 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 93 95 97 99 102 105 108
80 73 74 75 76 77 77 78 79 79 80 81 81 82 83 85 86 86 87 88 89 91
75 69 69 70 71 72 72 73 73 74 74 75 75 76 76 77 77 78 78 79 79 80
70 64 64 65 65 66 66 67 67 68 68 69 69 70 70 70 70 71 71 71 71 72

Heat Index Chart

Air Temperature and Relative Humidity Versus Apparent Temperature

Sweating, by itself, does nothing to cool the body,
unless the water is removed by evaporation–and high
relative humidity retards evaporation. The evaporation
process itself works this way: the heat energy required
to evaporate the sweat is extracted from the body,
thereby cooling it. Under conditions of high temperature
(above 90 degrees) and high relative humidity, the body
is doing everything it can to maintain 98.6 degrees
inside. The heart is pumping a torrent of blood through
dilated circulatory vessels; the sweat glands are pouring
liquid–including essential dissolved chemicals, like
sodium and chloride–onto the surface of the skin.
Too Much Heat
Heat disorders generally have to do with a reduction or
collapse of the body’s ability to shed heat by circulatory
changes and sweating, or a chemical (salt) imbalance
caused by too much sweating. When heat gain exceeds
the level the body can remove, or when the body
cannot compensate for fluids and salt lost through
perspiration, the temperature of the body’s inner core
begins to rise, and heat-related illness may develop.
Ranging in severity, heat disorders share one common
feature: the individual has overexposed or over
exercised for his age and physical condition in the
existing thermal environment.
Sunburn, with its ultraviolet radiation burns, can
significantly retard the skin’s ability to shed excess heat.
Studies indicate that, other things being equal, the
severity of heat disorders tend to increase with
age–heat cramps in a 17-year old may be heat
exhaustion in someone 40, and heat stroke in a person
over 60.
Acclimatization has to do with adjusting sweat-salt
concentrations, among other things. The idea is to lose
enough water to regulate body temperature, with the
least possible chemical disturbance.
Reprinted with permission of National Weather Service.

Z-101
Dew Point 2
5
10
% HUMIDITY

20
30
40
50
60
70 90
80 100
70

65

60
Charts based on:
55
td - ta
(
17.5 –––––––––
td + 240.97 ) 50

H =100«
45

AIR TEMPERATURE (°C)

where H = relative humidity (%)
40 Z
td = dewpoint temperature (°C) 35
ta = air temperature (°C)
30

25

20

15

10

0
-5 5 15 25 35 45 55 65
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
DEWPOINT TEMPERATURE (°C)

% HUMIDITY
2 10 30 50 70 90
5 20 40 60 80 100
160

150

140
To determine the dewpoint
130
temperature: After measuring the air
120 temperature and relative humidity, use
the graph by drawing a horizontal line
AIR TEMPERATURTE (°F)

110 from the air temperature (Y-axis) to the

appropriate relative humidity line. Then
100
draw a vertical line from that
90 intersection down to the dewpoint
temperature (X-axis). ®

80

70

60

50

40

32

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110120 130 140 150 160

DEWPOINT TEMPERATURE (°F)

Z-102
Equilibrium ReIative Humidity
Saturated SaIt Solutions
Relative Humidity (%RH) Saturated Salt Solutions
A very convenient method to
Temperature Lithium Potassium Magnesium calibrate humidity sensors is the use
°C Chloride Acetate Chloride of saturated salt solutions. At any
0 11.23 ± 0.54 33.66 ± 0.33 temperature, the concentration of a
5 11.26 ± 0.47 33.60 ± 0.28 saturated solution is fixed and does
10 11.29 ± 0.41 23.28 ± 0.53 33.47 ± 0.24 not have to be determined. By
15 11.30 ± 0.35 23.40 ± 0.32 33.30 ± 0.21 providing excess solute, the solution
20 11.31 ± 0.31 23.11 ± 0.25 33.07 ± 0.18 will remain saturated even in the
25 11.30 ± 0.27 22.51 ± 0.32 32.78 ± 0.16 presence of modest moisture
30 11.28 ± 0.24 21.61 ± 0.53 32.44 ± 0.14 sources and sinks. When the solute
35 11.25 ± 0.22 32.05 ± 0.13 is a solid in the pure phase, it is easy
40 11.21 ± 0.21 31.60 ± 0.13 to determine that there is saturation.
45 11.16 ± 0.21 31.10 ± 0.13 The saturated salt solution, made up
50 11.10 ± 0.22 30.54 ± 0.13 as a slushy mixture with distilled
55 11.03 ± 0.23 29.93 ± 0.16 water and chemically pure salt, is
60 10.95 ± 0.26 29.26 ± 0.18 enclosed in a sealed metal or a glass
65 10.86 ± 0.29 28.54 ± 0.21 chamber. Wexler and Hasegawa
70 10.75 ± 0.33 27.77 ± 0.25 measured the humidity in the
75 10.64 ± 0.38 26.94 ± 0.29 atmosphere above eight saturated
80 10.51 ± 0.44 26.05 ± 0.34 salt solutions for ambient
85 10.38 ± 0.51 25.11 ± 0.39 temperatures 0 to 50°C using a dew-
90 10.23 ± 0.59 24.12 ± 0.46 point hygrometer. Later, Greenspan
95 10.07 ± 0.67 23.07 ± 0.52 compiled, from the literature, data on
100 9.90 ± 0.77 21.97 ± 0.60 28 saturated salt solutions to cover
the entire range of relative humidity.
Using a data base from 21 separate
investigations comprising 1106
individual measurements, fits were
made by the method of least squares
to regular polynomial equations to
obtain the “best” value of relative
humidity in air as a function of
temperature. These values are
summarized in the table shown. ®

Relative Humidity (%RH)

Temperature Potassium Magnesium Sodium Potassium Potassium Potassium
°C Carbonate Nitrate Chloride Chloride Nitrate Sulfate
0 43.13 ± 0.66 60.35 ± 0.55 75.51 ± 0.34 88.61 ± 0.53 96.33 ± 2.9 98.77 ± 1.1
5 43.13 ± 0.50 58.86 ± 0.43 75.65 ± 0.27 87.67 ± 0.45 96.27 ± 2.1 98.48 ± 0.91
10 43.14 ± 0.39 57.36 ± 0.33 75.67 ± 0.22 86.77 ± 0.39 95.96 ± 1.4 98.18 ± 0.76
15 43.15 ± 0.33 55.87 ± 0.27 75.61 ± 0.18 85.92 ± 0.33 95.41 ± 0.96 97.89 ± 0.63
20 43.16 ± 0.33 54.38 ± 0.23 75.47 ± 0.14 85.11 ± 0.29 94.62 ± 0.66 97.59 ± 0.53
25 43.16 ± 0.39 52.89 ± 0.22 75.29 ± 0.12 84.34 ± 0.26 93.58 ± 0.55 97.30 ± 0.45
30 43.17 ± 0.50 51.40 ± 0.24 75.09 ± 0.11 83.62 ± 0.25 92.31 ± 0.60 97.00 ± 0.40
35 49.91 ± 0.29 74.87 ± 0.12 82.95 ± 0.25 90.79 ± 0.83 96.71 ± 0.38
40 48.42 ± 0.37 74.68 ± 0.13 82.32 ± 0.25 89.03 ± 1.2 96.41 ± 0.38
45 46.93 ± 0.47 74.52 ± 0.16 81.74 ± 0.28 87.03 ± 1.8 96.12 ± 0.40
50 45.44 ± 0.60 74.43 ± 0.19 81.20 ± 0.31 84.78 ± 2.5 95.82 ± 0.45
55 74.41 ± 0.24 80.70 ± 0.35
60 74.50 ± 0.30 80.25 ± 0.41
65 74.71 ± 0.37 79.85 ± 0.48
70 75.06 ± 0.45 79.49 ± 0.57
75 75.58 ± 0.55 79.17 ± 0.66
80 76.29 ± 0.65 78.90 ± 0.77
85 78.68 ± 0.89
90 78.50 ± 1.0
95
100
Z-103
Two-Wire Transmitters
For Temperature Applications
A two-wire transmitter is an ideal
solution for many remote
temperature measurement
applications. Transmitters have
definite advantages over
conventional temperature
measuring devices, but must be
selected with caution in order to
avoid “ground loop” problems.
PURPOSE
In many cases, the temperature of a
remote process must be monitored.
Common temperature sensing
devices such as thermocouples and
RTD’s produce very small “signals.”
These sensors can be connected to
a two-wire transmitter that will
amplify and condition the small
signal. Once conditioned to a usable
level, this signal can be transmitted
through ordinary copper wire and
used to drive other equipment such
as meters, dataloggers, chart
recorders, computers or controllers.
OPERATION
A two-wire transmitter draws current
from a remote dc power supply in
proportion to its sensor input. The
actual signal is transmitted as a
change in the power supply current.
Specifically, a thermocouple input
transmitter will draw 4 mA of current
from a dc power supply when
measuring the lowest temperature
of the process. Then, as the
temperature rises, the two-wire
transmitter will draw proportionally
more current, until it reaches 20 mA.
This 20 mA signal corresponds to
the thermocouple’s highest sensed
temperature. The transmitter’s
internal signal-conditioning circuitry
(powered by a portion of the
4-20 mA current) determines the
temperature range that the output
current signal will represent.
Physically, only two copper wires
are necessary to connect the
transmitter output signal in a series
circuit with the remote power supply
and the process equipment. This is
made possible since the signal and
the power supply line are combined
(one circuit serves a dual function).
ADVANTAGES
Two-wire transmitters offer
numerous advantages over the
more traditional ways of measuring
temperature.
1.ac power is not needed at the
remote location to operate a two-
wire transmitter. Since transmitters
are powered by a low level 4-20 mA
output current signal, no additional
power has to be supplied at the
remote location. In addition, the
usual 24 Vdc signal necessary for
operation is standard in plants that
have large amounts of
instrumentation.
2.Electrical noise and signal
degradation are not a problem for
two-wire transmitter users. The
transmitter's current output signal
lends itself to a high immunity when
it comes to ambient electrical noise.
Any noise that does appear in the
output current is usually eliminated
by the common-mode rejection of
the receiving device. In addition, the
current output signal will not change
(diminish) with distance as most
voltage signals do.
3.Wire costs drop significantly
when using two-wire
transmitters. Low voltage signals
produced by thermocouples almost
always require the use of shielded
cable when they are sent any
significant distance. Ambient
electrical noise from arcing electrical
relays, motors and ac power lines
can raise havoc with these signals
that are transmitted in an
unshielded cable. In addition,
expensive, heavy gage wire is often
installed in applications that call for
long cable runs (since it reduces
errors from signal voltage drops
caused by line resistance).
Ordinary copper wire can be used to
connect all the pertinent equipment in
a two-wire transmitter system. The
4-20 mA current output signal is
relatively immune to ambient electrical
noise and is not degraded by long
distance transmission, even over a
small diameter wire. Adding a
two-wire transmitter to a system
eliminates the problem of having to
provide long runs of costly wire and an
extensive amount of shielding.
GROUND LOOP PROBLEMS
If a grounding rod was driven into the
earth at two different points and a
voltmeter was connected between
them, a voltage difference would be
detected between the two. This
difference in potential exists between
Z-104
practically any two points along the
earth’s surface. When one tries to
measure a process that is at a remote
location, this voltage difference will
induce an error current along the line,
which is referred to as a “ground loop”
signal. Its result will be an error at the
display. Z
To prevent “ground loop” errors of this
type, select an isolating two-wire
transmitter for your system. This type
of transmitter will optoelectronically
isolate the sensor signal from the
output current loop. This will allow the
user to ground both the sensor and
one side of the current loop.
TRANSMITTER FEATURES
Transmitters provide a two-wire output
with the same wiring used for power
and output. The load resistance is
connected in series with a dc power
supply, and the current drawn from
the supply is a 4-20 mA or output
signal which is proportional to the
input signal.
Two-wire transmission permits remote
mounting of the transmitter near the
sensor to minimize the effects of noise
and signal degradation to which low
level sensor outputs are susceptible.
A rugged metal enclosure, suitable for
field mounting, offers environmental
protection and screw terminal input
and output connections. This
enclosure may be either surface or
standard relay track mounted.
Most two-wire transmitters are
linearized to the voltage signal
produced by the thermocouple or
RTD, although there are new models
now available that are linearized to the
actual temperature.
The two-wire transmitters convert the
thermocouple or RTD signal to a
4-20 mA output signal. Some models
will convert to an RS-232C output.
Transmitters are available with dip
switch selection for several
thermocouple types per model, as
well as thermocouple and RTD
selection on a single model. Two-wire
transmitters are available in either
isolating or non-isolating models, and
they also feature output ranging
adjustments with zero and span
adjustments over 80 to 100%
(depending on model) of the sensor
range.
®
Technical Information
How to Use Ferrite Cores
with Instrumentation
OMEGA’s thermocouple and RTD connectors with built-in nickel-zinc
ferrite cores are used where it is desired to suppress electro-magnetic,
interference commonly known as EMI. Suppression of EMI has become
a major concern in the instrumentation and control field. It is particularly
important in handling and transmitting electronic data, as well as signals
from transducers, such as thermocouples, thermistors and RTD’s.
This is because lead wires, extension wires, and signal wires often act
as antennae. OMEGA offers a family of nickel-zinc ferrites in our new
OMEGA® ferrite connectors. This allows the user to reduce the “antenna
effect”, which allows undesired signals to enter the instrumentation
and controls.
Ferrite Connectors
The effectiveness of any ferrite core is based upon the material selection,
number of wire turns around the core, and overall wire length. OMEGA’s
ferrite connectors listed here have been developed for a multitude of
general applications. The use of additional ferrite cores, as well as a
specific selection of ferrite material, will provide a significant improvement
in EMI suppression. While the OMEGA® ferrite connectors are designed
for a multitude of applications, the amount of EMI suppression will vary
from application to application.
Please consult the factory for those applications where the standard
OMEGA’s ferrite connectors may not be sufficient.
Note: Built-in ferrite cores are available in male miniature connectors and
both male and female standard size connectors.

OMEGA® Panel Meters and Controllers

1) OMEGA® Panel Meters and Controllers are intended for installation in
metal panels which should be connected to Earth Ground. (Standard
rack panels are available from OMEGA Engineering. In environments
with extreme electromagnetic radiation, shielded EMI cabinets offer
additional protection.)
2) NEVER run signal wires and power in the same conduit. Patent applications pending
in various countries
3) Whenever electromagnetic compatibility is an issue, always
use SHIELDED CABLES for all inputs and outputs.
(A vast selection of shielded signal cable is
available from OMEGA Engineering.)
Connect the shield to the analog
signal ground if appropriate or
to earth ground.
4) Install one (or more)
FERRITE BEADS on each
signal input wire close to NA
L
the meter. SIG

R
WE
PO
AC
GND
LO
HI

Omega’s policy is to make

running changes, not model
changes, whenever an Ferrite Beads supplied standard
improvement is possible. with all DP40 and DP25 meters.
This affords our customers
the latest in technology
and engineering.

Z-105
Electromagnetic Compatibility
Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)
may be a new term to some.
However, it has been important for
many years and actually predates
World War II. For several decades,
three agencies have been driving
forces behind EMC: the U.S. Military;
Europe’s Special International
Committee on Radio Perturbations
(Interference), CISPR; and the U.S.
Federal Communications
Commissions (F.C.C.).
History
EMC first began to be an issue in
the military environment particularly
on broad ships where many types of
electronic equipment had to
successfully operate in close
proximity to each other. In such an
environment, communication,
navigation and data processing
electronics all need to function
simultaneously in the presence of
strong radio frequency (RF) fields.
Such RF fields are produced by
two-way communications
equipment, radar transmitters and
microprocessor controlled devices.
Added to this “mix,” on board a
military ship is the presence of
ordinance or explosives and aircraft
fuel. In such an environment it
becomes transparently clear that
each device needs to be
Electromagnetically Compatible with
its environment and not be rendered
inoperative or unsafe by this
environment. Also each device
added to this milieu must not
unnecessarily or unintentionally
contribute spurious emissions that
do not perform any particular
function. From the preceding, the
origin of the two major aspects of
EMC, emissions and immunity, can
be seen.
Due to the global proliferation of
electronic devices in non-military
living, it is becoming increasingly
important that EMC be maintained in
civilian settings as well. Residential
and commercial environments may
contain dozens of appliances that
are controlled by microprocessors,
i.e., kitchen stoves, video cassette
recorders, TV’s, breadmakers,
personal computers, etc. All
electronic devices utilizing
microprocessor technology
generate radio frequencies.
From analab1.com™ On-Line Publications
Open Area Test Site (O.A.T.S.). Used for 3- and 10-meter testing. It is F.C.C. listed
and NVLAP accredited. In addition, the site was assessed by ACEMARK Europe,
LTD which is recognized by numerous European competent bodies.
For example, a 100 MHz computer
contains an electronic clock that
steps the microprocessor through its
program. In this case, the clock
frequency falls within the frequency
spectrum allocated in the U.S. for
FM radio broadcasting. If
precautions were not taken by PC
manufacturers, interference to
nearby radio receivers would result.
Harmonics or multiples of this
frequency could, if not subdued,
cause interference to other radio
receivers; such as those used by
emergency medical personnel and
to television receivers. It is therefore
incumbent upon manufacturers of
digital electronic devices to
guarantee their products will not be
incompatible with or a nuisance to
other electronic devices.
EMC and the USA
Because of the proliferation of
Information Technology Equipment
(ITE) and other microprocessor-
controlled electronic equipment, in
the 1970’s the F.C.C. (as the
authority having jurisdiction in the
U.S.) implemented limits on RF
emissions from digital devices.
Digital devices that are intended to
be used in residential environments
are classified as Class “B” devices.
All such Class “B” devices must
comply with limits set forth in part 15
of the F.C.C. rules for radiated and
Z-106
Z
conducted emissions. Before Class
“B” devices may be sold in the U.S.,
it must conform to the requirements
of the F.C.C. rules. Currently there
are no U.S. requirements for
immunity testing. Products destined
for use in the U.S. industrial,
scientific and medical fields have, to
this point, been exempt from
compliance with these limits. Such
devices are classified as Class “A”
devices and may not be used in
residential environments.
EMC and the European Union
Products sold in the European
Union must carry the “CE” mark that
constitutes a declaration by the
manufacturer of the products’
compliance with all applicable
Harmonized Directives and
Standards. Electronic devices are
subject to EMC Directive,
89/392/EEC. Article 4 of this
document states: “The
apparatus...shall be so constructed
that (a) the EMC disturbance it
generates does not exceed a level
allowing radio and
telecommunications equipment and
other apparatus to operate as
intended; (b) the apparatus has an
adequate level of intrinsic immunity
of EMC disturbance to enable it to
operate as intended.” Clearly,
complying with the essential
requirements of the European EMC
Directive requires evaluation of a maintain technical evidence met all requirements, the “CE” mark
product’s emission and immunity supporting all claims of product may then be applied. For a period of
characteristics. Notably, products “conformity”. This supporting ten years after being placed on the
used in commercial, light industrial evidence is assembled in a European Market, the supporting
and heavy industrial environments Technical Construction File (TCF). technical documentation (TCF) must
are not exempt from compliance. A TCF will exist for each product be kept on file and be accessible by
sold in the European Union. an authorized representative within
The Intrinsic Immunity requirement Verification of compliance (testing) the European Union.
dictates that an electronic apparatus may be performed by the
be so constructed that its manufacturer or a third-party test
performance will not be degraded house. In all cases though, tests
by its normal electromagnetic Benefits
must be performed in harmony with
environment. For example, a International IEC Test Standards. Compliance with the European
consumer in Europe has a right to Results of EMC testing, such as the Union’s EMC Directive leads to
expect that the digital security Test Report issued by a testing increasingly robust products,
system monitoring his home will not laboratory, shall be included in improvements in quality and
malfunction if a nearby ambulance the TCF. increased customer satisfaction. For
crew talks to their local dispatcher example, ESD (electrostatic
via two-way radio communications A product that meets the discharge) Immunity Testing quickly
equipment. The directive implies requirements of an appropriate reveals any latent vulnerability a
that manufacturers will design “product specific standard,” or in lieu product might have to such
products to possess immunity not of a “product specific standard” the standards and promotes corrective
only to radiated RF fields, but to generic standard, is presumed to measures that render the product
other electromagnetic phenomena meet the essential requirements of immune to such real world
as well. the EMC Directive. In addition to the occurrences. The result is improved
EMC Directive, other directives may customer satisfaction realized from
Specific immunity tests are itemized be applicable to an electronic
by generic and product-specific reliable, solid products that provide
device. Conformity with all years of trouble free service.
European norms or standards. applicable directives must be
Minimally, this means that a verified and documented. Having C.R.S. 26-Jan-98
device’s performance will not be
adversely effected by: (1) RF fields,
such as radio and TV broadcast
stations, and licensed two-way radio
equipment; (2) Electrostatic
Discharge events (ESD); (3) and
Electrical Fast Transients (EFT).
Testing of products for immunity in
simulation of real-world
environments allows manufacturers
to demonstrate compliance with
Article 4, clause (b) of the EMC
Directive. Additional immunity
testing is required by certain specific
standards and the new 1997
generic immunity standard. These
additional tests include: Conducted
RF Immunity; Surge Immunity;
Power Frequency Magnetic Fields
Immunity; Voltage Dips and
Interrupts Immunity; and Pulsed RF Biconical Antenna
Fields Immunity.
CE Conformity
Conformity to the essential
requirements of the EMC Directive
must be declared by the
manufacturer or his authorized
representative. This is done by
issuing a document called a
“Declaration of Conformity” (DOC).
It is the manufacturer’s
responsibility to procure and Anechoic Chamber
Z-107
 The “Noise Is Off” with
This Thermocouple System
OMEGA’s innovative Low Noise
Thermocouple System provides
stable and accurate temperature
measurements by neutralizing the
effects of ambient electrical noise. This
low cost and versatile system is used for
measuring temperatures of sensitive
circuits and equipment where precise
and stable readings are critical. It is also
used throughout industry as a noise
rejecting standard.
The low noise thermocouple system
consists of three interrelated elements:
a probe assembly, a connector and
thermocouple wire. Each of these
three components has distinct and
coordinated noise neutralizing features
and together they provide a path for
Low Noise diverting electrical noise. The system,
Thermocouple which uses universal two-terminal
System connections, shunts noise signals
and preserves the integrity of the
temperature-measuring circuit
(see Figure 1).
ELECTRICAL NOISE
NEUTRALIZED
Electrical noise, typically generated by
U.S. and Foreign power equipment, rotating machinery,
Patents line processing conveyors, mobile units,
welding machines and cleaning
appliances, introduces spurious signals
that destabilize sensitive temperature
measurements. The system’s unique
positive ground path, from the
thermocouple probe to the
temperature indicating instrument,
fully neutralizes the effects
of electrical noise. Precise
temperature control for data
acquisition, data logging and
computer interface circuits is
now possible with the added
assurance that noise is being
rejected.
BALANCED SYSTEM
ELEMENTS
The thermocouple system’s
three building blocks –
probe, connector and
wire – are integrated into a
balanced and easily
assembled unit. The
probe and connector are
available in both
standard and miniature
configurations
(see Figure 2).
Z-108
(1) The thermocouple probe is shaped
to ease handling and improve viewing
of the test object. Probe types are
interchangeable to suit many
applications. The probe sheath
(outer jacket) connects to a ground
through an internal ground strap link.
(2) The connector, which joins the Z
probe and thermocouple wire, is a
standard two-terminal quick disconnect
type (miniature or standard size).
The external metal ground strap,
attached to the connector, provides
the continued noise shunting circuit
and adds mechanical strength to
the assembly.
(3) The twisted/shielded thermocouple
wire contains an integral drain wire
which provides the noise grounding link
between the probe assembly and the
measuring instrument.
CONVENIENT FEATURES
The probe assembly is designed to
ease handling, improve mechanical
integrity and allow the user to view the
subject under test without obstruction.
A 30 degree profile, found only in
OMEGA’s patented design, allows for
improved user performance (see
Figure 2). The probe assemblies are
color coded to identify thermocouple
materials and a full selection of
probe sheath diameters and lengths
are available.
Probe lengths are 6", 12", 18", and 24";
diameters are from .040" to .250". The
probe sheath is 304SS or Inconel.
The connector provides continuity
of ground from the probe to the
thermocouple wire through an external
ground strap. Polarized connector
pins allow for quick connection or
disconnection to the probe assembly.
Connectors include removable write-on
pads. This feature, unique in the
industry, allows positive identification
of thermocouple assemblies in multiple
measurement applications.
PROBLEM SOLVER
The user often cannot forecast what
electrical noise sources will be present
during temperature readings. Typical
temperature measurements are
performed in electrically noisy
environments.
Figure 2. Balanced system elements include: thermocouple probe, connector, and thermocouple wire.
The thermocouple probe has a 30° profile, an exclusive OMEGA feature, and comes with the mating female connector and cable clamp

In a laboratory, where processes are In high noise applications such as

being controlled at precise temperature
transition points, electrical noise may
be introduced from sources such as
mixers, ovens, heating elements and
power supplies. Grounding of this noise
is essential for precise temperature
sensing. This thermocouple system
grounds the destabilizing noise signals.
Precise control of solder bath
temperatures, during an automated
flow soldering process, is required to
ensure that proper soldering takes
place and that no damage occurs to
sensitive components on a printed
circuit board. Typically, the thermal
sensing system is in the presence of
equipment which generates electrical
noise such as motors and welding
equipment. The system’s unique and
positive noise grounding path
neutralizes the effects
of generated noise.
environmental control, air conditioning,
heat treating and foundry operations, To order probes
noise neutralization during critical Standard quick disconnect
temperature measurements is required probes and miniature quick
for accurate and stable control. By
shunting electrical noise harmlessly disconnect probes are sold
to ground, the OMEGA® thermocouple in Section A of this catalog.
system provides the required stable
readings.
The noisy environments encountered
in industrial, mobile, field and To order connectors
laboratory applications are no Standard connectors and
match for this easily assembled miniature connectors are
and handy-to-use system. ®
sold in Section G of this
catalog.
SM

METAL STRAP

DED
T E D SHIEL
TWIS T/C WIRE
CONNECTOR PROBE

INTERNAL
DRAIN WIRE (2) (1)
(3)

Figure 1. Continuous ground from probe to test instrument

Z-109
Introduction To Temperature
Controllers
The Miniature CN77000 is a full featured
microprocessor-based controller in a 1/16 DIN
package.
How Can I Control My Process Temperature Accurately
and Reliably?
To accurately control process temperature without
extensive operator involvement, a temperature control
system relies upon a controller, which accepts a
temperature sensor such as a thermocouple or RTD as
input. It compares the actual temperature to the desired
control temperature, or setpoint, and provides an output
to a control element.
The controller is one part of the entire control system,
and the whole system should be analyzed in selecting
the proper controller. The following items should be
considered when selecting a controller:
1. Type of input sensor (thermocouple, RTD) and
temperature range
2. Type of output required (electromechanical
relay, SSR, analog output)
3 Control algorithm needed (on/off, proportional,
PID)
4 Number and type of outputs (heat, cool, alarm,
limit)
What Are the Different Types of Controllers, and How
Do They Work?
There are three basic types of controllers: on-off,
proportional and PID. Depending upon the system to be
controlled, the operator will be able to use one type or
another to control the process.
Z-110
On/Off
An on-off controller is the simplest form of temperature
control device. The output from the device is either on
or off, with no middle state. An on-off controller will
switch the output only when the temperature crosses
the setpoint. For heating control, the output is on when
the temperature is below the setpoint, and off above
setpoint.
Z
Since the temperature crosses the setpoint to change
the output state, the process temperature will be cycling
continually, going from below setpoint to above, and
back below. In cases where this cycling occurs rapidly,
and to prevent damage to contactors and valves, an on-
off differential, or “hysteresis,“ is added to the controller
operations. This differential requires that the
temperature exceed setpoint by a certain amount
before the output will turn off or on again. On-off
differential prevents the output from “chattering” (that is,
engaging in fast, continual switching if the
temperature’s cycling above and below the setpoint
occurs very rapidly).
On-off control is usually used where a precise control is
not necessary, in systems which cannot handle the
energy’s being turned on and off frequently, where the
mass of the system is so great that temperatures
change extremely slowly, or for a temperature alarm.
One special type of on-off control used for alarm is a
limit controller. This controller uses a latching relay,
which must be manually reset, and is used to shut down
a process when a certain temperature is reached.
ON ON ON ON
Heater
OFF OFF OFF OFF
Temperature
Setpoint
On-Off
Differential
(Deadband)
Time
ON/Off Temperature Control Action
Introduction To Temperature Controllers Cont’d
Proportional
Proportional controls are designed to eliminate the
cycling associated with on-off control. A proportional
controller decreases the average power being supplied
to the heater as the temperature approaches setpoint.
This has the effect of slowing down the heater, so that it
will not overshoot the setpoint but will approach the
setpoint and maintain a stable temperature. This
proportioning action can be accomplished by turning the
output on and off for short intervals. This “time
proportioning “ varies the ratio of ‘on’ time to ‘off‘ time to
control the temperature. The proportioning action
occurs within a “proportional band” around the setpoint
temperature. Outside this band, the controller functions
as an on-off unit, with the output either fully on (below
the band) or fully off (above the band). However, within
the band, the output is turned on and off in the ratio of
the measurement difference from the setpoint. At the
setpoint (the midpoint of the proportional band), the
output on:off ratio is 1:1; that is, the on-time and off-time
are equal. If the temperature is further from the setpoint,
the on- and off-times vary in proportion to the
temperature difference. If the temperature is below
setpoint, the output will be on longer; if the temperature
is too high, the output will be off longer.
The proportional band is usually expressed as a
percent of full scale, or degrees. It may also be referred
to as gain, which is the reciprocal of the band. Note,
that in time proportioning control, full power is applied to
the heater, but is cycled on and off, so the average time
is varied. In most units, the cycle time and/or
proportional band are adjustable, so that the controller
may better match a particular process.
In addition to electromechanical and solid state relay
outputs, proportional controllers are also available with
proportional analog outputs, such as 4 to 20 mA or 0 to
5 Vdc. With these outputs, the actual output level is
varied, rather than the on and off times, as with a relay
output controller.
One of the advantages of proportional control is
simplicity of operation. It may require an operator to
make a small adjustment (manual reset) to bring the
temperature to setpoint on initial startup, or if the
process conditions change significantly.

15 Sec. On 5 Off

Time Proportional 4-20 mA

Proportional
Percent On Time Off Time Temp Output Percent
On Seconds Seconds (ºF) Level Output
Repetitive 0.0 0.0 20.0 over 540 4 mA 0.0
20 sec. Cycle 0.0 0.0 20.0 540.0 4 mA 0.0
Time
12.5 2.5 17.5 530.0 6 mA 12.5
25.0 5.0 15.0 520.0 8 mA 25.0
Time Proportioning at 75% Output Level 37.5 7.5 12.5 510.0 10 mA 37.5
50.0 10.0 10.0 500.0 12 mA 50.0
62.5 12.5 7.5 490.0 14 mA 62.5
75.0 15.0 5.0 480.0 16 mA 75.0
87.5 17.5 2.5 470.0 18 mA 87.5
100.0 20.0 0.0 460.0 20 mA 100.0
100.0 20.0 0.0 under 460 20 mA 100.0

Proportional Bandwith
Example: heating
Setpoint: 500˚F
Proportional Band: 80˚F
(±40˚F)

Systems that are subject to wide temperature cycling

The CN2010 controller features ramp and soak, the ability
to control temperature over time.
will also need proportional controllers. Depending upon
the process and the precision required, either a simple
proportional control or one with PID may be required.
Processes with long time lags and large maximum rate
of rise (e.g., a heat exchanger), require wide
proportional bands to eliminate oscillation. The wide
band can result in large offsets with changes in the
load. To eliminate these offsets, automatic reset
(integral) can be used. Derivative (rate) action can be
used on processes with long time delays, to speed
recovery after a process disturbance.

Z-111
There are also other features to consider when
selecting a controller. These include auto- or self-
tuning, where the instrument will automatically calculate
the proper proportional band, rate and reset values for
precise control; serial communications, where the unit
can “talk” to a host computer for data storage, analysis,
and tuning; alarms, that can be latching (manual reset)
or non-latching (automatic reset), set to trigger on high
or low process temperatures or if a deviation from
setpoint is observed; timers/event indicators which can
mark elapsed time or the end/beginning of an event. In
addition, relay or triac output units can be used with
external switches, such as SSR solid state relays or
magnetic contactors, in order to switch large loads up to
75 A.
PID
The third controller type provides proportional with
integral and derivative control, or PID. This controller
combines proportional control with two additional
adjustments, which helps the unit automatically
compensate for changes in the system. These
adjustments, integral and derivative, are expressed in
Offset
PB SP
Temp.
Time
Process with Temperature Offset
time-based units; they are also referred to by their
reciprocals, RESET and RATE, respectively.
The proportional, integral and derivative terms must be
individually adjusted or “tuned” to a particular system,
using a “trial and error” method. It provides the most
accurate and stable control of the three controller types,
and is best used in systems which have a relatively
small mass, those which react quickly to changes in
energy added to the process. It is recommended in
systems where the load changes often, and the
controller is expected to compensate automatically due
to frequent changes in setpoint, the amount of energy
available, or the mass to be controlled.
What Do Rate and Reset Do, and How Do They Work?
Rate and reset are methods used by controllers to
compensate for offsets and shifts in temperature. When
using a proportional controller, it is very rare that the
heat input to maintain the setpoint temperature will be
50%; the temperature will either increase or decrease
from the setpoint, until a stable temperature is obtained.
The difference between this stable temperature and the
setpoint is called offset. This offset can be
compensated for manually or automatically. Using
manual reset, the user will shift the proportional band so
that the process will stabilize at the setpoint
temperature. Automatic reset, also known as integral,
will integrate the deviation signal with respect to time,
and the integral is summed with the deviation signal to
shift the proportional band. The output power is thus
automatically increased or decreased to bring the
Z-112
process temperature back to setpoint,
The rate or derivative function provides the controller
with the ability to shift the proportional band, to
compensate for rapidly changing temperature. The
amount of shift is proportional to the rate of temperature
change.
A PID, or three-mode controller, combines the
proportional, integral (reset) and derivative (rate)
actions, and is usually required to control difficult
processes. These controllers can also be made with
two proportional outputs, one for heating and another
for cooling. This type of controller is required for Z
processes which may require heat to start up, but then
generate excess heat at some time during operation.
What are the Different Output Types That Are Available
for Controllers?
The output from the controller may take one of several
forms. The most common forms are time proportional
and analog proportional. A time proportional output
applies power to the load for a percentage of a fixed
cycle time. For example, with a 10 second cycle time, if
the controller output were set for 60%, the relay would
be energized (closed, power applied) for 6 seconds,
and de-energized (open, no power applied) for 4
seconds. Time proportional outputs are available in
three different forms: electromechanical relay, triac or
ac solid state relay, or a dc voltage pulse (to drive an
external solid state relay). The electromechanical relay
is generally the most economical type, and is usually
chosen on systems with cycle times greater than 10
seconds, and relatively small loads.
An ac solid state relay or dc voltage pulse are chosen
for reliability, since they contain no moving parts.
Recommended for processes requiring short cycle
times, they need an additional relay, external to the
controller, to handle the typical load required by a
heating element. These external solid state relays are
usually used with an ac control signal for ac solid state
relay output controllers, or with a dc control signal for dc
voltage pulse output controllers.
An analog proportional output is usually an analog
voltage (0 to 5 Vdc) or current (4 to 20 mA). The output
level from this output type is also set by the controller; if
the output were set at 60%, the output level would be
60% of 5 V, or 3 V. With a 4 to 20 mA output (a 16 mA
span), 60% is equal to (0.6 x 16) + 4, or 13.6 mA.
These controllers are usually used with proportioning
valves or power controllers.
What Should I Consider When Selecting a Controller for
My Application?
When you choose a controller, the main considerations
include the precision of control that is necessary, and
how difficult the process is to control. For easiest tuning
and lowest initial cost, the simplest controller which will
produce the desired results should be selected.
Simple processes with a well matched heater (not over-
or undersized) and without rapid cycling can possibly
use on-off controllers. For those systems subject to
cycling, or with an unmatched heater (either over- or
undersized), a proportional controller is needed.
®
Temperature Controllers
Selection Considerations
CONTROLLABILITY OF
ELECTRIC HEAT
The basic function of a controller is to
compare the actual temperature with its
setpoint and produce an output which will
maintain that setpoint.
The controller is one part of the entire
control system, and the whole system
should be analyzed in selecting the
proper controller. The following items
should be considered when selecting a
controller.
1. Type of input sensor (thermocouple,
RTD, card and temperature range).
2. Placement of sensor
3. Control algorithm needed (on/off,
proportional, PID, autotune PID)
4. Type of output hardware required
(electromechanical relay, SSR, analog
output signal)
5. Additional outputs or requirements of
system (display required of
temperature and/or setpoint, cooling
outputs, alarms, limit, computer
communication, etc.)
TYPE OF INPUT
The type of input sensor will depend on
the temperature range required, the
resolution and accuracy of the
measurement required, and how and
where the sensor is to be mounted.
PLACEMENT OF THE SENSOR
The correct placement of the sensing
element with respect to the work and
heat source is of the utmost importance
for good control. If all three can be
located in close proximity, a high degree
of accuracy, up to the limit of the
controller, is relatively easy to achieve.
However, if the heat source is located
some distance from the work, widely
different accuracies can be obtained just
by locating the sensing element at
various places between the heater and
the work.
Before selecting the location for the
sensing element, determine whether the
heat demand will be predominantly
steady or variable. If the heat demand is
relatively steady, placement of the
sensing element near the heat source
will hold the temperature change at the
work to a minimum.
On the other hand, placing the sensing
element near the work, when heat
demand is variable, will enable it to more
quickly sense a change in heat
requirements. However, because of the
increase in thermal lag between the
heater and the sensing elements, more
overshoot and undershoot can occur,
causing a greater spread between
maximum and minimum temperature.
This spread can be reduced by selecting
a PID controller.
CONTROL ALGORITHM (MODE)
This refers to the method in which the
controller attempts to restore system
temperature to the desired level. The two
most common methods are two-position
(on-off) and proportioning (throttling)
controls.
ON/OFF CONTROL
On/Off control has the simplest of control
modes. It has a deadband (differential)
expressed as a percentage of the input
span. The setpoint is usually in the
center of the deadband. Therefore, if the
input is 0-1000°F, the deadband is 5%
and the setpoint is set at 500°F, the
output will be full on when the
temperature is 495°F or below and will
stay full on until the temperature reaches
505°F, at which time the output will be
full off. It will stay full off until the
temperature drops to 495°F.
If the process has a fast rate of
response, the cycling between 495 and
505°F will be fast. The faster the rate of
response of the process, the greater the
overshoot and undershoot and the faster
the cycling of the contactor when used as
a final control element.
On-off control is usually used where a
precise control is not necessary, for
example, in systems which cannot
handle having the energy turned on and
off frequently, where the mass of the
system is so great that the temperature
changes extremely slowly, or for a
temperature alarm.
One special type of on-off control used
for alarm is a limit controller. This
controller uses a latching relay, which
must be manually reset, and is used to
shut down a process when a certain
temperature is reached.
PROPORTIONAL
Proportional controls are designed to
eliminate the cycling associated with on-
off control. A proportional controller
decreases the average power being
supplied to the heater as the temperature
approaches setpoint. This has the effect
of slowing down the heater so that it will
not overshoot the setpoint, but will
approach the setpoint and maintain a
stable temperature. This proportioning
action can be accomplished by turning
the output on and off for short intervals.
This “time proportioning” varies the ratio
of “on” time to “off ” time to control the
temperature.
The time period between two successive
turn-ons is known as the “cycle time” or
“duty cycle”. The proportioning action
occurs within a “proportional band”
around the setpoint temperature. Outside
this band, the controller functions as an
on-off unit, with the output either fully on
(below the band) or fully off (above the
band). However, within the band, the
Z-113
output is turned on and off in the ratio of
the measurement difference from the
setpoint. At the setpoint (the midpoint of
the proportional band), the output on-off
ratio is 1:1 that is, the on-time and off-
time are equal. If the temperature is
further from the setpoint, the on- and off-
times vary in proportion to the
temperature difference. If the
temperature is below setpoint, the output
will be on longer. If the temperature is too
high, the output will be off longer.
Above
Temp.
On Off
Time Time
At Set
Point
Temp.
Below
Temp.
Figure 1: Proportional control
The proportional band is usually
expressed as a percentage of full input
range scale, or in degrees. It may also be
referred to as gain, which is the
reciprocal of the band. In many units, the
cycle time and/or proportional bandwidth
are adjustable, so that the controller may
be better matched to a particular
process.
Proportional controllers have a manual
reset (trim) adjustment, which may be
used to adjust for an offset between the
steady state temperature and the
setpoint.
In addition to electromechanical and solid
state relay outputs, proportional
controllers are also available with
proportional analog signal outputs, such
as 4 to 20 mA or 0 to 5 Vdc. With these
outputs, the actual output level amplitude
is varied, rather than the proportion of on
and off times.
PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL
PLUS DERIVATIVE CONTROL MODE
(PID):
This controller operates the same way a
proportional controller does, except that
the function of the trim adjustment is
performed automatically by the integral
function (automatic reset). Thus, load
changes are compensated for
automatically and the temperature
agrees with the setpoint under all
operating conditions. Offset is eliminated.
Temperature Controllers
Selection Considerations
Low Rate
Setting
Set
Point
Rate Set
Properly
Figure 2: Rate function compensates for rapid
changes.
The derivative function (rate action)
compensates for load changes which
take place rapidly. An example is a
traveling belt oven where the product is
fed intermittently. When the product
enters the oven, there is a sharp rise in
the demand for heat, and when it stops,
there is an excess of heat. Derivative
action reduces the undershoot and
overshoot of temperature under these
conditions and prevents bad product due
Set
Point
Offset
Figure 3: Reset fuction eliminates offset.
to over or under curing.
PID control provides more accurate and
stable control than on/off or proportional
controller types. It is best used in
systems that have a relatively small
mass and which react quickly to changes
in energy added to the process. It is
recommended in systems where the load
changes often. The controller is expected
to automatically compensate the amount
of energy available or the mass to be
controlled, due to frequent changes in
setpoint.
The proportional, integral and derivative
terms must be “tuned,” i.e., adjusted to a
particular process. This is done by trial
and error. Some controllers called
Autotune controllers attempt to adjust the
PID parameters automatically.
TYPE OF CONTROL OUTPUT
HARDWARE
The output hardware in a temperature
controller may take one of several forms.
Deciding on the type of control hardware
to be used depends on the heater used
and power available, the control
algorithm chosen, and the hardware
external to the controller available to
handle the heater load. The most
commonly used controller output
hardware is as follows:
Time Proportional or On/Off
1) Mechanical Relay
2) Triac (ac solid state relay)
3) dc Solid State Relay Driver (pulse)
Analog Proportional
1) 4-20 mA dc
2) 0-5 Vdc or 0-10 Vdc
A time proportional output applies power
to the load for a percentage of a fixed
cycle time. For example, with a 10
second cycle time, if the controller output
were set for 60%, the relay would be
energized (closed, power applied) for 6
seconds, and de-energized (open, no
power applied) for 4 seconds.
The electromechanical relay is generally
the most economical output type, and is
usually chosen on systems with cycle
times greater than 10 seconds and
relatively small loads.
Choose an ac solid state relay or dc
voltage pulse to drive an external SSR
with reliability, since they contain no
moving parts. They are also
recommended for processes requiring
short cycle times. External solid state
relays may require an ac or dc control
signal.
An amplitude proportional output is
usually an analog voltage (0 to 5 Vdc) or
current (4 to 20 mA). The output level
from this output type is also set by the
controller. If the output were set at 60%,
the output level would be 60% of 5 V, or
3 V. With a 4 to 20 mA output (a 16 mA
span), 60% is equal to (0.6 x 16) + 4, or
13.6 mA. These controllers are usually
used with SCR power controllers or
proportioning valves.
The power used by an electrical
resistance heater will usually be given in
watts. The capacity of a relay is given in
amps. A common formula to determine
the safe relay rating requirements is:
W = V(A)(1.5) or A = W/(V)(1.5)
Where A = relay rating in amps
W = heater capacity in watts
V = voltage used
1.5 = safety factor
Z-114
The types of hardware available, external
to the controller, to allow it to handle the
load, are as follows:
1) Mechanical Contactor
2) ac controlled solid state relay
3) dc controlled solid state relay
4) Zero crossover SCR power controller
5) Phase angle fired SCR power controller Z
Mechanical contactors are external
relays, which can be used when a higher
amperage than can be handled by the
relay in the controller is required, or for
some three-phase systems. They are not
recommended for cycle times shorter
than 15 seconds.
Solid state relays have the advantage
over mechanical contactors, in that they
have no moving parts, and thus can be
used with short cycle times. The shorter
the cycle time, the less dead lag and the
better the control. The “switching” takes
place at the zero voltage crossover point
of the alternating current cycle; thus, no
appreciable electrical noise is generated.
An ac controlled solid state relay is used
with either a mechanical relay or triac
output from the controller, and is
available for currents up to 90 amps at
voltages of up to 480 Vac. DC solid state
relays are used with dc solid state driver
(pulse) outputs. The “turn on” signal can
be from 3 to 32 Vdc and models are
available to control up to 90 amps at up
to 480 Vac.
Zero crossover SCR power controllers
are used to control single or three-phase
power for even larger loads. They can be
used for currents up to 200 amps at
480 volts. A 4-20 mA dc control signal is
usually required from the controller. The
zero crossover SCR power controllers
convert the analog output signal to a time
proportional signal with a cycle time of
about two seconds or less, and also
provide switching at the zero crossover
point to avoid generating electrical noise.
Phase angle SCR power controllers also
are operated by a 4-20 mA dc controller
output. Power to the load is controlled by
governing the point of turn on (firing) of
each half cycle of a full ac sine wave.
This has the effect of varying the voltage
within a single 0.0167 second period. By
comparison, time proportional controllers
vary the average power over the cycle
time, usually more than 1 second, and
often more than 15 seconds. Phase
angle SCR’s are only recommended for
low mass heating elements such as
infrared lamps or hot wire heaters.
®
Temperature Control
Tuning a PID (Three Mode) Controller
Tuning a temperature controller involves setting the proportional,
integral, and derivative values to get the best possible control for
a particular process. If the controller does not include an autotune
algorithm, or if the autotune algorithm does not provide adequate
control for the particular application, then the unit must be tuned
using trial and error.
The following is a tuning procedure for the OMEGA CN2000
controller. It can be applied to other controllers as well. There are
other tuning procedures which can also be used, but they all use
a similar trial and error method. Note that if the controller uses a
mechanical relay (rather than a solid state relay), a longer cycle
time (20 seconds) should be used when starting out.
The following definitions may be needed:
1) Cycle time - Also known as duty cycle; the total length of time
for the controller to complete one on/off cycle. Example: with a
20 second cycle time, an on time of 10 seconds and an off
time of 10 seconds represents a 50 percent power output. The
controller will cycle on and off while within the proportional
band.
2) Proportional band - A temperature band expressed in % of full
scale or degrees within which the controller‘s proportioning
action takes place. The wider the proportional band, the
greater the area around the setpoint in which the proportional
action takes place. This is sometimes referred to as gain,
which is the reciprocal of proportional band.
3) Integral, also known as reset, is a function which adjusts the
proportional bandwidth with respect to the setpoint to
compensate for offset (droop) from setpoint; that is, it adjusts
the controlled temperature to setpoint after the system
stabilizes.
4) Derivative, also known as rate, senses the rate of rise or fall of
system temperature and automatically adjusts the proportional
band to minimize overshoot or undershoot.
A PID (three mode) controller is capable of exceptional control
stability when properly tuned and used. The operator can achieve
the fastest response time and smallest overshoot by following
these instructions carefully. The information for tuning this three
mode controller may be different from other controller tuning
procedures. Normally a SELF TUNE feature will eliminate the
need to use this manual tuning procedure for the primary output;
however, adjustments to the SELF TUNE values may be made if
desired.
PRIMARY
SETPOINT
TEMP.
TEMP.
TIME TIME
Divide PB by 2 if This is close to
you observe this. perfect tuning.
Figure 1. Temperature Oscillations
Z-115
After the controller is installed and wired:
1. Apply power to the controller.
2. Disable the control outputs if possible.
3. For time proportional primary output, set the cycle time. Enter
the following value:
CYCLE TIME 1
5 SEC (Only appears if output is a time proportional output. A
smaller cycle time may be required for systems with an extremely
fast response time.)
Then select the following parameters:
PR BAND 1 _______5% (PB)
RESET 1 _________0 R/M (TURNS OFF RESET FUNCTION)
RESET 2 _________0 R/M
RATE 1 __________0 MIN (TURNS OFF RATE FUNCTION)
RATE 2 __________0 MIN
NOTE
On units with dual three mode outputs, the primary and
secondary tuning parameters are independently set and must be
tuned separately. The procedure used in this section is for a
HEATING primary output. A similar procedure may be used for a
primary COOLING output or a secondary COOLING output.
A. TUNING OUTPUTS FOR HEATING CONTROL
1. Enable the OUTPUT(S) and start the process.
2. The process should be run at a setpoint that will allow the
temperature to stabilize with heat input required.
3. With RATE and RESET turned OFF, the temperature will
stabilize with a steady state deviation, or droop, between the
setpoint and the actual temperature. Carefully note whether or
not there are regular cycles or oscillations in this temperature
by observing the measurement on the display. (An oscillation
may be as long as 30 minutes.)
The tuning procedure is easier to follow if you use a recorder
to monitor the process temperature.
PRIMARY
SETPOINT
PRIMARY
SETPOINT
TEMP.
TIME
Multiply PB by 2 if
you observe this.
4. If there are no regular oscillations in the temperature, divide 9. You have now completed all the measurements necessary
the PB by 2 (see Figure 1). Allow the process to stabilize to obtain optimum performance from the Controller. Only
and check for temperature oscillations. If there are still no two more adjustments are required - RATE and RESET.
oscillations, divide the PB by 2 again. Repeat until cycles or
oscillations are obtained. Proceed to Step 5. 10.Using the oscillation time measured in Step 7, calculate the
value for RESET in repeats per minutes as follows:
If oscillations are observed immediately, multiply the PB by RESET = 8 x __ 1
__
2. Observe the resulting temperature for several minutes. If
the oscillations continue, increase the PB by factors of 2 5 TO Z
until the oscillations stop. Where TO = Oscillation Time in Minutes.
5. The PB is now very near its critical setting. Carefully OR Use Nomogram II (see Figure 5):
increase or decrease the PB setting until cycles or
oscillations just appear in the temperature recording. TEMPERATURE CYCLE TIME IN MINUTES

0.1 0.2 0.3 1 2 3 10 20 30 100

If no oscillations occur in the process temperature even at
the minimum PB setting of 1%, skip Steps 6 through 11 20 10 5 3 2 1 0.50 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.03 0.02

below and proceed to paragraph B. CORRECT RESET SETTING IN REPEATS PER MINUTE

Figure 5. Nomogram II
6. Read the steady-state deviation, or droop, between setpoint
and actual temperature with the “critical” PB setting you Enter the value for RESET 1.
have achieved. (Because the temperature is cycling a bit,
use the average temperature.) 11.Again using the oscillation time measured in Step 7,
calculate the value for RATE in minutes as follows:
7 Measure the oscillation time, in minutes, between
neighboring peaks or valleys (see Figure 2). This is most RESET = T
__
O
easily accomplished with a chart recorder, but a 10
measurement can be read at one minute intervals to obtain
the timing. Where TO = Oscillation Time
OR Use Nomogram III (see Figure 6)
TEMP.

PRIMARY SETPOINT
MEASURE THIS TEMP
TRMPERATURE CYCLE TIME IN MINUTES
INCREASE 1
PB MEASURE THIS 0.1 0.2 0.3 2 3 10 20 30 40 50
DECREASE CRITICAL
PB PB TIME
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.1 0.2 0.3 1 2 3 4 5
STARTUP TIME
CORRECT RATE SETTING IN MINUTES
Figure 2. Oscillation Time
Figure 6. Nomogram III
8. Now, increase the PB setting until the temperature
deviation, or droop, increases 65%. Enter this value for Rate 1.

The desired final temperature deviation can be calculated by 12.If overshoot occurred, it can be eliminated by decreasing the
multiplying the initial temperature deviation achieved with RESET time. When changes are made in the RESET value,
the CRITICAL PB setting by 1.65 (see Figure 3) or by use of a corresponding change should also be made in the RATE
the convenient Nomogram I (see Figure 4). Try several trial- adjustment so that the RATE value is equal to:
and-error settings of the PB control until the desired final RATE = 1
______________
temperature deviation is achieved.
6 x Reset Value
i.e., if reset = 2 R/M, the
TEMP

PRIMARY SETPOINT
RATE = 0.08 min.
DEVIATION 1.65 · TEMP
CRITICAL PB
TIME WITH PB
TEMP WITH PB DEVIATION WITH 13.Several setpoint changes and consequent RESET and
PB
RATE time adjustments may be required to obtain the
STARTUP TIME proper balance between “RESPONSE TIME” to a system
Figure 3. Calculating Final Temperature Deviation upset and “SETTLING TIME.” In general, fast response is
accompanied by larger overshoot and consequently shorter
time for the process to “SETTLE OUT.” Conversely, if the
response is slower, the process tends to slide into the final
value with little or no overshoot. The requirements of the
system dictate which action is desired.
TEMPERATURE DEVIATION WITH
CRITICAL PBC. SETTING 14.When satisfactory tuning has been achieved, the cycle time
EXAMPLE
3° DEVIATION WITH
1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 30 40 50 70 100 should be increased to save contactor life (applies to units
PB SET PB TO
OBTAIN 5° FINAL
with time proportioning outputs only (TPRI)). Increase the
DEVIATION 2 3 5 10 15 20 30 40 50 100 150 cycle time as much as possible without causing oscillations
FINAL TEMPERATURE DEVIATION = 1.65 in the measurement due to load cycling.
DEVIATION WITH CRITICAL PBC. SETTING.
15.Proceed to Section C.
Figure 4. Nomogram I
Z-116
Tuning a PID Controller Cont'd
B. TUNING PROCEDURE WHEN NO OSCILLATIONS
ARE OBSERVED
1. Measure the steady-state deviation, or droop, between
setpoint and actual temperature with minimum PB setting.
2. Increase the PB setting until the temperature deviation
(droop) increases 65%. Nomogram I (see Figure 4)
provides a convenient method of calculating the desired
final temperature deviation.
3. Set the RESET 1 to a high value (10 R/M). Set the RATE
1 to a corresponding value (0.02 MIN). At this point, the
measurement should stabilize at the setpoint
temperature due to reset action.
4. Since we were not able to determine a critical oscillation
time, the optimum settings of the reset and rate
adjustments must be determined by trial and error. After
the temperature has stabilized at setpoint, increase the
setpoint temperature setting by 10 degrees. Observe the
overshoot associated with the rise in actual temperature.
Then return the setpoint setting to its original value and
again observe the overshoot associated with the actual
temperature change.
Excessive overshoot implies that the RESET and/or
RATE values are set too high. Overdamped response
(no overshoot) implies that the RESET and/or RATE
values are set too low. Refer to Figure 7. Where
improved performance is required, change one tuning
parameter at a time and observe its effect on
performance when the setpoint is changed. Make
incremental changes in the parameters until the
performance is optimized.
5. When satisfactory tuning has been achieved, the cycle
time should be increased to save contactor life (applies to
units with time proportioning outputs only (TPRI)). Increase
the cycle time as much as possible without causing
oscillations in the measurement due to load cycling.
RESET OR RATE TOO HIGH RESET OR RATE TOO LOW
Figure 7. Setting RESET and/or RATE
C. TUNING THE PRIMARY OUTPUT FOR COOLING
CONTROL
The same procedure is used as for heating. The process
should be run at a setpoint that requires cooling control
before the temperature will stabilize.
D. SIMPLIFIED TUNING PROCEDURE FOR PID
CONTROLLERS
The following procedure is a graphical technique of
analyzing a process response curve to a step input. It is
much easier with a strip chart recorder reading the process
variable (PV).
1. Starting from a cold start (PV at ambient), apply full
power to the process without the controller in the loop,
i.e., with an open loop. Record this starting time.
Z-117
2. After some delay (for heat to reach the sensor), the PV
will start to rise. After more delay, the PV will reach a
maximum rate of change (slope). Record the time at
which this maximum slope occurs and the PV at which it
occurs. Record the maximum slope in degrees per
minute. Turn off system power.
3. Draw a line from the point of maximum slope back to the
ambient temperature axis to obtain the lumped system
time delay Td (see Figure 8). The time delay may also
be obtained by the equation:
Td = time to max. slope-(PV at max. slope - Ambient)/max. slope
4. Apply the following equations to yield the PID
parameters:
Pr. Band = Td x max. slope x 100/span = % of span
Reset= 0.4 / Td = resets/minute
Rate = 0.4 x Td = minutes
5. Restart the system and bring the process to setpoint with
the controller in the loop and observe response. If the
response has too much overshoot, or is oscillating, then
the PID parameters can be changed (slightly, one at a
time, and observing process response) in the following
directions:
Widen the proportional band, lower the Reset value, and
increase the Rate value.
Example: The chart recording in Figure 8 was obtained by
applying full power to an oven. The chart scales are
10°F/cm, and 5 min/cm. The controller range is 100 to
600°F, or a span of 500°F.
Maximum slope = 18°F/5 minutes
= 3.6˚F/minute
Time delay = Td = approximately 7 minutes.
Proportional Band = 7 minutes x
3.6°F/minutes x 100/500°F = 5%.
Reset = 0.4/7 minutes = 0.06 resets/minute
Rate = 0.4 x 7 minutes = 2.8 minute ®
PV
18oF
5 mins
Td
TO TIME
Figure 8. System Time Delay
Controller Operation
There are three basic types of controllers: on-off,
proportional and PID. Depending upon the system to be
controlled, the operator will be able to use one type or the
other to control the process.
On/Off
An on-off controller is the simplest form of temperature
control device. The output from the device is either on or
off, with no middle state. An on-off controller will switch the
output only when the temperature crosses the setpoint.
For heating control, the output is on when the temperature
is below the setpoint, and off above setpoint.
Since the temperature crosses the setpoint to change the
output state, the process temperature will be cycling
continually, going from below setpoint to above, and back
below. In cases where this cycling occurs rapidly, and to
prevent damage to contactors and valves, an on-off
differential, or “hysteresis,” is added to the controller
operations. This differential requires that the temperature
exceed setpoint by a certain amount before the output will
turn off or on again. On-off differential prevents the output
from “chattering” or making fast, continual switches if the
cycling above and below the setpoint occurs very rapidly.
On-off control is usually used where a precise control is
not necessary, in systems which cannot handle having the
energy turned on and off frequently, where the mass of the
system is so great that temperatures change extremely
slowly, or for a temperature alarm.
One special type of on-off control used for alarm is a limit
controller. This controller uses a latching relay, which must
be manually reset, and is used to shut down a process
when a certain temperature is reached.
Proportional
Proportional controls are designed to eliminate the cycling
associated with on-off control. A proportional controller
decreases the average power supplied to the heater as
the temperature approaches setpoint. This has the effect
of slowing down the heater so that it will not overshoot the
setpoint, but will approach the setpoint and maintain a
stable temperature. This proportioning action can be
accomplished by turning the output on and off for short
intervals. This “time proportioning” varies the ratio of “on”
time to “off” time to control the temperature. The
proportioning action occurs within a “proportional band”
around the setpoint temperature. Outside this band, the
controller functions as an on-off unit, with the output either
fully on (below the band) or fully off (above the band).
However, within the band, the output is turned on and off
in the ratio of the measurement difference from the
setpoint. At the setpoint (the midpoint of the proportional
band), the output on:off ratio is 1:1; that is, the on-time and
off-time are equal. if the temperature is further from the
setpoint, the on- and off-times vary in proportion to the
temperature difference. If the temperature is below
setpoint, the output will be on longer; if the temperature is
too high, the output will be off longer.
The proportional band is usually expressed as a
percentage of full scale, or degrees. It may also be
referred to as gain, which is the reciprocal of the band.
Note that in time proportioning control, full power is applied
to the heater, but cycled on and off, so the average time is
Z-118
varied. In most units, the cycle time and/or proportional
band are adjustable, so that the controller may better
match a particular process.
In addition to electromechanical and solid state relay
outputs, proportional controllers are also available with
proportional analog outputs, such as 4 to 20 mA or 0 to
5 Vdc. With these outputs, the actual output level is varied,
rather than the on and off times, as with a relay output
Z
controller.
One of the advantages of proportional control is the
simplicity of operation. It may require an operator to make
a small adjustment (manual reset) to bring the temperature
to setpoint on initial startup, or if the process conditions
change significantly.
Systems that are subject to wide temperature cycling will
also need proportional controllers. Depending upon the
process and the precision required, either a simple
proportional control or one with PID may be required.
Processes with long time lags and large maximum rates of
rise (e.g., a heat exchanger), require wide proportional
bands to eliminate oscillation. The wide band can result in
large offsets with changes in the load. To eliminate these
offsets, automatic reset (integral) can be used. Derivative
(rate) action can be used on processes with long time
delays, to speed recovery after a process disturbance.
PID
The third controller type provides proportional with integral
and derivative control, or PID. This controller combines
proportional control with two additional adjustments, which
helps the unit automatically compensate for changes in the
system. These adjustments, integral and derivative, are
expressed in time-based units; they are also referred to by
their reciprocals, RESET and RATE, respectively.
The proportional, integral and derivative terms must be
individually adjusted or “tuned” to a particular system using
trial and error. It provides the most accurate and stable
control of the three controller types, and is best used in
systems which have a relatively small mass, those which
react quickly to changes in the energy added to the
process. It is recommended in systems where the load
changes often and the controller is expected to
compensate automatically due to frequent changes in
setpoint, the amount of energy available, or the mass to be
controlled.
There are also other features to consider when selecting a
controller. These include auto- or self-tuning, where the
instrument will automatically calculate the proper
proportional band, rate and reset values for precise
control; serial communications, where the unit can “talk” to
a host computer for data storage, analysis, and tuning;
alarms, that can be latching (manual reset) or non-latching
(automatic reset), set to trigger on high or low process
temperatures or if a deviation from setpoint is observed;
timers/event indicators which can mark elapsed time or the
end/beginning of an event. In addition, relay or triac output
units can be used with external switches, such as SSR
solid state relays or magnetic contactors, in order to switch
large loads up to 75 A.
®
SSR Thermal Considerations
One of the major considerations
when using a SSR, which cannot be
stressed too strongly, is that an
effective method of removing heat
from the SSR package must be
employed. The most common
method is to employ a heat sink.
SSR’s have a relatively high
“contact” dissipation, in excess of
1 watt per amp.
NO HEAT SINK
TJ TC
RΘJC
OUTPUT
SEMICONDUCTOR
(JUNCTION
TEMPERATURE)
HEAT FLOW
WITH HEAT SINK
TJ
RΘJC
TC
RΘCS
TS
CASE
TEMPERATUE
Fig. 18 A simplified thermal model
With loads of less than 5 amps,
cooling by free flowing air or forced
air current around the SSR is
usually sufficient. At higher currents
it will become necessary to make
sure the radiating surface is in good
contact with a heat sink. Essentially
this involves mounting the base
plate of the SSR onto a good heat
conductor, usually aluminum. Good
thermal transfer between the SSR
and the heat sink can be achieved
with thermal grease or heat sink
compound. Using this technique,
the SSR case to heat sink thermal
resistance (RΘCS) is reduced to a
negligible value of 0.1°C/W (celsius
per watt) or less. This is usually
presumed and included in the
thermal data. The simplified
thermal model in Fig. 18 indicates
the basic elements to be considered
in the thermal design. The values
that are determinable by the user
are the case to heat sink interface
(RΘCS), as previously mentioned,
and the heat sink to ambient
interface (RΘSA).
Thermal Calculations
Fig. 18 illustrates the thermal
relationships between the output
semiconductor junction and the
surrounding ambient. TJ - TA is the
temperature gradient or drop from
junction to ambient, which is the
sum of the thermal resistances
multiplied by the junction power
dissipation (P watts). Hence
TJ - TA = P(RΘJC + RΘCS + RΘSA)
where
TJ = Junction temperature, °C
TA = Ambient temperature, °C
P = Power dissipation
(ILOAD x EDROP) watts
RΘJC = Thermal resistance,
junction to case °C/W
RΘCS = Thermal resistance,
case to sink. °C/W
TA
RΘCA
RΘSA = Thermal resistance,
AMBIENT sink to ambient °C/W
(AIR TEMPERATURE)
To use the equation, the maximum
RΘSA
TA
junction temperature must be
known, typically 125°C, together
HEAT SINK
TEMPERATUE
with the actual power dissipation,
say 12 watts for a 10 amp SSR,
assuming a 1.2 volt effective (not
actual) voltage drop across the
output semiconductor. The power
dissipation (P watts) is determined
by multiplying the effective voltage
drop (EDROP)
Assuming a thermal resistance from
junction to case (RΘJC) of, say,
1.3°C/W and inserting the above
typical values into the equation,
solutions can be found for unknown
parameters, such as maximum load
current, maximum operating
temperature, and the appropriate
heat sink thermal resistance.
Where two of these parameters are
known the third can be found as
shown in the following examples:
(a) To determine the maximum
allowable ambient temperature
for 1°C/W heat sink and 10 amp
load (12 watts) with a maximum
allowable T3 of 100°C:
TJ - TA = P(RΘJC + RΘCS + RΘSA)
= 12 (1.3 + 0.1 + 1.0)
= 28.8
hence,
TA = TJ - 28.8
= 100 - 28.8
= 71.2°C
(b) To determine required heat sink
thermal resistance, for 71.2C
maximum ambient temperature
and a 10 amp load (12 watts):
Z-119
TJ - TA
RΘSA = ––––– - (RΘJC + RΘCS)
P
100 - 71.2
= –––––––– -(1.3 + 0.1)
12
= 1°C/W
(c). To determine maximum load
current, for 1°C/W heat sink and
71.2°C ambient temperature:
TJ - TA
P = ––––––––––––––––
RΘJC + RΘCS + RΘSA
100 - 7.2
= ––––––––––––
1.3 + 0.1 + 1.0
=12 watts
hence,
P
ILOAD = ––––––
EDROP
12
= ––
1.2
= 10 amperes
Regardless of whether the SSR is
used on a heat sink or the case is
cooled by other means, it is possible
to confirm proper operating
conditions by making a direct base
plate temperature measurement
when certain parameters are
known. The same basic equation is
used except that base plate
temperature (TC) is substituted for
ambient temperature (TA) and RΘCS
and RΘSA are deleted. The
temperature gradient now becomes
TJ - TC that is the thermal resistance
(RΘJC) multiplied by the junction
power dissipation (P watts). Hence:
TJ - TC = P(RΘJC)
Parameter relationships are similar
in that solutions can be found for
maximum allowable case
temperature, maximum load current,
and required junction to case (RΘJC)
thermal resistance. Again, where
two parameters are known, the third
can be found as shown in the
following examples (using previous
values).
(d). To determine maximum
allowable case temperature, for
RΘJC = 1.3°C/W and 10 amp load 35
0.5C/W
80
RΘCS+ RΘSA=
(12 watts):

MAX ALLOWABLE CASE TEMPERATURE (°C)

1.0C/W
30 85
TJ - TC = P (RΘJC) E 3.0C/W 2.0C/W F

POWER DISSIPATION (W)

25 90
= 12 x 1.3 C B

20 95
= 15.6
15
K H J L
100
Z
hence,
10 105
NO H
TC = TJ - 15.6 EAT S
INK
5 110
= 100 - 15.6
G D I A
= 84.4°C 0 5 10 15 20 25/0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

(e). To determine maximum load LOAD CURRENT (ARMS) MAX AMBIENT TEMPERATURE (°C)

current for RΘJC = 1.3°C/W and Fig. 19 Thermal operating curves (25 A SSR)
84.4°C case temperature:
and when it is, it is more commonly Ratings
TJ - TC combined with (RΘJC) and stated as The free air performance of lower
P = –––––– (RΘJA) The equation would appear powered SSR’s is usually defined in
RΘJC as follows: the catalogue by means of a single
TJ - TA = P(RΘJC + RΘCA ) derating curve, current versus
100 - 84.4 ambient temperature based on the
= ––––––––
1.3 Or foregoing formulas, which is
TJ - TA = P(RΘJA) adequate for most situations
= 12 watts
Where
SSR
hence, RΘCA = Thermal resistance, case
to ambient, °C/W
P
ILOAD = –––––– RΘJA = Thermal resistance,
EDROP 0.15
junction to ambient, °C/W INCH
1.5
INCHES
12 The equation can be used to
= –– calculate maximum load current and
1.2
maximum ambient temperature as
= 10 amperes before. However, the resultant 2.3
INCHES
values are inclined to be less Fig. 20 Typical light duty aluminum heat
(f). To determine required thermal precise due to the many variables sink extrusion (end view)
resistance (RΘJC) for 84.4°C case that affect the case to air
temperature and 10 amp load (12 relationship (i.e... positioning, Heat Sinking
watts): mounting, stacking, air movement,
etc). Under worst case conditions the
TJ - TC SSR case temperature should not
RΘJC = ––––– Generally, free air performance is exceed the maximum allowable
P associated with PCB or plug-in shown in the right hand vertical
SSR’s of 5 amps or less, which scales of Fig. 19.
100 - 84.4 have no metallic base to measure.
= –––––––– The question is often raised as to A typical finned section of extruded
12 aluminum heat sink material is
where the air temperature is
measured. There is no clear-cut shown in outline form in Fig. 20. A
= 1.3°C/W 2 inch length of this material would
answer for this. Measurement is
In examples (a) through (c) SSR made more difficult when the SSR’s approximate the same thermal
operating conditions are determined are closely stacked, each creating a characteristics as curve (a) in Fig.
as they relate to ambient air false environment for its neighbor. 21, likewise, a 4 inch length would
temperature using a heat sink. One suggested approach is to place approximate curve (b). This is
Similarly, conditions can be a temperature probe or assuming the heat sink is positioned
determined for an SSR operating in thermocouple in the horizontal plane with the fins in the vertical plane,
free air without a heat sink, provided approximately 1 inch away from the with an unimpeded air flow.
that a value is given for the radiating subject SSR. This technique is As a general rule, a heat sink with
characteristics of the package reasonably accurate and permits the proportions of the 2 inch length
(RΘCA). This value is rarely given repeatability. of extrusion (curve (a)) is suitable
Z-120
SSR Thermal Considerations Cont’d

3.0
100

TEMPERATURE RISE ABOVE AMBIENT (°C)

STILL AIR
(NATURAL CONVECTION)
THERMAL RESISTANCE (RΘSA)°C/W

A FINS VERTICAL
2.5 80

B
60
2.0 300 LFM

40 500 LFM

1.5 1000 LFM

20

1.0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
DISSIPATION (WATTS)
POWER DISSIPATED (WATTS)

Fig. 21 Typical heat sink characteristics Fig. 23 Typical free-moving air characteristics of a heavy duty heat sink,
temperature rise versus power dissipated

for SSR’s rated up to 10 amps, Not all heat sink manufacturers adequate as a heat sink. By
while the 4 inch length (curve (b)) show their characteristics in terms ensuring flatness, using thermal
will serve SSR’s rated up to 20 of degrees C per watt (°C/W). Some compound, and removing paint to
amps. For power SSR’s with show them as a temperature rise maximize effectiveness, a base
ratings greater than 20 amps, heavy above ambient as shown in Fig. 23. plate (SSR) temperature
duty heat sink of the type shown in In this case, a value for RΘSA is measurement at maximum ambient
Fig. 22 become necessary. The found by dividing power dissipation may be all that is necessary to
performance of a 5.5 inch length of (watts) into the temperature rise confirm proper operation as
the extrusion would approximate the (°C). For example, taking the 60 previously mentioned.
characteristics shown in Fig. 23. watt point on the dissipation scale
the free air curve would indicate a If an SSR installation does not
40 degree rise. Hence: provide an adequate heat sink, a
selection is made from the wide
SSR
TRISE variety of commercial heat sink
RΘSA = –––– types that are available. Each
2.62
INCHES P configuration has its own unique
1.44
INCHES
thermal characteristics and are
40 usually well documented with
= –– manufacturers’ performance curves
60
4.75 and application data.
INCHES
= 0.66°C/W
Fig. 22 An end view of a typical heavy
duty aluminum heat sink extrusion In many applications, the SSR is
mounted to a panel or base plate
which may also be more than

Z-121
No Time Out for This
Programmable Timer/Controller
Model PT41 a
precision clock/timer,
controller, combines
the features of many
dedicated meters
into one
multipurpose design.
See Figure 1.
Challenge this
universal and
economical,
programmable
timer/controller to
any level task, from
variable cycle timing
in complex patterns
to elementary
stop watch and reset
operations.
Timing modes and
patterns are virtually Figure 1 PT41 timer/controller
unlimited and the four independently If power is interrupted, the
controlled outputs are easily
programmed using front panel
pushbuttons or remote serial link.
Connected by a common bus to
other DP41 series test instruments,
the PT41 timer/ controller is capable Programming Made Simple
of requesting readings from all
meters and recording the data on
a common printer.
Special Features
The features of this precision
instrument allow variations of
timing patterns through simplified
programming and process
monitoring. There are four
independent outputs with eight
programmable setpoints and five
controlled output modes allowing
for extensive combinations of load
control patterns. For the often used
timing sequences, the instrument
can store up to 64 preset patterns.
Operations may be timed in
intervals as short as 0.01 second or
as long as 24 hours and will repeat
any cycle up to a million times.
The meter may be configured to
use any one of eight built-in time
bases (such as time-of-day or one
hour resolution).
The user can view the setup and
timing configuration any time the
meter is functioning. Depress the
front panel REVIEW button or
activate the remote serial link and
this feature will display the timing
sequence without disturbing the
timing function.
microprocessor-based nonvolatile
memory retains all timer settings. If
retention of day and date is required,
a battery backup option is available.
The PT41 is fully programmable
from the front panel or remotely via
an RS-232 or RS-485 serial link.
Front panel programming is
accomplished with five pushbuttons.
The programmer is prompted with
key words (such as START, TIMSET,
UNITS, ELAPSE) on the six position
alphanumeric LED display.
The remote programming option
has more than forty commands
which allows full control by a
personal computer or work station.
Programming and timing status is
fed back to the personal computer
for program verification. The remote
programming feature comes with its
own directive software.
Automated Data Logging
A unique feature of the PT41 is
found in its controller mode. A
maximum of 32 DP41 series
instruments (such as voltmeters,
temperature indicators, batch
controllers) equipped with RS-485
serial interface boards, can be
bussed together using this
instrument as a timer/controller. It
can sequence through all meters on
the bus and request readings from
all devices. An RS-485 printer, also
located on the bus, is then directed
Z-122
Z
to record the readings, with or
without a time and date stamp.
The PT41 can be programmed to
monitor remote devices in intervals
of up to eleven days. Figure 2
illustrates a typical configuration
using the PT41 to connect three
DP41 instruments and a printer.
Manages Any Time Problem
The flexible timing and output load
control of this meter provide the
tools needed to manage any timing
problem. Applications such as
life testing, burn-in, reliability
evaluation, process control, and
repeat cycle timing are typical.
Example 1 Time and control of
intermittent burn-in, where a product
is to be energized for ten seconds
and deenergized for 50, with the
process cycled 10,000 times;
voltage readings logged every hour.
Example 2 Time and control of
four production processes running
concurrently, each requiring different
start-stop sequencing with an alarm
to signal key steps in each process.
Example 3 Control the opening
and closing time periods for a set
of doors in a facility for security
reasons.
Example 4 Record readings
from five remote unattended test
instruments once a day and repeat
the process for ten days.
No Time Out for This
Programmable Timer/Controller

U.S. and Int’l Patents.

Used Under License.

Adaptable Design +140°F (0°C to +60°C). The AC Universal Instrument

The six position, 14 segment red or power is 115V or 230V ±10 % with The PT41 is a full function
green LED display operates at power consumption 9 Watts instrument capable of timing,
100% and 50% brightness levels. maximum. controlling and directing data
Additional indicator lights show The UL-rated polycarbonate case is logging. The functions and features
alarm settings, AM/PM reference dimensioned 1.89" H x 3.78" W x included in this one low cost
and timer status. The clock time 5.86" D (48 x 96 x 149 mm). instrument are normally attained by
base is derived from the 50 or 60 Hz combining several individual meters.
line frequency and from an internal PT41 functions in a panel mount or
crystal oscillator with an accuracy of table configuration and is the “all in
±50 PPM over the full operating one” solution for automated test,
temperature range of +32°F to operation and process control.

Controller Mode Operation

RS-485 RS-485

1
2
3
4

SETPTS REVIEW
STOP MENU
RESET

PTC41
RS-485 RS-485 TIMER/
CONTROLLER
AB
PQ CDEFGH
AB RSTUVW IJKLMN
PQ CDEFGH XYZ[/] O
ABCD RSTUVWX IJKLMNO ^_
EFGH Y
IJKLM Z[/]^_
NO

1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
4 4 4

SETPTS MAX SETPTS SETPTS MAX

MIN DISPLAY DEV
MENU STOP MENU MENU
RESET RESET RESET

DP41-E DPF400 DP41-T

PROCESS METER RATE TOTALIZER TEMPERATURE INDICATOR PRINTER

Figure 2 A typical configuration demonstrating the PT41 linked to three DP41 instruments and a printer.

Z-123
 Solid State
ReIays
Figure 1. Hybrid SSR
REED
RELAY TRIAC
CONTROL
SIGNAL
LOAD
OPTIONAL TRIGGER
PREAMPLIFIER CIRCUIT
AC POWER
Defined and Described
SSR Defined. A solid-state relay is an ON-OFF control
device in which the load current is conducted by one or
more semiconductors - e.g., a power transistor, an SCR,
or a TRIAC. (The SCR and TRIAC are often called
“thyristors,” a term derived by combining thyratron and
transistor, since thyristors are triggered semiconductor
switches.)
Like all relays, the SSR requires relatively low control-
circuit energy to switch the output state from OFF to ON,
or vice versa. Since this control energy is very much lower
than the output power controllable by the relay at full load,
"power gain" in an SSR is substantial--frequently much
higher than in an electromagnetic relay of comparable
output rating. To put it another way, the sensitivity of an
SSR is often significantly higher than that of an EMR of
comparable output rating.
Types of SSR's. It is convenient to classify SSR's by the
nature of the input circuit, with particular reference to the
means by which input-output isolation is achieved. Three
major categories are recognized:
• Reed-Relay-Coupled SSR's (see figure 1), in which the
control signal is applied (directly, or through a
preamplifier) to the coil of a reed relay. The closure of
the reed switch then activates appropriate circuitry that
triggers the thyristor switch. Clearly, the input-output
isolation achieved is that of the reed relay, which is
usually excellent.
• Transformer-Coupled SSR's (see figure 2), in which
the control signal is applied (through a DC-AC
converter, if it is DC, or directly, if It is AC) to the primary
of a small, low-power transformer, and the secondary
voltage that results from the primary excitation is used
(with or without rectification, amplification, or other
modification) to trigger the thyristor switch. In this type,
the degree of input-output isolation depends on the
design of the transformer.
ISOLATING
TRANSFORMER
CONTROL DC-AC
CONVERTER
TRIAC
TRIGGER
LOAD
CIRCUIT
Figure 2. Transformer-Coupled SSR AC POWER
PHOTO-TRANSISTOR
LED
CONTROL
SIGNAL
TRIAC LOAD Z
TRIGGER
CIRCUIT
Figure 3. Photo-Coupled SSR AC POWER
• Photo-coupled SSR's (see figure 3), in which the
control signal is applied to a light or infrared source
(usually, a light-emitting diode, or LED), and the
radiation from that source is detected in a photo-
sensitive semi-conductor (i.e., a photosensitive diode, a
photo-sensitive transistor, or a photo-sensitive thyristor).
The output of the photo-sensitive device is then used to
trigger (gate) the TRIAC or the SCR's that switch the
load current. Clearly, the only significant “coupling path”
between input and output is the beam of light or infra-
red radiation, and electrical isolation is excellent. These
SSR's are also referred to as “optically coupled” or
“photo-isolated”.
In addition to the major types of SSR's described above,
there are some special-purpose designs that should be
mentioned:
• Direct-control AC types (see figure 4), in which external
contacts, operating in a circuit energized by the same
AC power line as is used for the load circuit, trigger a
TRIAC (or back-to-back-connected SCR's). This type is
also referred to as having a “switch closure” input.
Clearly, this type of relay, while simpler and inherently
less expensive than more sophisticated designs, has the
great disadvantage (for most applications) of having no
isolation between the control and load circuits.
• Direct-control DC types (see figure 5) in which external
contacts, operating in a circuit energized by the same
DC power line as is used for the load circuit, control the
conduction of a transistor. This type of relay, which is
perhaps the simplest of all, and inherently the least
expensive, also has the great disadvantage (for most
applications) of having no isolation between the control
and load circuits.
• SCR types designed for DC, in which the load-current-
carrying SCR is made to turn off by means of a second
Z-124
Solid State Relays Cont’d
CONTROL
CONTACTS
LOAD
TRIGGER
CIRCUIT
CONTROL
SIGNAL
AC POWER
Figure 4. Direct-Control AC SSR
Figure 6. SSR
using SCR switch
SCR, connected in a “commutating circuit” (such as that of
figure 6), which is capable of turning off the first SCR by
momentarily reducing its current to zero.
• Designs using special isolating means, such as. . .
...the Hall effect in which the motion of a magnet
external to, but in proximity to, the SSR causes a
change in resistance in a field -sensitive material,
thereby triggering on-off behavior.
...oscillator tuning, in which the external signal shifts the
frequency of an oscillator, thereby causing a closely
coupled resonant circuit to trigger on-off behavior.
...saturable reactors or magnetic amplifiers, in which a
DC control current in one winding controls the induced
voltage (from an AC source) in another winding. The
induced voltage is then used to trigger on-off behavior.
It is safe to say that well over 95% of all SSR
requirements are best satisfied by one of the three major
types described earlier (i.e., figures 1-3).
Input Circuit Performance. The sensitivity of isolated
SSR’s (that is, the minimum control voltage and current at
which the SSR turns on) depends on the characteristics of
the isolating component or circuit:
• In hybrid (reed-relay isolated) designs, the SSR’s
sensitivity is established by the operating-power
requirement of the reed relay, which ranges from as low
as 40 milliwatts (e.g., 5 volts dc at 8 mA) to as high as
several hundred milliwatts. Note that the low-voltage,
low-power designs are compatible with standard digital-
computer “logic levels,” and that the standard “high-fan-
out” TTL logic-level output from a digital computer or
digital controller can drive two or more hybrid SSR’s in
parallel.
• In transformer-coupled SSR’s, the sensitivity is usually
considerably higher than that of the hybrid type,
Z-125
CONTROL
CONTACTS
LOAD
Figure 5. Direct-Control DC SSR DC POWER
COMMUTATING R
CAPACITOR
A
SCR-2 SCR-1
ISOLATING
CIRCUIT LOAD
(SEE FIGS. 1-3) B
DC POWER
because all the input signal must do is to gate on the
AC-DC converter (see figure 2) that drives the
transformer, and that requires, typically, less than
10 milliwatts (e.g., 4.5 v dc at 2 mA) and rarely more
than 50 milliwatts. This sensitivity is better than required
by any single-TTL digital output, and a high-fan-out TTL
output can drive from 3 to 10 such SSR’s in parallel.
• In optically coupled SSR’s, the sensitivity ranges from
about 6 milliwatts (e.g., 3 volts dc at 2 mA) to 100
milliwatts. Using an appropriate series resistor or current
regulator, this type of input circuit is also compatible with
TTL logic levels, and several optically coupled SSR’s
can be driven in parallel by high-fan-out logic lines.
• The sensitivity of most “direct-control“ SSR’s (figures 4
and 5) is significantly lower than that of the isolated
designs, but that fact is of little importance because the
control power required is almost always well within the
capability of even the smallest control contacts.
The maximum turn-off level (voltage and/or current) of an
SSR is about 50% of the minimum level at which it turns
on. This characteristic provides an adequate margin of
safety between the ON and OFF states, thereby
eliminating erratic behavior due to small changes in the
control signal.
In many SSR designs, the control-voltage range is much
greater than that implied by the minimum turn-on voltage.
In designs optimized for wide input voltage range, it is not
uncommon for the SSR to be rated for use over more than
a 6-to-1 range of control voltages (e.g., 3.0 V to 32 V). In
hybrid designs, the coil of the reed relay may be wound for
almost any useful control voltage, from as low as 3 volts
nominal, to 50 volts, or even higher, but the range of input
voltage tolerated by a hybrid SSR is limited by dissipation
in the relay coil. Generally, a range of 1.5 to 1 is
acceptable. On the other hand, series resistance, or a
“constant-current” active input circuit, may be used to
accommodate a hybrid relay to higher input voltages.
 (a)
LOAD
l LEAKAGE
TRIGGER
CIRCUIT
AC POWER V OFF
R LEAKAGE
l LOAD
V S U P P LY
R
Vd L
Figure 7. Simplified Circuit of an
SSR (a), and equivalent circuits for
the ON state (b) and the
(b) OFF state. (c)
V S U P P LY
Input Characteristics. Beyond consideration of the
sensitivity characteristics (page Z-120), we must also
describe the input-circuit isolation characteristics of an
SSR, which requires consideration of many different
parameters, including:
• Dielectric strength, rated in terms of minimum
breakdown voltage from control circuit to both the
SSR case and the output (load) circuit. A typical
rating is 1500 volts ac (RMS), for either control to
case or control to output.
• Insulation Resistance, from control circuit to both
the case and the output circuit. Typical ratings range
from 10 megohms to 100,000 megohms for
transformer and hybrid designs. For optically isolated
SSR’s, typical insulation resistances range from 1000
to 1 million megohms.
• Stray Capacitance from control circuit to both case
and the output circuit. Capacitance to case is rarely
significant, but capacitance to the output circuit may
couple ac and transients back to the sensitive control
circuit, and even further back, into the control-signal
sources. Fortunately, in well designed SSR’s, this
capacitance is rarely large enough to cause
interaction. Typical stray capacitance ranges from 1
to 10 picofarads.
The speed of response of the SSR to the application of
control voltage is covered later in this section.
Output Circuit Performance. Clearly, the most
significant output-circuit parameters are the maximum
load-circuit voltage that may be impressed across the
relay output circuit in the OFF condition without causing
it to break down into conduction or failure, and the
maximum current that can flow through the output
circuit and load in ON condition.
Z-126
V S U P P LY
l LOAD
V LOAD
VSSR (X50) ( ≈ V S U P P LY )
R
L
(c) Z
Figure 8a. ON-Mode Waveforms
(VSSR is greatly exaggerated)
Note that these parameters are (at least at first glance)
analogous to the usual voltage and current ratings of the
contacts on an electro-magnetic relay. There are,
however, differences between EMR output ratings and
SSR output ratings--differences that will be examined in
detail as this exposition proceeds.
In the most general approach, one may say that the
“contact ratings” of an SSR are determined almost
entirely by the characteristics of the load-current
switching device. Perhaps this fact is most apparent
from an examination of the simplest type of ac SSR - a
direct-control (non-isolated) design, such as that
originally shown in figure 4, and redrawn above in figure
7, with its equivalent circuit for both the ON and OFF
states. In the ON state (figure 7b), the TRIAC exhibits a
nearly constant voltage drop (i.e., almost independent of
load current) approximately equal to that of two silicon
diodes - less than 2 volts. The passage of load current
through this voltage drop causes power dissipation
(Pd = Vd x Iload), and this power will cause a
temperature rise in the TRIAC junction. If proper “heat-
sinking” is provided - i.e., thermal conduction from the
TRIAC case to the outside air or to a heat-conductive
metal structure that can in turn dissipate the power to
the surrounding air without significant temperature rise -
then the TRIAC temperature will not rise above the rated
maximum value for reliable operation (typically, 100°C).
With generous heat sinking, the current rating of the
SSR may be determined, not by power dissipation, but
by the current rating of the TRIAC.
Figure 7c shows the equivalent circuit of this very simple
SSR in the OFF state. Note that even when the TRIAC
is turned off, a very small amount of leakage current can
flow. This current path, represented by a resistance in
the equivalent circuit, is actually a non-linear function of
the load-circuit voltage. The normal practice, in rating
Solid State Relays Cont’d
V S U P P LY
V S S R ≈ V S U P P LY
l (≈ 1/1000 X l L O A D )
LEAKAGE
ON
CONTROL
SIGNAL
OFF
Figure 8b. OFF-Mode Waveforms Figure 9a. Non-Synchronous SSR
(Ileakage is greatly exaggerated) waveforms for resistive load
TRIAC’s, is to specify a worst case maximum value for
this “OFF-state leakage” and a typical value is 0.001 A
max. for a 5-ampere load-current rating. The load circuit
voltage rating is simply that determined by the blocking
voltage rating of the thyristor.
The output-circuit ratings of the more common isolated
SSR’s, most of which are designed to control ac load
circuits, are very similar to those described above,
except that OFF-state leakage is usually higher---on the
order of 5 mA at 140 V for a 5-ampere device---still only
about one-thousandth of the load current rating. Figure
7 shows the equivalent circuit of a TRIAC-switch SSR
design, and figure 8 shows the voltage and current
waveforms in the load circuit, for both OFF and ON
states. Note that the ON-state voltage-drop curves are
drawn to a much expanded scale compared with the
OFF state and load voltage curves.
Even at this early stage in our examination of SSR
performance, it is necessary to consider the time
relationships between the control signal and the ac
load-circuit voltage and current.
With respect to timing, there are two classes of
switching SSR’s. In one, no particular effort is made to
achieve synchronism between the alternations of the
load circuit-power line and the turning on of the thyristor
switch. In this “non-synchronous” class, then, the
response delay between the application of control
voltage and the beginning of load-circuit conduction is
very short...typically from 20 to 200 microseconds in
optically coupled and transformer types, and less than
one millisecond in hybrids (longer due to the reed relay
operation time). The current waveform on turn-on in
non-synchronous designs is clearly a function of when
in the ac cycle the control signal is applied, as
illustrated in figure 9a.
Z-127
V S U P P LY
CURRENT V S U P P LY
STARTS AT
NEXT
CROSSING
START l LOAD
CURRENT DELAY
CONTINUES
TO HERE
l LOAD
TURN OFF
HERE
ON
CONTROL
OFF
OFF SIGNAL OFF
Figure 9b. Synchronous SSR
waveforms for resistive load
In synchronous (zero-voltage turn-on) designs, the
effect of the application of a control signal is delayed (if
necessary) until the power-line voltage is passing
through zero (see figure 9b). (This is done by internal
gating circuitry that senses the magnitude of the line
voltage, and prevents triggering the thyristor until the
next zero crossing occurs.) Thus, if the control signal
happens to be applied immediately after a zero
crossing, the SSR would not actually begin conducting
until almost a full half-cycle later. On the other hand, if
the control signal happens to be applied just before a
zero-crossing is about to occur, the SSR would begin to
conduct almost immediately, with only the very small
turn-on delays described above for non-synchronous
designs. Clearly, then, the turn-on delay of a
synchronous SSR can have any value from less than a
millisecond to a full half-cycle of the power line (about
8.3 milliseconds for a 60-Hz power line). Usually, for 60
Hz service, the rating is given as 8.3 milliseconds
maximum for all-solid-state designs, and 1.5
milliseconds maximum for hybrid designs.
The final major characteristic of the AC-switching SSR
is its turn-off behavior. Because a thyristor, once
triggered, will not stop conducting until the load current
flowing through it falls to zero, there is a maximum
possible turn-off delay (between the removal of the
control signal and the cessation of load current) of one
half cycle. As in the case of turn-on, the minimum turn-
off delay is close to zero. Thus, a typical 60-Hz rating
for turn-off time is 9 milliseconds maximum. ®
Reproduced with permission of Crydom Corporation
Intrinsic Safety
How are Hazardous Locations Defined?
Answer: According to the National Electrical Code,
Article 500, hazardous locations are defined by Class,
Group and Division. Differentiation by Class and Group
is in accordance with the laws of physics, while Division
classification is based on environmental and physical
plant conditions.
The Definition of Intrinsic Safety Identifies Both
Electrical and Thermal Energy as Potential Causes
of Ignition. How Does Thermal Energy Relate to the
Ignition of a Specific Flammable or Combustible
Mixture?
Answer: There are temperatures at which a flammable

Relative to the application of Intrinsic Safety, it is

or combustible mixture will ignite. The minimum
temperature at which ignition takes place is called the
Z
important to define the actual Class, Group and Division “Auto-Ignition Temperature.” Intrinsically Safe systems
into which any proposed Intrinsically Safe electrical will not allow thermal energy to reach levels at which a
circuits are to be installed. As shown by the ignition specific flammable or combustible mixture will auto-
curves, all flammable mixtures do not require the same ignite.
energy levels to ignite. Because Intrinsic Safety
requires maintaining an energy level lower than that Figure 1 identifies common hazardous mixtures and
required to ignite a specific hazardous mixture, it is their auto-ignition temperatures.
important to know what the energy allowances are for
operational and safety considerations. Autoignition
Hazardous Temperature
Typical Resistance Circuit Ignition Currents Identify Mixture
Only Four Hazardous Substances: Hydrogen, °C °F
Ethylene, Propane and Methane. Aren’t There More Acetone 540 1004
Flammable or Combustible Materials Than That? Acetylene 305 581
Answer: Yes, but those four hazardous mixtures Ammonia 630 1166
represent the basis for all flammable or combustible Benzene 220 428
Benzol 555 1031
mixtures subject to ignition from electrical sources. All Butane 365 689
are found, as shown in the Hazardous (Classified) Butylalchohol 340 644
Locations chart following, in Class I, with Hydrogen Carbon Disulphide 95 203
identified as Group B; Ethylene identified as Group C; Carbon Oxide 605 1121
Propane being Group D and, as a separate curve within Cyclohexane 430 806
Group D, Methane. Diesel Fuel 220 to 300 428 to 572
Ethane 515 959
Acetylene: Group A and Hydrogen: Group B share the Ethylacetate 460 860
same required energy levels relative to ignition. They Ethylalchohol 425 797
require less energy for ignition than does Group C, Ethylchloride 510 950
which requires less energy for ignition than Group D. Ethylene 425 797
Within Class II Group E, metal or electrically conductive Ethylether 180 356
dusts, Group F, Coal Dust and Group G, electrically Ethyl Glycol 235 455
Fuel Oil 220 to 300 428 to 572
nonconductive dusts, generally grain or agricultural Hexane 240 464
dusts are identified. As Groups A and B share the same Hydrogen aeroxide 560 1040
ignition curve, Group C, Ethylene, and Group E, metal Hydrogen disulphide 270 518
or electrically conductive dusts, share the same ignition Methane 595 1103
curve. Groups D, Propane, F, Coal Dust, and G, Methanol 455 851
electrically nonconductive dusts, share the same Methyl chloride 625 1157
ignition curve. Naphthalene 520 968
Phenol 595 1103
A complete listing of hazardous mixtures defined by Propane 470 878
Group can be found in National Fire Protection Tetraline 425 797
Association document NFPA 497 M. Toluol 535 995

Figure 1: Autoignition temperatures of some hazardous mixtures.

Reproduced with permission of R. Stahl.

Z-128
Intrinsic Safety Cont’d

Hazardous (Classified) Locations in Accordance with Article 500, National Electric Code-1990

Class I
Flammable Gases or Vapors

Division 1 Division 2
• Exists under normal conditions • Liquids and gases in closed
• May exist because of: containers or the systems are:
- repair conditions - handled
- maintenance operations - processed
- leakage - used
• Released concentration • Concentrations are normally
because of: prevented by positive
- breakdown of equipment mechanical ventilation.
- breakdown of process • Adjacent to a Class I, Division 1
- faulty operation of equipment location
- faulty operation of process
which causes simultaneous
failure of electrical equipment

Group A: Atmospheres containing Acetylene

Group B: Atmospheres such as Butadiene, ethylene oxide,

Propylene Oxide, Acrolein, or Hydrogen (or gases
or vapors equivalent in hazard to hydrogen such
as manufactured gas)

Group C: Atmospheres such as Cyclopropane, Ethyl Ether,

Ethylene, or gases or vapors equivalent in hazard

Group D: Atmospheres such as Acetone, Alcohol,

Ammonia, Benzene, Benzol, Butane, Gasoline,
Hexane, Lacquer Solvent vapors, Naphtha,
Natural Gas, Propane or gases or vapors
equivalent in hazard

Z-129

Division 1
• Exists under normal conditions
• Combustible mixture
produced by:
- mechanical failure of
equipment or machinery
- abnormal operation of
equipment and provide
source of ignition from:
- simultaneous failure of
electrical equipment
- simultaneous failure of
operation of protection devices
- other causes
• Electrically conductive dusts
may be present
Group E:
Group F:
Group G:
Division 1
• Fibers or materials producing
combustible flyings are
manufactured, stored or
handled
Class II
Combustible Dusts
Division 2 Z
• Not normally in the air
• Accumulations normally
sufficient to interfere with
normal operation of electrical
equipment or other apparatus.
• In the air as a result of
infrequent malfunctioning of:
- handling equipment
- process equipment
• Accumulations are sufficient to
interfere with the safe
dissipation of heat from
electrical equipment
• Accumulations may be ignitible
by abnormal or failure of
electrical equipment
Atmospheres containing combustible metal dusts
(regardless of resistivity), dusts of similarly
hazardous characteristics ( < 100 kΩ/cm) or
electrically conductive dusts
Atmospheres containing combustible Carbon
Black, Charcoal or Coke Dusts which have > 8%
total volatile material or if these dusts are sensitized
so that they present an explosion hazard and
having a resistivity > 100 kΩ/cm but ≤ 100 MΩ/cm
Atmospheres containing combustible dusts having
a resistivity > 100 kΩ/cm or electrically
nonconductive dusts
Class III
Ignitable Fibers or Flyings
Division 2
• Fibers are handled except
Not Grouped
during the process of
• Manufacturers such as textile manufacture or are stored
mills, cotton-related mills or except during the process of
clothing plants manufacture
• Fibers and flyings including
Rayon, Cotton, Sisal, Hemp,
Jute and Spanish Moss
Z-130
Intrinsic Safety Circuit
Design
Making instruments
intrinsically safe need not
seem like a nightmare. Here,
the basics of intrinsic safety
circuit design are discussed.
Paul S. Babiarz
Intrinsic safety prevents instruments
and other low-voltage circuits in
hazardous areas from releasing
sufficient energy to ignite volatile
gases. Although it is used widely in
Europe to safely install and operate
instrumentation circuits in
hazardous areas, it has caused
much confusion in North American
markets. Many users have heard of
it and want to know more; however,
most feel uncomfortable applying
intrinsically safe products. One
reason is that intrinsic safety has
been a part of Section 504 of the
National Electric Code only since
1990. In addition, the number of
different products on the market and
seemingly endless calculations
make applying intrinsic safety seem
like an engineer’s nightmare.
This is the first of a series of short
articles that explain how to make
the most common field devices
(thermocouples, RTDs, contacts,
solenoid valves, transmitters, and
displays) intrinsically safe. We will
begin with an introduction to the
practical side of intrinsic safety
circuit design.
Start With The Field Device
All intrinsically safe circuits have
three components: the field device,
referred to as the intrinsically safe
apparatus; the energy-limiting
3.12 of the ANSI/ISA-RP 12.6-1987
Intrinsically Safe Intrinsically Safe as any device which will neither
Apparatus Applications(%) generate nor store more than 1.2
volts, 0.1 amps, 25 mW or 20 µJ.
Switching 32.0% Examples are simple contacts,
mechanical switches 85.0% thermocouples, RTDs, LEDs,
proximity switches 15.0% noninductive potentiometers, and
resistors. These simple devices do
2-wire transmitters 22.0% not need to be approved as
Thermocouples & RTDs 13.0% intrinsically safe. If they are
Load cells 8.5% connected to an approved
Solenoid valves 4.5% intrinsically safe associated
Potentiometers 2.5% apparatus (barrier), the circuit is
LEDs 2.0% considered intrinsically safe.
I/P transducers 2.0%
Other devices 13.5% A nonsimple device can create or
store levels of energy that exceed
Total field devices 100.0% those listed above. Typical examples
are transmitters, transducers,
solenoid valves, and relays. When
Figure 1. Current use of intrinsically safe these devices are approved as
apparatus in hazardous areas.
intrinsically safe, under the entity
device, also known as a barrier or concept, they have the following
intrinsically safe associated entity parameters: Vmax (maximum
apparatus; and the field wiring. voltage allowed); Imax (maximum
When designing an intrinsically safe current allowed); Ci (internal
circuit, begin the analysis with the capacitance); and Li (internal
field device. This will determine the inductance).
type of barrier that can be used so The Vmax and Imax values are
that the circuit functions properly straightforward. Under a fault
under normal operating conditions condition, excess voltage or current
but still is safe under fault conditions. could be transferred to the
intrinsically safe apparatus (field
More than 85% of all intrinsically
safe circuits involve commonly device). If the voltage or current
exceeds the apparatus’ Vmax or
known instruments. Figure 1 shows
the approximate use of intrinsically Imax, the device can heat up or
spark and ignite the gases in the
safe apparatus in hazardous areas.
hazardous area. The Ci and Li
An intrinsically safe apparatus (field values describe the device‘s ability
device) is classified either as a to store energy in the form of
simple or nonsimple device. Simple internal capacitance and internal
apparatus is defined in paragraph inductance.
Safe Area Intrinsically Safe Barrier Hazardous Area
Current Limiting
Fuse Resistor
Input Zener Field
Voltage Diodes Device
Instrinsically Safe
Ground
Figure 2. Barrier circuit
Z-131

Limiting Energy To The Field
Device
To protect the intrinsically safe
apparatus in a hazardous area, an
energy-limiting device must be
installed. This is commonly referred
to as an intrinsically safe associated
apparatus or barrier. Under normal
conditions, the device is passive
and allows the intrinsically safe
apparatus to function properly.
Under fault conditions, it protects
the field circuit by preventing excess
voltage and current from reaching
the hazardous area. The basic
circuit diagram for an intrinsically
safe barrier is shown in Figure 2.
There are three components to a
barrier that limit current and voltage:
a resistor, at least two zener diodes,
and a fuse. The resistor limits the
current to a specific value known as
the short circuit current, Isc. The
zener diode limits the voltage to a
value referred to as open circuit
voltage, Voc. The fuse will blow
when the diode conducts. This
interrupts the circuit, which prevents
the diode from burning and allowing
excess voltage to reach the
hazardous area. There always are at
least two zener diodes in parallel in
each intrinsically safe barrier. If one
diode should fail, the other will
operate providing complete
protection.
A simple analogy is a restriction in a
water pipe with an overpressure
shut-off valve. The restriction
prevents too much water from
flowing through the point, just like
the resistor in the barrier limits
current. If too much pressure builds
up behind the restriction, the
overpressure shutoff valve turns off
all the flow in the pipe. This is similar
to what the zener diode and fuse do
with excess voltage. If the input
voltage exceeds the allowable limit,
the diode shorts the input voltage to
Associated Apparatus Apparatus
(barrier) (field device)
Open circuit voltage Voc ≤ Vmax
Short circuit current Isc ≤ Imax
Allowed capacitance Ca ≥ Ci
Allowed inductance La ≥ Li
Figure 3. Comparison of the entity values of
an intrinsically safe apparatus and
associated apparatus
5A
2A
1A
Ignition Current (A)
500 mA
200 mA
100 mA
Groups A and B
50 mA
Hydrogen
20 mA
10 mA
10
Figure 4. Ignition curves – resistance
ground and the fuse blows, shutting
off electrical power to the hazardous
area.
When conducting the safety
analysis of the circuit, it is important
to compare the entity values of the
intrinsically safe apparatus against
the associated apparatus. These
parameters usually are found on the
product or in the control wiring
diagram from the manufacturer (see
Figure 3).
Will The Circuit Work?
It also is important to make sure
that the intrinsically safe circuit will
work under normal conditions. With
the current-limiting resistor, a
voltage drop will occur between the
input and output of the barrier. This
has to be accounted for in your
circuit design. In the subsequent
articles in this series, a step-by-step
explanation will be given on how to
calculate these voltage drops and
make sure that the circuit is safe.
Z-132
Z
Groups C and D
Methane
Propane
Ethylene
20 30 40 50 100 200
Open Circuit Voltage (V)
Determining Safe Energy
Levels
Voltage and current limitations are
ascertained by ignition curves, as
seen in Figure 4. A circuit with a
combination of 30 V and 150 mA
would fall on the ignition level of
gases in Group A. This combination
of voltage and current could create
a spark large enough to ignite the
mixture of gases and oxygen.
Intrinsically safe applications always
stay below these curves where the
operating level of energy is about
1 watt or less. There are also
capacitance and inductance curves
which must be examined in
intrinsically safe circuits.
The purpose of this series of
articles is to simplify the application
of intrinsic safety. Consider the
ignition curves to demonstrate a
point about thermocouples.
Intrinsic Safety Circuit Design Cont’d

NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE HAZARDOUS SIDE

Recorder

Maximum 0.1 volt

produced by thermocouple

Figure 5. Thermocouple installed in a hazardous area

NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE HAZARDOUS SIDE

Recorder

explosion
110 V FAULT
possible

Figure 6. Thermocouple with fault

NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE HAZARDOUS SIDE

Instrinsically
Recorder Safe
Barrier

Figure 7. Thermocouple with barrier

A thermocouple is classified as a
simple device. It will not create or
store enough energy to ignite any
mixture of volatile gases. If the energy
level of a typical thermocouple
circuit were plotted on the ignition
curve in Figure 4, it would not be
close to the ignition levels of the
most volatile gases in Group A.
Is the thermocouple which is
installed in a hazardous area
(Figure 5) intrinsically safe? The
answer is no, because a fault could
occur on the recorder which could
cause excess energy to reach the
hazardous area, as seen in Figure 6.
To make sure that the circuit
remains intrinsically safe, a barrier
to limit the energy must be inserted
(Figure 7).
The next installment in this series
will explain how the selection is
made for thermocouples and RTDs,
which comprise about 13% of all
intrinsically safe applications.
Z-133
BEHIND THE BYLINE
Paul B. Babiarz is marketing manager
of intrinsically safe products for Crouse-
Hinds. He holds a B.S. from the
University of Rochester, an M.S. from
the University of Michigan, and an
M.B.A. from Syracuse University. He
has more than 13 years of experience
in working in hazardous areas and has
specialized in intrinsic safety.
Copyright Instrument Society of
America. Intech, October, 1992.
All Rights Reserved.
Intrinsic Safety Circuit
Design–Part 2
Fault conditions in hazardous-area temperature sensors can be explosive without the proper
protection. You can safeguard all of the devices in your application with one type of intrinsic
safety barrier.
Z
Paul S. Babiarz

When thermocouples and RTD’s NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE HAZARDOUS SIDE

(resistance temperature devices) CLASS I,II, III
DIVISION 1
are installed in hazardous areas, GROUPS A-G
barriers are required to make their
+
circuits intrinsically safe. These
intrinsic safety barriers prevent Control
excess energy from possible faults Room
on the safe side from reaching the
hazardous area. Without the –
barriers, excessive heat or sparks GRD

produced by the fault condition Thermocouples

could ignite volatile gases or are simple devices.
Do not need approval
combustible dusts. Intrinsic Safety Barrier
Use same type of wire
Hundreds of different barriers are
available from North American
suppliers. The multitude of products Use same type of wire
can give control engineers
nightmares as they try to select the
Safety Barrier
proper barrier for common Parameters
instrumentation loops. The search
can be simplified, however. One VN: 2.5 V Ri: 71 Ω Note: Use consistent wiring
type of barrier can be selected to
make all thermocouples and RTD’s
intrinsically safe so that polarity Figure 1. Current use of intrinsically safe apparatus in hazardous areas.
problems are avoided and
calculations are not necessary.
Normally, the design of all
intrinsically safe circuits centers on
one of two approaches: the +
universal approach, which uses a
universal device that often is - V
RTD
isolated so that a ground for safety
is not required; or the engineered
approach, which uses grounded
safety barriers. V Voltmeter

■ Isolated temperature
converters. These universal
devices measure temperature in
hazardous areas, but at a higher
cost. (Dispensing with the need for a
ground is a convenience that may
cost two to three times as much as
grounded safety barriers.) Isolated
temperature converters accept a
low-level DC signal from a
thermocouple or 3-wire RTD and
convert it into a proportional
4-20 mA signal in the safe area.
•They also are available with set
points that trip an on-off signal to
Figure 2. Typical values of barrier in thermocouple circuit.
the safe side when the temperature • More versatile application
reaches a designated level. • One product for all applications
These units must be approved as
intrinsically safe. Disadvantages include:
• Larger in size
Advantages of isolated temperature • Requires calibration
converters as compared to • More expensive
grounded safety barriers include: • May not work with all
• Good signal response thermocouples and RTD’s
• No ground required for safety
Z-134

V V
V Voltmeter
Figure 3. 3-wire RTD bridge
■ Grounded safety barriers.
These are passive devices that
prevent all excess energy from a
fault occurring on the safe side from
reaching the hazardous area.
Under normal conditions, the
barriers allow the circuit to function
properly by allowing the signals to
pass between the field device and
the control room. In a fault
condition, the barriers limit voltage
and current to levels that are not
sufficient enough to ignite gases.
For a more detailed explanation,
refer to Part 1 of this series.
Advantages of grounded safety
barriers as compared to isolated
temperature converters include:
• Less expensive
• Precise signal response
• Very small (less than 1⁄2 in. wide)
• Simple application
• One barrier for all types of
thermocouples and RTD’s
Disadvantages include:
• Requires ground
• Requires some engineering
Examine The Barrier
Parameters
Articles in this series will focus on
methods to select the proper grounded
safety barriers. Before we analyze
thermocouple and RTD circuits, we
should examine the functional
parameters necessary to select the
proper barrier. These parameters
are: polarity of circuit; rated voltage
of barrier; and resistance of barrier.
■ Polarity. The circuit’s polarity
must be known in order to choose
the correct type of barrier. DC
barriers are rated either as positive
or negative. AC barriers can be
connected to circuits with either a
positive or negative supply.
SIGNAL & RETURN barriers are
used for transmitter and switching
applications. All of these barriers
are available in single- or
double-channel versions. However,
because double-channel barriers
save space and money by being
connected to two legs of a loop,
they are becoming the standard.
A A
B B
C C R2
Note: When R1 = R2, bridge remains balanced
Figure 4. 3-wire RTD bridge with barrier
■ Rated voltage. Like any
electrical device, safety barriers
have a rated nominal voltage, Vn,
referred to as working voltage. The
barrier’s Vn should be greater than
or equal to the supply to the barrier,
much like the rated voltage of a
lamp must be equal to or greater
than the supply to it. If the voltage
supply to the barrier is much greater
than its Vn, the barrier will sense a
fault. The protective zener diodes
will conduct, causing leakage
currents and inaccurate signals on
the loop. Most barriers have a rated
working voltage that guarantees a
minimal leakage current from 1 to
10 micro amps if it is not exceeded.
If the supply voltage to the barrier
becomes too high, the zener diode
will conduct. The resulting high
current through the fuse will cause
the fuse to blow. Excess supply
voltage is the main reason why
grounded barriers fail.
■ Internal resistance. Every safety
barrier has an internal resistance,
Ri, that limits the current under fault
conditions. Ri also creates a voltage
drop across the barrier. This drop can
be calculated by applying Ohm’s
law, V=IR. Not accounting for the
voltage drop produces the most
problems in the proper functioning
of intrinsically safe systems.
Thermocouple System
Design Pointers
■ Polarity. A thermocouple has two
wires, each with a positive and
negative polarity. Two single-channel
barriers, each with the proper
polarity, could be used. Problems
would occur if the positive leg to the
thermocouple were connected to
the negative terminal of the barrier or
vice versa. There are two possible
barrier choices for thermocouple
circuits:
Thermocouple circuit with one
positive and one negative lead
1 standard DC barrier, positive polarity
and
1 standard DC barrier, negative polarity
OR
1 double AC barrier
Z-135
Intrinsic Safety Barrier
R1
V Voltmeter
When barriers and thermocouples
are being installed, the technician
may forget which wire is positive and
which is negative. To avoid polarity
problems on the terminals, a double
AC barrier should be used. The
wires can be connected to either
terminal and the circuit will function
properly as long as thermocouple
polarity is maintained throughout.
■ Rated voltage. A thermocouple
produces a very small voltage (less
than 0.1 V). It is connected to a
voltmeter which has a high impedance
and which requires a very small
current. Since the thermocouple
produces such a small voltage,
choose a double AC barrier with a
higher rated nominal voltage (Vn). A
survey of most double AC barriers on
the market shows that they are rated
at low nominal voltages from 1 V and
higher. Select one between 1 and 10 V.
■ Internal resistance. Since the
mV signal has a very small current
and is going to a high-impedance
voltmeter, the resistance of the
barrier will not influence circuit
function. A simple rule of thumb is
that when a signal is going to a
high-impedance voltmeter, an
internal barrier resistance of less
than 1000 ohms will not affect the
mV signal. It usually is good
practice, however, to select a barrier
with a low resistance in case the
circuit is modified later.
■ Barrier selection. For proper
operation of thermocouples in
hazardous areas, select safety
barriers based on the following
parameters:
• Barrier type: double-channel AC
barrier to avoid polarity problems
• Rated voltage: Barrier Vn > 1V
• Internal resistance: barrier with lowest
resistance (less than 110 ohms)
■ Safety and installation check.
Since the thermocouple is a simple
device, it does not need third-party
approval. Make sure that the barrier
has the proper approvals for
hazardous area locations. The
thermocouple wires will be different
from terminal connections on the
barrier. Always use consistent wiring
from the thermocouple to the barrier
and then to the control room. This
will cancel any thermocouple effect
caused by the dissimilar metals on
the barrier connection.
RTD System Design
Pointers
RTD’s come in 2-, 3-, and 4-wire
versions. The 3-wire RTD is used in
more than 80% of all applications.
The 2-wire version is not as
accurate and is used mostly in the
heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning industry for set-point
temperature measurements. The
4-wire RTD provides the most
accurate signal, but is more
expensive and requires one more
extension wire to the process area.
Understanding RTD accuracy is
essential in selecting the correct
barrier. Many RTD measurements
are in the form of a Wheatstone
bridge, whose output voltage is a
function of the RTD resistance. The
bridge requires four connection
wires, an external source, and three
resistors that have a balanced
temperature coefficient. The RTD
normally is separated from the
bridge by a pair of extension wires.
With a 2-wire RTD, the impedance
of the barrier in series with the RTD
will cause an imbalance on the
bridge and will affect the accuracy
of the temperature reading. This
NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE
Item 1
Current
loop
Item 2
signal
Safety Barrier
Parameters
VN: 2.5 V Rj: 71 Ω
effect can be minimized by using a
third wire to measure the voltage
(refer to Figure 3 for this discussion).
If wires A and B are perfectly
matched and if the resistance in
both channels of the barrier is the
same, the impedance effects will
cancel because each is in an
opposite leg of the bridge. The third
wire, C, acts as a sense lead to the
voltmeter.
■ Current loop A & B: Polarity. The
current loop to the RTD has a
positive and a negative polarity.
Possible solutions are similar to the
thermocouple:
1 standard DC barrier, positive polarity
and
1 standard DC barrier, negative polarity
OR
1 double AC barrier
Select the double AC barrier to
avoid polarity problems. Because it
is smaller, it is also less expensive.
■ Current loop A & B: Rated
voltage. The constant current
amperage sent to the RTD typically
is in the micro amp (10-6 ) level. The
maximum resistance of the most
commonly used RTD, Pt100 is
390 ohms at 1560°C. The voltage
drop across the RTD will be in mV,
so the Vn of the RTD loop is similar
to the thermocouple. To be safe,
select a barrier with a Vn greater
than 1 V, similar to the Vn of the
thermocouple barrier.
HAZARDOUS SIDE
CLASS I,II, III
DIVISION 1
GROUPS A-G
RTD
GRD
RTD’s are simple devices.
Do not need approval.
GRD This channel can
be used to serve
part of loop #2.
Z-136
■ Current loop A & B: Internal
resistance. The constant current
source will have a rated maximum
load or burden (resistance load it
can drive). Assume that this
maximum load is 500 ohms and the
maximum resistance of the RTD at
the highest temperature is 390
ohms. Knowing this information, the
Ri of the barrier can be calculated:
control room ≤ barrier + RTD
resistance
500 ohms
resistance resistance
< Ri ohms + 390 ohms
Z
Ri < 110 ohms
■ Current loop A & B: Barrier
selection. Use the same barrier that
was used for the thermocouple
circuit.
■ Leg C to the voltmeter: Barrier
selection. The RTD leg going to the
voltmeter (C) is a millivolt signal
similar to the thermocouple circuit.
The rated voltage, Vn, and internal
resistance, Ri, of the barrier will
have the same parameters as the
barriers used in the thermocouple
and current loop of the RTD.
Selecting the correct barrier to
make all thermocouples and RTD’s
intrinsically safe is not difficult. Use
a double-channel AC barrier with a
rated voltage greater than 1 volt
with the lowest internal resistance.
The double-channel barrier is the
lowest cost solution. The AC version
will avoid any polarity problems. A
barrier with a rated voltage between
1 and 10 volts will provide a wide
selection which have a low
resistance and are approved for the
hazardous areas where the
temperature sensors are located.
This single barrier can then be used
to make all thermocouples and
RTDs intrinsically safe. And don’t
forget, all thermocouples and RTD’s
are simple devices, so they do not
need third party approval to be
intrinsically safe. When they are
connected to an approved
intrinsically safe barrier, the circuits
are intrinsically safe.
Many temperature sensors are
attached to 4-20 mA temperature
transmitters, which comprise 22%
of all intrinsically safe applications.
The next article in this series will
show how to make these
transmitters intrinsically safe.
Copyright Instrument Society of
America. Intech, December, 1992.
All Rights Reserved.
Use The 80/20 Rule
In Intrinsic Safety
Circuit Design
Part 3 of this series on intrinsic safety circuit design describes how to select barriers for
intrinsically safe 4-20 mA transmitters. Use the 80/20 Rule to simplify this process.
Paul S. Babiarz
The 80/20 Rule actually is five rules
that are based on the fact that
certain practices prevail 80% of the
time, and 20% of applications are
more difficult. This article focuses on
how to choose intrinsically safe
barriers when the transmitters are
installed in hazardous areas for both
the 80% standard category and the
remaining 20% more difficult
applications.
The most common way to process
and send analog signals in the
instrumentation industry is via
4-20 mA transmitters. Transmitters
can be one of the simplest devices
involving barriers. However,
improper selection of intrinsically
safe barriers in loops with 4-20 mA
transmitters can introduce too much
impedance on the circuit and cause
the transmitters to function
improperly at the high end near the
20 mA reading.
Before selecting barriers, examine
how 4-20 mA analog circuits
function. Transmitters convert a
physical measurement such as
temperature or pressure into an
electrical signal that can be sent
without signal modification to a
Temperature → converted to
mA signal
0°C (min) → 4 mA (0.004 A)
100°C (max) → 20 mA (0.020 A)
Table 1. Conversion of physical measurement to electrical signals.
+ +
+24V
Distributed
Control
System
– –
250 Ω
Conversion
Figure 1. 4-20 mA 2-wire transmitter.
control system over a long distance.
The brains of the system, the DCS,
interprets the electrical signal into
the physical measurement. Because
these analog signals are sent to a
DCS, 4-20 mA circuits are called
analog inputs or A/I. Using
temperature as an example,
examine the function of the
transmitter (Fig. 1).
A power source in the DCS usually
supplies 24 VDC to the transmitter.
The transmitter converts the
physical measurement into an
electrical current signal. Transmitter
current ranging from 4-20 mA is
sent back to the DCS. Current
signals are used to avoid potential
voltage drops or electrical
interference associated with voltage
signals. However, because the
x multiplied by = converted to
ohm resistor a voltage reading
in the DCS
x 250 = 1V
x 250 = 5V
Z-137
S
4 – 20 mA E
2-Wire N
Transmitter S
O
R
4 – 20 mA
controller reads a voltage signal, a
conversion resistor (most commonly
250 ohms) converts the 4-20 mA
current range into a voltage signal
on the DCS input channel. Applying
Ohm’s Law of V = IR, the controller
has a 1-to-5 V signal (Table 1).
Assume the temperature span to be
measured is from 0°C to 100°C. The
transmitter is calibrated so that a 4
mA signal equals the low reading of
0° and a 20 mA signal equals the
high reading of 100°. The DCS then
runs the signal through a conversion
resistor which can be placed either
on the supply (+) or return (-) lead
of the circuit, converting the signal
back to a voltage reading.
There are three types of barriers for
intrinsically safe transmitter
applications: ungrounded repeaters,
grounded repeaters, or grounded
safety barriers. Each has its
advantages and disadvantages
(Table 2).
Ungrounded repeater barriers, also
known as galvanically isolated or
transformer-isolated barriers, are
used more frequently in Europe
 Imax, Ci, and Li (see Part 1 of this
Advantages Disadvantages series).

Grounded Safety Least expensive Requires ground

■ Selection of safety barriers. The
proper barrier must be selected by
Barrier Precise signal response Requires engineering two separate evaluations: one to
Very small size determine that the analog circuit
(<1⁄2 in. wide) functions properly at 20 mA, and
one to determine that the circuit is
Grounded One product can be used More expensive
safe under fault conditions.
Repeater Can use transmitters with Requires ground ■ Functional parameters: Type of
higher operating voltage Larger in size safety barrier, voltage input (Vn),
Consumes more power
and internal resistance (Ri). The
type of safety barrier is largely
Z
determined by the placement of the
Ungrounded One product can be used Most expensive conversion resistor. If the resistor is
Repeater No ground required Larger in size (1 in. wide) placed on the supply leg of the
Can use transmitters with Possible radio frequency circuit, a simple DC positive barrier
higher operating voltage interference
can be used (Fig. 2).
Isolation, if good ground May not be compatible 80/20 Rule #2: Most transmitter
not available with smart transmitters circuits have the conversion
resistor on the return channel.
Use the double channel supply
Table 2. Advantages and disadvantages of grounded safety barriers, grounded and and return barrier.
ungrounded repeaters.
The supply channel is constructed
than in North America. Repeaters designates the type of vapor or dust like the positive DC barrier; it
suit most transmitter applications, in the area. Group A — acetylene; prevents a fault on the safe side
but at a higher cost. Grounded or Group B — hydrogen; Group C — from transferring excess energy to
ungrounded repeaters supply a ethylene; Group D — propane; the transmitter. The return channel
constant regulated voltage of 15 to Group E — metal dust; Group F — has two diodes in series which allow
17 V to the transmitter from a 24 V coal dust; Group G — grain dust. the signal to pass only in one
source. The return channel is then direction back to the DCS, and
run through the barrier, which ■ Complex devices. Because
transmitters can store energy, they prevent any excess fault energy
repeats it without any appreciable from being transferred to the
loss in signal. For example, if a are considered complex devices,
and must be approved as transmitter. These diodes and the
transmitter sends 19.6 mA through supply channel have voltage drops
the barrier, it is repeated in the intrinsically safe. If they are
third-party approved, they have which must be accounted for in the
barrier without any loss so that analog circuit (Fig. 3).
19.6 mA reaches the control room. entity parameters such as Vmax,
Repeaters act like mirrors by
retransmitting, or repeating, the Conversion
analog signals. NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE HAZARDOUS SIDE
Resistor

When budget constraints or control +

250 Ω + + +
panel space are important +24V +
S
considerations, grounded safety Distributed Intrinsically E
barriers may be a better choice. Control Safe N
S
System Transmitter
O
80/20 Rule #1: In North America, R
– – –
most analog circuits are GRD
–
protected by grounded safety
barriers because of lower costs.
■ Define the hazardous area Figure 2. Positive DC barrier.
where the transmitter is located.
In North America, these areas are NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE HAZARDOUS SIDE
defined by the National Electric
Code as classes, divisions, and
groups. The class defines the type +24V
+ + + +
of materials that are in the S
E
Intrinsically
hazardous area. Class I — Distributed
Safe N
Control
flammable gases and vapors; Class System Transmitter S
O
II — combustible dusts; Class III — R
– – – –
fibers and flyings. Hazardous areas
250 Ω
GRD
are further broken down into two
divisions. Division 1 means normally Conversion
hazardous; Division 2 means not Resistor
normally hazardous. The group Figure 3. Supply and return barrier.

Z-138
80/20 Rule #3: The supply
voltage normally is 24 VDC.
■ Select the voltage input, Vn.
One of the reasons that barriers
fail is because the voltage supply
is too high. Use a regulated supply
source with a high end of tolerance
that does not exceed the barrier
rating and a low end that is enough
to drive the circuit. A 24 Vdc
source ±1% usually is a good
choice.
■ Determine the internal
resistance, Ri (also referred to
as end-to-end resistance) of the
barrier best suited for your
circuit. The most critical
component of the barrier selection
is the barrier’s internal resistance.
If the resistance is too high, the
transmitter will not work near
20 mA. As seen in Table 1 and the
following discussion, at 20 mA the
voltage drops across the barrier
and the conversion resistor will be
the highest. If the internal
resistance is too low, the barrier’s
short circuit current, Isc, may
exceed the transmitter’s entity
parameter, Imax.
The easiest way to determine the
barrier’s permitted resistance is to
calculate the total voltage drop on
the circuit. To select the proper
transmitter barrier, determine the
following:
• Hazardous area Groups A-G or
C-G
• Placement of the conversion
resistor on either the supply or
return leg of the circuit
• Size of the conversion resistor
(250 ohms is most common)
• Minimum operating voltage of the
transmitter (This figure, also
referred to as lift-off voltage, is in
the transmitter data sheet. Most
operate at a minimum of 12 V or
lower.)
• Entity parameters of approved
transmitter
■ Case 1. Assume that conditions
are as follows:
• Groups A-G
• Supply
• 250 ohms
• 12 V
• Vmax = 30 V, Imax = 150 mA,
Ci = 0 µF, Li = 0 mH
Calculate the maximum allowable
resistance of the barrier under
worst-case conditions when the
transmitter is sending a 20 mA
signal. The supply is 24 Vdc; the
transmitter requires a minimum of
12 V; and the 250 ohm conversion
24 Supply NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE
+ +
+24V
Distributed
Control
System
– –
250 Ω
5 volt loss maximum
7 volt loss
VOLTAGE BALANCE:
Transmitter = 12 volts
Resistor = 5 volts
Barrier(+ line loss) = 7 volts
Total Supply = 24 volts
NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE
+24V
+ +
Distributed
Control
System
– –
4 – 20 mA
Conversion
Resistor
750 - 1000 Ω Repeated
max
Figure 5. Repeater barriers.
resistor requires 5 V at 20 mA.
Simple subtraction leaves a
maximum allowable voltage drop of
7 V. Using Ohm’s Law, this
converts to an internal resistance
of 350 ohms. Allow for a cable
resistance of about 10 ohms. Thus,
the circuit functions properly with a
barrier having an internal
resistance of 340 ohms.
Next, to make sure the circuit is
safe, verify that the barrier’s entity
parameters match the transmitter’s
entity parameters. This design
offers the lowest cost solution
where two transmitters can be
connected to one double channel
barrier. This circuit arrangement
allows one common barrier to be
used for most circuits (Fig. 4).
■ Case 2. Use the same
conditions as in Case 1, except
change the placement of the
conversion resistor to the return
side, and use the supply and
return barrier. Voltage drop on
the barrier occurs on both the
Z-139
HAZARDOUS SIDE
+ +
S
Intrinsically
E
Safe
N
S
Transmitter
O
– –
R
GRD
12 volt loss
Figure 4. Voltage balance.
HAZARDOUS SIDE
+ 15 - 17V +
S
Intrinsically E
Safe N
Repeater
Barrier Transmitter S
O
R
– –
4 – 20 mA
supply and return side. Voltage
drop on the return side diodes is
about 0.7 V. This leaves a
maximum drop of 6.3 V on the
supply side or a maximum
resistance of 305 ohms (allowing
10 ohms for cable resistance).
Again, verify the entity
parameters of the barrier and
transmitter.
80/20 Rule #4: The two solutions
above cover 80% of all
transmitter applications.
But what happens if the circuit falls
into the 20% category? Grounded
safety barriers may not work in
conditions where a loop-powered
indicator is connected, or where
the transmitter requires a minimum
voltage greater than 12 V. In these
cases, the easiest solution is to
use a repeater barrier. Repeaters
provide a regulated power supply
of 15-17 V to the transmitters and
can drive a conversion resistor
load of 750 to 1000 ohms (Fig. 5)
 Groups Internal Resistance Voltage Drop
(Ri)
Barrier #1 A-G 340 ohms
Barrier #2 C-G 140 ohms
Table 3. Typical values of barriers rated for different groups.
If repeaters still are not the best
solution, there may be other ways to
use grounded safety barriers. Either
the impedance in the circuit must be
reduced or the voltage must be
increased. If these alternatives are
used, recheck the barrier and
transmitter entity parameters to
make sure the circuit is safe.
Reducing Impedance
■ Case 1. Reduce the conversion
resistor. As seen in Fig. 2, only two
fixed sources of impedance can be
reduced: the conversion resistor or
the barrier. One solution is to reduce
the conversion resistor to 100 or
50 ohms to obtain maximum voltage
readings of 2.0 to 1.0 V respectively.
(Example: 20 mA (0.02 A) x
100 ohms = 2 V.) This may be
practical for new installations, but it
may not be possible for cases where
additions are being made to an
existing control system.
■ Case 2. Select a barrier with
lower resistance.
Short Circuit Open Circuit
at 20 mA Current, Isc Voltage, Voc
6.8 V 93 mA 28 V
2.8 V 213 mA 28 V
Increasing Voltage Supply
If the voltage supply is increased
too much, the barrier may sense a
fault and the fuse could blow,
interrupting the circuit. Some
allowance can be tolerated for
increasing the voltage supply on
barriers with a nominal rated
voltage of 24 VDC.
■ Case 1: Resistor on the supply
side. When transmitters are first
energized, they transmit 4 mA for
calibrating zero readings. There
always is at least a 1 V drop across
the resistor before the supply
reaches the barrier. The voltage
supply could be increased to 25 to
26 V without the barrier sensing a
fault condition. This would allow 1 to
2 additional volts on the circuit.
■ Case 2: Resistor on the return
side. Since the resistor is on the
return side, the barriers receive the
total voltage supply. Since this
circuit is more sensitive to voltage
increases, be careful about
increasing the supply above the
barrier's nominal rated voltage, Vn.
Before the zener diodes in the
barriers reach their rated voltage,
there may be some leakage current
that could affect the transmitter
signals. Diode leakage current Z
values ranging from 1 to 10µA are
listed by the barrier manufacturers.
In Case 1, this could mean that the
current signal could be deformed by
a maximum of 0.025% at 4 mA
(1 µA/4 mA).
When the resistor is placed on the
return side, leakage current is on
the supply side and does not affect
the transmitter’s 4-20 mA signal.
Transmitters comprise 22% of all
intrinsically safe circuits. The next
article will feature discrete inputs,
also referred to as switching. These
represent 32% or almost one-third
of all intrinsically safe circuits.
Copyright Instrument Society of
America. Intech, March, 1993.
All Rights Reserved.

80/20 Rule #5: Many hazardous

locations are classified as
Groups C-G.
Ignition curves in Groups C-G allow
higher rated voltages and current
before gases ignite (see Part 1 of
this series, October 1992). Barriers
designed for hydrogen and other
gases classified as Group A or B
require higher series resistance
than barriers designed for only the
more common gases in Groups C
and D. Thus, most intrinsically safe
instruments should have entity
parameters (Imax, maximum short
circuit current) that are higher for
Groups C-G. (As a practical matter,
most instrument manufacturers
have not taken advantage of this
fact.) With the Group C-G rating
high-current barriers can be used,
which have a lower internal See SIB Series of Intrinsically Safe Transmitters
resistance. These barriers have
corresponding lower voltage drops
but higher Isc (Table 3).

Z-140
Making Digital Inputs
Intrinsically Safe
Part 4 of this series describes how to make a switch intrinsically safe by using a switch
amplifier or a grounded safety barrier.
Paul S. Babiarz
Digital inputs constitute almost one-
third of all process signals. They
also are known as binary, on-off,
0/1, or simple switching signals
where a switch is either opened or
closed. The most common
examples of these are mechanical
or reed contacts, transistors, limit,
float, on-off, and pushbutton
switches. As defined in paragraph
3.12 of the ANSI/ISA-RP12.6-1987,
switches are simple devices that
neither generate nor store more
than 1.2 V, 0.1 A, 25 mW, or 20µJ.
Since switches are simple devices,
they do not have to be approved as
intrinsically safe. If they are
connected to an approved
intrinsically safe associated
apparatus (barrier), the circuit is
deemed to be intrinsically safe.
To Field Circuits
Figure 1. Switch amplifier — 2 channels.
To make a switch intrinsically safe,
the user may select a switch
amplifier or a safety barrier. A switch
amplifier is an intrinsically safe relay
that solves virtually all switching
applications. However, if power is
not available in the control panel or
if panel space is an important
consideration, a grounded safety
barrier may be a better choice. There
is not a significant cost savings of
one alternative over the other. Each
has its own advantages and
disadvantages, as shown in Table 1.
Switch Amplifiers
The most common application is
switching through an intrinsically
safe relay (Fig. 1). Relays, which
normally are powered by 110 VAC
or 24 VDC, have a low voltage and
current which are safe at the contact
in the hazardous area. When this
contact is closed, the relay transfers
the signal from the hazardous
Non-Intrinsically Safe Wiring
Intrinsic
Safety Barrier
Intrinsic
Safety Barrier
Intrinsic
Safety Barrier
Intrinsic
Safety Barrier
INTRINSICALLY SAFE WIRING
Z-141
location to the non-hazardous side.
A closed switch on the hazardous
side operates a relay or optocoupler
output on the non-hazardous side.
The signals are electrically isolated
so that grounding is not required.
When proximity switches became a
popular means of sensing the
presence of objects and materials,
the NAMUR-style sensor was
developed. Contrary to popular
opinion, NAMUR is not an approval
standard. It was organized by the
German chemical industry to
develop operating standards for
proximity switches. A NAMUR-style
proximity switch is a 2-wire DC
sensor that operates at 8.2 V with
switch points operating between 1.2
to 2.1 mA. This NAMUR standard
later was superseded by the
German Standard DIN 199234,
Measurement And Control:
Intrinsic
Safety Barrier
Intrinsic
Safety Barrier
Intrinsic
Safety Barrier
Intrinsic
Safety Barrier
 NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE
Intrinsic
Safety
Barrier
ONLY THESE WIRESARE
INTRINSICALLYSAFE
Figure 2. Current sourcing switching.
Electrical Sensors Used For
Intrinsically Safe 2-Wire DC
Systems. Because these switches
required a remote amplifier for
operation, most switch amplifiers
standardized on an intrinsically safe
voltage of 8.2 V and current of 8 mA
at the contacts in hazardous areas.
This provided enough power to
operate NAMUR-style proximity
switches safely.
The amplifiers are sensitive enough
to detect closed contacts in
corrosive or abusive areas. Despite
the fact that the intrinsically safe
voltage and current at the contacts
are very low, most modern switch
amplifiers will detect a closed
contact when the resistance of the
circuit is less than 3000 ohms.
Intrinsically safe switches can be
located a long distance from the
switch amplifiers and still function
properly.
Switch amplifiers are available with
two different output contacts to the
safe side, relays and optocouplers.
The more commonly used relay
versions are applied in slow speed
switching to operate smaller pumps,
motors, or other electrical devices.
Optocouplers are transistors
operated by photo diodes to close
the output contacts. These outputs
have lower contact ratings but an
almost infinite switching capability.
Optocouplers are used for switching
back to a DCS or for high-speed
counting operations up to thousands
of times per second (KHz).
Switching Through Safety
Barriers
When a 110 V supply is not
available in the control panel, safety
barriers frequently are used for
digital inputs back to a DCS. There
are two methods of switching:
current sourcing or current sinking.
Both of these methods can use the
same types of barriers that were
HAZARDOUS SIDE
Figure 3. Current sinking switching.
used for transmitters (see Part 3 of
this series).
The current sourcing method of
switching in Fig. 2 could use the
same signal and return barrier that
was used for 4-20 mA transmitters.
The voltage to the switch is supplied
through the supply channel. The
second channel is used for signal
return. A closed switch will close the
contact in the DCS. Most digital
input signals operate with 24 V and
10 mA. If the same barrier is used
for switching as 4-20 mA
transmitters, there will be about a 3
to 4 V drop across the barrier.
The barrier used for current sinking
switching can be a single-channel
DC barrier as seen in Fig. 3. When
the switch is open, the DCS input
will sense 24 V. When the switch is
closed, the DCS will recognize a
lower voltage. This lower voltage is
calculated as a voltage divider
circuit.
Make sure the rated voltage of the
barrier, Vn, is equal to or greater
Switch Amplifiers
Advantages
Simple application
No ground required
No internal resistance
LEDs to indicate power and
monitor operations
Sensitive to detect closed
contacts in corrosive areas
Safety Barriers
Advantages
Smaller size
Does not require power supply
Table 1. Advantages and disadvantages of switch amplifiers and safety barriers.
Z-142
NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE HAZARDOUS SIDE
Distributed
Control Intrinsic Intrinsically
System Safety Safe
Barrier Apparatus
Potential of
Ground Loops
Z
than the voltage supply. Since most
switching uses 24 VDC, select a
barrier rated at 24 V. The internal
resistance of the barrier is not as
critical since the current in digital
inputs usually is very small.
However, it always is good practice
to select a barrier with low
resistance. Check the approvals of
the barriers to make sure that they
are rated for the proper hazardous
area group location.
Intrinsically safe relays, also referred
to as switch amplifiers, can be
applied universally for all digital
inputs. However, if safety barriers
are used, the same barriers used to
make analog inputs intrinsically safe
can be used for either current
sourcing or current sinking
switching.
The next article in this series will
explain how to make digital outputs
intrinsically safe.
Copyright Instrument Society of America.
Intech, April, 1993. All Rights Reserved.
Disadvantages
Needs power supply
Larger in size
Disadvantages
Requires grounding
Has internal resistance
Intrinsically Safe Outputs
Made Easy
Part 5 of this series explains how to make solenoid valves, LED’s, and
I/P transducers intrinsically safe.
NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE
+ 24 V + +
Digital
Output
D/O
– –
Typical Safety Barrier
Parameters
VN: 24 V ≤ 350
Ri::≤
VN = Rated voltage
Ri = Internal resistance
Paul S. Babiarz
Digital outputs refer to closed
contacts in a distributed control
system (DCS). They transfer a
voltage to a process area to operate
a field device. The two most
commonly used digital output field
devices, solenoid valves and LED
displays, can easily be made
intrinsically safe. For solenoid
valves, the same types of barriers
are used that make analog and
digital inputs (transmitters and
switch contacts) intrinsically safe.
LED’s may require a different barrier.
GRD
There is good news and bad news
for making circuits (or loops)
containing solenoid valves
intrinsically safe. The bad news is
that unlike transmitters which have
minimum operating voltages, valve
manufacturers often describe their
valves with a nominal operating
current or voltage. To select the
proper barrier one needs to know
the minimum operating characteristics
under the most extreme conditions.
Without these characteristics it can
be quite difficult to select a barrier
that will allow the circuit to function
properly and still meet the entity
parameters of the valves. Conditions
that may affect the operating
characteristics are high ambient
temperatures, position of the
actuator, and length of cable runs.
Z-143
HAZARDOUS SIDE
CLASS I, II, III
DIVISION 1
GROUPS A-G
+
Solenoid
Valve
–
Solenoid valves need
entity approval
The good news is that there are only
a handful of approved intrinsically
safe solenoid valves to choose from.
For this article, manufacturers tested
their intrinsically safe valves with the
most common barrier used in analog
and digital input circuits — the 24 Vdc
barrier with a resistance equal to or
less than 350 ohms (Fig. 1).
To determine the correct barrier, start
with the basics. Since most digital
output circuits operate with 24 Vdc
switched on the positive side, use a
positive DC barrier rated at 24 Vdc.
Knowing the minimum operating
current of the valve and the internal
impedance of the coil, you can
calculate the maximum allowable
impedance for the barrier and the
cable.

NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE
+24 V + +
Digital
Output
D/O
– –
GRD
12 volt drop across barrier
(480 x .025)
Typical Safety Barrier
Parameters
VN: 24 V Ri: 480 Ω
VN = Rated voltage
Ri = Internal resistance
Figure 2. LED pilot light.
For example, assume a valve has a
minimum operating current of 28 mA
and a coil impedance of 400 ohms.
The maximum allowable impedance
of the circuit is 857 ohms (24/.028 =
857).
If the internal impedance of the
solenoid coil is 400 ohms, the
allowable impedance of the barrier
and cable would be 457 ohms
(857-400 = 457). The resistance of
one mile of #18 AWG wire at 60°C
is about 40 ohms (resistance of
#18 AWG wire at 60°C is 0.00737
ohms/ft.). This makes the maximum
resistance of the barrier 457-40 =
417 ohms.
Selecting the barrier now is simple:
1. Select a simple DC positive barrier.
(The rated voltage should be 24 V.)
2. Calculate the maximum allowable
resistance of the barrier as in the
example.
3.Confirm that the entity parameters
of the solenoid valve match those
of the barrier (refer to Part 1 of this
series).
HAZARDOUS SIDE
CLASS I, II, III
DIVISION 1
GROUPS A-G
25 mA
12 V
LED Pilot Light
LED pilot light is a simple
device; does not need
approval
25 mA. Since there will always be a
voltage drop across the barrier, the
best application is to choose an
LED rated at less than 24 VDC. Use
a barrier rated at 24 V, then subtract
the rated voltage of the LED. This
difference is the allowable voltage
drop on the barrier at the rated
current. Use Ohm’s Law (V = IR) to
calculate the internal impedance of
the barrier. Example:
• LED rated at 12 V at 25 mA
• Allowable voltage drop 12 V
(24-12 = 12)
• Internal impedance of the barrier
= 480 ohms (12/.025 = 480)
Choose a 24 V positive DC barrier
with an internal impedance of about
480 ohms (Fig. 2).
NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE
+ 4-20 mA + +
Analog Outputs
Analog outputs refer to I/P
transducers, also known as I/P’s
(pronounced “Ida Pease”). An I/P
transducer produces a pneumatic
output proportional to the electrical
current input that it receives. The
more current that is applied to the
transducer, the more air pressure is
allowed into the system to drive a
device. As opposed to a solenoid
valve which is either in an opened or
closed position, a transducer is a Z
proportional valve. I/P transducers
are referred to as analog outputs
because a variable output, the
current signal, is sent from the DCS
to the transducer.
I/P transducers need entity
approval. They act like resistors in
the circuit, so three facts must be
known to select the correct barrier:
transducer impedance; maximum
burden of the driver that sends the
current signal; and transducer entity
values. Burden, rated in ohms,
measures the maximum load the
DCS can drive. To select the barrier,
use the following characteristics:
• Transducer impedance is 150 ohms
• Burden of the drive is 1000 ohms
The barrier must have an internal
resistance less than 850 ohms
(1000-150 = 850). Verify the rated
voltage of the barrier by calculating
the voltage drop of the circuit. For
example, use the same barrier and
cable values as in the solenoid valve
example. The total impedance
(impedance of barrier + transducer
+ cable) of the circuit would be
HAZARDOUS SIDE
CLASS I, II, III
DIVISION 1
GROUPS A-G
+

Associated Apparatus Apparatus Analog

(barrier) (field device) I/P
Output
Open circuit voltage Voc ≤ Vmax Transducer
A/O
Short circuit current Isc ≤ Imax – – –
Allowed capacitance Ca ≥ Ci GRD

Allowed inductance La ≥ Li
Single Channel DC Barrier I/P transducers need
LED’s entity approval
LED’s (light emitting diodes) are Typical Safety Barrier
simple devices since they do not Parameters
store energy (capacitance or VN ≥ 12 V Ri ≥150
≥150 Ω
inductance); therefore, they do not
need to be approved. However, they VN = Rated voltage
still must be used with safety Ri= Internal resistance
barriers to make circuits intrinsically
safe. Typical LED’s are rated at 24,
18, 12, or 6 V and operate at about Figure 3. 4-20 mA I/P transducer.

Z-144
 Device Barrier Rated Internal Notes
Type Voltage Resistance (IT = INTECH)
Thermocouples AC >1 V <1000* Thermocouples are simple
devices; do not need approval.

RTD’s AC >1 V <1000* RTD’s are simple devices; do

not need approval.

Digital inputs switch Dry contacts are simple

amplifiers devices; do not need approval.

D/I - current supply & 24 350** Dry contacts are simple

sourcing return devices; do not need approval.

D/I - current DC 24 350** Dry contacts are simple

sinking devices; do not need approval.

A/I supply & 24 350 Transmitters need approval.

transmitters return Check entity parameters.
Conversion resistor of
250 ohms is on negative side.
Minimum lift-off voltage of
transmitter is 12 or less.

A/I transmitters DC 24 350 Same, except conversion

resistor is on + side.

D/O solenoid DC 24 350 Solenoid valves need approval.

valves Check entity parameters.

A/O transducers DC >12 >150 Transducers need approval.

Check entity parameters and
DCS burden.

* Select a barrier with a low resistance.

** Other barriers with a different resistance can be used. However, these barriers match those of the analog inputs.

Table 1. Guide to selecting grounded safety barriers.

540 ohms (350 + 150 + 40). At the
maximum current of 20 mA, the
voltage drop would be 10.8 V
(540 x 0.20 = 10.8). Select a
barrier rated equal to or higher
than 10.8 V. A barrier rated at 12 V
or higher with an internal
resistance of 150 ohms also would
be a good choice (Fig. 3). Confirm
that the entity parameters of the
barrier correspond with those of
the transducer.
This series of articles has shown
how the most common
applications of temperature
measurements and analog or
digital inputs/outputs can be made
intrinsically safe with a few intrinsic
safety barriers. Selection is simple:
1. Determine if the field device is a
simple or nonsimple (energy
storing) device that needs
approval and has entity
parameters.
2. Select the type of barrier
needed to protect the individual
ungrounded lines of the circuit.
Normally, temperature sensors
use an AC barrier. For analog
inputs and current sourcing
switching, use the supply and
return barrier. The remainder
(analog and digital outputs and
some switching circuits) require
DC barriers.
3. Select a barrier with a rated
voltage equal to or greater than
the voltage of the circuit.
4. Confirm that the internal
resistance of the barrier will
allow enough voltage for the field
device to operate properly.
Z-145
5. Confirm that the entity
parameters of the barrier match
those of the field device.
Use Table 1 as a guide in selecting
grounded safety barriers. There
will always be exceptions to these
guidelines, so verify your selection
with the manufacturer of the
barriers or field devices.
The last installment in this series
will discuss the general rules of
grounding, installation, and
maintenance of intrinsically safe
systems.
Copyright Instrument Society of America.
Intech, September, 1993. All Rights
Reserved.
Installing Intrinsically Safe
Systems
Part 6 of this series summarizes the major points of barrier replacement, wiring, installation,
grounding, sealing, maintenance, and troubleshooting of intrinsically safe systems.

Paul S. Babiarz To Control

Room Circuits
We have shown how an intrinsically

Non-Intrinsically Safe Wiring

safe circuit is designed for most
common applications. Now the Intrinsic Intrinsic
Safety Barrier Safety Barrier
intrinsically safe system must be
properly installed and provisions Intrinsic Intrinsic
Safety Barrier Safety Barrier
must be made to maintain and
Intrinsic Intrinsic
troubleshoot it. These procedures Safety Barrier Safety Barrier
are discussed in detail in Article 504 Intrinsic Intrinsic
of the National Electrical Code Safety Barrier Safety Barrier
(NEC) and the ANSI/ISA
RP 12.6-1987 Recommended
Practice — Installation of
Intrinsically Safe Systems For INTRINSICALLY SAFE WIRING
Hazardous (Classified) Locations.
Wiring
Intrinsically safe circuits may be
wired in the same manner as To Field Circuits
comparable circuits installed for Figure 1. Suggested panel arrangement using separate wireways.
unclassified locations with two
exceptions summarized as
separation and identification. These
wiring practices are simple and NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE HAZARDOUS SIDE
clear; however, they often are
overlooked and are the source of
potential problems.
The intrinsically safe conductors
must be separated from all other
wiring by placing them in separate Intrinsic
conduits or by a separation of Safety
2 inches of air space. Within an Barrier
enclosure the conductors can be
separated by a grounded metal or
insulated partition (Fig. 1).

ONLY THESE WIRESARE

INTRINSICALLYSAFE
Figure 2. Barrier installation.

Z-146

NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE
Distributed
Control
System
Main Earth Ground
Figure 3. Unacceptable grounding.
Intrinsically safe wiring may be light
blue when no other conductors
colored light blue are used. The
raceways, cable trays, open wiring,
and terminal boxes must be labeled
Intrinsically Safe Wiring to prevent
unintentional interference with the
circuits. The spacing between the
labels should not exceed 25 ft.
Barrier Installation
The barriers normally are installed
in a dust- and moisture-free NEMA
4 or 12 enclosure located in the
nonhazardous area. Only the barrier
outputs are intrinsically safe.
Conductive dust or moisture could
lessen the required distance of 2 in.
between intrinsically safe and
nonintrinsically safe conductors
(Fig. 2). The enclosure should be as
close as possible to the hazardous
area to minimize cable runs and
increased capacitance of the circuit.
If they are installed in a hazardous
area, they must be in the proper
enclosure suited for that area.
Grounding
First determine if the intrinsically
safe barriers used in the system are
grounded or isolated. The isolated
barriers normally are larger, more
expensive, and do not require a
ground for safety. The grounded
safety barriers are smaller and less
expensive, but require a ground to
divert the excess energy. The main
rules of grounding intrinsically safe
systems are:
• The ground path must have less
than 1 ohm of resistance from the
furthest barrier to the main
grounding electrode.
influence the function of the system
HAZARDOUS SIDE by creating noise on the circuit or
modifying the signals. Fig. 3 shows
an improperly grounded system.
The numerous grounding points
create ground loops which can
modify the signals and induce stray
Intrinsic Intrinsically voltages into the intrinsically safe
Safety Safe
Barrier Apparatus circuits. The correct method of
grounding is shown in Fig. 4 where
all the grounds are tied together at
one single point in the system.
Sealing
The requirements for sealing
intrinsically safe circuits have been
Potential of discussed by a panel of experts and
published in “Seals for Intrinsically
Ground Loops Safe Circuits,” EC&M, September
1992, pp. 48-49. The panel’s
conclusion is that seals are required
to prevent the transmission of gases
and vapors from the hazardous area
to the nonhazardous area, not to
• The grounding conductor must be prevent passage of flames from
a minimum 12 AWG. explosions. Explosion-proof seals
• All ground path connections must are not required as long as there is
be secure, permanent, visible, and some other mechanical means of
accessible for routine inspection. preventing the passage of gases
• A separate isolated ground such as positive pressure in the
conductor normally is required control room and/or application of
since the normal protective an approved mastic at cable
ground conductor (green or terminations and between the cable
yellow/green wire) may not be at and raceway. Many experts
the same ground potential generally agree that a commercially
because of the voltage drop from available silicon caulk is a suitable
fault currents in other equipment. mastic which would minimize the
• For installations designed to passage of gases. This must,
Canadian standards, the however, be acceptable to the
Canadian Electrical Code authority having jurisdiction.
(Appendix F) recommends
redundant grounding conductors.
A poor grounding system can
NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE HAZARDOUS SIDE
Distributed
Control
Intrinsic Intrinsically
System
Safety Safe
Barrier Apparatus
Single Ground Point
Main Earth Ground
Figure 4. Acceptable grounding.
Z-147

NON-HAZARDOUS SIDE
Distributed
Control
System
Intrinsically
Safe Seal
Figure 5. Mounting in a hazardous area.
When barriers are installed in
explosion-proof enclosures, which
are located in the hazardous area,
explosion-proof seals are required
on the enclosure (Fig. 5). Since
other conduits containing
nonintrinsically safe conductors
between the hazardous and
nonhazardous areas require
explosion-proof seals, it is good
practice to maintain consistency and
install explosion-proof seals on the
conduits containing intrinsically safe
conductors also. The exception to
this would be where multiconductor
shielded cable is used. This cable
may be difficult to seal in some
explosion-proof fittings. However, it
will be necessary to seal both the
cable terminations and between the
cable and raceway to minimize the
passage of gases, vapors, or dust.
Maintenance
No special maintenance of
intrinsically safe systems is
Testmeter
NEVER DO THIS!
Figure 6. The barrier should never be tested with an ohmmeter or other instrument while it is
connected in circuit.
HAZARDOUS SIDE
Explosion Proof
Enclosure
Intrinsic Intrinsically
Safety Safe
Barrier Apparatus
Explosion Proof
Seal
required. Once a year the barriers
should be checked to ensure that
the connections are tight,
the ground wiring has less than one
ohm of resistance, and the barriers
are free from moisture and dirt.
Check the panel and conduits for
separation and identification of the
intrinsically safe wiring. Never test
the barrier with an ohmmeter or
other test instrument while it is
connected in the circuit
(Fig. 6). This bypasses the barrier
and could induce voltages into the
intrinsically safe wiring.
Troubleshooting
If the intrinsic safety circuit does not
operate properly once it is
completed and energized, follow
these troubleshooting guidelines:
• Make sure the connections are
tight.
• Check the wiring to the
appropriate terminals against the
control wiring diagram. A control
Intrinsic
Safety
Barrier
Z-148
wiring diagram is defined by the
NEC as “a drawing or other
document provided by the
manufacturer of the intrinsically
safe or associated apparatus that
details the allowed
interconnections between the
intrinsically safe and associated
apparatus.” These diagrams are
easier to obtain than in the past.
Make sure that one of the
manufacturers provides not only
diagrams which show the
interconnections between the field
Z
device and barriers, but also
wiring diagrams which
demonstrate that the circuit
functions properly and is safe by
comparing the safety parameters
of the field device and the barriers.
• Make sure the circuit is powered.
• Check to see if the resistance in
the barrier is too high for the
circuit. As stated in the previous
articles in this series, circuits are
analyzed for the proper loop
resistance (barrier and cable) and
supply voltages. If the circuit does
not operate properly, check the
circuit against the design in the
control wiring diagram.
• Check for a blown barrier fuse.
This is accomplished by
disconnecting the barrier from the
circuit and measuring the
end-to-end resistance of the
barrier. If the ohmmeter registers
an infinite resistance, the fuse in
the barrier is blown. The fuse has
opened because of a fault in the
circuit, so reevaluate the entire
circuit before reinstalling a new
barrier.
Barrier Replacement
If the barrier’s fuse has opened, it
usually is the result of excessive
voltage being applied to the barrier.
This causes the diode to conduct,
which results in high current in the
fuse. After determining the cause of
the excess voltage, the barrier must
be replaced. The procedure is to
disconnect the wiring from the
safety barriers in the proper order of
nonhazardous terminal first,
hazardous terminals next, and the
ground last. Cover the bare wire
ends with tape, replace the barrier,
and then reverse the procedure to
mount the new barrier. Always install
the ground first and disconnect the
ground last.
Copyright Instrument Society of America.
Intech, October, 1993. All Rights Reserved.
 Selecting A Recorder
of/in addition to trend recording?
Is color differentiation available for
trend lines?
Is message printing required?
Is the recorder to perform alarm
functions?
How many setpoints per channel?
What types of alarms: threshold, rate
delta?
Are physical relay contacts available
for external alarm output?
Number required
SIGNAL INPUTS
GETTING STARTED- Available input types
Typical process recorders accept
A CHECKLIST analog dc voltage inputs,
How many inputs need to be recorded? thermocouple, or RTD temperature
What types of inputs need to be inputs or dry contact status input.
recorded? Signal processing
Voltage and sensitivity Linear scaling (conversion to
Thermocouples engineering units)
Thermocouple characterization
RTD’s
Difference calculation
Do different input types need to be Square root calculation
recorded in the same unit?
HIGHER-LEVEL FUNCTIONS
What type of recording is required? Intelligence
Continuous Math functions: +, -, x, ÷, square root,
Multiplex scanning (what minimum absolute value, logarithm, exponential
scan cycle is required?) functions, max, min, time average,
group average, summantion, (max-
Is a communciation interface required? min), standard deviation, and
To transmit measured data to a integration.
computer
Programming method
For remote setup of recorder Front panel
To connect to an external printer Remote (downloaded)
Is recorder to be bench style or panel Communications
mounting? RS-232C: serial point to point, 50 feet
What type of instrument power is cable length maximum at 9600 baud;
available? GPIB (IEEE-488): parallel (20 meter
Is log-type recording desirable instead system cable length maximum, 2 meter
Features Continuous Writing
Printing method Wet ink Thermal
Marking element Felt-tip or capillary Thermal array with High-speed wire
drag pen heat-sensitive paper dot with multicolor with pressure-
ribbon
Multicolor trending Multicolor trending Single color trending Multicolor trending Single color
enhances chart makes readability enhances chart
readability difficult when trend readability
lines cross or are in
close proximity
Ability to capture fast- Yes Yes No
changing signals
Special chart paper No Temperature-sensitive No
required nature of paper can
cause problems in
application of
recorder and storage
of charts
Z-149
distance between devices, up to 14
devices per controller);
RS-422A/RS-485:
Balanced/unbalanced, serial, up to 32
devices per system, cable length can
extend to 1.2 km at 9600 baud.
HARD COPY AND DISPLAY
Recording method
Galvanometer movement
Servo
Stepper-driven
Fixed array
Writing method
Capillary ink
Disposable felt-tip ink cartridges
Dot printing: ink ribbon cassette or
pressure-sensitive paper
Thermal-moving head or stationary
linear array
Rotating ink wheel
The most popular methods have
become disposable ink cartridges for
continuous (drag pen) recording, and
multicolor ink ribbon cassette for dot-
printing multipoint recording. These
writing methods use an economical
type of paper which is not sensitive to
routine handling and does not require
special storage considerations.
Chart types
For process recorders there are
basically two types of charts, Z-fold or
roll. Z-fold has become a predominant
choice for process applications due to
the ease of review of past traces
without disrupting active recording.
Chart speeds
Fixed or programmable
Multipoint
Mechanical Thermal
Impact dot matrix Thermal matrix with
heat-sensitive paper
sensitive paper
Single color trending
trending makes makes readability
readability difficult difficult when trend
when trend lines lines cross or are in
cross or are in close proximity
close proximity
No No
Pressure-sensitive Temperature-sensitive
nature of paper nature of paper can
can create cause problems in
problems in application of recorder
handling and and storage of charts
storage of charts
Chart annotation
Tag printing
Digital printing
List printing
Alarm printing
Prints in engineering units
Message printing
Scale printing
Channel identifier (numeric or
alphanumeric)
Date and time
Chart speed
Snapshot digital measured values
For continuous writing recorders, the
annotation is accomplished by a
separate writing pen so that trace
information is not lost.
For dot-printing recorders, the
annotation is done by the dot-printer,
with either single-dot or full character
printing with each traverse of the
printhead, depending on whether the
instrument is performing analog
trending or log reporting.
Chart widths
100 mm
180 mm
250 mm
Visual indicators
Analog bargraph indication (% of full
scale)
Analog scale indication (% of full
scale)
Digital channel number and
measured value
Alarm status
Engineering units
Recorder setup
Until the advent of the
microprocessor, recorders were
dedicated to measuring only the type
of input signal and only the span
specified at the time of order. To
change input signal type and/or
measuring span, hardware changes
were required. Presently, recorders
are available in which input signal
type, measuring span, tag and unit
designators can conveniently be set
in by the user. The recorder setup is
done by a keypad or, if the
instrument has a communication
interface, by means of a computer
keyboard or downloading of a
computer file.
Modes
Normal: Monitoring at set scan
interval and trending at set chart
speed, or logging at set intervals
Print on alarm: Monitoring at set
scan interval but not trending or
logging until an alarm condition
occurs
Change on alarm: Trending or
logging at a base chart speed or log
internal when no alarm condition
exists, automactically switching to
alternate chart speed or log interval
when an alarm condition exists
RECORDER DEFINITIONS
Hybrid recorder: A recorder that
combines analog trend
representation and digital measured
value printing on the same chart
paper, without disruption of trend
printing.
Servo balancing: A means of
positioning the pen of a drag pen
recorder. Null-balance operation has
no current flow at balance, nullifying
the effect of lead resistance.
Conventional servo balancing
recorders use contact mechanisms
in the feedback loop and brushes in
the servo motor. New technology
allows the use of a noncontact pen
positioning transducer and a
brushless dc servo motor.
Scanning recorder: A multi-point
recorder that scans all of its inputs to
obtain new measured data every set
time period (usually 2 to 6 seconds).
Printing for all points is often
performed during each cycle of the
printing mechanism.
Multi-color printing: A recorder that
records trend traces in more than
one color to make traces easier to
differentiate. Drag pen recorders use
a different color for each pen (usually
four pens maximum). Mulit-point
recorders typically record in six
colors.
Z-150
Linear scaling: Recording of a
voltage input in terms of the
engineering variable, such as
temperature, that the voltage
represents. Transformation is Y
(variable to be recorded) = mX (slope
x input signal) + b (Y intercept).
Pen offset compensation: In
traditional multiple input drag pen
recorders, each pen can travel the
full width of the recording chart. In
order to do so, the pens must be
physically offset from one another.
This puts the different pen traces on
different time lines of the chart. By Z
placing the measured data of the
front-most pen(s) into a buffer and
delaying their printing, the traces can
be synchronized to the same time
line, thereby compensating for their
offset.
Accuracy: The closeness to the
actual signal that the measured
value or trend position takes, stated
as either a percentage of full scale or
percent of reading. Separate
accuracy statements are typically
provided for measuring and
recording functions.
Tag ID: A means of designating a
trace or digital measured value by an
alphanumeric identifier instead of a
numeric identifier. Typically available
with up to seven characters.
Digital printing: Printing of the
precise measured numerical values
for the various channels, along with
their channel identifiers. Digital
printing usually occurs in a margin of
the chart so as not to interrupt trend
recording.
Log report: A printout of precise
measured numerical values for the
various channels, along with their
channel identifiers. Typically prints in
full character height per print cycle.
During trending, prints on demand,
resuming trending automatically.
When trending is not being used,
prints at a preselected time interval.
May also include alarm status
indication.
Courtesy of Johnson Yokogawa
Corporation. ®
Overview of IEEE-488
INTRODUCTION
IEEE-488 refers to the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Standard number 488.
This standard was first established in 1978, 13 years
after Hewlett-Packard (HP) of Palo Alto, CA, began
work to enable its broad range of instruments to
communicate with one another and with “host”
computers.
At the time of its development, IEEE-488 was
particularly well-suited for instrument applications when
compared with the alternatives. In essence, IEEE-488
comprises a “bus on a cable,” providing both a parallel
data transfer path on eight lines and eight dedicated
control lines. Given the demands of the times, its
nominal 1 Mbyte/sec maximum data transfer rate
seemed quite adequate; even today, IEEE-488 is
sufficiently powerful for many highly sophisticated and
demanding applications.
However, IEEE-488, as originally defined, left some
ambiguities in the specifics of controller-instrument
interaction and communication. While these open
issues were likely intended to give instrument and
controller designers some latitude, the result was
confusion and compatibility problems among
instruments from different manufacturers.
During the 1980’s, a new layer was added to the IEEE-
488 standard, IEEE-488.2. The original standard was
re-designated IEEE-488.1. IEEE-488.2 provides for a
minimum set of capabilities among “controllers” and
“devices,” as well as for more specific content and
structure of messages and communications protocols.
IEEE-488.2 is fully backward compatible with IEEE-
488.1; the use of a “488.2”-compliant controller affords
the ability to use the new protocols available with
“488.2” instruments while retaining the ability to
communicate with and control “488.1”-compliant
instruments and associated vendor idiosyncrasies.
Today, IEEE-488 is the most widely recognized and
used method for communication among scientific and
engineering instruments. Major stand-alone general
purpose instrument vendors include IEEE-488
interfaces in their products. Many vertical market
instrument makers also rely on IEEE-488 for data
communications and control.
IEEE-488 controllers support a variety of personal
computers, from the IBM PC/XT/AT and PS/2 and
compatibles to the multifaceted Macintosh family. Some
of these controllers are plug-in cards; others are
protocol converters (e.g., SCSI-to-IEEE-488). All
provide at least IEEE-488.1 in compliance, and a
growing number adhere to “488.2.”
GENERAL INFORMATION
The IEEE-488 interface, sometimes called the General
Purpose Interface Bus (GPIB), is a general purpose
digital interface system that can be used to transfer
data between two or more devices. It is particularly well-
suited for interconnecting computers and instruments.
Z-151
Some of its key features are:
• Up to 15 devices may be connected to one bus
• Total bus length may be up to 20 m and the distance
between devices may be up to 2 m
• Communication is digital (as opposed to analog) and
messages are sent one byte (8 bits) at a time
• Message transactions are hardware handshaked
• Data rates may be up to 1 Mbyte/sec
Mechanical Specifications
CONNECTOR
The IEEE-488 connector is a 24-pin connector. Devices
on the IEEE-488 bus have female receptacles;
interconnecting cables have the mating male
connectors. Connecting cables will typically have male
and female receptacles wired in parallel at each
connecting head to allow parallel connection of cables
at a device and/or to allow daisychaining between
devices.
INTERCONNECTION CABLING
Any individual IEEE-488 bus is limited to 15 devices
including the controller. However, the IEEE-488
specification limits the total length of all cabling used to
interconnect devices on a common bus to 20 m, or 2 m
times the number of interconnected devices (up to 20 m).
Cable lengths between devices may vary, as long as
total cable length does not exceed these restrictions.
Devices may be interconnected in a star or linear
topology, or in a combination of the two, as long as the
distance limits are observed. For maximum data
transfer rates, the total cable length should be reduced
to 15 m, with the average interdevice cable 1 m or less.
Electrical Specifications
BUS LINES
The IEEE-488 bus is a multidrop interface in which all
connected devices have access to the bus lines. The 24
bus lines group into four categories:
• Data Lines - Eight lines (DIO1 through DIO8) used to
transfer information (data and commands) between
devices on the bus, one byte at a time.
• Handshake Lines - Three lines used to handshake
the transfer of information across the data lines:
DAV: Data Valid
NDAC: Not Data Accepted
NRFD: Not Ready for Data
• Bus Management Lines - Five lines used for general
control and coordination of bus activities:
ATN: Attention
I FC: Interface Clear
REN: Remote Enable
SRQ: Service Request
EOI: End or Identify
• Ground Lines - Eight lines used for shielding and
signal returns:
One Shield
One General Signal Ground
Six logic ground lines paired off with ATN, SRQ,
IFC, NDAC, NRFD and DAV
HANDSHAKING
The IEEE-488 bus uses three handshake lines in a
“We're ready - Here's the data - We've got it” sequence
to transfer information across the data bus. The
handshake protocol assures reliable data transfer at the
rate determined by the slowest Listener. The
handshake lines, like all other IEEE-488 lines, are
active low. DAV is controlled by the Active Talker.
Before sending any data, the Talker verifies that NDAC
is asserted (low) which indicates that all Listeners have
accepted the previous data byte. The Talker then
places a byte onto the data lines and waits until NRFD
is unasserted (high), indicating that all Addressed
Listeners are ready to accept the information. When
NRFD and NDAC are in the proper state, the Talker
asserts DAV (active low) to indicate that the data on the
bus is valid. NRFD is used by the Listeners to inform
the Talker that they are ready to accept the new data.
The Talker must wait for each Listener to unassert this
line (high), which they do at their own rates when they
are ready for more data. This assures that all devices
accepting the information are ready to receive it. NDAC,
also controlled by the Listeners, indicates to the Talker
that each device addressed to listen has accepted the
information. Each device releases NDAC (high) at its
own rate, but NDAC does not go high until the slowest
Listener has accepted the data byte. This type of
handshaking permits multiple devices to receive data
from a single data transmitter on the bus. All active
receiving devices participate in the data handshaking
on a byte-by-byte basis and operate the NDAC and
NRFD lines in a “wired-or” scheme so that the slowest
active device determines the rate at which the data
transfers take place.
IEEE-488 FUNCTIONS
When information is placed on the data lines, it can
represent either a data byte or a command. If the
Attention bus management line (ATN) is asserted while
the data is transferred, then the data lines are carrying
a multiline command to be received by every bus
device. If ATN is not asserted, then a data byte is being
transferred, and only the Active Listeners receive that
byte.
The IEEE-488 bus also has a number of uniline
commands that are carried on a single bus
management line. For example, the Interface Clear
(IFC) line, when asserted, sends the Interface Clear
command to every bus device, causing each to reset its
IEEE-488 bus interface.
ADDRESSING
The IEEE-488 standard normally permits up to 15
devices to be configured within one system. Each of
these devices has a unique bus address, a number
from 0 to 30. Address limits can be circumvented
directly by the use of bus expanders or indirectly
through the use of an isolator or an extender.
A device becomes Addressed to Talk when it receives a
Talk Address Group (TAG) multiline command (a byte
transferred with ATN asserted) specifying its own
Z-152
address from the Active Controller. Similarly, it
becomes Addressed to Listen when it receives a Listen
Address Group (LAG) multiline command. Other
address commands include My Talk Address (MTA)
and My Listen Address (MLA), which are the TAG and
LAG commands of the Active Controller. The secondary
Command Group (SCG) is used to refer to
subaddresses or subfunctions within a particular device. Z
This permits direct access and control of the
subdevices or subinstruments embedded within
complex devices or instruments.
THE SYSTEM CONTROLLER
The System Controller, usually a computer with an IEEE-
488 board installed, always retains ultimate control of the
bus. When the system is first powered up, the System
Controller is the Active Controller and controls all bus
transactions. The System Controller may Pass Control to
a device, making it the New Active Controller, which may
then Pass Control to yet another device. Even if it is not
the Active Controller, the System Controller maintains
exclusive control of the Interface Clear (IFC) and Remote
Enable (REN) bus management lines and can take
control of the bus whenever it desires.
IEEE-488.2
The IEEE-488.2 standard was developed to simplify the
basic process of communicating with instruments.
IEEE488.2 extends the 488 standard with code, format
and protocol standardization and serves to resolve
issues left open in 488.1.
IEEE-488.2 details preferred implementation of many of
the issues that were either optional or unspecified on the
first standard. IEEE-488.1 covers the key physical issues
(connector type, bus length, maximum number of
instruments, etc.), electrical issues (open collector TTL,
tristate) and low-level protocols (device addressing,
control passing and data handshaking/timing). Four basic
device functions (Talker, Listener, Controller and System
Controller) are specified, as are capability subsets for
each type of device.
A number of items not covered by 488.1 can cause
problems for the test engineer, particularly regarding
equipment compatibility and data corruption.
For example, 488.1 does not cover these specifications:
• Minimum Device Capability Requirements
No minimum set of requirements is mandated in IEEE-
488.1 for Talkers, Listeners, Controllers or System
Controllers. Hence, a device may implement all, or only
some, of the capability sets set forth in 488.1, giving
rise to systems containing devices with varying levels
of abilities.
The Controller, in such a situation, has no guarantee of
a basic communication subset among system devices.
This can lead to confusion for the system operator and
miscommunication between devices.
• Data Coding, Formats and Message Protocol
Under 488.1, the messages transferred between the
Controller and a device are entirely at the discretion of
Overview of IEEE-488 Cont’d
the device manufacturer. The use of ASCII, binary or
some other form of data code and the choice of
terminators such as carriage-return or EOI is arbitrary.
Also, the sequence of the sending of commands and
the reading of their responses is unspecified and varies
from instrument to instrument.
• Definition of the Status Byte
488.1 defines a status byte and one bit within, but the
meaning of the other seven bits is at the discretion of
the device designer. This forces the user to provide a
unique interpretation of each bit of the status byte.
Also, the relationship between the status byte and the
device's other internal status registers is unspecified.
DRIVER SOFTWARE FOR IBM PC
Great variety is found in the software required to
complete the interface between the user's program and
the IEEE instruments. Two fundamental techniques are
used: the DOS device driver and the subroutine library.
These are not mutually exclusive, as subroutine libraries
can be implemented via a DOS device driver.
DOS DEVICE DRIVER
A popular form of device driver used by several IEEE-
488 controller providers is the Terminate and Stay
Resident (TSR) DOS device driver approach. In this
method, the driver code is stored in memory as a TSR
and waits for access by an application program, much as
Borland’s Sidekick waits for user “hot key” input.
OMEGA’s 488 driver establishes a file I/O link with DOS,
just as DOS provides file I/O links for system devices
such as the keyboard/screen, printer or serial port.
These DOS I/O files may be accessed directly from
DOS, from programs with file I/O capability, including
spreadsheets such as Lotus 1-2-3 and Borland's Quattro,
and from most programming languages. These files
provide a direct link to the IEEE-488 bus using HP-style
English language commands. This style of Applications
Program Interface (API) is often referred to as Character
Command Language (CCL), as the IEEE commands are
sent as ASCII strings to the driver via the API’s file I/O
links through DOS.
Controlling Instruments from Any Language
Just as DOS and spreadsheets can access IEEE
instruments directly using the file I/O services provided
by DOS for device drivers, most programming languages
also can use file I/O to quickly and easily access the
IEEE-488 bus.
SUBROUTINE IEEE-488 DRIVER INTERFACE
An alternative means of controlling the IEEE-488
hardware is via subroutine calls from high level
languages. This method has the advantage of minimizing
the overhead of DOS device driver services and the
ASCII message (CCL) parser and interpreter.
Disadvantages include the loss of the convenience and
effectiveness of accessing the IEEE-488 bus from a wide
variety of applications programs, as well as from DOS.
Also, the use of subroutines, even those with easy-to-use
HP-style commands, typically requires compiling and
linking to run even simple test codes.
Z-153
Some IEEE controller implementations on the IBM PC
give the user the choice of subroutine calls or CCL.
IEEE-488 SUBROUTINE CONTROL LIBRARIES
The logical complement to subroutine interfaces for a
TSR DOS device driver are subroutine libraries that
directly access the IEEE-488 hardware from a high-level
language with code that is compiled and linked directly
into the user’s program. This approach eliminates the
DOS device driver, integrating the IEEE-488 control
functions directly into the applications program code.
This method has the potential for the highest
performance, as it eliminates possible DOS effects on
the speed of commands and data.
MICROSOFT WINDOWS COMPATIBILITY
The growing popularity of the Windows 3.0 Graphical
User Interface (GUI) is rapidly spreading to test and
measurement applications. Until 1991, few tools were
available for the end user to build Windows applications.
Now, tools such as Microsoft's Visual Basic and
Borland’s C++ provide GUI development interfaces that
allow users to draw windows and fill them with buttons,
scroll bars and dialog boxes. Soon, these tools (and the
tools, libraries and utilities that follow) will be widely used
by developers of IEEE-488 test programs. IEEE-488
controller package vendors will adapt their offerings to be
compatible with Windows, so users will be able to apply
Windows solutions to their measurement problems. As
these new Windows-oriented drivers and packages
debut, there will undoubtedly be a broad range of
solutions offered to the end user. It is important to know
and understand what makes Windows and Windows
applications different from DOS, and what features an
IEEE-488 driver should have in order to make the most
of the Windows environment. Users should keep the
following issues in mind when reviewing new offerings:
• Is the software written as a Windows application, or is it
merely a port of DOS software?
Windows performs its own memory management
functions; typical DOS ports to Windows do not permit
Windows to dynamically allocate memory use, which can
lead to “Unrecoverable Application Errors.”
As Windows is an event-based system, it provides
extensive event handling facilities; Windows applications
should take advantage of them.
Windows has no equivalent of the TSR concept used
with DOS. Although some DOS TSR’s will function while
Windows is running, their operation can be erratic and
unpredictable.
• Will the driver support concurrent access of different
peripherals on a single interface by multiple Windows
applications? Windows’ pseudo muItitasking is one of
its reasons for being.
• Will the driver service multiple bus adaptor boards?
• Is the driver IEEE-488.2 compliant?
®
ASCII Code Values
ASCII Hex ASCII Hex
Value Value Character Value Value Character
000 0 (NUL) 050 32 2
001 1 A 051 33 3
002 2 B 052 34 4
003 3 ♥ 053 35 5
004 4 ♦ 054 36 6
005 5 ♣ 055 37 7
Z
006 6 ♠ 056 38 8
007 7 (BEEP) 057 39 9
008 8 058 3A :
009 9 (TAB) 059 3B ;
010 A (LF) 060 3C <
011 B (HOME) 061 3D =
012 C (FF) 062 3E >
013 D (CR) 063 3F ?
014 E 064 40 @
015 F - 065 41 A
016 10 I 066 42 B
017 11 J 067 43 C
018 12 K 068 44 D
019 13 L 069 45 E
020 14 M 070 46 F
021 15 N 071 47 G
022 16 O 072 48 H
023 17 P 073 49 I
024 18 Q 074 4A J
025 19 R 075 4B K
026 1A S 076 4C L
027 1B (ESC) 077 4D M
028 1C (RIGHT) 078 4E N
029 1D (LEFT) 079 4F O
030 1E (UP) 080 50 P
031 1F (DOWN) 081 51 Q
032 20 (SPACE) 082 52 R
033 21 ! 083 53 S
034 22 “ 084 54 T
035 23 # 085 55 U
036 24 $ 086 56 V
037 25 % 087 57 W
038 26 & 088 58 X
039 27 ‘ 089 59 Y
040 28 ( 090 5A Z
041 29 ) 091 5B [
042 2A * 092 5C \
043 2B + 093 5D ]
044 2C , 094 5E ^
045 2D - 095 5F _
046 2E . 096 60 `
047 2F / 097 61 A
048 30 0 098 62 B
049 31 1 099 63 C

Z-154
ASCII Code Values Cont’d
ASCII Hex ASCII Hex
Value Value Character Value Value Character
100 64 D 150 96 U
101 65 E 151 97 U
102 66 F 152 98 ò
103 67 G 153 99 î
104 68 H 154 9A ö
105 69 I 155 9B õ
106 6A J 156 9C ú
107 6B K 157 9D õ
108 6C L 158 9E û
109 6D M 159 9F ü
110 6E N 160 A0 A
111 6F O 161 Al I
112 70 P 162 A2 O
113 71 Q 163 A3 U
114 72 R 164 A4 §
115 73 S 165 A5 §
116 74 T 166 A6 ¶
117 75 U 167 A7 ß
118 76 V 168 A8 ®
119 77 W 169 A9 ©
120 78 X 170 AA ™
121 79 Y 171 AB ´
122 7A Z 172 AC ¨
123 7B { 173 AD ≠
124 7C | 174 AE Æ
125 7D } 175 AF Ø
126 7E ~ 176 B0 ∞
127 7F T 177 Bl ±
128 80 á 178 B2 ≤
129 81 ö 179 B3 |
130 82 E 180 B4 ¥
131 83 A 181 B5 µ
132 84 é 182 B6 ∂
133 85 A 183 B7 ∑
134 86 è 184 B8 ∏
135 87 á 185 B9 π
136 88 E 186 BA ∫
137 89 E 187 BB ª
138 8A E 188 BC º
139 8B I 189 BD Ω
140 8C I 190 BE æ
141 8D I 191 BF ø
142 8E é 192 C0 ¿
143 8F Å 193 C1 ¡
144 90 E 194 C2 ¬
145 91 í 195 C3 Ô
146 92 í 196 C4 _
147 93 O 197 C5 ±
148 94 î 198 C6 ∆
149 95 O 199 C7 «

Z-155
ASCII Hex ASCII Hex
Value Value Character Value Value Character
200 C8 228 E4 ‰
201 C9 » 229 E5
… Â
202 CA 230 E6 Ê
203 CB G 231 E7
À Á
204 CC 232 E8 Ë
205 CD Ã 233 E9
206 CE Õ 234 EA
È Z
Œ Í
207 CF 235 EB Î
208 D0 œ 236 EC
– Ï
209 Dl 237 ED Ì
210 D2 — 238 EE
“ Ó
211 D3 239 EF Ô
”
212 D4
‘
240 F0 
213 D5 241 Fl Ò
214 D6 ’ 242 F2
÷ Ú
215 D7 243 F3
216 D8 ◊ 244 F4
Û
ÿ Ù
217 D9 245 F5 ı
218 DA Ÿ 246 F6
⁄ ˆ
219 DB 247 F7 ˜
220 DC ¤ 248 F8
‹ ¯
221 DD 249 F9 ˘
222 DE › 250 FA
fi ˙
223 DF 251 FB ˚
224 E0 fl 252 FC
‡ ¸
225 El 253 FD ˝
226 E2 · 254 FE
‚ ˛
227 E3 „ 255 FF (BLANK)

Hexadecimal Conversion Chart

Hex Binary Decimal Decimal Decimal Decimal
Number Number Digit 000X Digit 00X0 Digit 0X00 Digit X000
0 0000 1 0 0 0
1 0001 2 16 256 4,098
2 0010 3 32 512 8,192
3 0011 4 48 768 12,288
4 0100 5 64 1,024 16,384
5 0101 6 80 1,280 20,480
6 0110 7 96 1,536 24,576
7 0111 8 112 1,792 28,672
8 1000 9 128 2,048 32,768
9 1001 10 144 2,304 36,864
A 1010 11 160 2,560 40,960
B 1011 12 176 2,816 45,056
C 1100 13 192 3,072 49,152
D 1101 14 208 3,328 53,248
E 1110 15 224 3,584 57,344
F 1111 16 240 3,840 61,440
Z-156
The RS-232 Standard
Information being transferred
between data processing equipment
and peripherals is in the form of
digital data which is transmitted in
either a serial or parallel mode.
Parallel communications are used
mainly for connections between test
instruments or computers and
printers, while serial is often used
between computers and other
peripherals.
Serial transmission involves the
sending of data one bit at a time,
over a single communications line.
In contrast, parallel communications
require at least as many lines as
there are bits in a word being
transmitted (for an 8-bit word, a
minimum of 8 lines are needed).
Serial transmission is beneficial for
long distance communications,
whereas parallel is designed for
short distances or when very high
transmission rates are required.
Standards
One of the advantages of a serial
system is that it lends itself to
transmission over telephone lines.
The serial digital data can be
converted by modem, placed onto a
standard voice-grade telephone
line, and converted back to serial
digital data at the receiving end of
the line by another modem.
Officially, RS-232 is defined as the
“Interface between data terminal
equipment and data
communications equipment using
serial binary data exchange.” This
definition defines data terminal
equipment (DTE) as the computer,
while data communications
equipment (DCE) is the modem. A
modem cable has pin-to-pin
connections, and is designed to
connect a DTE device to a DCE
device.
9-Pin “AT” Style
PIN NUMBER
1 Data Carrier Detect
Data Set Ready 6
2 Received Data
Request to Send 7
3 Transmitted Data
Clear to Send 8
4 Data Terminal Ready
Ring Indicator 9
5 Signal Ground
Interfaces Selecting a Cable
In addition to communications
between computer equipment over The major considerations in
telephone lines, RS-232 is now choosing an RS-232 cable are
widely used for connections based upon the devices to be
between data acquisition devices connected. First, are you connecting
and computer systems. As in the two DTE devices (null modem
definition of RS232, the computer is cable) or a DTE device to a DCE
data transmission equipment (DTE). device (modem cable)? Second,
However, many interface products what connectors are required on
are not data communications each end, male or female, and 25 or
equipment (DCE). Null modem 9-pin (AT style)? Usually, it is
recommended that the user obtain
cables are designed for this
situation; rather than having the pin- the two devices to be connected,
and then determine which cable is
to-pin connections of modem
cables, null modem cables have required. ®
different internal wiring to allow DTE
devices to communicate with one
another. RS-232 Specifications
Cabling Options TRANSMITTED SIGNAL
RS-232 cables are commonly VOLTAGE LEVELS:
available with either 4, 9 or 25-pin Binary 0: +5 to +15 Vdc (called a
“ space” or “on”)
wiring. The 25-pin cable connects Binary 1: -5 to -15 Vdc
every pin; the 9-pin cables do not (called a “mark” or “off”)
include many of the uncommonly
used connections; 4-pin cables RECEIVED SIGNAL
VOLTAGE LEVELS:
provide the bare minimum
connections, and have jumpers to Binary 0: +3 to +13 Vdc
Binary 1: -3 to -13 Vdc
provide “handshaking” for those
devices that require it. These DATA FORMAT:
jumpers connect pins 4, 5 and 8, Start bit: Binary 0
and also pins 6 and 20. Data: 5, 6, 7 or 8 bits
Parity: Odd, even, mark or space
The advent of the IBM PC AT has (not used with 8-bit data)
created a new wrinkle in RS-232 Stop bit: Binary 1, one or two bits
communications. Rather than
having the standard 25-pin
connector, this computer and many
new expansion boards for pc’s Transmission Example
feature a 9-pin serial port. To 1111101100001011 1 1
connect this port to a standard 25-
pin port, a 9- to 25-pin adaptor cable CHARACTER
TRAILING IDLE
may be utilized, or the user may BITS
“A” LEADING
IDLE BITS
create his own cable specifically for STOP BIT
that purpose. PARITY BIT START BIT
Data Flow
Pin Assignments 25-Pin Style
PIN PIN
NUMBER NUMBER
1 Protective Ground
Secondary Transmitted Data 14
2 Transmitted Data
DCE Transmitter Signal Element Timing 15
3 Received Data
Secondary Received Data 16
4 Request to Send
Receiver Signal Element Timing 17
5 Clear to Send
18
6 Data Set Ready
Secondary Request to Send 19
7 Signal Ground/Common Return
Data Terminal Ready 20
8 Received Line Signal Detector
Signal Quality Detector 21
9 +Voltage
Ring Indicator 22
10 -Voltage
Data Signal Rate Selector 23
11
DTE Transmitter Signal Element Timing 24
12 Secondary Received Line Signal Detector
25
13 Secondary Clear to Send
Z-157
Guidelines for Realizing the ITS-90

Guidelines for Realizing the 11. National Institute of Standards and Technology [NIST], Gaithersburg, MD,
USA,
International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90) 12. National Physical Laboratory [NPLj, Teddington, UK,
13. National Research Laboratory of Metrology [NRLM), Ibaraki, Japan,
B. W. Mangum 14. Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt [PTB], Braunschweig, FRG,
National Institute of Standards and Technology 15. Van Swinden Laboratorium [VSL], Delft, The Netherlands,
Gaithersburg, MD 20899 16. Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA, and
17. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures [BIPM], Sevres, France.
and
Shortly after the adoption of the International Practical Temperature Scale of
G. T. Furukawa 1968 (IPTS-68) [100], it was realized that the scale had many deficiencies and
Guest Scientist limitations. These included its lower limit of 13.81 K, its inaccuracy relative

National Institute of Standards and Technology
Gaithersburg, MD 20899
1. INTRODUCTION
The Comité Consultatif de Thermométrie (CCT) is one of eight specialized
technical subcommittees of the Comité International des Poids et Mesures (CIPM).
The CIPM is a committee of the Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures (CGPM).
These eight subcommittees are:
1 The Comité Consultatif d’Électricité (CCE), established in 1927,
2 The Comité Consultatif de Photométrie et Radiométrie (CCPR),
assigned this name in 1971; the previous name was the Comité
Consultatif de Photométrie, established in 1933,
3. The Comité Consultatif de Thermométrie (CCT), established in 1937,
4. The Comité Consultatif pour la Définition du Métre (CCDM),
established in 1952,
5. The Comité Consultatif pour la Définition de la Seconde (CCDS),
established in 1956,
6. The Comité Consultatif pour les Étalons de Mesure des Rayonnements
Ionisants (CCEMRI), established in 1958,
7. The Comité Consultatif des Unités (CCU), established in 1964, and
8. The Comité Consultatif pour la Masse et les grandeurs apparentées
(CCM), established in 1980.
The CCT is composed presently of members from the following laboratories:
1 Amt für Standardisierung, Messwesen und Warenprufung [ASMW],
Berlin, DDR,
2. Bureau National de Metrologie, Paris, France: Institut National de
Metrologie [INM], du Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers,
3. Ceskoslovensky Metrologicky Ustav [CSMU], Bratislava
Czechoslovakia,
4. National Research Council [NRC], Ottawa, Canada,
5. CSIRO, Division of Applied Physics [CSIRO], Lindfield, Australia,
6. D.I. Mendeleyev Institute for Metrology [VNIIM), Leningrad, USSR;
Physico-Technical and Radio-Technical Measurements Institute
[PRMI], Moscow, USSR,
7. National Institute of Metrology [NIM], Beijing, PRC,
8. Istituto di Metrologia G. Colonnetti [IMGC], Turin, Italy,
9. Kamerlingh Onnes Laboratorium [KOL], Leiden, The Netherlands,
10. Korea Standards Research Institute [KSRI], Seoul, Korea,
Z
to thermodynamic temperatures, and its non-uniqueness and irreproducibility,
especially in the temperature region from T 68 - 903.89 K (630.74 ˚C) to
T68 - 1337.58 K (1064.43 ˚C, the region in which the Pt-10%Rh/Pt thermocouple
was the standard interpolating instrument. Consequently, the CCT undertook the
development of a new scale, and completed it in accordance with Resolution 7 of
the 18th Conference Generale des Poid et Mesures [29], which met in October 1987
(see appendices).
The CCT met 12-14 September 1989 at the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures
(BIPM) in its 17th Session [14] and completed the final details of the new
temperature scale, the International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90) [66,83].
The CCT then recommended to the CIPM, which met [84] on 26-28 September 1989 at
the BIPM, that the ITS-90 be adopted and made the official scale (see
appendices). Upon considering this recommendation, the CIPM adopted the new
temperature scale (see appendices), and the ITS-90 became the official
international temperature scale on 1 January 1990, the same date on which changes
affecting certain electrical reference standards were implemented [12]. The
ITS-90 supersedes the IPTS-68, the International Practical Temperature Scale of
1968, Amended Edition of 1975 [IPTS - 68 (75)][101], and the 1976 Provisional 0.5
K to 30 K Temperature Scale (EPT-76) [99].
The ITS-90 was implemented at the NIST on 1 January 1990. The purpose of this
document is to describe the new scale, to give some guidelines for its
realization and use, to facilitate its implementation, to give the differences
between temperatures on it and those on the IPTS-68(75) and on the EPT-76, and
to describe how the NIST realizes the scale.
The ITS-90 extends upward from 0.65 K and temperatures on this scale are in much
better agreement with thermodynamic values than are those on the IPTS-68(75) and
the EPT-76. The new scale has subranges and alternative definitions in certain
ranges that greatly facilitate its use. Furthermore, its continuity, non-
uniqueness and reproducibility throughout its ranges are much improved over the
corresponding characteristics of the previous scales. The biggest improvement
in reproducibility results from the replacement of thermocouple thermometry with
platinum resistance thermometry in the range 630 ˚C to the freezing-point
temperature of silver, and with radiation thermometry in the range from the
freezing-point temperature of silver to that of gold.
The change in the temperature scale affects not only technical interests involved
directly in thermometry but also those involved with other reference standards,

* Reproduced with permission of National Institute of Standards and Technology

0.02
Temperature difference (t 90-t 68)/°C

0 0.4

-0.02

-0.04 0.2

-200 0 200 400

0 0
0 100

-0.01 -0.2
-0.2

-0.02

-200 0 200 400 600 800 1000

t 90/°C

Figure 1. The temperature difference (t90 - t68)/°C in the range between the triple point of
equilibrium hydrogen (-259.3467 °C) and the freezing point of gold (1064.18°C) [83, 85].

Z-158
Guidelines for Realizing the ITS-90 Cont’d

such as electrical standards, that are sensitive to temperature. As examples, Table 1. Differences between T90 and T68 (and t90 and t68), and between T90 and T76
standard resistors and standard cells are sensitive to temperature and generally
are maintained in constant-temperature environments, at least in national (T90 - T76) /mK
standards laboratories,. At the present time, the temperatures of those
environments are normally determined with thermometers that were calibrated on
T90 /K 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
the IPTS-68(75). A given thermodynamic temperature expressed on the ITS-90,
0 -0.1 -0.2 -0.3 -0.4 -0.5
however, has a value that is different from that expressed on the IPTS-68(75), 10 -0.6 -0.7 -0.8 -1.0 -1.1 -1.3 -1.4 -1.6 -1.8 -2.0
except at absolute zero (0 K), at the triple-point temperature of water 20 -2.2 -2.5 -2.7 -3.0 -3.2 -3.5 -3.8 -4.1
(273.16 K), and at a few other points at which the temperatures on the two scales
are fortuitously the same . This difference is shown in figure 1 [83]. A table (T90 - T68) /K
of differences between temperatures on the ITS-90, i.e., T90 or T90,and those on
the IPTS-68(75), i.e. , T68 or t68 and those on the EPT-76, T76, is given in the T90 / K 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
text of the ITS-90 and is presented here in table 1. Although temperature values
expressed on the two scales are different, the change is only in the expression 10 -0.006 -0.003 -0.004 -0.006 -0.008 -0.009
of the value of temperature and not in the temperature itself. That is to say, 20 -0.009 -0.008 -0.007 -0.007 -0.006 -0.005 -0.004 -0.004 -0.005 -0.006
the Kelvin thermodynamic temperature (the hotness) of a material at any given 30 -0.006 -0.007 -0.008 -0.008 -0.008 -0.007 -0.007 -0.007 -0.006 -0.006
point is independent of the use of any of the ‘practical’ temperature scales. 40 -0.006 -0.006 -0.006 -0.006 -0.006 -0.007 -0.007 -0.007 -0.006 -0.006
The better the ‘practical’ scale is, the closer the values of temperature on that 50 -0.006 -0.005 -0.005 -0.004 -0.003 -0.002 -0.001 0.000 0.001 0.002
scale are to the thermodynamic temperature values. Needless to say, the Kelvin 60 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.006 0.006 0.007 0.007
thermodynamic temperature values are experimentally determined, and they may have 70 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008
significant error. Since temperature values expressed on the thermodynamic and 80 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.608 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008
‘practical’ scales are different, if the temperature of the environment of a 90 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.009 0.009 0.009
reference standard is adjusted so that its value when expressed on the ITS-90 has
the same value as had been used on the IPTS-68(75), there will have been a change
T90 /K 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
of the thermodynamic temperature and the value of the reference standard will
100 0.009 0.011 0.013 0.014 0.014 0.014 0.014 0.013 0.012 0.012
usually change. Of course, one may not want to change the thermodynamic
200 0.011 0.010 0.009 0.008 0.007 0.005 0.003 0.001
temperature of the reference standard. In that case, the thermodynamic
temperature, as expressed an the IPTS-68(75), can simply be expressed on the ITS- (T90 - T68) / °C
90 (a numerical value different from that on the IPTS-68(75)) and the reference
standards will be unaffected. For more details on the effects of the change of T90 / °C 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 -70 -80 -90
the temperature scale on electrical standards, see National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST) Technical Note 1263 [12]. -100 0.013 0.013 0.014 0.014 0.014 0.013 0.012 0.010 0.008 0.008
0 0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.009 0.010 0.011 0.012 0.012
In addition to the effect on reference standards for measurements, all
temperature-sensitive properties, e.g., tables of thermodynamic properties, T90 / °C 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
that are presently expressed on the IPTS-68(75) may require changes in values.
0 0.000 -0.002 -0.005 -0.007 -0.010 -0.013 -0.016 -0.018 -0.021 -0.024
2. DEFINITION OF THE ITS-90 100 -0.026 -0.028 -0.030 -0.032 -0.034 -0.036 -0.037 -0.038 -0.039 -0.039
200 -0.040 -0.040 -0.040 -0.040 -0.040 -0.040 -0.040 -0.039 -0.039 -0.039
The ITS-90 was designed by the CCT in such a manner that temperature values 300 -0.039 -0.039 -0.039 -0.040 -0.040 -0.041 -0.042 -0.443 -0.045 -0.046
obtained on it do not deviate from the Kelvin thermodynamic temperature values by 400 -0.048 -0.051 -0.053 -0.056 -0.059 -0.062 -0.065 -0-068 -0.072 -0.075
more than the uncertainties of the latter values at the time the ITS-90 was 500 -0.079 -0.083 - 0. 087 -0.090 -0.094 -0.098 -0.101 -0.105 -0.106 -0.112
adopted. Thermodynamic temperature is indicated by the symbol T and has the unit
600 -0.115 -0.118 -0.122 -0.125 -0.08 -0.03 0.02 0.06 0.11 0.16
700 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.31 0.33 0.35 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.35
known as the kelvin, symbol K. The size of the kelvin is defined to be 1/273.16
800 0.34 0.32 0.29 0.25 0.22 0.18 0.14 0.10 0.06 0.03
of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water. This definition of
900 -0.01 -0.03 -0.06 -0.08 -0.10 -0.12 -0.14 -0.16 -0.17 -0.18
the Kelvin Thermodynamic Temperature Scale (KTTS) that is based on the value of a 1000 -0.19 -0.20 -0.21 -0.22 -0.23 -0.24 -0.25 -0.25 -0.26 -0.26
single finite temperature is not new; the CCT proposed it in 1954, the CIPM
recommended it, and the Tenth CGPM adopted it that same year [30]. T90 / ° C 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Because temperatures on previous temperature scales were expressed relative to 1000 -0.26 -0.30 -0.35 -0.39 -0.44 -0.49 -0.54 -0.60 -0.66
the ice point (271.15 K), temperature, symbol t, on the Celsius Temperature Scale 2000 -0.72 -0.79 -0.85 -0.93 -1.00 -1.07 -1.15 -1.24 -1.32 -1.41
is defined by: 3000 -1.50 -1.59 -1.69 -1.78 -1.89 -1.99 -2.10 -2.21 -2.32 -2.43

4He e-H2
TP H2O
Point e-H2 TP Planck's
17K
Radiation Equation
e-H2
20.3K

SPRT SPRT

e-H2TP, VP

Hg In Zn Ag Calibration
Ar TP TP FP FP FP Points
3He CVGT Au FP
O2 Ga Sn Al Bounds of Helium Vapor
MP FP FP
4He CVGT TP Cu FP Pressure Calibration

Bounds of Helium Vapor

Pressure Thermometry
4He VP
EQN Ne TP

3He VP
EQN

0.1 0.3 0.5 1 3 5 10 30 50 100 300 500 1000 3000 5000 10000

Temperature, K (ITS-90)

Figure 2. A schematic representation of the ITS-90 showing the temperatures of the defining fixed points (or phase
equilibrium states) on the scale and temperature ranges defined by interpolation instruments and equations.

Z-159
 t/˚C = T/K - 273.15. (1) Table 3. Comparison of temperatures of fixed points assigned on various
scales. Temperatures are expressed in kelvins on the KTTS or eqviivalent scales
The unit of temperature t is the degree Celsius, symbol ˚ C, and it is by
definition the same size as the kelvin. A difference of temperature may be
expressed either in kelvins or in degrees Celsius. Point NHSa ITS-27b ITS-48b IPTS-48b IPTS-68 IPTS-68(75) EPT-76 ITS-90

Temperatures on the ITS-90 are expressed, in terms of the International Kelvin Au FPc - 1336.15 1336.15 1336.15 1337.58 1337.58 - 1337.33
Temperatures, with the symbol, T90, or, in terms of the International Celsius Ag FP - 1233.65 1233.95 1233.95 1235.08 1235.08 - 1234.93
Temperatures, with the symbol t90. The unit of the temperature T90 is the kelvin,
symbol K, and the unit of the temperature t90 is the degree Celsius, symbol ˚C. Al FP - - - - - - - 933.473
The relation between T90 and t90 is: S BPd - 717.75 717.75 717.75 - - - -

Z
t90/˚C = T90/K - 273.15. (2) Zn FP - - - (692.655) 692.73 692.73 - 692.677
Sn FP - - - - (505.1181) (505.1181) - 505.078
The ITS-90 extends upward from 0.65 K. There are alternative definitions of T90 In FP - - - - - - - 429.7485
in certain temperature ranges and they have equal status. In measurements of the
highest precision made at the same temperature, the alternative definitions will H2O BP 373 373.15 373.15 373.15 373.15 373.15 - -
yield detectable temperature differences. Also, at any given temperature between Ga TP - - - - - - - 302.9146
defining fixed points, different interpolating thermometers that meet H2O TPe - - - (273.16) 273.16 273.16 - 273.16
the specifications of the ITS-90 will indicate different temperature values.
These latter differences are referred to as the non-uniqueness in the definition H2O FP 273 273.15 273.15 - - - - -
of the ITS-90, The magnitude of the differences that result from these two Hg TP - - - - - - - 234.3156
sources is sufficiently small to be negligible for all practical purposes. 02 BPf - 90.18 90.18 90.18 90.188 90.188 - -
Temperatures on the ITS-90 are defined in terms of equilibrium phase states of Ar TP - - - - - (83.798) - 83.8058
pure substances (defining fixed points), interpolating instruments, and equations O2 TP - - - - 54.361 54.361 - 54.3584
that relate the measured property of the instruments to T90. The equilibrium Ne BP - - - - 27.102 27.102 21.102 -24.5561
phase states of the pure substances and the assigned temperatures used as
defining fixed points of the ITS-90 are listed in table 2. Figure 2 shows Ne TP - - - - - - 24.5591
schematically the defining phase states and temperature ranges defined by the H2 BP - - - - 20.28 20.28 20.2734 20.3
various interpolating instruments and equations. For comparison purposes, we H2 BPg - - - - 17.042 17.042 17.0373 17.0
give in table 3 the defining fixed points, and their assigned temperatures, of
the ITS-90 and of all the previous internationally agreed-upon scales. H2 TP - - - - 13.81 13.81 13.8044 13.8033
Pb SPh - - - - - - 7.1999 -
2.1 BETWEEN 0.65 K AND 5.0 K: 3He and 4He VAPOR PRESSURE THERMOMETRY 4He BP - - - - - - 4.2221 4.2
The ITS-90 is defined between 0.65 K and 3.2 K by the vapor-pressure-temperature In SP - - - - - - 3.4145 -
relation of 3He, and between 1.25 K and 2.1768 K (the λ point) and between 3He BP - - - - - - - 3.2
2.1768 K and 5.0 K by the vapor-pressure-temperature relations of 4He. T90 is
Al SP - - - - - - 1.1796 -
defined by the vapor-pressure equations of the form:
Zn SP - - - - - - 0.851 -
9 Cd SP - - - - - - 0.519 -
T90/K = A0 + ∑ Ai{[ δn(p/Pa) - B] /C)1. (3)
i=1
a
NHS = Normal hydrogen scale [25].
The values of the coefficients Ai and of the constants A0, B and C of the vapor- b
For a time, the ice point Was taken to be 273.16 K. Here, the value 273.15 K
pressure equations for 3He and 4He are given in table 4. was used to convert temperature values in degrees Centigrade or Celsius to
kelvins in order to be as consistent as possible throughout the table.
c
FP = Freezing point.
d
BP = Boiling point at 101,325 Pa.
e
TP = Triple point.
f
Changed in 1975 to the condensation point.
g
Reduced-pressure boiling point, at P = 33,330.6 Pa.
h
SP = Superconductive transition point.

Table 2. Defining fixed points of the ITS-90 Table 4. Values of the coefficients A1 and of the constants B and C for the 3He and 4He
vapor-pressure equations and the temperature range for which each equation is valid

Materiala Equilibrium Stateb Temperature Wr(T90)e

T90(K) t90 (˚C) Coef. or 3
He 4
He 5
He
Constant 0.65 K to 3.2 K 1.25 K to 2.1768 K 2.1768 K to 5.0 K
He VP 3 to 5 - 270.15 to A0 1.053 447 1.392 408 3.146 631
- 268.15
e-H2 TP 13.8033 - 259.3467 0.00119007 A1 0.980 106 0.527 153 1.357 655
e-H2 (or He) VP (or CVGT) ≈ 17 ≈- 256.15 A2 0.676 380 0.166 756 0.413 923
e-H2 (or He) VP (or CVGT) ≈ 20.3 ≈- 252.85
A3 0.372 692 0.050 988 0.091 159
Nec TP 24.5561 - 248.5939 0.00844974
O2 TP 54.3584 - 218.7916 0.09171804 A4 0.151 656 0.026 514 0.016 349
Ard TP 83.8058 - 189.3442 0.21585975 A5 -0.002 263 0.001 975 0.001 826
Hgc TP 234.3156 38.8344 0.84414211
H2O TP 273.16 0.01 1.00000000 A6 0.006 596 -0.017 976 -0.004 325
Gac MP 302.9146 29.7646 1.11813889 A7 0.088 966 0.005 409 -0.004 973
Inc FP 429.7485 156.5985 1.60980185 A8 -0.004 770 0.013 259 0
Snd FP 505.078 231.928 1.89279768
Zn FP 692.677 419.527 2.56891730 A9 -0.054 943 0 0
Alc FP 933.473 660.323 3.37600860 B 7.3 5.6 10.3
Ag FP 1234.93 961.78 4.28642053 C 4.3 2.9 1.9
Au FP 1337.33 1064.18
Cuc FP 1357.77 1084.62

a e-H 2 indicates equilibrium hydrogen, that is, hydrogen with the

equilibrium distribution of its ortho and para states at the corresponding 2.2 BETWEEN 3.0 K AND 24.5561 K (THE TRIPLE POINT OF Ne): 3
He and He CONSTANT
4
temperatures. Normal hydrogen at room temperature contains 25% para and VOLUME GAS THERMOMETRY
75% ortho hydrogen.
b VP indicates vapor pressure point or equation; CVGT indicates constant Between 3.0 K and 24.5561 K, the ITS-90 is defined in terms of the 3He or 4He
constant volume gas thermometer(CVGT). The thermometer is calibrated at three
volume gas thermometer point; TP indicates triple point (equilibrium temperatures - at the triple point of neon (24.556,1 K), at the triple point of
temperature at which the solid, liquid and vapor phases coexist); FP equilibrium hydrogen (13.8033 K), and at a temperature between 3.0 K and 5.0 K, the
indicates freezing point and MP indicates melting point (the equilibrium value of which is determined by using either a 3He or a 4He vapor-pressure
temperatures at which the solid and liquid phases coexist under a pressure thermometer as described in section 2.1.
of 101,325 Pa, one standard atmosphere). The isotopic composition is that
naturally occurring.
For a 4 He CVGT that is used between 4.2 K and the triple point of neon
c (24.5561 K), T90 is defined by the equation:
Previously, these were secondary fixed points.
d Previously, these were alternative fixed points. T90 = a + bp + cp2 (4)

e From reference functions, equations (14) and (22). where p is the CVGT pressure and a, b, and c are coefficients that are determined
from calibrations at the three specified temperatures, but with the additional
requirement that the calibration with the vapor-pressure thermometer be made at
a temperature between 4.2 K and 5.0 K

For a 4He CVGT that is used between 3.0 K and 4.2 K, and for a 3He CVGT that is used
between 3.0 K and 24.5561 K, the non-ideality of the gas must be accounted for,
using the respective second virial coefficients, B4(T90) or B3(T90). T90 is defined
in this range by the equation:

(5)
T90 a + bp + cp2
=
1 + Bx (T90)N/V

Z-160
Guidelines for Realizing the ITS-90 Cont’d

where p is the CVGT pressure; a, b, and c are coefficients that are determined Note that in the earlier international scales, W(T) was defined with reference to
from calibrations at the three defining temperatures; Bx(T90) refers to B3(T90) or the SPRT resistance 273.15K, not 273.16 K.
B4(T90), and N/V is the gas density, in moles per cubic meter, in the CVGT bulb.
The values of the second virial coefficients are given by the following There are two reference functions W r( T 90), one for the range 13.8033 K to
equations: 273.16 K and another for the range 273.15 K to 1234.93 K. These reference
functions will be described in the discussion of the two ranges (secs. 2.3.3 and
for 3He, 2 3 4).

B3(T90)/m3mol-1 = [16.69 - 336.98 (T90/K)-1 The deviation ∆W(T90) is obtained as a function of T90 for various ranges and
subranges by calibration at specified fixed points. The form of the deviation
+ 91.04 (T9O/K)-2 - 13.82 (T90/K)-3] 10-6, (6) function depends upon the temperature range of calibration.

and for 4He, A schematic representation of the ITS-90 in the range of temperature specified
for SPRT’s is given in figure 3. Shown in figure 3 are the temperatures of the
B4(T90)/m3mol-1 = [16.708 - 374.05 (T90/K)-1 - 383.53 (T90/K)-2 defining fixed points in this region of the scale and the various subranges
specified by the scale.
+ 1799.2 (T90/K)-3 - 4033.2 (T90/K)-4 + 3252.8 (T90/K)-5] 10-6. (7)
2.3.2 SPRT SPECIFICATIONS
The accuracy of realization of T90 by using a CVGT is dependent upon the CVGT
The SPRT sensing element must be made from pure platinum and be strain-free. The
design and the gas density used.
finished SPRT must meet one of the following criteria:
2.3 BETWEEN 13.8033 K (THE TRIPLE POINT OF EQUILIBRIUM HYDROGEN) AND 1234.93 K
(THE FREEZING POINT OF SILVER): PLATINUM RESISTANCE THERMOMETRY W(302.9146 K) ≥ 1.118 07, or (10)

Between 13.8033 K (-259.3467 ˚C) and l234.93 K (961.78 ˚C),the ITS-90 is defined in
terms of specified fixed points to which temperature values have been assigned,
by resistance ratios of platinum resistance thermometers obtained by calibration
at specified sets of the fixed points, and by reference functions and deviation
functions of resistance ratios which relate to T90 between the fixed points.
(Henceforth, for convenience, the standards type platinum resistance
thermometers will be referred to by the acronym SPRT.)
2.3.1 GENERAL RELATION BETWEEN RESISTANCE RATIOS AND T90
Temperatures on the ITS-90 in the above-indicated range are expressed in terms of
the ratio of the resistance R ( T 90) at temperature T 90 and the resistance R
(273.16 K) at the triple-point temperature of water. (Hereinafter, for
convenience, the terms triple-point temperature, freezing-point temperature and
melting-point temperature will be expressed as triple point, freezing point and
melting point, respectively.) The resistance ratio W(T90) is:
W(T90) = R(T90)/R(273.16 K).
The temperature T90 is calculated from the resistance ratio relation:
W(T90) - Wr(T90) = ∆W(T90)
where W(T90) is the observed value, Wr(T90) is the value calculated from the
reference functions, and ∆W(T90) is the deviation of the observed W(T90) value of the
particular SPRT from the reference function value. The official version of the
ITS-90 [83] does not indicate the difference [W(T90) - Wr(T90)] by ∆W(T90).
W(234.3156 K) ≤ 0.844 235. (11)
These criteria are equivalent to a requirement on the slope, namely,
[dW(T90)/dT90] ≥ 3.986 x 10-3 K-1 at 273.16 K. (12)
An SPRT that is acceptable for use to the freezing point of silver must meet the
following additional criterion:
W(1234.93 K) ≥ 4.2844. (13)
The temperature range over which an SPRT can be used depends upon the thermometer design,
but no single design of SPRT can be used over the whole temperature range with high
accuracy. For measurements at temperatures from 13.8033 K (-259.3467 ˚C) to
429.7485 K (156.5985 ˚C), or perhaps to as high as 505.078 K (231.928 ˚C) ,
capsule-type SPRT’s that have a nominal resistance of 25.5 Ω at 273.16 K may be
used. Long-stem type SPRT’s of the same nominal resistance may be used in the
(8) range from about 77 K to 933.473 K (660.323 ˚C) . For temperatures above about 660
˚C and to as high as 1234.93 K (961.78 ˚C), long-stem type SPRT’s having a
nominal resistance of 0.25 Ω (or possibly 2.5 Ω) at 273.16 K should be used. When
SPRT’s are used at the highest temperatures, leakage currents through the
insulation supports of the platinum wire become significant and these result In
(9)
shunting of the resistor. The effect of this shunting is reduced by using low
voltages with low resistance SPRT’s.
If the sheath of the long-stem type SPRT is borosilicate glass or stainless
steel, the SPRT should not be used above the upper calibration temperature limit
of 42˚C. If the sheath is Inconel, the upper temperature limit becomes about

273.16
H2O TP

Calibration Points

Interpolation Range
13.8033, e-H2 TP
17, e-H2 VP
20.3, e-H2 VP
24.5561, Ne TP

54.3584, O2 TP

83.8058, Ar TP

234.3156, Hg TP

302.9146, Ga MP

429.7485, In FP

505.078, Sn FP

692.677, Zn FP

933.473, Al FP

1234.93, Ag FP

10 100 1000 10000

Temperature, K (ITS-90)

Figure 3. A schematic representation of the ITS-90 in the range specified for the platinum
resistance thermometer, showing the various defined subranges and the temperatures of the defining

Z-161
660 ˚C. If the sheath is fused silica, temperature measurements can be made up to
962˚C.
For measurements up to about 630˚C, mica is just barely adequate as an electrical
insulator for the temperature sensing element and leads of SPRT’s. Starting at
about 500˚C, muscovite mica begins to decompose, evolving water that
electrically shunts the thermometer resistor, Phlogopite mica is adequately
stable to 630˚C. For measurements up to 962˚C, refractory materials such as fused
silica and sapphire are used for electrical insulation.
2.3.3 RANGE 13.8033 K TO 273.16 K
with n = 2. The coefficients a 1, b1, and the five c 1 ‘s are obtained by
calibration at all eight of the above temperatures, including that at the triple
point of water, The values of Wr,(T90) are obtained from the reference function
[eq (14)].
The official version of the ITS-90 [83] does not indicate the difference
[W(T90) - Wr(T90)] by ∆ W,(T90), does not use the subscript m, where in eq (18),
m = 1, nor does it label the coefficients a and b with subscript m. However, we
adopt this subscript notation to identify the subranges. Additionally, this
notation is useful when reporting calibration results.

In the range 13.8033 K to 273.16 K, the reference function Wr(T90) is given by:
12
,n[Wr(T90)] = A0 + ∑ Ai([,n(T90/273.16 K) + 1.5]/1.5)i (14)
i=I
A specified,, approximate inverse [83] of this equation, equivalent to within
± 0.000 1 K, is:
12
T90/273.16 K = B0 + ∑ Bi{([Wr(T90)]1/6 - 0.65)/0.35}i (15)
i=I
The values of the constants A0 and B0, and of the coefficients Ai and Bi of
equations (14) and (15) are listed in table 5.
If an SPRT is to be used throughout the range from 13.8033 K to 273.16 K, it must
be calibrated at the triple points of equilibrium hydrogen (13.8033 K), neon
(24.5561 K), oxygen (54.3584 K) argon (83.8058 K), mercury (234.3156 k), and
water (273.16 K), and at two additional temperatures close to 17.0 K and 20.3 K.
The temperatures of calibration near 17.0 K and 20.3 K maybe determined by using
either a CVGT as defined in section 2.2 or the specified vapor - pressure -
temperature relation of equilibrium hydrogen.
When the CVGT is used, the two temperatures must be within the ranges 16.9 K to
17.1 K and 20.2 K to 20.4 K, respectively. When the equilibrium hydrogen vapor-
pressure thermometer is used, the two temperatures must be within the ranges
17.025 K to 17.045 K and 20.26 K to 20.28 K, respectively. The temperatures of
the equilibrium hydrogen vapor-pressure thermometer are determined from the
values of the hydrogen vapor pressure, p, and the equations:
T90/K - 17.035 = (p/kPa - 33.3213)/13.32 (16)
T90/K - 20.27 = (p/kPa - 101.292)/30. (17)
If an SPRT is not to be used over the entire 13.8033 K to 273.16 K range, but its
use restricted to one of the subranges, the deviation functions and the
Z
calibration points are as follows.
2.3.3.1 SUBRANGE 24.5561 K TO 273.16 K
The deviation function for calibration in the subrange 24.5561 K to 273.16 K is
given by the relation:
3
∆W2 (T90) a2[W(T90) - 1] + b2[W(T90) - 1]2 + ∑ ci[,n[W(T90)]i+n, (19)
i=I
with n = 0. The coefficients a 2 , b 2 , and the three, c 1 ’s are obtained by
calibrating,the SPRT at the triple points of equilibrium hydrogen (13.8033 K),
neon (24.5561 K), oxygen (54.35 84 K), argon (81.8058 K), mercury (234.3156 K)
and water (273.16 K). The, values of Wr( T 90), are obtained from the reference
function [eq (14)]. Note that for this subrange, temperatures are measured only
down to the triple point of neon, although the-thermometer must be calibrated
at the triple point of equilibrium hydrogen.
2.3.3.2 SUBRANGE 54.3584 K TO 273.16 K
The deviation function for calibration in the subrange 54.3584 K to 273 16 K is
given by the relation:
∆ W2 (T90) a3[W(T90) - 1] + b3[W(T90) - 1]2 + ci[,nW(T90)]i+n, (20)
with n - 1. The coefficients a3, b3, and c1 are obtained by calibrating the SPRT
at the triple points of oxygen (54.3584 K), argon (83.8058 K), mercury
(234.3156 K), and water (273.16 K). The values of Wr(T90) are obtained from the
reference function [eq (14)].
2.3.3.3 SUBRANGE 83.8058 K TO 273.16 K
The deviation function for calibration in the subrange 83.8058 K to 273.16 K is
given-by the relation:

∆ W4 (T90) a4[W(T90) - 1] + b4[W(T90) - 1]lnW(T90). (21)

where 13.32 and 30 are, values of -(dp/dT90)/(kPa/K) at 17.035 K and 20.27 K,
respectively.
Depending upon the’ temperature range of use, the SPRT may be calibrated from
273.16 K down to 13.8033 K (the triple point of equilibrium hydrogen), down to
The coefficients a4 and b4 are obtained by calibrating the SPRT at the triple
points of argon (83.8058 K), mercury (234.3156 K), and water (273.16 K). The
values of Wr(T90) are obtained from the reference function [eq (14)].

2.3.4 RANGE 273.15 K (O˚C) TO 1234.93 K (961.78 ˚C)

Table 5. Values of the coefficients, Ai, Bi, Ci and Di, and of the constants A0,
B 0, C 0, and D 0 in the reference functions, eqs (14) and (22), and in the In the range 273.15. K. to 12341.93 K, the equation for the reference function
functions approximating them, given by eqs (15) and (23) Wr(T90) is given by:

9
Constant or Value Constant or Value Wr(T90) = C0 + ∑ C1[(T90/K - 754.15)/481]i (22)
Coefficient Coefficient i=I
A0 -2.135 347 29 B0 0.183 324 722
A specified, approximate inverse [83] of this equation, equivalent to within
A1 3.183 247 20 B1 0.240 975 303
± 0.000 13 K, is:
A2 -1.801 435 97 B2 0.209 108 771
A3 0.717 272 04 B3 0.190 439 972
9
A4 0.503 440 27 B4 0.142 648 498 T90/K - 273.15 = D0 + ∑ Di([Wr(T90) - 2.64]/1.64]i (23)
A5 -0.618 993 95 B5 0.077 993 465 i=I
A6 -0.053 323 22 B6 0.012 475 611
A7 0.280 213 62 B7 -0.032 267 127 The values of the constants C0 and D0 and of the coefficients Ci and Di of eqs
(22) and (23) are, listed in table 5.
A8 0.107 152 24 B8 -0.075 291 522
A9 -0.293 028 65 B9 -0.056 470 670 If the SPRT is to be used over the entire range 273.15 K to 1234.93 K, it must be
A10 0.044 598 72 B10 0.076 201 285 calibrated at the triple point of water (273.16 K) and at the freezing points of
A11 0.118 686 32 B11 0.123 893 204 tin (505.078 K), zinc (692.677 K), aluminum (933.473 K), and silver, (1234.93 K).

A12 -0.052 481 34 B12 -0.029 201 193 The deviation function is given by the relation:
B13 -0.091 173 542
B14 0.001 317 696 ∆ W6(T90) = a6[W(T90) - 1] + b6[W(T90) - 1]2
B15 0.026 025 526

C0 2.781 572 54 D0 439.932 854 + c6[W(T90) - 1]3 + d[W(T90) - W(933.473 K)]2 (24)
C1 1.646 509 16 D1 472.418 020
C2 -0.137 143 90 D2 37.684, 494
C3 -0.006 497 67 D3 7.472 018 The values of a6, b6, and c6 are determined from the measured deviations ∆ W(T90)
of W ( T 90) from the reference values W, ( T 90) [obtained from eq (22)] at the
C4 -0.002 344 44 D4 2.920 828 freezing points :of tin (505.078 K), zinc (692.677 K), and aluminum, (933.473 K),
C5 0.005 118 68 D5 0.005, 184 ignoring the term involving d. Then, d is determined-from these values of a6, b 6,
C6 0.001 879 82 D6 -0.963 864
C7 -0.002 044 72 D7 -0.188 732 c 6 and the deviation ∆ W 6( T 90) of W ( T 90) from the reference value W i( T 90) at the
freezing point of silver (1234.93 K). The coefficient d is, used only for
C8 -0.000 461 22 D8 0.191 203 temperature measurements in the range from the freezing point of aluminum to the
C9 0.000 457 24 D9 0.049 025 freezing point of silver. For temperature measurements below the freezing point of
aluminum, d = 0.

24.5561 K (the triple point of neon), down. to 54.3584 K (the triple point of SPRT’s may be calibrated for use throughout the whole range 273.15 K to 1234.93 K
oxygen), or down to 83.8058 K (the triple point of argon). or for shorter subranges by calibrations at fixed points between 273.15 K and
the upper limit of 933.473 K (freezing point of aluminum,. 660.323 ˚C), of
692.677 K (freezing point of zinc, 419.527 °C), of 505.078 K (freezing point of
The deviation function for calibration over the range 13,8033 K to 273.16 K is
tin, 231.928 ˚C) of 429.7485 K (freezing point of indium, 156.5985 °C), or of
given by the relation: 302.9146 K (melting point of gallium, 29.7646 °C).
5
∆W1(T90) = a1[W(T90) - 1] + b1[W(T90) - 1]2 + ∑ c1[,nW(T90)]i+n, (18) The deviation function ∆ W 5 ( T 90 ) will be discussed liter in the text.
i=I

Z-162
Guidelines for Realizing the ITS-90 Cont’d
If an SPRT is not to be used over the entire 273.15 K to 1234.93 K range, but its
use restricted to one of the subranges, the deviation functions and the
calibration points are as follows.
2.3.4.1 SUBRANGE 273.15 K (0° C) TO 933.473 K (660.323 -C. FREEZING POINT OF
ALUMINUM)
For an SPRT used throughout the subrange 273.15 K to 933.473 K, the thermometer is
calibrated at the triple point of water (273.6 K) and at the freezing points of tin
(505.078 K) zinc (692.677 K), and aluminum (9 33.473 K). The deviation function is
given by the relation:
∆W7(T90) - a7[W(T90) - 1] + b7(W(T90) _ 1]2 + C7(WT90) - 1]3. (25)
The coefficients a7, b7, and C7, are identical to a6, b6, and C6, respectively, are
determined from the deviations ∆W(T90) of W(T90) from the reference values WI,(T90) [eq
(22)] at the freezing points of tin (505.078 K), zinc (692.677 K), and aluminum
(933 . 473 K).
2.3.4.2 SUBRANGE 273.15 K (0 °C) TO 692.677 K (419.527 °C, FREEZING POINT OF ZINC)
For an SPRT used throughout the subrange 273.15 K to 692.677 K, the thermometer is
calibrated at the triple point of water (273.16 K); and at the freezing points of tin
(505.078 K) and zinc (692.677 K). The deviation function is given by the relation:
∆W8(T90) - a8[W(T90) - 1]+ b8[W(T90) - 1]2 (26)
The coefficients a8 and ba are determined from the deviations ∆W(T90) of W(T90)
from the reference values Wr(T90) [eq (22)] at the freezing points of tin (505.078
K) and zinc (692.677 K).
2.3.4.3 SUBRANGE 273.15 K (0 °C) TO 505.078 K (231.928 °C. FREEZING POINT OF TIN)
For an SPRT used throughout the subrange 273.15 K to 505.078 K. the thermometer is
calibrated at the triple point of.water)(273.16 K) , and at the freezing points of
indium (429.7485 K) and tin (505 078 K). The form of the deviation function is the
same as that for the subrange 273.15 K to 692.677 K, i.e.,
∆W9(T90) - a9[W(T90) - 1] + b9(W(T90) - 1]2. (27)
The coefficients a8 and b8 are determined from the deviations ∆W(T90) of W(T90) from
the reference values Wr(T90) [eq (22)] at the freezing points of indium (429.7485 K)
and tin (505.078 K).
2.3.4.4 SUBRANGE 273.15 K (0 °C) To 429.7485 K (156.5985 °C, FREEZING POINT OF
INDIUM)
For an SPRT used throughout the subrange 273.15 K to 429.7485 K. the thermometer is
calibrated at the triple point of water (273.16 K) and at the freezing point of
indium (429.7485 K). The deviation function is:
∆W10(T90) - a9[W(T90) -1] (28)
The coefficient a10 is determined from the deviation ∆W(T90) of W(T90) from the
reference value Wr(T90) [eq (22)] at the freezing point of indium (429.7485 K).
2.3.4.5 SUBRANGE 273.15 K (0 °C) TO 302.9146 K (29.7646 °C. MELTING POINT OF
GALLIUM)
For an SPRT used throughout the subrange 273.15 K to 302.9146 K, the thermometer is
calibrated at the triple point of water (273.16 K) and at the melting point of
gallium (302.9146 K). The deviation function is:
∆W11(T90) - a11W(T90) - 1]. (29)
The coefficient a11 is determined from the deviation ∆W(T90) of W(T90) from the
reference value Wr(T90) [eq (22)] at the melting point of gallium (302.9146 K)
2.3.5 SUBRANGE 234.3156 K (-38.8344 °C. TRIPLE POINT OF MERCURY) TO 302.9146 K
(29.7646 THE MELTING POINT OF GALLIUM)
For an SPRT used throughout the subrange 234. 3156 K to 302.9146 K, the thermometer
is calibrated at the triple points of mercury (234.3156 K) and water (273.16 K),
and at the melting point of gallium (302.9146 K). The form of the deviation
function is the sameas that for the subrange 273.15 K to 692.677 K, i.e.,
∆W5(T90) - a5[W(T90) - 1] + b5[W(T90) -1.] (30)
The coefficients a5 and b5 are determined from the deviations ∆W(T90) of W(T90)
from the reference values Wr(T90) at the triple point of mercury (234.3156 K) and at
the melting point of gallium (302.9146 K) The reference values Wr(T90) must be
calculated from the appropriate reference function [either eq (14) or eq (2 2 ) }
both reference functions being required to cover this range.
2.4 ABOVE 1234.93 K (961.78 °C. FREEZING POINT OF SILVER): RADIATION THERMOMETRY
RASED ON PLANCK’S LAW OF RADIATION
At temperatures above 1234.93 K, T90 is defined by the relation:
Lλ (T90) exp[c2/λT90(X)]-1
——————————— - —————————————————
Lλ [T90(X)] exp[c2/λT90-1
in which Lλ(T90) and Lλ[T90(X)] are the spectral concentrations of the radiance of a
blackbody at wavelength (in vacuum) at T90 and at T90(X), respectively. T90(X)
refers to either the silver freezing point [T90(Ag) - 1234.93 K] , the gold freezing
point (T 90 (Au) - 1337.33 K], or the copper freezing point [T90 (Cu) -
1357.77 K]. The second radiation constant, C2 (-hc/k), of Planck’s radiation
formula has the value C 2 - 0.0143 88 m-K. Although the freezing-point
Z-163
temperature of silver is the Junction point of platinum resistance thermometry and
radiation thermometry, it is believed that the T90 values of the freezing points
of silver, gold and copper are sufficiently self-consistent that the use of any one
of them as the reference temperature T90(X) will not result in any significant
difference in the measured values of T90 from what would be obtained if only the
silver freezing point were used.
3. REALIZATION OF THE ITS-90
3.1 VAPOR PRESSURE THERMOMETRY AND GAS THERMOMETRY
3.1.1 REALIZATION OF THE ITS-90 BELOW 273.16 K
The calibration of thermometers below the triple point of argon on the ITS-90, as
defined, is relatively complex It is expected that capsule-type SPRT’s, rhodium-
iron resistance thermometers (RIRT’s), and other stable encapsulated resistance
thermometers will be calibrated in terms of the defined ITS-90 and then used as
reference thermometers to maintain the ITS-90 below about 84 K and used to
calibrate other resistance thermometers by the comparison method. The reference
thermometers will be calibrated periodically in terms of the defined ITS-90.
By use of the term "realization of the ITS-90," reference is made to obtaining the
equilibrium states as defined by the scale, to having thermometers in thermal
equilibrium with those equilibrium states, and to making accurate measurements and
interpretations of the requisite properties of those thermometers in terms of the
ITS-90.
Considerable effort has been expended to develop and realize the EPT-76, a scale
which covered the range 0.5 K to 30 K. This scale has been widely disseminated among
low temperature scientists. At NIST, the EPT-76 has been maintained on reference-
standard RIRT’s for use in calibrating customer thermometers. Upon introduction of
the ITS-90, NIST converted the EPT-76 on the reference-standard RIRT’s to the ITS-90
using the specified differences [83] between T90 and T76, This converted scale is
being used to calibrate other thermometers until such time that NIST realizes the
ITS-90 in this temperature region directly as defined. It is recommended that
those laboratories that have thermometers with calibrations on the EPT-76 adjust
their T76 values to conform to T90 values. When NIST realizes the ITS-90 as defined
in this range, the difference between the converted scale on the reference-
standard RIRT’s (and, where appropriate, on capsule SPRT’s) and the realized
scale will be determined.
3.1.2 VAPOR PRESSURE THERMOMETRY AND THE CVGT RANGE
For most measurements below about 100 K, better precision can be obtained with
capsule-type SPRT’s than with the long-stem type. In the calibration of SPRT’s,
however, long-stem type SPRT’s (immersion-type SPRT’s) can be calibrated easily by
a direct immersion process down to the triple point of argon (83.8058 K) by moving the
SPRT’s from one fixed-point device to another. Unless capsule-type SPRT’s and
other capsule-type thermometers are installed inside long stem-like holders,
however, they will require re-installation, and re-wiring whenever different
fixed-point apparatuses are used. (In this document, the phrase “capsule-type
thermometers” means encapsulated resistance thermometers of small o v e r a l l
dimensions.) It is desirable, therefore, to be able to calibrate capsule-type
SPRT’s and other capsule-type thermometers at the argon triple point and below (or,
if possible, even at the triple point of water and below since calibrations of
SPRT’s require measurements at the triple point of water) in an integrated
"multi-task" (multi- fixed-point) apparatus. Such a multi-task apparatus
requires, in addition to wells for capsule thermometers (in thermal equilibrium
in a "single cryostat block"), means for calibration using 3He, 4He, and e-H2 vapor
pressure thermometry, 3He and 4He CVGT’s, and triple points of e-H2 Ne, O2, Ar, Hg,
and H 2 O - A total of 11 chambers is required if all of the overlapping
definitions of the ITS-90 are to be evaluated and if a "continuous calibration,"
without re-installation and re-wiring of the SPRT’s, is desired from 0.65 K to
273.16 K. In addition, unless high pressure sealed cells of the reference gases
are used, tubes to each of the chambers, except those for Hg and H20, are required.
Since 3He and 4He vapor-pressure and CVGT ranges overlap to a large extent
chambers for 4He vapor-pressure measurements and for 4He CVGT measurements could be
eliminated and the ITS-90 could still be realized. Also, chambers for e-H2 vapor-
pressure and the e-H2 triple-point realizations could be combined. The number of
chambers could be reduced further if the cryostat block could be allowed to warm
to ambient temperature or higher for exchanging certain of the fixed-point
substances, or if it were permissible to perform the calibrations of the capsule
thermometers at the triple points of argon, mercury, and water in other
apparatuses, using a long-stem type holder. This procedure, however, would
require a longer time for calibration.
The number of chambers can also be reduced if suitable, highly stable capsule
thermometers are available for correlating the scales; for this purpose, the
capsule SPRT’s would be calibrated in another, simpler, fixed-point apparatus. It
is expected that such a set of reference-standard resistance thermometers would be
calibrated, and that routine calibrations of customer thermometers on the ITS-90
would be by comparison with these reference thermometers. The reference
thermometers would be checked occasionally against the defined ITS-90. It is hoped
that resistance thermometer devices will be more reproducible than the ability to
realize the defined ITS-90. Depending upon the design of the cryostat, the defined
ITS-90 may lack the desired reproducibility when realized in a multi-task
apparatus of high complexity. In order to achieve the best realization of the
ITS-90, it may be more practical to limit the number of defining fixed points
in a single cryostat block.
The greatest problem in realization of the fixed points and in calibrations of
capsule thermometers is ensuring that the multi-task or a "single-task" cryostat
block is isothermal. Depending upon the design, a thermal gradient can persist. The
presence 3 He, 4 He, e-H 2 , Ne, 0 2 , and/or Ar gases in their respective
chambers are expected to be beneficial in making the apparatus isothermal, but, the
gases may be a source of thermal oscillation. (In designing an apparatus for low
temperature gases, provisions should be made to avoid thermal oscillations
in the gas.) The vapor pressures of Ne and Ar are high at their respective triple-
point temperatures so that thermal equilibrium should be easily attained at their
triple points.
For a practical cryostat block, the 3He and 4He CVGT’s must connect thermally the 3He
and 4He vapor-pressure scales and the fixed points of e-H2 and Ne. Such a cryostat
block will require six chambers (separate 3He and 4He vapor-pressure chambers,
separate 3He and 4He CVGT chambers, e-H2 vapor-pressure and e-H2 triple-point chamber,
and a Ne chamber) to realize the ITS-90 in the most satisfactory manner at and below
the Ne triple point. This arrangement will permit a direct comparison of the
different parts of the scale and/or calibration of thermometers. Since the
combination of 4He vapor-pressure thermometry and 4He constant volume gas
thermometry are redundant with 3He vapor-pressure thermometry and 3He constant volume
gas thermometry, the 4He systems are not required. Hence, the number of chambers
3.1.3.2 4He Vapor-Pressure Measurements
Since liquid 4He can be obtained easily, the vapor pressure can be determined
above a bath of the liquid in which an apparatus containing the thermometer is
i m m e r s e d . o r a t e c h n i q u e u s i n g a s m a l l b u l b o f 4H e s a m p l e , w i t h t h e
thermometer in good thermal contact, can be employed. The lower end of the gas-
pressure tube should have a small orifice in order to reduce superfluid 4He film
flow at temperatures below 2.1768 K [61,91]. The 4He sample bulb must be in
thermal equilibrium with the cryostat block. The cryostat block temperature
should be checked for consistency with the observed dp/,dT of the vapor pressure

required could be reduced to four and the ITS-90 could still be realized. It should
be noted, however, that, depending upon the CVGT filling pressure, the dp/dT of a
3He CVGT may be less sensitive than 4He vapor-pressure thermometry. Since SPRT’S
can be calibrated only down to the argon triple-point temperature using the long-
stem SPRT apparatus, it would be most practical and useful to include an oxygen
triple-point chamber in the low-temperature system, thereby increasing the number
of chambers,to five. Also, since it is highly desirable to overlap calibrations
obtained in a long-stem type SPRT apparatus with those obtained in a low-
temperature apparatus, an argon triple-point chamber should be included. This
increases the number of chambers for the low temperature apparatus to six.
Although it is desirable to have as few tubes as possible going to the cryostat
block in order to minimize temperature gradients in the block, one must build into
the system enough redundant components to be able to check the system for proper
and accurate operation. For example, although the CVGT is calibrated at only the
triple-point temperatures of neon and hydrogen and at one point in the 3He or 4He vapor
pressure range between 3.0 K and 5.,0 K, the system should have the capability for
the measurement of hydrogen vapor pressures at about 17 K and 20.3 K so that
temperatures measured by means of vapor pressures and by the CVGT m a y b e
compared. Of course, if the system is operating properly, the
temperatures measured by the two techniques should agree. Similarly, there should
be the capability to measure the vapor pressures of both 3He and 4He so that
temperatures measured with the CVGT in the range from 3 K to 5 K and by means of
3He and 4He vapor pressures may be compared for agreement. Also, it is desirable to
design the CVGT for absolute gas thermometry measurements; the CVGT can check the
consistency of the ITS-90 from about 3 K to 90 K.
3.1.3 REALIZATION OF THE VAPOR PRESSURE AND CVGT SCALES AT TEMPERATURES BELOW THE
NEON TRIPLE POINT
Since measurement of pressure is common to both vapor pressure and CVGT
measurements, it will be discussed later in this section (see sec. 3.1.3.5).
In vapor pressure measurements, it is important that cold spots be absent along the
gas-pressure transmitting tube. If cold spots are present, the observed vapor
pressure will reflect the temperature of the condensation at the cold spot instead of
that of the bulk bath. A separate vacuum jacket around the tube will maintain a
continuous heat flux to the sample bulb or bath and should free the tube of any
condensation [24]. The vacuum jacket should also reduce the occurrence of
thermal oscillation in the gas-pressure, sensing tube. If thermal oscillations do
occur, they may be suppressed by either one or a combination of the following:
increasing,the volume of the external gas-pressure space at the ambient
temperature, or by inserting a wad of wool or glass fiber or a piece of yarn in the
gas-pressure sensing tube. The thermal oscillations may be suppressed also
by “tuning” a variable volume device [36]. Thermocouples should be placed along the
gas-pressure sensing tube in order to determine temperatures along that tube, the
distribution of those temperatures being required to determine the aerostatic
head correction.
Z
at the temperature of measurement.
At the lower temperature limit of 1.25 K, the vapor pressure of 4He is 114.7 Pa
and the temperature derivative of the vapor pressure is 0.76 Pa/.K. At the
upper limit of 5 K, the vapor pressure and, the temperature derivative of the
vapor pressure of 4He are 1946.29.7 Pa and 146.53 Pa/mK, respectively. The
required pressure resolutions of the vapor pressure that corresponds to 0.1 mK
are 0.076 Pa at 1.25 K and 14.7 Pa at 5.0 K [37,38].
3.1.3.3 e-H2. Vapor Pressure Measurements
The equilibrium composition of the two molecular states of hydrogen (ortho and
para) is temperature dependent. The room temperature composition, about 75% ortho
and 25% -para, is referred to as normal hydrogen (n-H2). On liquefaction, the
composition slowly changes toward the equilibrium composition corresponding to
its temperature. ~ In the process, the heat of transition is released, resulting
in the evaporation of some hydrogen. A catalyst, such as activated ferric
hydroxide, hastens the equilibration. The catalyst must be placed in the sample
chamber in order to ensure that the hydrogen has the appropriate
equilibrium composition. Most of the conversion must be made before collecting
the liquid in the sample chamber since the heat of conversion (1664 J/mol) from
the ortho to the -para,molecular state is larger than the heat of vaporization
(900 J/mol) of normal hydrogen. The normal boiling point of e-H2 (equilibrium
composition: 0.21% ortho and 99.79% -para) is about 0.12 K lower than that of
n-H2. The temperatures near 17.035 K and 20.27 K are determined from vapor-
pressure measurements near 33,,321.3 Pa and 101,292 Pa, respectively [2,31,58].
3.1.3.4 Constant Volume Gas Thermometry
Some of the following precautions and corrections that are applicable to absolute
constant-volume gas thermometry should be included in the calibration of the CVGT
at the three specified temperatures of calibration:
1. The volume of the gas bulb should be sufficiently large relative to the gas-
pressure-line volume to minimize the error in correcting for the "dead space."
On the other hand, the diameter of the gas-pressure line should not be so small
as to cause large thermomolecular pressure corrections.
2. The temperature coefficient of volume expansion and the pressure expansion of
the gas bulb should be known accurately. (It is desirable to check the
calibration by using the,CVGT ih the absolute mode.)
Table 6. The effect of pressure on the temperatures of the defining fixed points.
The reference pressure for the equilibrium states of freezing and
melting points is one standard atmosphere (101,325 Pa). Triple points have the
vapor pressure of the material when the solid, liquid and vapor phases are present
in equilibrium.

The vapor pressure may be determined over the bath of bulk liquid 3He, 4He, or e-H2 Material T90 Pressure Effect of Fixed Point
with which the thermometer to be calibrated is in thermal equilibrium. The
measurement can be made also by using a separate, small sample bulb with which the K Pa-1 mK/(meter of liquid)
thermometer is in good thermal contact. The latter method is preferred with the x108*
rather expensive 3 He and with e-H 2 which requires a catalyst for the
equilibrium ortho-para conversion of the sample [2,58,91]. e-H2 TP 13.8033 34 0.25
Ne TP 24.5561 16 1.9
3.1.3.1 3He Vapor-Pressure Measurements O2 TP 54.3584 12 1.5
Ar TP 83.8058 25 3.3
Because of the relatively high cost of the sample, vapor-pressure measurements are Hg TP 234.3156 5.4 7.1
made with 3He contained in a small volume of about 5 cm . Likewise, the gas - H2O TP 273.16 -7.5 -0.73
pressure volume to the manometer should be kept relatively small, but large enough Ga HP 302.9146 -2.0 -1.2
to avoid large thermomolecular pressure effects and thermal oscillations. In FP 429.7485 4.9 3.3
Thermomolecular-pressure-effect corrections depend on the sensing tube diameter, Sn FP 505.078 3.3 2.2
surface condition of the tube, temperature difference, and pressure [49,71,102]. Zn FP 692.677 4.3 2.7
As mentioned above, thermal oscillations can be reduced by varying the gas- Al FP 933.473 7.0 1.6
pressure volume at the ambient temperature or by introducing a wad of fiber or Ag FP 1234.93 6.0 5.4
yarn (cotton, wool, or glass) in the gas-pressure tube. Au FP 1337.33 6.1 10.
Cu FP 1357.77 3.3 2.6
In the past, 3He contained significant amounts of 4He and the observed vapor
pressures of 3He required corrections for its presence. In recent years, *Equivalent to millikelvins per standard atmosphere.
however, 3He samples of 99.9995% purity have become available, eliminating the
requirement for such corrections. At 0.65 K, the vapor pressure and the
temperature derivative of the vapor pressure are 115.9 Pa and 1.08 Pa/mK,
respectively. At the upper limit of 3.2 K, the vapor pressure and the 3. In order to be able to calculate the aerostatic head correction, the
temperature derivative of the vapor pressure are 101,662.1 Pa and 106.83 Pa/mK, temperature distribution along the connecting gas-presure transmitting tube
respectively. The required pressure resolution that corresponds to 0.1 mK of (capillary) must be known. That temperature distribution may be determined by
vapor-pressure measurements varies from 0.108 Pa at 0.65 K to 10.7 Pa at 3.2 K. placing thermocouples along the tube.

Since the amount of 3He in the cryostat is small, and since the amount of 4He used 4. The gas-bulb filling pressure should be sufficiently high to give an
in cooling is relatively large, every effort should be made to avoid adequate dp/dT for measurement, but not so high as to require large corrections
contamination of the sample of 3He by the 4He through diffusion, particularly for non-ideality of the gas.
through any glass parts of the apparatus.
5. Higher pressures reduce the thermomolecular pressure gradients in the
The sample bulb should contain enough 3He that the liquid surface temperature and connecting gas-pressure tube.
the cryostat block temperature can be correlated with the observed vapor pressure.
The temperature of the cryostat block must be checked for consistency with the 6. The effect of adsorption can be reduced by designing the gas bulb so that
observed dp/dT of the vapor pressure at the temperature of measurement. the volume is large relative to the surface and by polishing the inside surface
of the bulb.
Aerostatic-head corrections depend upon the density of the gas in the pressure-
transmitting gas tube. Thermocouples must be distributed along the tube in order to For optimizing the CVGT design, the ideal gas law may be applied.
measure the temperatures required for calculation of these corrections. Differentiating the ideal gas relation,

Z-164
Guidelines for Realizing the ITS-90 Cont’d

pV = nRT, (32) 3.1.3.5.5 Thermolecular Pressure Difference

yields
dp/dT Rn/V, (33)
where p is the pressure of n moles of gas contained in a volume of V m3.
Equation (33) shows that the dp/dT sensitivity of the CVGT is directly related to
the gas density n/V. Expressing the gas constant R as 8.31441 Nm/mol • K or
8.31441 Nm3/(M2•mol•K), the sensitivity dp/dT can be expressed in the units Pa/K.
Thus,
dp/dT = 8.31441(n/V) Pa/K, (34)
where n/V is given in mol/m3. If a gas bulb of 1000 cm3 is filled to four
atmospheres at 273.16 K, n/V would be approximately 178 mol/m 3, and dp/dT
becomes 1484 Pa/K. Since the resolution of many high quality mercury-manometer
systems is about 0.03 Pa to 0.2 Pa, the temperature resolution is about 0.03 mK
to 0.1 mK. It is to be noted that since
p/T = Rn/V, (35)
the sensitivity dp/dT is “constant,: independent of the gas bulb volume, as long
as the gas density at the filling temperature is constant. Hence, the gas-bulb
volume and the gas filling pressure should be chosen so that errors from the
effect of dead space, gas non-ideality effects and other effects are negligibly
small. See references [6,13,49,60].
3.1.3.5 Pressure Measurements
Efforts have been made to minimize the requirement of highly precise and
accurate pressure measurements in the realization of the defining fixed points
of the ITS-90 . The fixed points involving freezing and melting require
knowledge of the pressure only within the significance of the relative ly small
pressure effect ( cf. table 6). Accurate pressure measurements are required,
however, to realize the vapor-pressure-temperature scales of 3He and 4He in the
range 0.65 K to 5.0 K, and to realize the vapor-pressure-temperature scale of e-
H2 close to 17.035 K and 20.27 K. To realize the CVGT scale using 3He or 4He gas
in the range 3.0 K to the triple point of neon (24.5561 K), only accurate
pressure-ratio measurements are required.
3.1.3.5.1 Mercury Manometry
Thermolecular pressure differences occur at low gas pressures in tubes with
temperature gradients when the tube diameter is not much larger than the mean
free path of the gas. The pressure difference depends upon the gas, the
temperature of the gas, the diameter of the tube, the tube material, and the
surface condition of the tube. The best procedure is either to use a
sufficiently large tube to minimize the thermomolecular pressure difference or
to experimentally determine the difference by comparing the pressures between the
small diameter tube being used in the cryostat and a large diameter tube
[49,71,102]
3.2 REALIZATION OF THE FIXED POINTS OF THE ITS-90
3.2.1 EFFECT OF IMPURITIES
Except for the vapor-pressure-temperature points of helium and equilibrium
hydrogen, the fixed points of the ITS-90 are freezing points. melting points,
or triple points. The vapor-pressure measurements with 3He, 4He, and e-Hz must
be performed with sufficiently pure samples to minimize the effect of
impurities. The principal components of air impurity would be frozen. Neon in
hydrogen, however, causes positive deviations from ideal behavior [93,97). In the
vapor pressure measurements of 4He, it is very likely that the He will be
pure but 3He may contain some 4He. For such a circumstance, Roberts, Sherman and
Sydoriak described a procedure for correcting for the presence of 4He in 3He
[90].
The temperatures of freezing points (liquid-solid or liquid-solid-vapor
equilibrium points) of substances are usually lowered by the presence of an
impurity. This sometimes, however, is not the case when that impurity is
soluble in both the liquid and the solid phases of the major component. If a
given impurity is known to be present or is suspected, one must consult the
literature on the heterogeneous phase data of metal and non-metal systems to
estimate the possible effect of that impurity on the freezing point [39,51,88].
(Note: often in the analysis of the effect of impurities on freezing points,
the impurity is assumed to be nonvolatile.)
Assuming that the ideal solution law holds and that the impurities remain in
liquid solution, with no concentration gradients, then as the major component
slowly freezes, the depression in the freezing point, relative to the freezing
point of the 100% pure material, is directly proportional to the overall
impurity concentration divided by the "first cryoscopic constant." This is
expressed as:
T(pure) - T(obs) = x2/A. (36)

Mercury manometry requires precise determination of the difference in height of In eq (36), T(obs) is the observed freezing point of the particular sample being
the two mercury surfaces in a U-tube manometer. Traditionally, cathetometers have investigated, T(pure) is the freezing point of the 100% pure material, x2 is the
been used with a smallest imprecision of ab t 2 Pa. In recent years , the levels mole fraction impurity concentration, and A is the first cryoscopic constant.
have been sensed, in conjunction with length standards, by capacitive and A is given by the relation:
interferome tric. methods . The resolution of such mercury manometry systems is
about 0.05 Pa [19,50, 5 2,81] . (Note : the NIST manometry resolution has been A = L/R[T(pure)]2, (37)
reported [50] to be about 0.0013 Pa.) For accurate pressure measurements, it is
necessary to know the density of mercury (which is pressure and temperature
dependent), the capillary depression at the mercury meniscus, the vapor pressure
of mercury, the aerostatic head difference of the pressure transmitting gas or Table 7. Latent heats of fusion and first cryoscopic constants of defining
gases, and the local acceleration due to gravity. At one standard atmosphere, fixed-point materials
uncertainties as of absolute pressure measurements of about 3 ppm and pressure
ratios of about 1 ppm have been reported. See references [19,50,52,81].
Substance Fixed Point Latent Heat First Cryoscopic Constant
Temperature of Fusion
3.1.3.5.2 Oil Manometry
T/K kJ/mole K-1
The techniques and the requirements of oil manometry are similar to those of e-H2 13.8033 0.117 0.0739
mercury manometry.
Ne 24.5561 0.335 0.0668
O2 54.3584 0.444 0.0181
3.1.3.5.3 Piston Gauges (Pressure Balances)
Ar 83.8058 1.188 0.0203
Hg 234.3156 2.292 0.00502
The pressure balanced by a dead-weight piston gauge is obtained from the mass of
H2O 273.16 6.008 0.00968
the piston and the applied weights, and the effective area of the freely rotating
piston inside a closely-fitting cylinder. For determination of the absolute Ga 302.9146 5.585 0.00732
pressure, the gauge must be enclosed and evacuated by a high capacity pumping In 429.7485 3.264 0.00213
system to minimize the back pressure from the gas leaking between the piston and Sn 505.078 6.987 0.00329
the cylinder [13,60,81,96]. The local acceleration due to gravity must be known Zn 692.677 7.385 0.00185
accurately. Corrections must be applied for the effect of the streaming gas and Al 933.473 10.79 0.00149
for any back pressure. It is advisable to check the readings of the piston gauge Ag 1234.93 11.30 0.000891
against a primary mercury manometer. Also, the variation of the effective area Au 1337.33 12.364 0.000831
with pressure must be determined with a mercury manometer. The aerostatic head of Cu 1357.77 13.14 0.000857
the manometry system will change as gas leaks between the piston and the cylinder
causing the piston to sink deeper into the cylinder. The position of the piston
may be maintained by automatically pumping more gas into the system. A
resolution of 1 ppm [13] and an certainty of about 15 ppm have been reported in
the pressure range 2 kPa to 200 kPa [63,81]. where L is the molar heat of fusion and R is the molar gas constant. (Note:
eq (36) is an approximation. A more complete expression includes secondary
cryoscopic constants. The term "first cryoscopic constant" is used here for
3.1.3.5.4 Diaphragm Pressure Detector distinction. Also, in some cases, the term "cryoscopic constant" refers to the
reciprocal of eq (37) and in other cases, to the effect of impurities per liter
The diaphragm pressure detector consists of a thin metal disk clamped under or kilogram of solvent.) The first cryoscopic constants of metals are relatively
tension between two flat electrodes which form two capacitors, with the disk smaller than those of molecular substances and of the "cryogenic" gases (3He,
4 He, e-H , Ne, O , and Ar). Referring to eq (36), zinc, which has a first
common to both capacitors. Any pressure differential across the metal disk 2 2
causes the disk to deflect , increasing the capacitance on one side while cryoscopic constant of 0.0018/K, requires an overall impurity
decreasing the capacitance on the other side. This change is detected by concentration of approximately 2 parts in 107 for the temperature of the half-
capacitance bridge techniques. Instruments for absolute pressure measurements are frozen sample to be depressed by 0.0001 K, relative to the liquidus point. On
the other hand, argon, with a first cryoscopic constant of 0.0203/K, requires
available; however, they require periodic recalibrations to achieve
an impurity concentration close to 2 parts in 106 for the same temperature
uncertainties of 1 to 5 parts in 104 of the readings. depression. Table 7 lists the heats of fusion and the first cryoscopic
constants of substances specified for the defining fixed points. It is the
The diaphragm pressure detector is used in high precision manometry as pressure usual practice at NIST to calibrate SPRT’s during the first 50% of the freeze.
balance detectors, i.e. , with the pressures equal on both sides of the
diaphragm. The diaphragm pressure balance detector separates the gas of the 3.2.2 TRIPLE POINTS OF e-H2, Ne, O2. AND Ar
apparatus (vapor pressure apparatus or GVGT) from the counter-balancing gas of
which the pressure is determined. 3.2.2.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATION OF APPARATUS DESIGN

The cryogenic fixed points (triple-points of pure gases equilibrium hydrogen,

The resolution of diaphragm gauges has been reported [13] to be about 0.002 Pa.
natural neon, oxygen, and argon) are best real ed in a calorimetric type
Instability due to different pressures, hysteresis temperature effects,and apparatus designed for calibrating capsule-type thermometer (SPRT’s, RIRT’s,
other causes may decrease the resolution ion to 0.02 Pa in actual pressure germanium resistance thermometers (GRT’s), and others)
measurements [13]. [1, 2, 17, 18,20, 21,41,47, 58, 59, 78, 79, 80] . During calibration of the thermometers,

Z-165
 TO SAMPLE
RESERVOIR
Z
TO HIGH VACUUM
AND ELECTRICAL
LEAD TERMINALS
LIQUID NITROGEN PORT FOR FILLING
LIQUID NITROGEN

LONG STEM SPRT

WELLS (7)
HE GAS MANIFOLD
TO SPRT WELLS

TEMPERATURE
CONTROLLED SHIELD
PASSIVE SHIELD
SAMPLE CELL SHIELD

67 cm SAMPLE CELL

BAFFLES
CAPSULE SPRT
WELLS (6)
VACUUM CAN
SUPER INSULATED
DEWAR

56 cm

Figure 4. A schematic drawing of the NIST argon triple-point apparatus for calibrating seven
long-stem SPRT’s and six capsule SPRT’s. Six long-stem SPRT wells surround a central SPRT well,
which is large enough to accommodate a holder for calibrating a capsule SPRT. At the bottom of the
sample cell, six capsule SPRT wells are circularly arranged between the long-stem SPRT wells.

Z-166
Guidelines for Realizing the ITS-90 Cont’d

COPPER
CAPILLARY

AUXILIARY ISOTHERMAL
SHELL, HELD WITH NUT

CELL HEATER

COPPER TEMPERING
STRIPS

SAMPLE CELL

COPPER TUBES

94
mm

HELICALLY GROOVED
COPPER SLEEVE

PLATINUM
RESISTANCE
THERMOMETER

THERMOCOUPLE
25.4 CLIPS
mm

Figure 5. A sealed cell suitable for containing cryogenic gases at high pressures. This cell of
20 cm3 volume was filled to 100 atmospheres with pure oxygen and used to realize the triple point
of oxygen. Another cell of the same outer dimensions, but of 16 cm3 volume and with wells for
three capsule SPRT’s, was filled to 163 atmospheres with oxygen and also used to realize the
triple point of oxygen [47].

Z-167
the calorimeter system thermally isolates the vessel containing the pure gas
sample and the thermometers. The capsule thermometers should be installed in
close-fitting wells of the sample vessel, using stopcock grease to enhance the
thermal contact. The wells should be vented for easy installation and
subsequent removal of the thermometers since such thermometers are sensitive to
shock. The wells can be vented by designing the well tubes to extend completely
through the sample cell or by machining a small groove along the length of the
well wall. The number of wells in.the vessel is limited only by the practical
size of the vessel and of the calorimeter system. On the other hand, for large
vessels, larger temperature gradients should be expected. The leads to the
where Cs and Ct are the mean heat capacities in the temperature intervals in the
solid and liquid phases, respectively, and To is the triple-point temperature.
For calibration of SPRT’s, the sample should be completely frozen for the second
time and the temperature set at about 1 K below the triple point, the sample
thermally isolated, and the equilibrium temperature measured. From the
knowledge of the previously determined heat capacity of the system below the
triple point and of the heat of fusion, add enough electrical energy to melt
about 10% of the sample. If T1 is the initial equilibrium temperature just below
the triple point, the required amount of electrical energy Q, to melt 10%
of the sample is:

thermometers should be tempered on the sample vessel. (Note: the term "temper"
refers to a process whereby sections of the leads or of the protective sheaths of
long-stem SPRT’s are placed in "steady-state thermal equilibrium" with
selected parts of the apparatus.)
Since the triple point of argon is about 6 K above the normal boiling point (NBP)
of nitrogen and since liquid nitrogen is readily available in large
quantities, long-stem type SPRT’s can be calibrated at the argon triple point in
an apparatus cooled by liquid nitrogen. The apparatus should be designed to
cool the upper part of the protective sheath of the long-stem SPRT’s to liquid
nitrogen temperatures, and then to heat the intermediate section of the sheath
above the sensing element to the argon triple point so that the sensing coil will
be in thermal equilibrium with the argon at its triple point [42]. See figure 4
for a schematic of such an apparatus presently in use at the NIST.
Z
Q1= 0.1L. + C8(T0 - T1). (39)
Once the system comes to equilibrium, measure the resistances of all of the
thermometers. Repeat the measurements at 20%, 40%, 60%, 70%, and 80% melted. If
the sample is about 99.9999% pure, all measurements on each thermometer
throughout this melted range should agree to within 0.1 mK to 0.2 mK.
In using a temperature fixed point, one must make corrections for the
hydrostatic head of the liquid and for the gas pressure on the defined
equilibrium state. Table 6 gives the dT/dp for the defining fixed points of the
ITS-90, both in terms of the external gas pressure to which the fixed-point
material is exposed and in terms of the column of liquid.
3.2.2.2.1 TRIPLE POINT OF EQUILIBRIUM HYDROGEN, 13,8033 K (-259.3467°C)

Sample vessels for the cryogenic fixed points could be ruggedly constructed for
high pressures and sealed with a suitable amount of the pure gas [41,79]. These
"sealed-sample vessels can be easily installed and removed from the calorimeter for
replacement of thermometers and also to be transported to other laboratories for
comparison (see fig.5).The amount of gas that can be sealed in such
vessels however,is rather limited and, hence,the calorimetric system must be
operated with sufficient adiabatic control that the small amount of heat of
fusion of the sample is adequate to realize the triple point and then calibrate
the thermometers. Also, since the amount of sample gas is small, extra care
must be taken to clean the vessel thoroughly before filling. The recommended
procedure is to bake the vessel at high vacuum and then purge many times with the
sample gas before finally filling and sealing the cell [41,47,79].
The vessel for a cryogenic fixed point can be installed in the calorimeter and
connected by a small diameter tube to a source of pure gas {1,2,31,32,44,58,59}.
In this design, enough condensed liquid could be used to nearly fill the vessel
and thus, to provide an abundant supply of heat of fusion for calibration of
thermometers. The tube from the vessel must be connected to an "external
expansion volume" of appropriate size so that when the system is at ambient
temperature the pressure is not excessive. The vessel could also be connected to
an external rugged container into which all or nearly all of the sample can be
transferred by cooling, and then contained bye high-pressure valve. Since under
these conditions the "sample vessel" would not be subjected to high
pressures, it can be constructed of thin copper parts. With appropriate gas
handling and cleaning provisions, the same vessel could be used with all of the
reference gases, stored in separate external rugged containers, and the
thermometers calibrated at the fixed points of the gases without the necessity of
having to remove the thermometers from the vessel between fixed-point
can have separate chambers for each of the gases. In the latter design,
separate tubes for the gases must enter the calorimeter system. Although each of
the chambers of a "multi-chamber sample vessel" would be relatively small, the
amount of sample that could be condensed inside each chamber would still be more
than that which is normally used with the high pressure "sealed-sample vessel"
Similar to the procedure used in filling sealed-sample vessels, a thorough
Hydrogen gas samples of 99.9999% and higher purity are readily available. [The
first cryoscopic constant of hydrogen is relatively high (0.040/K).
Consequently, the liquidus point of an ideal hydrogen solution of 99.9999% purity
would be approximately 0.01 mK lower than that of 100% pure hydrogen. Except for
helium and deuterium, all other impurities would be either frozen or in solution
in very small amounts.] The commonly used catalyst for converting ortho hydrogen
to para hydrogen is hydrated ferric oxide (Fe 2 O 3 +H 2 O or FeO+OH)
Other oxides of magnetic elements, either pure or mixed-metal, such as those of
chromium, nickel, cobalt, and neodymium, also have been used as catalysts for
ortho to para hydrogen conversion. The hydrated ferric oxide catalyst is
prepared by mixing at about 30°C relatively dilute solutions (about 2 molal)
of ferric chloride and sodium hydroxide, with only a slight excess of sodium
hydroxide, washing the resulting gelatinous Fe(OH)3 precipitate thoroughly with
distilled water, air drying at 140°C for 24 hours, vacuum baking at 110°C for 16
to 20 hours, and back-filling with hydrogen while the catalyst is still hot
[7,104). The catalyst is activated by flowing hydrogen through it for about 4
hours while the catalyst is maintained at a temperature of about 150°C. The
sample vessel and ancillary components should be designed to permit the whole
of the hydrogen sample to come into contact with the catalyst at the equilibrium
temperature. See references [2,31,58].
3.2.2.2.2 TRIPLE POINT OF NATURAL NEON. 24,5561 K (-248,5939,˚C)
Neon gas samples of 99.999% purity are commercially available. Samples of higher
purity may be obtained by special arrangement with the supplier. The

yy
,, yyy
,,,
baking, pumping, and purging procedure before filling should be followed with
permanently installed vessels.

,,
yy ,,,
yyy
3.2.2.2 REALIZATIONS OF THE TRIPLE POINTS AND THEIR APPLICATION TO CALIBRATION

,,
yy ,,,
yyy
The procedure for realizing a triple point of the cryogenic gases is to first
completely freeze the sample. If the triple point is being realized for the first

,,
yy ,,,
yyy
time with the apparatus, the sample should be cooled sufficiently below the
triple point to determine the heat capacity of the system (sample, vessel, and
thermometers) from about 5 K to 20 K below (depending on the gas) to about 20 K

,,
yy ,,,
yyy
above the triple point, and to determine the heat of fusion of the sample during
the same series of measurements [41,47]. (Note: check thermometers must be

,,
yy ,,,
yyy
calibrated along with the test thermometers. The measurements on the check
thermometers will serve to guide the heating process during the calibration, as

,,
yy ,,,
yyy
well as to provide measurement statistics.)

After cooling to the required low temperature the vessel should be thermally

,,
yy ,,,
yyy
isolated by placing it under continuous adiabatic control. Then the following
series of measurements should be performed:

,,
yy ,,,
yyy
1. the equilibrium temperature should be observed with the check

,,
yy ,,,
yyy
thermometer,
2. a measured amount of electrical energy should be added to the
system.

,,
yy ,,,
yyy
3. a new equilibrium temperature should be established and measured
4. steps 2 and 3 should be repeated until three heat capacity points

,,
yy ,,,
yyy
are obtained below the triple point.
5. then,the sample should be completely melted by introducing a
measured amount of heat,

,,
yy ,,,
yyy
6. next, the equilibrium temperature just above the triple point should
be measured
7. then, three additional heat capacity points should be obtained above
the triple point in accordance with steps 2 and 3.

From the knowledge of the eight equilibrium temperatures (four below the triple
point and four above the triple point) and the measured amounts of electrical
energies added, the heat capacities of the system below and above the triple
point, and the heat of fusion, are calculated. If Q joules are added to the Type A Type B
system from an initial equilibrium temperature Ti just below the triple point to
heat the system to a final equilibrium temperature Tf Just above the triple
point, the heat of fusion L is:
Figure 6. Two types of triple point of water cells with wells for platinum
resistance thermometers. The cells contain pure air-free water. The
L=Q - CS(TO - T1) - C,(Tf - TO), (38) thermometer wells are made of precision-bore tubing.

Z-168
Guidelines for Realizing the ITS-90 Cont’d

principal impurities are CO, H2, He, and N2. The CO and the N2 impurities can be
frozen out by slowly flowing the sample through a coiled tube immersed in liquid
neon; the H2 and the He impurities can be removed by freezing the neon sample in
liquid hydrogen and pumping, with care so that the lighter isotopes of neon are not
preferentially removed. [The first cryoscopic constant of neon is 0.0668/K.
Consequently, the liquidus point of an ideal neon solution of 99.999% purity would
be approximately 0.1 mK lower than that of 100% pure neon.] The purified sample A

yyyy
,,,,
,
y
,,
yy
should be collected in a clean stainless-steel cylinder by cooling the cylinder
in liquid hydrogen (or cooled with liquid helium). If desired, the purified

,,
yy
sample can be collected directly in the cooled sample vessel. See references B

,,,,
yyyy
,
y
[1,79].

,,
yy
3.2.2.2.3 TRIPLE POINT OF OXYGEN. 54 .3584 K (-218,7916 ˚C) C

,,
,,,,
yyyy
,,
yy
,,
Oxygen gas samples of 99.999% purity are commercially available. Accurate
chemical analysis of oxygen is difficult and, therefore, the claimed purity may not D

,,,,
yyyy
,,
be correct. Unknown or undetected impurities are chemically less reactive than

,,
yy
oxygen, e.g, the noble gases, and, in particular, argon, which forms a peritectic E

,,

,
with oxygen. Samples of purity greater than 99.999% may be obtained by special

,,,,
yyyy
,,
yy
arrangement with the supplier. [The first cryoscopic constant of oxygen is

,,
0.0181/K. Consequently, the liquidus point of an ideal oxygen solution of F

,,
yy
99.999% purity would be approximately 0.6 mK lower than that of 100% pure oxygen.]

,,,,
yyyy
,,
Careful preparation by thermal decomposition of potassium permanganate can
yield samples of 99.99992% purity or better [47]. The oxygen sample should be G

,,
yy
,,
stored in clean stainless-steel cylinders. See references [32,47,59,79,80].

,,,,
yyyy
H

,,
yy
,,
3.2.2.2.4 TRIPLE POINT OF ARGON. 83,8058 K (-189.3442 ˚C)

,,,,
yyyy
,,
Argon gas samples of 99.9999% purity or better are readily available. The usual I
impurities are the components of air, moisture, and hydrocarbons. [The first

,,
cryoscopic constant of argon is 0.0203/K. Consequently, the liquidus point of an

,,,,
yyyy
J
ideal argon solution of 99.9999% purity would be approximately 0.05 mK lower than

,,
that of 100% pure argon.] To fill the sample vessel, the gas may be used directly or
it may be dried first by slowly passing it through a coiled tube immersed in K

,,,,
yyyy
either liquid oxygen or a Dry Ice/ethyl alcohol mixture. See references
[17,41,42,59,79,80].
L

3.2.3 TRIPLE POINT OF WATER. 273.16.K (0.01˚C)

The triple-point temperature of water is assigned the value 273.16 K on the

Kelvin Thermodynamic Temperature Scale and also on the ITS-90. It is the
reference temperature for resistance ratios in platinum resistance thermometry.
The water used in preparing triple point of water cells is pure water of
naturally-occurring isotopic composition. Figure 6 shows two commonly used
types of triple point of water cells.
Triple point of water cells are usually prepared from river water that has been
purified by chemical treatment and distillation. River water is expected to have
concentrations of deuterium and the heavier isotopes of oxygen that are lower
than that of ocean water. The extreme difference in the triple points of
naturally occurring water, including polar water, is given as 0.25 mK [100].
It is expected that differences among water triple-point cells of river water
would be much smaller than 0.25 mK. (The isotopic composition difference
between river water and ocean water [100] has been estimated to cause no more
than a 0.050 mK difference in the triple-point temperature.) While the basic
material is plentifully available, preparation of water triple-point cells
requires a special effort [5,40]. Although the effect on the triple-point
temperature is negligible, a trace of air always remains in most sealed triple
point of water cells. When a cell at room temperature is gently inverted from one
end to the other and a sharp "click" is produced through the water hammer action,
the amount of gas in the cell wi11 have negligible influence on the triple-point
temperature.
3.2.3.1 REALIZATION AND APPLICATION OF THE TRIPLE POINT OF WATER
In preparation for producing an ice mantle that is required for realizing the
triple-point temperature of water, the thermometer well of the cell is wiped
thoroughly dry, sealed with a rubber stopper, and the cell placed in an ice bath to
cool to a few degrees above the ice point. When the cell has been cooled in this
manner, an ice mantle of fairly uniform thickness can be obtained. Withdraw
the cell from the ice bath, set it upright on a stand, and place one drop of
ethyl alcohol at the bottom of the well. Introduce small amounts of crushed Dry
Ice into the bottom of the well and continue to do so until a thick mantle is formed
at the bottom. Then, fill the well with crushed Dry Ice to the water level of the
cell. Continue to add crushed Dry Ice to the well so as to maintain the level of
Dry Ice at the water level. If the Dry Ice level becomes low before more is added,
the ice mantle may crack. If the cell were precooled as indicated above, a solid
ice bridge may form at the water level. If such a bridge forms, melt it immediately
with heat from the hands while gently shaking the cell. The solid ice bridge can
completely seal the cell at the top and any subsequent formation of ice could
produce enough pressure to rupture the glass c e l l . W h e n a m a n t l e o f
approximately the desired thickness (4 to 8 mm) is formed, stop adding Dry Ice,
replace the cell in the ice bath with the well opening slightly above the water
surface of the ice bath, and leave the cell there until all of the Dry Ice
evaporates. Then, fill the well with ice water and store the cell in an ice bath
or ice pack for a day before using it. When the ice mantle is frozen by using Dry
Ice, a process that usually requires less than one hour, the strains in the ice
cause the "triple-point temperature" to be about 0.2 mK low. These are removed by
letting the mantle anneal for one day.
Other methods can be used also to prepare the ice mantle. With ethyl alcohol in
the thermometer well, any "cold finger" technique can be used. This technique
includes successively inserting liquid nitrogen cooled rods, using a
closed-end tube containing crushed Dry Ice, or using a heat-pipe cooler. These
methods require more time to freeze the mantle,,but the strain produced in the ice
will be less than those produced by the Dry Ice technique.
After the strains in the ice mantle have been relieved by storing the cell in an
ice bath for at least one day, insert momentarily a glass rod into the well in
order to melt a thin layer of ice next to the well. This forms an ice-water
interface immediately adjacent to the thermometer well. The test for this "inner
melt" is made by giving the cell a rotatory impulse to determine whether
Figure 7. An SPRT in a Type A triple point of water cell immersed in an ice bath.
A - platinum resistance thermometer, B - heavy black felt to shield against
ambient radiation, C - polyethylene tube for guiding the SPRT into the
thermometer well (the tube has a small hole near the top of the thermometer well to
allow water, but not ice, to enter the tube.), D - water vapor, E -
borosilicate glass cell, F - water from the ice bath, G - thermometer well
(precision bore glass), H – ice mantle I - air-free water, J - aluminum
bushing with internal taper,at the upper end to guide the SPRT into its close
fitting inner bore, K – polyurethane sponge for cushioning the SPRT, L –
finely divided ice and water.
the ice mantle rotates freely about the axis of the thermometer well. The outer ice
water interface guards and thermally stabilizes the inner ice-water
interface temperature that is measured with the SPRT.
Figure 7 shows a triple point of water cell immersed in an ice bath with an SPRT
inserted into the thermometer well. An SPRT should be precooled in a glass tube of
water in an ice bath before it is inserted into the triple-point well so that the
thickness of the water layer next to the thermometer well will not become
excessive. Also, the time required for the SPRT to come into thermal
equilibrium will be shortened. Heavy felt cloth should be used to cover the ice bath
in order to prevent ambient radiation from entering the bath and reaching the
thermometer element, which otherwise would cause the thermometer to give a
slightly high (erroneous) reading. A plastic foam cushion should be placed at the
bottom of the thermometer well to protect the well and the SPRT. Since water is a
poor thermal conductor, a close fitting aluminum sleeve should be used to enhance
the thermal conduction.
The thermometer current should be imposed immediately after insertion of the SPRT
into the cell so that readings can be made under conditions of steady-state self
heating. Five to ten minutes or longer may be required before steady-state
conditions are reached. To avoid errors due to variations in the self heating
that arise from variations in the thermal contact of the thermometer with
its surroundings, it is best to read the SPRT at two currents and extrapolate the
readings to zero power in the SPRT.
3.2.4 FREEZING. MELTING. OR TRIPLE POINTS OF METALS: Hg Ga. In. Sn. Zn. Al. Ag
Au. or Cu
The realization of metal fixed points requires the continuous presence of
liquid-solid or liquid-solid-vapor phases in thermal equilibrium. With SPRT’s, the
liquid-solid interface, i.e., the equilibrium whose temperature is measured, must
surround and must be as close to the temperature sensing element as possible.
Since the first cryoscopic constants of metals are relatively low, the fixed-point
metal samples should be at least 99.9999% pure. Figure 8 shows idealized
liquid/solid equilibrium conditions inside fixed point cells used in freezing and
melting experiments. Figure 9 shows a representative arrangement of an SPRT inserted
inside a metal fixed point cell. Ideally, and similar to the water triple-point
cell, an outer liquid-solid interface, which completely surrounds the inner
interface, exists close to the container wall. This outer interface, which has a
temperature very close to that of the inner interface, thermally protects and
thermally stabilizes the inner interface. In freezing experiments, a layer of
solid is first formed at the crucible wall, then a thin layer of solid is induced
on the thermometer well by inserting cooling rods. As freezing advances, the outer
interface approaches the inner interface until all of the material is solid. In
melting experiments, a layer of liquid is first formed next to the crucible, then
a thin layer of liquid is formed next to the thermometer well by inserting a
warming rod or a long heater. As melting advances, the outer liquid/solid
interface approaches the inner interface.
Since different furnace or bath designs are required for fixed-point cells
operated at different temperatures, they will1 be discussed along with each of
the f i x e d p o i n t s , o r r e f e r e n c e s w i l l b e m a d e t o a p p r o p r i a t e s o u r c e s o f

Z-169
descriptions.
A
In radiation thermometry, the liquid-solid phase of the metal fixed point must
completely surround the blackbody radiator capacity

3.2.4.1 CONTAINER MATERIAL

yyy
,,, ,,
yy
B
C

Containers for the fixed-point metals must not contaminate the metal sample, and the ,,,
yyy
,,,yy
yyy ,,
,,
yy D
container material must be rugged enough to retain its integrity under thermal
E
cycling between the temperature of use and ambient temperature. The container
10 cm
material preferably should be inert to air at temperatures of use;if not, e.g.,

Z
F

,,
,,,,
graphite above about 200 °C, the container plus the fixed-point material must be

,,
protectively enclosed in an inert gas such as nitrogen, argon, or helium, using
G
either a borosilicate or fused silica glass envelope. It should be assumed that
the fixed-point material itself will react chemically with air and, thus, the
material must be protected.* H

,,
,,,,
76 cm

3.2.4.2 METAL FIXED POINT DEVICES FOR CALIBRATING SPRT’s

,, G

yyy
,,,
Figure 9 shows a representative fixed-point cell that can be used for 32 cm

calibrating long-stem type SPRT’s. In the following sections, individual types

,,,,
,,,,
I

,,,
yyy
will be described.
,,,,
46 cm
J

,,,,
,,,
yyy
3.2.4.2.1 MERCURY TRIPLE POINT
,,,,
3.2.4.2.1.1 MERCURY SAMPLE

On the ITS-90, the triple point of mercury (equilibrium phase state of mercury ,,,
yyy
,,,,
,,,,
,,,
yyy
,,,,
,,,,
K

,,,
yyy
,,,,
solid, liquid, and vapor phases) is assigned the value 234.3156 K (-38.8344°C). 25.2 cm
L

,,,,
Depending upon the choice of container material and operating procedure, it may be

,,,
yyy
,,
yy,,,,
more practical to realize the mercury freezing point at one standard

,,,,
,,,
yyy
atmosphere, the value being 234.3210 K (-38.8290 °C). Mercury samples with

,,
yy,,,,
impurity content of 1 part in 108 or less can be prepared by potassium hydroxide and M

,,,
yyy
,,,,
nitric acid washings, followed by triple distillation [48]. The alkali and acid

,,,,
washings can be carried out by vigorously bubbling clean filtered air, through

,,,
yyy
,,,,
the mixture of mercury and the alkali or the acid. To remove any remaining
oxidizable impurities, the first two distillations should be carried out under
reduced pressures with a fine stream of clean filtered air bubbling into the
mercury in the distillation container. The third distillation should be done
,,,,
under high vacuum to remove the noble metals. With the high-purity mercury
(99.999999%), both freezing and melting techniques give triple-point temperatures
that agree to within ± 0.1 mK over most of the liquid-solid range. [The first
Figure 9. An SPRT in a metal freezing-point cell.
cryoscopic constant of mercury is 0.00503/K. Consequently, the liquidus point
A - platinum resistance thermometer, B - to helium gas supply and pressure
of an ideal mercury solution of 99.999999% purity would be approximately 0.002
gauge, C - thermometer gas seal with silicone rubber, D - silicone rubber
mK lower than that of 100% pure mercury.]
stopper, E - thermal insulation (washed Fiberfrax),F - thermometer guide tube
[precision bore tube, ground (matt finish) to uniform outside diameter], G -
3.2.4.2.1.2 CONTAINERS FOR MERCURY
heat shunt (graphite) in close contact with F and with H, H - borosilicate
glass cell [precision bore tube ground (matt finish ) to uniform outside
Any container material can be used with mercury that is sufficiently rigid and diameter], I - graphite cap (lid) for the graphite crucible, J - graphite
does not dissolve in, or chemically react with, mercury in the temperature range of thermometer well, K - metal sample, L - graphite crucible, M - thermal
storage and application. The choice will depend upon whether the mercury fixed- insulation (Fiberfrax paper) between the graphite crucible and the
point cell is to be used at its triple point, at its freezing point, or borosilicate glass cell.

9.5 O.D.

25
x 0.9 Wall

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Cell Holder

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210

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9.5 O.D.

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x0.13 Wall

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Sample Cell 13

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10 O.D. 9.5 O.D.

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x1 Wall x0.9 Wall

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38 O.D . 38.1 O.D.

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x2 Wall x1.7 Wall
445

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197

216

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Thermometer

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Well

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Melting Freezing
Borosilicate Type 304
Glass Stainless Steel
Figure 8. Idealized liquid/solid equilibrium conditions inside fixed point Dimensions in mm
cells used in freezing and melting experiments. In freezing experiments, a
layer of solid is first formed at the crucible wall, then a thin layer of solid Figure 10. Two mercury triple-point cells, one constructed of borosilicate
is induced on the thermometer well by inserting cooling rods. In melting glass and one of Type 304 stainless steel. The two small-diameter tubes at the
experiments, a layer of liquid is first formed next to the crucible, then a top facilitate the cleaning of the cells before filling and sealing. The glass
thin layer of liquid is formed next to the thermometer well by inserting a cell is sealed by melting the small-diameter tubes, but the stainless steel cell
warming rod or a long heater, As melting advances, the outer liquid/solid is sealed by pinching flat the small-diameter tubes and electric-arc welding
interface approaches the inner interface. them, thereby serving them at the middle of the flat.

Z-170
Guidelines for Realizing the ITS-90 Cont’d

at either one.
A
3.2.4.2.1.3 METAL CONTAINERS VALVE AND
VACUUM
Mercury is capable of dissolving most metals, at least at the low levels of B
impurity content (<l ppm) that are the permitted maxima for metal fixed points Iron,
nickel, chromium, and tantalum have been reported to be soluble at only 1 ppm or
less; hence, stainless steel is an adequate container for mercury in most
C
temperature standard applications [53,103). (Note: the solubility of nicke1 in
,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,
mercury may be close to the limit of 1 ppm.) Mercury triple-point cells can be
prepared by pinching and welding the small diameter tubes used for cleaning,
D
,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,

evacuating, and filling (see fig. 10).

,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,

3.2.4.2.1.4 CONTAINERS OF GLASS E

,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,

It is expected that some metal impurities in glasses [single metal oxide ,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,

(e.g.,fused silica glass) or mixed metal oxide (e.g., borosilicate glass)] or F

,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,
"ceramics" can be leached out by mercury when the mercury is stored in them for many
years. Traditionally, "soft glass" has been considered suitable for storing ,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,

mercury [48]; however, soft glass, without special treatment, may be susceptible G
to breakage when thermally shocked. Borosilicate glass and fused silica glass ,,,,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,, ,,,

are more practical choices for mercury containers. Figure 11 shows a borosilicate
,,,, ,,,
glass mercury triple-point cell inside a stainless steel holder.
H
,,,, ,,,

3.2.4.2.1.5 CONTAINERS OF PLASTIC

,,,, ,,,

Organic plastics, such as polyethylene polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon), or ,,,, ,,,

I
polytrifluorochloroethylene (Kel-F), all of which are free of metals, can be used
,,,, ,,,
to contain mercury and be used at the mercury freezing point. A stainless steel
holder similar to that used for the glass mercury cell and for the stainless ,,,, ,,,
J
steel mercury cell (see fig.11) or similar to the holder used for the indium cell A ="O" ring tube seal
(see fig. 12) could be used as the external holder for a plastic mercury cell. B = Thermometer well ,,,, ,,,

Although plastic cells have not been used yet in preparing mercury fixed point C = Ethyl alcohol in well
cells, it would be practical and desirable to use plastic cells for realizing the
,,,, ,,, K
D = Indium gasket seal
mercury fixed point. Since the vapor pressure of mercury at room temperature is E = Insulation, rolled paper tissue ,,,, ,,,

sufficiently high that mercury vapors can be transported u n d e r v a c u u m F = Stainless steel jacket
conditions, the vapors should be confined by an atmosphere of helium or other G = Tubular connection for
cleaning and filling
,,,,
yy
,, ,,,
L

yyy
,,,
inert gases. ,,,, ,,,
H = Insulation tissue paper

,,,
yyy
rolled around (l) for centering
3.2.4.2.1.6 ASSEMBLY OF MERCURY CELLS ,,,, ,,, M
I = Copper foil cylinder

,,,
yyy
J = Borosilicate glass cell
A purified mercury sample can be vacuum distilled into glass containers, with the K = Mercury

,,,
yyy
glass filling tube then sealed under vacuum with a flame [43]. The mercury sample L = Thermometer cushion N
may be vacuum distilled into stainless steel containers and the filling tube (fused quartz wool)

,,,
yyy
pinched, and then cut and sealed using electric-arc welding techniques [43]. M = Stand for mercury cell
N = Inculation (Aluminum
3.2.4.2.1.7 REALIZATION AND APPLICATION silicate wool)

When the total impurity content of a mercury sample is about one part in 108, both
freezing and melting techniques yield triple-point temperatures agreeing to Figure 11. A borosilicate glass, mercury triple point cell in a stainless steel
within ± 0.1 mK over most of the liquid-solid range. A dual-stage refrigerator container. A stainless-steel, mercury triple-point cell may also be mounted inside
can yield a temperature near -40°C and, hence, could be used for freezing mercury, the stainless steel container. With the high-purity mercury sample, both freezing
but a much simpler stainless steel vacuum enclosure placed in a Dry Ice/ethyl and melting techniques yield triple-point values agreeing to within ±0.1 mK over
most of the liquid-solid range.
alcohol mixture (-78 °C) can reduce the freezing rate of mercury to give a freeze
duration of about 10 hours or more with 2.2 kg of mercury, and that is perfectly
adequate. Figure 11 shows such a stainless steel enclosure that has been used
with a borosilicate-glass mercury cell at the NIST.

To start a freeze, fill the stainless steel enclosure that contains the mercury

,,
triple-point cell with dry air and immerse it in a Dry Ice/ethyl alcohol bath.
Fill the themometer well with ethyl alcohol and insert therein an SPRT for

,,
monitoring the temperature of the cell. Usually, mercury supercools about 6 °C in
a borosilicate glass cell but only about 3 °C in a stainless steel cell. When

,,
recilescence is observed, evacuate the stainless steel holder. Remove the
monitoring SPRT from the well and replace it with a thin-wall stainless steel A
tube that contains ethyl alcohol and that has been cooled in a tube of ethyl
alcohol immersed in a Dry Ice/ethyl alcohol bath. Insert successively into the
stainless steel tube two or three liquid-nitrogen cooled glass rods, for about B
5 minutes each, in order to freeze a thin layer of mercury around the thermometer
C
well. The purpose of the stainless steel tube is to collect the frost that forms on
the rods when they are removed from the liquid nitrogen. Remove the stainless steel D
tube and replace it with the monitoring SPRT, which has been cooling in the tube
of cold ethyl alcohol. Switch on the thermometer measuring current. (Note: it may E
be necessary to refill the thermometer well with a small amount of cold ethyl
alcohol from the Dry-ice cooled tube before the monitoring SPRT is inserted into
the well. The well should be completely filled with ethyl alcohol when the SPRT is F
in the well.) With the induced inner freeze around the thermometer well,
temperature equilibrium is reached in about 5 minutes. After the resistance of
G
the monitoring SPRT is read, other cooled SPRT’s are successively inserted
into the mercury cell and calibrated. The final reading in a cell is made with the
monitoring SPRT in order to check the extent of the freeze. This final reading of 20.5 cm H
the monitoring SPRT must agree with the initial reading to within ± 0.1 mK.
See reference {43} for more details on the calibration procedure at the
mercury triple point.
I
3.2.4.2.2 MELTING POINT OF GALLIUM

The melting point of gallium is assigned a temperature of 302.9146 K (29.7646°C) on

the ITS-90. Gallium of 99.99999% purity can be obtained commercially. At such high
purity, both freezing and melting techniques should yield liquid-solid
equilibrium temperatures that agree to within ± 0.1 mK. Since the metal expands F
about 3% on freezing, plastic containers, such as polyethylene, polypropylene, J
or polytetrafluoroethylene, are the most suitable. These are sufficiently 4.5 cm
flexible at around 30 °C to accommodate the volume change in the gallium. In
assembling the gallium fixed-point cell, the supercooled metal can be poured
directly into the container. A second more rugged container of Nylon, glass, or
stainless steel should enclose the flexible container so that the pressure of the
inert gas over the metal can be controlled at one atmosphere or be evacuated to Figure 13. An all-plastic gallium melting/triple-point cell. The triple-point is
observe the triple point. A gallium fixed-point cell, consisting of an all plastic realized by using the melting technique. The cell is periodically evacuated through
container, that is used at the NIST is shown in figure 13. the valve.
Since gallium supercools as much as 25 °C to 70 °C, depending upon the
A - valve (Zytel), B - bath lid (Plexiglass), C - support rod (Nylon), D - pumping
plastic material that is in contact with it, the most convenient method of observing tube (polyethylene), E - cap (Nylon), F - sample container (Teflon), G - case
its liquid-solid equilibrium temperature is the melting technique. [The first (Nylon), H - thermometer well (Nylon), I - gallium metal, J - base of the case

Z-171
 Z

Figure 12. Photograph of an all-plastic indium cell and its stainless steel container

Z-172
Guidelines for Realizing the ITS-90 Cont’d

cryoscopic constant of gallium is 0.00732/K. Consequently, the liquidus point
of an ideal gallium solution of 99.99999% purity would be approximately 0.01 mK
lower than that of 100% pure gallium.]
3.2.4.2.2.1 REALIZATION AND APPLICATION
In order to solidify the gallium metal in a fixed-point cell, initially in the
supercooled state (e.g., at room temperature), first insert successively two or
three liquid-nitrogen-cooled copper rods into the thermometer well of the cell
to induce nucleation, and then place the cell in an ice bath for about one hour
or longer. The cell with the solidified gallium may then be placed in an oil
bath at a temperature of about 40 *C to partially melt the sample to form an
outer liquid-solid interface. To form a liquid-solid interface next to the
thermometer well (an inner melt), the bath oil may be circulated through the
thermometer well by pumping the oil through a tube placed in the well. After
about 20 minutes in the hot oil bath, about 25% of the gallium will be melted.
The inner liquid-solid interface can also be prepared by using an electric heater
in the well. The amount of electric energy required, e.g., to form about a 7 mm
shell of liquid around the thermometer well, can be calculated from the outer
dimensions of the thermometer well and the heat of fusion of gallium (see table
7). The gallium cell is then securely mounted, completely immersed so that the
thermometer well will be filled with the bath oil, in a stirred oil bath,
controlled at a temperature about 10 mK above the liquid-solid equilibrium
temperature (melting point or the triple point). Also, the cell can immersed in
a fairly close-fitting, oil-filled aluminum or copper block, controlled at a
temperature about 10 mK above the equilibrium temperature. The monitoring PRT
is heated and then inserted into the thermometer well of the gallium cell.
Readings are taken after about 20 minutes of equilibration in the cell. The
monitoring SPRT is replaced in the cell with a preheated test SPRT and
measurements on it are made after about 20 minutes. A number of SPRT’s can be
successively calibrated in the same "melt". When all of the test SPRT’s have
been calibrated, a final measurement in the cell is made on the monitoring SPRT.
This reading of the monitoring SPRT should agree with the initial reading to
within ± 0.1 mK. Also, measurements with different melts should agree to within
0.1 mK. See references [16,26,65,68,94].
3.2.4.2.3 FREEZING POINT OF INDIUM
The freezing point of indium is assigned the value 429.7485 K (156.5985 ˚C) on
the ITS-90. Metal samples of 99.9999% purity and higher are commercially
available. The freezing point of indium is at a sufficiently low temperature
to permit the use of containers of high temperature plastics
[Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon), polyimide/amide, and others), borosilicate
glass, and stainless steel (4,69,14,92). See figure 14 for an example of a
Teflon container used for indium at the NIST. As used with metals that freeze
at higher temperatures, graphite can also be used with indium. The metal is
available in the form of small pellets, wire, and rods. Suitable amounts for
a sample can be easily weighed into the container. (The first cryoscopic
constant of indium is 0.00212/K. Consequently, the liquidus point of an ideal
indium solution of 99.9999% purity would be approximately 0.5 mK lower than that
of 100% pure indium.]
CAP (TEFLON)
5 mm DIA. HOLE
9 mm THROUGH CAP
1 mm
34.34 mm ID
2 mm 44.34 mm OD
18.70 mm OD
25
mm
15 5 mm
mm
3.2.4.2.3.1 REALIZATION AND APPLICATION
A tube furnace containing the indium-point cell is controlled about 5 ˚C above
the freezing point of indium until the metal is completely melted. (It is
convenient to control the furnace temperature automatically and melt the metal
sample overnight so that the freezing of the metal may be s started in the
morning.) Insert the check SPRT into the cel1 well and when the SPRT indicates
that the sample is about 5 above the freezing temperature, change the furnace
temperature control settings to control at 5 ˚C below the freezing point. When
the check SPRT indicate. recalescence, change the furnace temperature control
settings to control at 1 ˚C to 0.5 ˚C below the freezing point. Withdraw the
check SPRT from the cell well and insert successively in the well two fused
silica glass rods, each initially at room temperature, for about 5 minutes each
and then insert the cool check SPRT in order to freeze a thin mantle around the
thermometer well. (To avoid the consequence of inserting borosilicate glass
rods into the aluminum or silver point cell to form the mantle around the
thermometer well, all glass rods used for this purpose in the laboratory should
be fused silica glass.) Within 20 to 30 minutes, the readings on the check SPRT
should indicate that the cell is at temperature equilibrium. After the readings
on the check SPRT are completed, test SPRT’s, that have been heated in an
auxiliary furnace, are successively inserted into the cell well and calibrated.
After all of the test SPRT’s have been calibrated the preheated check SPRT is
inserted again into the cell well and read. This second reading should agree
with the first to within ± 0.1 mK. See references (4,69,74,92].
3.2.4.2.4 FREEZING POINT OF TIN
The freezing point of tin is assigned the value 505.078 K (231.928 ˚C) Metal
samples of 99.9999% purity are commercially available. Graphite containers are
commonly and successfully used for tin. Although the use of materials such as
boron nitride (BN) has not been reported, it could be a suitable container for
tin. High purity tin has been found to supercool 25 ˚C or more [73,76]; hence,
the freeze is nucleated by rapid cooling outside the furnace. The metal is
available in the form of small pellets and in rods suitable for filling the
graphite container. A method for filling graphite containers and installing the
graphite thermometer wells is described in reference [46]. [The first cryoscopic
constant of tin is 0.00329/K. Consequently, the liquidus point of an ideal tin
solution of 99.9999% purity would be approximately 0.3 mK lower than that of 100%
pure tin.]
3.2.4.2.4.1 REALIZATION AND APPLICATION
A tube furnace [46] containing the tin freezing-point cell is controlled about
5 ˚C above the freezing-point temperature until the metal is completely melted.
(It is convenient to control the furnace temperature automatically and melt the
metal overnight so that freezing of the metal can be started early in the
morning.) Insert the check SPRT into the cell well and, when the SPRT indicates
that the sample temperature is about 5 ˚C above the freezing point, change the
furnace temperature control settings to control at 1 ˚C to 0.5 ˚C below the
freezing point. When the check SPRT indicates that the cell temperature is
close to the freezing-point value, withdraw the cell and the SPRT from the
furnace. The cell will then cool rapidly and when the SPRT detects recalescence,
replace the cell in the furnace. Withdraw the check SPRT from the cell well.
Insert successively in the well two fused silica glass rods, each initially at
room temperature, for about, 5 minutes each, and then the cool check SPRT in
order to freeze a thin mantle around the thermometer well. Within about 20 to 30
minutes the readings on the check SPRT, should indicate that the cell is at
temperature equilibrium. After the readings on the check SPRT are completed,
test SPRT’s, that have been heated in an auxiliary furnace, are successively
inserted into the cell well and calibrated. After all of the test SPRT’s have
been calibrated, the check SPRT is heated and inserted again into the cell well
and read. This reading should agree with the initial reading to within ±0.1 mK.
See references [43,46,73,76].

3.2.4.2.5 FREEZING POINT OF ZINC

The freezing point of zinc is assigned the value 692.677 K (419.527 ˚C) Metal
samples of 99.9999% purity are commercially available. High purity liquid zinc
115 has been found to supercool about 0.02 ˚C to 0.06 ˚C; hence, unlike the freezing
mm procedure used with the tin-point cell, its freeze can be initiated in the
CONTAINER (TEFLON®) furnace without withdrawing the cell from the furnace. Graphite containers are
commonly and successfully used for zinc. Although the use of materials such as
THERMOMETER WELL boron nitride (BN) has not been reported, it could be a suitable container for
(TEFLON®) zinc. The metal is available in the form of small pellets and in rods suitable
240 mm for filling graphite containers. [The first cryoscopic constant of zinc is
0.00185/K. Consequently, the liquidus point of an ideal zinc solution of 99.9999%
purity would be approximately 0.5 mK lower than that of 100% pure zinc.]

0.005" SPIRAL GROOVE ALONG 5 mm

3.2.4.2.5.1 REALIZATION AND APPLICATION
INSIDE OF THERMOMETER WELL
(1 OR 2 THREADS/in.)
A tube furnace containing the zinc-point cell is controlled about 5 ˚C above the
freezing point until the metal is completely melted. If the furnace temperature
36.34 mm ID is maintained at a higher temperature, the zinc will melt faster, but the zinc
40.34 mm OD should never be heated by more than about 5 ˚C above its melting point. (It is
111 convenient to control the furnace temperature automatically and melt the zinc
mm 12.70 mm (0.500in.) ID sample overnight so that the freezing of the metal can be started early in the
14.70 mm OD morning and the calibration of six or more test SPRT’s can be completed during
the same day.) Insert the zinc-point check SPRT into the cell well. When the
SPRT indicates that the melt is about 5 ˚C above the freezing point, change the
furnace temperature control settings to control at 5 ˚C below the freezing point
in order to initiate rapid cooling for nucleation. When the check SPRT indicates
recalescence, change the furnace temperature control settings to control at 1 ˚C
25 1 mm to 0.5 ˚C below the freezing point. Withdraw the check SPRT from the cell well
mm and insert successively into the well two fused silica glass rods, each initially
at room temperature, for about 5 minutes each, and then insert again the cool
10 mm 3 mm check SPRT. This freezes a thin mantle around the thermometer well. Within
about 20 to 30 minutes, the readings on the check SPRT should indicate that the
5 mm 30 mm OD FUSED
10 mm ID 14 mm OD cell is at temperature equilibrium. After the readings on the check SPRT are
3 mm SILICA TUBE
completed, test SPRT’s, that have been heated in an auxiliary furnace, are
successively inserted into the cell well and calibrated. After all of the test
Figure 14. An all-plastic indium freezing-point cell to be used in a stainless SPRT’s are calibrated, the preheated check SPRT is inserted again into the cell
steel container, such as that shown in figure 12. The argon gas pressure inside
the stainless steel container is adjusted to one atmosphere at the freezing point. well and measurements made on it. This second reading should agree with the
A similar all-plastic cell and stainless steel container may be used to realize first to within ± 0.1 mK. references [41,73,75].
the mercury freezing point or meIting point at one atmosphere.

Z-173
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5.1 cm

Figure 15. A graphite freezing point cell enclosed inside a fused silica tube
with tube connection to high vacuum, purified argon gas source, and pressure
gauge.
A - connection to high vacuum, purified argon source, and pressure gauge, B –
fused-silica-to-Kovar graded seal, C - fused-silica connecting tube, outer
surface matte finished to minimize radiation piping, D - thermometer guide
tube, E - heat shunts (Inconel disks), F - thermal insulation (Fiberfrax), G -
fused-silica outer envelope, H - graphite lid, I - graphite thermometer
well, J - fused-silica thermometer well, K - fused-silica fiber-woven tape for
cushioning the graphite freezing-point cell inside the fused-silica enclosure,
L - metal sample, M - graphite crucible, N - fused-silica fiber pad for
cushioning the thermometer, 0 - Fiberfrax paper liner.
Figure 16. A method for filling a graphite freezing-point cell by melting the
metal sample in the graphite crucible. The required amount of sample is placed
in the graphite crucible and the crucible is inserted into the fused silica
tube. To protect the sample, the fused silica tube is evacuated or filled with
an inert gas (e.g., purified argon) before melting the metal in a tube furnace.
Depending upon the geometry of the sample, the melting of two or more batches
of sample may be required.
A - Silicone rubber stopper, B - fused silica tube, C - graphite crucible,
D - metal sample.

3.2.4.2.6 FREEZING POINT OF ALUMINUM

A
The freezing point of aluminum is assigned the value 933.473 K (660.323 ˚C).
Metal samples of 99.9999% purity are commercially available. High purity
graphite containers have been used successfully with aluminum. High purity B
liquid aluminum has been found to supercool about 1 ˚C to 2 ˚C; hence, its freeze 560 mm C
can be initiated in the furnace without withdrawing the cell from the furnace.
Aluminum is highly reactive, particularly at elevated temperatures; liquid D
aluminum is capable of dissolving many metals. Liquid aluminum reacts with
moisture, forming the oxide and dissolving the hydrogen. The compounds Al4C3 and
aluminum oxycarbide have been found in aluminum samples cast in graphite at
1000 ˚C. Because of the high chemical reactivity of aluminum, the graphite cell E
containing the metal must be completely protected by enclosing the cell in a F
fused silica envelope (see fig. 15). The argon or helium gas that is used to
pressurize the freezing metal at one atmosphere must be thoroughly devoid of
153
moisture, hydrogen, oxygen, hydrocarbons, and other substances that would react mm G

with liquid aluminum. The cell must not be heated more than 5 ˚C above the
aluminum freezing point. [The first cryoscopic constant of aluminum is 219 H
mm
0.00149/K. Consequently, the liquidus point of an ideal aluminum solution of
99.9999% purity would be approximately 0.7 K lower than that of 100% pure I
aluminum.]
560 mm

3.2.4.2.6.1 ASSEMBLY OF AN ALUMINUM-POINT CELL

J

High purity aluminum can be obtained in the form of shots or rods. Determine.
the internal volume of the graphite container, taking into account the
K
thermometer well. Determine the mass of liquid aluminum required to fill the
cell to within 0.5 cm of the graphite lid. Weight out aluminum shots or cut and
244
clean aluminum rods that correspond to this mass. The rods should be cut with mm

a carbide tipped tool and cleaned by etching in a hot (about 200 ˚C) solution
consisting (by volume) of reagent grade phosphoric acid (15 parts, sulfuric L
acid (5 parts), and nitric acid (7 part), and then carefully rinsing many times
in distilled water. Load the graphite crucible with the aluminum sample and
then slide it into an extra-long fused-silica test tube such as that shown in
figure 16. Insert the test tube into the tube furnace and evacuate it. While
continuing to evacuate the tube, set the furnace temperature to control at about
5 ˚C above the melting point of aluminum. When the sample has completely melted,
Figure 17. An apparatus for installing a graphite thermometer well and lid in a
cool it to room temperature, while continuing to pump the tube. If aluminum
graphite crucible containing a molten metal sample.
shot, or rods of odd sizes, are used, the graphite cell will require several
loadings and meltings before the desired amount of total sample has been loaded
A - stainless steel pusher rod, B - silicone rubber gas seal (permits linear
into the cell. When the graphite crucible is appropriately loaded with the motion of the pusher rod A), C - inlet for purified argon gas that is used in
sample, replace the silicone rubber stopper at the mouth of the extra-long test purging and maintaining positive pressure of the gas during the assembly process,
tube of figure 16 with the device for inserting the graphite thermometer well D - silicone rubber stopper, E - stainless steel flange attached to the pusher
and lid (see reference [45] or fig. 17). Insert the test tube into the tube rod for pressing against the graphite lid and thermometer well during assembly.
furnace, evacuate it, and then fill it with high purity argon to a pressure F - graphite lid for the crucible, G - slit on the pusher rod (the two halves
slightly above ambient. Melt the aluminum sample and push the graphite well and spring outward to hold the graphite thermometer well and lid while melting the
lid into the cell. Cool the sample to room temperature, while maintaining the metal sample), H - graphite thermometer well, I - fused-silica tube, J - a part
argon pressure in the test tube slightly above the ambient pressure. Finally, of the fused-silica tube where its I.D. matches closely with the O.D. of the
assemble the graphite cel1 containing the aluminum sample into the desired crucible and its lid so that the lid can be easily guided onto the opening of
freezing - point cell configuration (see references [43,45,701] or fig. 15). the crucible, K - graphite crucible, L - molten metal sample.

Z-174
Guidelines for Realizing the ITS-90 Cont’d
3.2.4.2.6.2 REALIZATION AND APPLICATION
SPRT’s that are to be calibrated at the aluminum point and higher must
have fused silica, sapphire, or ceramic insulation for the resistance
element and its extension leads. Such high temperature SPRT’s should be
handled by procedures that avoid thermally shocking them.
A tube furnace containing the aluminum point cell is controlled about 5°C
above the freezing point of aluminum until the metal is completely melted.
It is convenient to control the furnace temperature automatically and melt
the metal overnight so that the freezing of the metal can be started early
in the morning and the calibration of two or three test SPRT’s completed
during the same day. Insert the aluminum point check SPRT stepwise into
the cell well. Since the SPRT will cool considerably between the time it
is withdrawn from any auxiliary preheat furnace and inserted into the
aluminum point cell, the SPRT is heated in the section of the thermometer
guide tube that is maintained close to the furnace temperature. The SPRT
is inserted initially to a location where its tip is about 3 cm above the
graphite cell lid. After about 5 minutes, the SPRT is inserted an
additional 5 cm and after another 5 minutes, another 5 cm, and so on until
the tip of the SPRT is at the bottom of the thermometer well. When the
SPRT indicates that the sample is about 5°C above the freezing point,
change the furnace temperature control settings to control at 5°C below
the freezing point in order to initiate rapid cooling for nucleation. When
the check SPRT indicates recalescence, change the furnace temperature
control settings to control at 1°C to 0.5°C below the freezing point.
Withdraw the check SPRT stepwise from the cell, first to a location about
3 cm above the graphite cell lid. After about 5 minutes, withdraw the SPRT
another 5 cm,and after another 5 minutes, another 5 cm, and so on until
the SPRT is completely out of the thermometer guide tube. Next, insert
successively into the cell well two fused silica glass rods, each
initially at room temperature, for about 5 minutes each to freeze a thin
mantle of solid aluminum around the thermometer well. Again insert the
check SPRT stepwise, as described above, into the cell. Within 20 to 30
minutes, the readings on the check SPRT should indicate that the cell is
at temperature equilibrium. After the readings on the check SPRT are
completed, the SPRT is removed from the cell stepwise, as described above.
The test SPRT’s are then successively inserted stepwise, calibrated, and
removed stepwise as described for the check SPRT. After all of the test
SPRT’S have been calibrated, the check SPRT is inserted again into the
cell well and measurements made. This second reading at temperature
equilibrium should agree with the first to within ± 0.1 mK.
When SPRT’s are cooled rapidly from the aluminum point to ambient
temperature, lattice vacancies are quenched in and these must be removed
before the SPRT’s are calibrated at the triple point of water. To relieve
any quenched in lattice vacancies, the SPRT’s that have been calibrated at
the aluminum point should be heated in an auxiliary furnace at about 660°C
for about 30 minutes and then gradually cooled to about 500°C over 3 hours
or more before withdrawing from the furnace to cool at ambient
temperature. See references (43, 45, 70).
3.2.4.2.7 FREEZING POINT OF SILVER
The freezing point of silver is assigned the value 1234.93 K (961,78°C).
Metal samples of 99.9999% purity are commercially available in the form of
pellets.
High purity graphite containers have been used successfully with silver.
Liquid silver has been found to supercool not more than 0.5°C; hence, its
freeze can be initiated in the furnace without withdrawing the cell from
the furnace. See references [3,15,72,98].
Oxygen is known to “dissolve” in liquid silver and lower the freezing
point. Although the dissociation pressure of Ag20 is expected to be quite
high at the freezing point of silver, the lowering of the freezing point
may be a combination of the solution of Ag20 and of oxygen in liquid
silver. (The dissociation pressure of Ag20 is given as 414 atmospheres at
507°C.) In a graphite environment at the freezing point of silver, a small
amount of the oxygen will eventually react with the graphite; however, a
newly prepared cell should be pumped at high vacuum at about 1000°C for a
week before back filling to one atmosphere with purified argon, nitrogen,
or helium. [The first cryoscopic constant of silver is very small
(0.000891/K). Consequently, the liquidus point of an ideal silver solution
of 99.9999% purity would be approximately 1.1 mK lower than that of 100%
pure silver.]
3.2.4.2.7.1 REALIZATION AND APPLICATION
The freezing-point cell of silver may be assembled by a procedure similar
to that used with aluminum. See section 3.2.4.2.6.1.
SPRT’s that are to be calibrated at the silver freezing point must have
fused silica, sapphire, or ceramic insulation for the resistance coil and
its extension leads. Such high temperature SPRT’s should be handled by
procedures that avoid thermally shocking them.
A tube furnace containing the silver freezing point cell is controlled at
about 5°C above the freezing point until the metal is completely melted.
(It is convenient to control the furnace temperature automatically and
melt the metal overnight so that the freezing of the metal can be started
early in the morning and the calibration of two or three test SPRT’s
completed during the same day.) Insert the silver point check SPRT
stepwise into the cell well. Since the SPRT will cool considerably between
the time it is withdrawn from any auxiliary preheat furnace and inserted
into the silver point cell, the SPRT is heated in the section of the
thermometer guide tube that is maintained close to the furnace
temperature. The SPRT is inserted initially to a location where its tip is
about 3 cm above the graphite cell lid. After about 5 minutes, the SPRT is
inserted an additional 5 cm, and after another 5 minutes, another 5 cm,
and so on until the tip of the SPRT is at the bottom of the thermometer
well. When the SPRT indicates that the temperature of the sample is about
5°C above the freezing point, change the furnace temperature control
settings to control at 5°C below the freezing point in order to initiate
rapid cooling for nucleation. When the check SPRT indicates recalescence,
change the furnace temperature control settings to control at 1°C to 0.5°C
below the freezing point. Withdraw the check SPRT stepwise from the cell
well, first to a location about 3 cm above the graphite cell lid. After
about 5 minutes, withdraw the SPRT an additional 5 cm, and after another 5
minutes, another 5 cm, and so on until the SPRT is completely out of the
thermometer guide tube. Next, insert successively into the cell well two
fused-silica glass rods, each initially at room temperature, for about 5
minutes each in order to freeze a thin mantle of solid silver around the
Z-175
thermometer well. Then, insert again the check SPRT stepwise, as described
above, into the cell. Within about 20 to 30 minutes, the readings on the
check SPRT should indicate that the cell is at temperature equilibrium.
After the readings on the check SPRT are completed, it is removed from the
cell stepwise, as described above. The test SPRT’s are then successively
inserted stepwise, calibrated, and removed stepwise as described for the-
check SPRT. After all of the test SPRT’s have been calibrated, the check
SPRT is inserted again into the cell well and read. This second reading
should agree with the first to within ±0.2 mK.
When SPRT’s are cooled rapidly from the silver point to ambient
temperature, lattice vacancies are quenched in and these must be removed
before the SPRT’s are measured at the triple point of water. To relieve
any quenched in lattice vacancies, the SPRT’s that have been calibrated at
the silver point are heated in an auxiliary furnace at about 960°C for
30 minutes or so and then gradually cooled to about 500 ˚C over 3.5 hours
or more before withdrawing from the furnace to cool at ambient
temperature. In order to protect the platinum of the SPRT from
contamination by diffusion of metals at high temperatures (above 660°C,
the SPRT’s should be enclosed in a platinum tube or other protective
device.
3.2.5 CONTROL CHARTS OF CHECK THERMOMETERS
Control charts should be kept for all of the check thermometers associated
with the various fixed points. Each of these charts will usually consist
of a chronological graph of the check thermometer resistance value, R(X),
obtained from measurements in the fixed-point cell X, and of the ratio,
W(X) = R(X)/R(TPW), of the resistance value R(X) to the resistance value,
R(TPW), obtained from measurements in a triple point of water cell.
Presumably, such charts have been kept by those involved in precision
thermometry. Entries on such control charts are made each time the
particular fixed point cell is used. Since those involved in precision
thermometry would have used triple point of water cells for their work
based on the IPTS-68 and they would have used W(X), the same control chart
can be continued with the ITS-90. The reason, of course, is that the
behavior of the fixed point cells is independent of the scale. Not all of
the fixed points of the ITS-90, however, are the same as those of the
IPTS-68. The ITS-90 uses some of the IPTS-68 fixed points but it also uses
other fixed points. See reference (64).
Some metrologists may not have used W(X) as defined above, but may have
used the W(t) of the IPTS-68. In that case, there will be a discontinuity
in their control charts involving W when they implement the ITS-90 and
begin using W(X). The magnitude of the discontinuity will simply be the
ratio R(273.16 K)/R(273.15 K).
Control charts involving only R(X) as a function of time will not have any
discontinuity due to the change in the scale. Depending on the temperature
of interest, of course, there may be need to start additional control
charts.
3.3 RADIATION THERMOMETRY
Above the freezing point of silver (1234.93 K), the ITS-90 is defined in
terms of Planck’s radiation law. The values of temperatures T90 on the
ITS-90 are obtained from the observed ratios of the spectral concentrations
of the radiance L λ of a blackbody at the wavelength (in vacuum) λ at T90 and
at the reference temperature T90(X) according to eq. (31).
Inside a closed cavity, the radiation densities at different wavelengths λ
depend only upon the temperature of the cavity walls. When a practical
radiator is designed with a small hole in the wall to observe the
radiation density at λ, there arises the question of how much the observed
radiation departs from the blackbody radiation for a radiator design of a
given geometry and material of construction. There are numerous papers on
the theoretical analysis of the emissivities, associated with cavity
geometry and construction materials and descriptions of radiator designs
that have been used in radiation thermometry (8, 9, 34, 35, 54, 77, 87, 89, 95).
The emissivities of cavities constructed of specular reflectors and
diffuse reflectors have been analyzed (87). It is expected that at high
temperatures many materials become oxidized and, consequently, become
diffuse reflectors. Although it is difficult to determine the actual
temperature gradients in a cavity, the effect of temperature gradients has
also been treated (10, 11). The effective emissivity of a graphite
blackbody cavity has been computed to be 0.99997 ± 0.00003 (77).
For radiation thermometer calibrations at the silver, gold, or copper
fixed point, the blackbody cavity should be constructed of graphite and
surrounded by the freezing or melting metal contained in graphite to
retain the high purity of the metal that is used. [The first cryoscopic
constants of all three of these metals are extremely low (silver:
0.000891/K; gold: 0.000831/K; Cu: 0.000857/K). Consequently, the ideal-
solution liquidus points of these metals of 99.9999% purity would be
approximately 1.1 mK to 1.2 mK lower than that of 100% pure metals.]
References [27, 55, 56, 57, 62, 77] give some details of construction of
suitable graphite fixed point blackbody cavities. The metal should be
protected from air using an inert gas, such as argon, nitrogen, or helium,
at a pressure slightly above ambient. The graphite container or auxiliary
graphite scavengers can remove small amounts of oxygen impurities. For the
blackbody cavity at the platinum point, pure alumina has been used in an
oxidizing atmosphere to avoid the reaction between platinum metal and
alumina in which oxygen gas is formed and metallic aluminum is dissolved
in the platinum [33,86].
Usually, optical pyrometers or photoelectric pyrometers are used to
determine the ratio of the radiances of a source of unknown temperature with
that of the reference source. The optical system of the instrument is
designed to focus a nearly monochromatic image of the radiation source onto
a photodetector, which until about the mid 1950’s was only the human eye;
now the eye has been replaced in high precision measurements by
photoelectric detectors because of their greater accuracy and their
suitability for automation of the measurements. Two methods are commonly
used to determine the ratios of spectral radiances. Either the photoelectric
pyrometer is designed for comparing the two radiation sources by null
detection operation, similar in principle to the disappearing filament
optical pyrometers using suitable neutral filters or sectored discs for
attenuating the radiation of one source, or for measuring directly the radiation
density in terms of the detector output, e.g., photocell current. The latter
requires high stability and linearity of signal processing [34,77). The optics of
the system may comprise refracting components (lenses) or reflecting
components (mirrors) [28,34,54,57,87].
Equation (31) requires the ratio of monochromatic radiances. Usually,
interference filters are used for this purpose. The bandwidth should be narrow
with high transmittance while completely blocking out wavelengths outside the
desired band. The temperature error is smaller the narrower the bandwidth. The
temperature of the filters should be controlled, since they are sensitive to
temperature changes. The photoelectric detector should be protected from
undesired radiations from outside the solid angle defined by the aperture of the
blackbody cavity. Where the output of the photocell is used to determine the
ratio of the radiances, the linearity of the detector should be carefully checked
or calibrated.
For details of optical pyrometer operation and attendant sources of error, see
references [28,34,54,57,77,87].
4. CALIBRATION OF THERMOMETERS ON THE ITS-90 AT VARIOUS LEVELS OF UNCERTAINTY AND
SOME APPROXIMATIONS OF THE SCALE
In a standards laboratory, the design of apparatus and equipment for calibration
of thermometers on the ITS-90 should be based on the desired accuracy, the number of
thermometers and thermometric instruments that must be calibrated per year, the
cost of realizing the ITS-90 (the fixed points and the measurement
equipment), the cost of applying and maintaining the ITS-90, and the cost of
research to maintain and make necessary improvements on the realization of the
ITS-90. In a national standards laboratory, the efforts are directed toward the
accurate realization of the ITS-90.
On 1 January 1990, no laboratory was able to calibrate thermometers over the
complete range of the ITS-90 in accordance with the strict definition of the
scale. Also, it is thought that on that date there was no immediate, widespread
requirement for “experimental calibration conversion” from the IPTS-68(75) to
ITS-90 over the complete range. Since the differences between IPTS-68(75) and
ITS-90 were known, “arithmetical conversions” should have met most of the
immediate requirements. Also, where stable thermometers have been used to
maintain the EPT-76 or parts of the IPTS-68(75), the scales on those reference
thermometers could be converted to ITS-90, using the published approximate
differences between the scales, and then those thermometers can be used to
calibrate other thermometers on the ITS-90. To realize the ITS-90 as defined
and for international traceability, however, it is essential for the national
calibration laboratory to have all of the fixed-point apparatus and measurement
equipment. Furthermore, without continued research and comparison with other
standards laboratories, the question regarding the accuracy of the realization
of the scale will remain. The ITS-90 temperature calibrations are based on the
thermal equilibrium states (vapor-liquid or liquid-solid equilibrium at known
pressures, or vapor-liquid-solid triple points) of pure substances. Substances,
however, have some impurity content; the amount must be small enough to have
negligible effect on the measurement of temperature. Obviously, the fixed-point
device and the experimental procedure must be designed so that during
calibration, the thermometer will be in thermal equilibrium with the
equilibrium state of the defining fixed point. A method for checking whether or
not the thermometer is in thermal equilibrium with a metal fixed-point standard
device is to reduce the immersion in the device a known amount or vary the
experimental conditions. The observed temperature change of the thermometer
must correspond with the hydrostatic head effect of the liquid metal in the
device, or there must be no observed temperature change with experimental
conditions (such as changing furnace temperatures of metal fixed-point cells).
In order to determine the precision of the calibration process, it is essential
to use check thermometers with every calibration. The results of the check
thermometers will show whether the calibration process is “under statistical
control” or not. The accumulated results show the precision of the “gross”
calibration process.
Since some parts of this section deal with approximations of the ITS-90, and
will make reference to the scale differences given in table 1, the methods by
which the table was constructed will be described. The differences (T90 - T76)
between 5 K and 27 K were obtained using the same relation [99] as that used for
(TNPL-75- T90). namely,
(T90 - T76)/mK = - 0.00.56(T90/K)2. (40)
The differences (T90 - T90) between 14 K and 100 K were obtained by Working Group 4
of the CCT by graphical interpolation of data from the published literature. The
differences (T 90 - T 68 ), or (t 90 - t 68 ), between -200 ˚C and 630 ˚C were
obtained by Working Group 4 of the CCT from published data on two SPRT’s, one
SPRT covering the range, below 0 ˚C, and the other covering the range from 0 ˚C
to 630 ˚C. A polynomial of the form:
8
(t90 - t68)/˚C = ∑ ai(t90/630)i
i=1
was fitted to the data from -200 ˚C to 630 ˚C and the coefficients are:
a1 = -0.148759 a5 = -4.089591
a2 = -0.267408 a6 = -1.871251
a3 = 1.080760 a7 = 7.438081
a4 = 1.269056 a8 = -3.536296
The polynomial with these coefficients reproduces the tabulated differences [83]
to within 1 mK above 0˚C and to within 1.5 mK below 0˚C. The differences
(T 90 - T 68 ) between 630˚C and 1064˚C were obtained by Working Group 4 by
graphical interpolation from published data [14). The differences (T90 - T68)
above 1064 ˚C were obtained from the equation:
(t90 - t68)/˚C - 0.25 [(t90/˚C + 273.15)/(1337.33)]2. (42)
In section 3, we discussed the direct realization of the ITS-90, using the
standard instruments of the scale, i.e. , the realization of the scale at the
lowest level of uncertainty. Of course, even the standard interpolating
instruments used at the same thermodynamic temperature will indicate temperatures
that differ slightly due to the devices having nonideal behavior and the scale’s
being expressed in as simple a form as possible. The differences in indicated
temperatures, however, are negligible for all practical purposes, being of the
order of ≤ ± 0.5 mK for temperatures above about 5 K (i.e., assuming no errors in
calibration). The realization of the ITS-90 in the liquid helium range of
temperatures (0.65 K to 5.0 K) through helium vapor pressure- temperature
relations can be accurate to about ± 0.1 mK or ± 0.2 mK.
For nonstandard types of thermometers used to approximate the ITS-90, the level of
uncertainty is higher than the numbers just given because of the inherent
instability of these thermometers. In all cases, these types of thermometers are
calibrated by comparison with one or more standard instruments of the scale, e.g.,
vapor-pressure thermometry; vapor-pressure thermometry and gas thermometry; vapor-
pressure thermometry, gas thermometry, and platinum resistance thermometry; gas
thermometry and platinum resistance :thermometry; platinum resistance
thermometry; or pyrometers or spectral radiometers.
Z
The NIST offers calibration services for various thermometers and pyrometers
covering the range from 0.65 K to 4200 ˚C (see NIST SP 250). Of this range, the
Chemical Process Metrology Division offers calibrations for contact thermometers
covering the range from 0.65 K to 2400 K, and the Radiometric Physics Division
offers calibrations for non-contact thermometers (radiation pyrometers) covering
the range from 1234.93 K (961.78 ˚Q to 4200 ˚C. Calibrations of only contact-
type. thermometers will be discussed here. The types of contact thermometers
calibrated include rhodium-iron resistance thermometers (RIRT’s), germanium
resistance thermometers (GRT’s), standard platinum resistance thermometers
(SPRT’S), thermocouples (t/c), liquid-in-glass thermometers, thermistor
thermometers, industrial platinum resistance thermometers (IPRT’s), digital
thermometers, and other special thermometers that are compatible with the NIST
calibration equipment.
4.1 RHODIUM-IRON RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS
At temperatures below 13.8033 K, RIRT’s and GRT’s are, at the present time, the
only thermometers that are suitable for precision temperature measurements. Also,
RIRT’s (and to a lesser extent GRT’s) are suitable for use at temperatures up to
the triple point of neon (24.5561 K). In the range from 0.65 K to about 25 K,
RIRTs have -reproducibilities of about ± 0.2 mK. Consequently, RIRT’s don’t
degrade the realization of the ITS-90 significantly.
When the ITS-90 is realized, as defined, at NIST, some NIST RIRT’s will be
calibrated at many temperatures through the Use of vapor-pressure thermometry and
gas thermometry to produce reference-standard RIRT’s, which will be
periodically recalibrated. The resistance temperature data of these RIRT’s will
be represented by a polynomial.
Customer RIRT’s are calibrated by comparison with reference-standard RIRT’s. A
polynomial is fitted by the method of least squares to the RIRT resistance-
temperature data so obtained and the results are reported in terms of the
polynomial that is selected.
Until the NIST completes the development of the CVGT and vapor-pressure
thermometry apparatus with which the reference-standard RIRT’s will be calibrated,
calibrations of customer RIM are performed by comparison against reference-
standard RIRT’s that have been calibrated on the NPL-75 Scale [13) or on the
EPT-76 and converted to the ITS-90.
To convert a calibration of an RIRT on the EPT-76 to an approximate calibration
on the ITS-90, use the EPT-76 calibration res instance temperature data change
the T76 values to T90 values Using the (T90 - T76) differences given in table 1, or
calculated with eq (40), to produce a new set of. resistance-temperature values,
and then fit a polynomial of the required degree to these data. Using the
coefficients of the polynomial so determined, produce the desired calibration table.
A typical calibration report on the EPT-76 and one on the ITS-90 are given in
appendix 3, sections 6.3.6 and 6.3.7, respectively.
4.2 GERMANIUM RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS
GRT’s are comparable with, but not quite as stable as RIRT’s. They are calibrated
in a manner similar to that of the RIRT’s and their results similarly reported.
At NIST, customer GRT’s are calibrated by comparison with reference to standard
RIRT’s.
Anyone with a calibration on the EPT-76 may convert it to an approximate ITS-90
calibration by the same procedure as just outlined for RIRT’s.
4.3 STANDARD PLATINUM RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS
(41) Both capsule and long-stem type SPRT’s are calibrated at the NIST. They will be
discussed separately.
4.3.1 CAPSULE SPRT’S (13.8033 K TO 429.7485 K OR 505.078 K)
For temperatures in the range from 13.8033 K to 273.16 K, capsule SPRT’s are the
most suitable thermometers. NIST has reference capsule SPRT’s that have been,
or will have been, calibrated at the defining fixed points in this range. Those
SPRT’s are used in calibrating customer thermometers by the comparison technique
over the range from about 13 K to 84 K. The temperatures at which comparisons
are made are at, or within a few mK of, the defining fixed-point temperatures
of the ITS-90 and at temperatures approximately mid-way between the fixed-point,
values. Data at the temperatures intermediate to the fixed-point values are
incorporated as a check on the calibration process. At and above the argon
triple point (83.8058 K), customer capsule SPRT’s are calibrated by the fixed-
point method. See section 6.3 for an example of how to calculate the
coefficients of the deviation functions.
4.3.2 LONG-STEM TYPE SPRT’S (83.8058 TO 1234.93 K)
Long-stem type SPRT’s are used in the range from 83.8058 K to 1234.93 K. Two
different long-stem type SPRT’s are required to cover this whole range, one type
being the customary SPRT having a nominal 25.5 0 resistance at 0 *C and used in
Z-176
Guidelines for Realizing the ITS-90 Cont’d

the range from 83.8058 K to 692.677 K or to 933.473 K, and the second type having
a somewhat longer stem and having a nominal 0.25 Ω or 2.5 Ω resistance and used
in the range from 273.15 K to 1234.93 K. Such thermometers are very stable if
handled carefully, In this range of temperature, SPRT’s are calibrated by the
fixed-point method, different sets of fixed points being required for different
temperature subranges. The required fixed points for the different subranges
were specified in section 2 of this document. In the fixed-point method,
corrections for hydrostatic heads and gas pressure over the metals, of the
freezing point and melting-point cells are made (see table 6). Similarly,
corrections for hydrostatic heads present in metal and in gas triple-point cells
are made. As a check on the accuracy of the calibration, measurements are made
at one or more “redundant” defining fixed points lying within the temperature
range of calibration or at a well characterized secondary fixed point, such as
the cadmium freezing point, that lies within the temperature range of
calibration. The value of the temperature of a check point calculated from the
calibration constants should agree closely with the accepted value of that
point. If not, then either an error was made in the calibration, one or more
fixed point cells are defective, or the thermometer is defective.
The procedures indicated in section 3.2 for realizing the various fixed-point
temperatures and for handling SPRT’s are followed lowed care fully during
calibration of platinum thermometers, especially so for calibration at the
aluminum and silver freezing points (see sec. 3.2.4.2.7.1 for a discussion of
lattice defects). See section 6.3 for an example of how the coefficients of the
deviation functions are calculated from the data for the two sets of fixed
points.
4.3.3 CONVERSION OF THE IPTS-68 CONSTANTS AND W ( T 68) TABLES TO
APPROXIMATE ITS - 90 CONSTANTS AND W ( T 90 ) TABLES
For SPRT’s that have been calibrated recently on the IPTS-68(75), their
calibrations may be. converted to approximate, calibrations on the ITS-90 at
temperatures between the triple point of equilibrium hydrogen (13.8033 K) and
the freezing point of zinc (692.677 K).
To make the conversion, first obtain values of W(T68), i.e. R(T68)/R(O˚C), from
the, IPTS-68(75) calibrations, at values of T68 corresponding to the temperatures
of the relevant fixed points of the ITS-90 in the appropriate range in which the
conversion is desired. [Note : for a fixed point, the temperature values T68 and
T90 are different, but the “hotness“ is the same and so the resistance of a given
SPRT remains unchanged. The temperature values on the two scales are defined to
be the same only at the triple point of water and at the absolute zero of the
temperature scales. Due to the nature of the scales, however., there are other
temperature values of these scales that are also the same, which are fortuitous.
See fig. 1, which shows the difference of t90 and t68 as a function of t90. ] Using
these values of W ( T 68) at the appropriate ITS-90 fixed-point temperatures,
calculate values of W(T90), i.e., R(T90)/R(273.16 K), by dividing the values of
W(T68) at the appropriate fixed-point temperatures by the value of W(273.16 K),
i.e., the, value of W(T68) at the triple point of water. Table 8 shows samples of
such conversions for a capsule-type SPRT and for a long-stem type SPRT
calibrated on the IPTS-68(75). The calibration constants of the IPTS-68(75)
equations for the two SPRT’s are given also in table 8. The values of W(T90) so

Difference Between ITS-90 Calibration and IPTS-68 Calibration

Converted to ITS-90, Chino RS8YA-5, 25.5 ohm

0.5 0.5

0.4 0.4

0.3 0.3

T90-T90(68) 0.2
0.2
mK

0.1 0.1

0.0 0.0

-0.1 -0.1

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700
Temperature, K

Figure 18. Differences between T90 and (T90) as calculated from IPTS-68 calibration for the long-

Z-177
Table 8. Example of conversion of calibrations of SPRT’s on the IPTS-68 to 4.3.4 UNCERTAINTIES OF CALIBRATIONS AND THEIR PROPAGATION
approximate calibrations on the ITS-90
Both systematic and random errors of measurements introduced in a calibration
Capsule SPRT, S/N 1812284 : e-H2 TP to Sn FP are propagated throughout the temperature range of the calibration. It is the
total uncertainty arising from both of these types of errors, however, that is
IPTS-68 CALIBRATION CONSTANTS of interest to the customer and user of a calibrated thermometer. International
comparisons of fixed-point cells below 90 K [79] and other data suggest that the
R(0 ˚C) = 25.4964808 a = 3.9262754x10-3 d = 1.4964667 uncertainties (at the 10 level) in the realizations of the defining fixed points
A1 = 1.6314209x10-4 B1 = -8.7377446x10-7 C1 = 4.0321350x10-7 of the ITS-90 are about ± 0.2 mK for the triple points 0f hydrogen and neon, ±
D1 = 1.4525327x10-4 0.1 mK for the triple point of oxygen through the melting point of gallium, ±
A2 = 2.1616630x10-4
D2 = 2.2572375x10-10
A3 = 4.5449999x10-7
B2 = -1.7113512x10-7

B3 = -7.7242433x10-6
C2 = 6.6163769x10-8

C3 = 3.9028516x10-8
0.7 K at the freezing point of indium, ± 1 mK from the freezing point of tin
through the freezing point of aluminum, and ± 2 mK for the freezing point of
silver.
Z
A4 = 3.0860000xl0-7 C4 = 1.0880791x10-4
The uncertainty of temperature measurements in the liquid helium range (0.65 K
ITS-90 CALIBRATION CONSTANTS CONVERTED FROM THE IPTS-68 CONSTANTS to 5.0 K) results from the uncertainty of the helium vapor-pressure
measurements. The uncertainty (at the 1 o level) throughout this range of
R(273.16) = 25.4974973 temperature is estimated to be approximately ± 0.1 mK to ± 0.2 mK.
a1 = -2.5239001x10-4 b1 = 1.2277862x10-4 C1 = -2.3783015x10-6
For the CVGT, the uncertainty in the measured temperature over its temperature
ag = -2.5287142x10-4 bg = 1.1130131x10-5 C2 = -4.3892024x10-6
range (3.0 K to 24. 5561 K) arises from uncertainties of realizations of the
C3 = -1.5608728x10-6 triple points of neon and of equilibrium hydrogen, of the measurement of the
C4 = -2.1374663x10-7 CVGT gas pressure and of the measurement of the vapor pressure of helium. The
C5 = -1.0344171x10-8 uncertainty (at the 1o level) throughout this range of temperature is estimated
to be approximately ± 0.1 mK to ± 0.2 mK. Uncertainties introduced by a
particular CVGT design may add to these uncertainties.
Long-Stem SPRT. SIN RS8YA-5 : Ar TP to Zn FP
In the calibration of SPRT’s over any given subrange, the possible error in the
IPTS-68 CALIBRATION CONSTANTS realization of each of the fixed points and any error of measurement must be
considered and they will be propagated independently of that incurred at the
R(0 ˚C) = 25.5086208 A = 3.9856609x10-3 B = -5.8762238x10-6 other fixed points involved. The total uncertainty of measurements at a given
a = 3.9268986x10-3 d = 1.49640322 temperature is then the root-mean-square of the appropriate contributing
A4 = 2.6581418x10-14 C4 = 9.3183900x10-7 uncertainties. Curve, showing the propagation of a ± (unit error ) incurred at
each of the defining fixed points of the two major ranges are shown in figures
ITS-90 CALIBRATION CONSTANTS CONVERTED FROM THE IPTS-68 CONSTANTS 19 and 20. Figure 19 shows the propagation of errors associated with the fixed
point, below 213.16 K; and figure 20 shows curves for the fixed points used in
R(273.16 K) = 25.5096386 the calibration of SPRT’s in the range from 273.15 K to 1234.93 K. The labels
a4 = -9.3225823x10-5 b4 = -9.9914440x10-6 on the various curves indicate the fixed-point in which there is the unit error
a8 = -9.1058813x10-5 b8 = -7.6061559x10-6 in its temperature, and the other fixed points without error. As an example,
consider the curve labelled Sn(Ag, Al, Zn) of figure 20. The symbol Sn indicates
that the unit error occurs in the Sn freezing-point temperature; that is clearly
indicated by a unit offset of the curve at that point. The symbols in
obtained may then be used with the appropriate relations described in section 2
parenthesis,i.e., (Ag, Al, Zn), indicate that the Ag, Al, and Zn freezing points
to obtain the constants of the ITS-90 deviation equations for the SPRT’s. In
were made at those fixed-point temperatures without error. Also, it is assumed
tab1e 8 we list the value of the deviation constants that were calculated from the
that the measurements at the triple point of water were without error. The other
sample data presented there. For comparison, values of the conversion from W(T68) to
labelled curves are similarly interpreted. The straight lines labelled TPW show
W(T90) as well as measured values of W(T90), for the various relevant fixed-point the errors propagated for an error of ± 0.1 mK made by the user in the triple
temperatures T68 and T90, respectively, are given in table 9. The deviations in the point of water.
values of the last two columns of table 9 for the capsule SPRT reflect the
inconsistency between the NBS-IPTS-68(75) wire scale and the difference between
the IPTS-68(75) and the ITS-90 as given in table 1. Note that for the long-stem 4.3.5 ESTIMATES OF POSSIBLE ERRORS INTRODUCED BY EXTRAPOLATIONS BEYOND THE
SPRT, the zero deviations for tin and zinc are a consequence of those fixed RANGE OF CALIBRATION
points having been used in both cases and the
It is unwise and is poor practice to use any thermometer beyond the temperature
range over which it was calibrated. Nevertheless, some users persist in doing
Table 9. Values of W(T68) and W(T0) for various fixed-point temperatures T68 and just that. In some cases, especially if the extrapolation is for only a few
kelvins, the error introduced may be rather small. The errors of some typical
extrapolations calculated and depicted for NIST SPRT’s, are shown in figures
Capsule SPRT (S/N 1812284) 21, 22, 23, 24, and 25.

Fixed Point T68/K W(T68) meas.. T90/K W(T90) calc.* W(T90) meas.. The curve in figure 21 shows the error introduced for a NIST SPRT by
extrapolating the deviation function, determined from calibration over the range
e-H2 TP 13.81 0.00119822** 13.8033 0.00119817 0.00119721
e-H2 BP 17.04200 0.00231120** 17.0357 0.00231111 0.00231049 from the triple point of argon to the triple point of water, downward from the
e-H2 BP 20.280 0.00425962** 20.2711 0.00425945 0.00425815 argon triple point to 54 K. Extrapolating downward to about the boiling point
Ne TP 24.5616 0.00848337** 24.5561 0.00848303 0.00848391 of nitrogen (77 K) results in a fairly insignificant error in this case and,
o2 TP 54.361 0.09182547** 54.3584 0.09182180 0.09182102 thus, can be done with the usual caution that some thermometers may not be as
Ar TP 83.79723 0.21598575** 83.8058 0.21597714 0.21597795 good as that of figure 21.
Hg TP 234.3086 0.84421212** 234.3156 0.84417846 0.84417781
H2O TP 273.16 1.00003987** 273.16 1.00000000 1.00000000
Ga MP 302.9218 1.11815352** 302.9146 1.11810895 1.11810896 Figure 22 depicts the results for another NIST SPRT. The curve shows the error
In FP 429.7848 1.60970773** 429.7485 1.60964355 1.60964566 introduced by extrapolating the deviation function, determined from calibration
Sn FP 505.1181 1.89263856** 505.078 1.89256311 1.89256311 over the range from the triple point of mercury to the melting point of gallium,
downward from the mercury triple point to 84 K.
Long-Stem SPRT (S/N RS8YA-5):
Ar TP 83.79723 0.21592943** 83.8058 0.21592084 0.21592281 Figure 23 displays the results for the same NIST SPRT as used for figure 22, but
Hg TP 234.3086 0.84418993** 234.3156 0.84415637 0.84415625 the curve in this case shows the error introduced by extrapolating the deviation
H2O TP 273.16 1.00003976 273.16 1.00000000 1.00000000 function, determined from calibration over the range from the triple point of
Ga MP 302.9218 1.11817175*** 302.9146 1.11812729 1.11812699 mercury to the melting point of gallium, downward from the mercury triple point
In FP 429.7848 1.60980450*** 429.7485 1.60974050 1.60974062
Sn FP 505.1181 1.89278557 505.078 1.89271033 1.89271033 to only 200 K. A sizable error is shown for observations that would be made at
Zn FP 692.73 2.56885786 692.677 2.56875573 2.56875573 Dry Ice temperatures (-78 ˚C).
* Values of W(T90) calc. were obtained by conversion of corresponding values of
W(T68) meas. Figure 24 depicts the results for several NIST SPRT’s, but the curves in this
case show the errors introduced by extrapolating their deviation functions,
**These values were calculated from NBS-IPTS-68 calibration constants, based on determined from calibration over the range from the triple point of water to the
the NBS wire scale and calibration at the triple point of water and the freezing
point of tin (and the freezing point of zinc for the long-stem SPRT). freezing point of zinc, downward from the triple point of water to -50 ˚C.
***These values were calculated from IPTS-68 calibration constants determined Figure 25 displays the results for several NIST SPRT’s, but in this case the
from fixed points.
curves show the errors introduced by extrapolating their deviation functions,
determined from calibration over the range from the triple point of water to the
freezing point of zinc, upward from the freezing point of zinc to 934 K (660 ˚C).
conversion process having been consistent. The deviations for the other fixed
points (Ar, Hg, Ga, and In) reflect the non-uniqueness of this SPRT and possible As a general rule and good practice, one should never extrapolate any of the
errors incurred in measurements at those fixed points. ITS-90 deviation functions beyond their range of application. If however, the
estimated uncertainty introduced by extrapolating a deviation function beyond
The results of tables 8 and 9 for the long-stem SPRT, with regard to the
differences between temperatures determined from an actual ITS-90 calibration the range of calibration is acceptable, then the user may do so, but with the
and those deterimined from an IPTS-68 calibration but then calculated for knowledge that his thermometer may yield results with a larger uncertainty than
approximate ITS-90 values, are shown in figure 18. Note that at temperatures that estimated. The user that makes such extrapolations should realize that not
above 273.16 K. the zero deviation of figure 18 is a consequence of the fact that all SPRT’s wi1l behave as indicated in figures 21 through 25. The results
the same fixed points (tin and zinc ) have been used in both cases and the
conversion process having been consistent. depicted in these figures are examples only and are valid for only those SPRT’s
indicated. Other SPRT’s may be better or worse.

Z-178
Guidelines for Realizing the ITS-90 Cont’d

ITS-90 Propagation of Calibration Errors

in Platinum Resistance Thermometry
2.0 2.0

1.5 20.3(e-H2, 17, Ne, O2, Ar, Hg) Hg(e-H2, 17, 20.3, Ne, O2, Ar) 1.5
17(e-H2, 17, Ne, O2, Ar, Hg)
Ar(e-H2, 17, 20.3, Ne, O2, Hg)

1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5

error
0.0 0.0
in mK

-0.5 -0.5
e-H2(17, 20.3, Ne,
O2, Ar, Hg)

-1.0 -1.0

O2(e-H2, 17, 20.3, Ne, Hg, Ar)

-1.5 -1.5

Ne(e-H2, 17, 20.3, O2, Ar, Hg)

-2.0 -2.0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275
Temperature, K

Figure 19. Propagation of errors from errors of calibration of SPRT’s between 13.8033 K and
273.16 K. The curves show the error in the temperature values caused by a unit positive or unit
negative error of calibration at each of the fixed points in the range, namely, the triple points
of equilibrium hydrogen, neon, oxygen, argon, and mercury. The calibration at the triple point of
water is assumed to have been made without error. The curves are identified by the fixed point

ITS-90 Propagation of Calibration Errors

in Platinum Resistance Thermometry
1.5 1.5

Sn(Ag,Al,Zn) Al(Ag,Zn,Sn)
Zn(Ag,Al,Sn)
Ag(Al,Zn,Sn)
1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5
TPW

Error in degrees
per degree error 0.0 0.0
in calibration

-0.5 -0.5

-1.0 -1.0

-1.5 -1.5
250 350 450 550 650 750 850 950 1050 1150 1250
Temperature, K
Figure 20. Propagation of errors from errors of calibration of SPRT’s between 273.15 K and
1234.93 K. The curves show the error in the temperature values caused by a unit positive or unit
negative error of calibration at each of the fixed points in the range, namely, gallium, indium,
tin, zinc, aluminum, and silver points. The calibration at the triple point of water is assumed to
have been made without error. The curves are identified by the fixed point with error outside the
parenthesis and the three fixed points without error inside the parenthesis. Also included in this
figure are error curves for errors made by the user at the triple point of water; these curves

Z-179
 ITS-90, 25.2 ohm Capsule PRT 1812284
Oxygen Subrange - Extrapolated Argon Subrange
0.1 0.1

0.0 0.0

Z
-0.1 -0.1

-0.2 -0.2

-0.3 -0.3

-0.4 -0.4
error
in mK
-0.5 -0.5

-0.6 -0.6

-0.7 -0.7

-0.8 -0.8

-0.9 -0.9

-1.0 -1.0
50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275
Temperature, K
Figure 21. Error curve for a NIST SPRT; the curve shows the error introduced by extrapolating its
deviation function, determined from calibration over the range from the triple point of argon to
the triple point of water, downward from the triple point of argon to 54K.

ITS-90, Chino Model R800-2, RS8YA-5, 25.5 ohm

Ar to T3 Subrange - Extrapolated Hg to Ga Subrange
20 50

15 15

10 10

error
in mK

5 5

0 0

-5 -5
75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275
Temperature, K
Figure 22. Curve for a NIST SPRT that shows the error introduced by extrapolating its deviation
function, determined from calibration over the range from the triple point of mercury to the
melting point of gallium, downward from the triple point of mercury to 84K

Z-180
Guidelines for Realizing the ITS-90 Cont’d

ITS-90, Chino Model R800-2, RS8YA-5, 25.5 ohm

Ar to T3 Subrange - Extrapolated Hg to Ga Subrange
1.5 1.5

1.0 1.0

error
in mK 0.5 0.5

0.0 0.0

-0.5 -0.5
200 205 210 215 220 225 230 235 240 245 250 255 260 265 270 275
Temperature, K
Figure 23. Curve for the NIST SPRT of figure 22 that shows the error introduced by extrapolating
its deviation function, determined from calibration over the range from the triple point of
mercury to the melting point of gallium, downward from the triple point of mercury to only 200 K.

ITS-90, 25.5 ohm PRTs

Ar Subrange - Extrapolated Zn Subrange

0.0 0.0

-0.5 -0.5

-1.0 -1.0

error
in m°C -1.5 35
-1.5

32

-2.0 34 -2.0

31

30 -2.5
-2.5

-3.0 -3.0
-50 -45 -40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0
Temperature, °C
Figure 25. Curves for several NIST SPRT’s that show the errors introduced by extrapolating their
deviation functions, determined from calibration over the range from the triple point of water to
the freezing point of zinc, downward to the triple point of water to -50˚C.

Z-181
 ITS-90, 25.5 ohm PRT’s
Al Subrange - Extrapolated Zn Subrange

3.0 3.0

2.0 2.0
30

1.0 1.0
Z
31

33
0.0 0.0

error -- -- 1 . 0
1.0
in mK

32
-- 2 . 0 -- 2 . 0

-- 3 . 0 -- 3 . 0

35

-- 4 . 0 -- 4 . 0
34

-- 5 . 0 -- 5 . 0

250 350 450 550 650 750 850 950

Temperature, K
Figure 25. Curves for several NIST SPRT’s that show the errors introduced by extrapolating their
deviation functions, determined from calibration over the range from the triple point of water to
the freezing point of zinc, upward from the freezing point of zinc to 934 K (660˚C). Also shown are
subrange inconsistencies for the subrange triple point of water to zinc, relative to the subrange

4.4 THERMOCOUPLES (77 K TO 2400 K) Table 10. Example of a conversion of calibration values of a type K thermocouple
on the IPTS-68 to an approximate calibration on the ITS-90
There are numerous letter-designated types of thermocouples. The Type S
thermocouple was the standard instrument of the IPTS-68(75) in the range from
630.74 ˚C to 1064.43 ˚C, but it is not a standard instrument of the ITS-90. Calibration Values Calibration Values
Customer thermocouples are calibrated at NIST by using a set of temperature on IPTS-68 on IPTS-90
fixed points, by comparison with SPRT’s, or by comparison with reference-
standard thermocouples that have been calibrated either by comparison with an t68 emf68 S t90-t68 ∆ t90 emf90a
SPRT or a radiation pyrometer, or through the use of fixed points. For details (˚C) (mV) (mV/˚C) (˚C) [-S•(t90-t68)] (˚C) (mV)
of the calibration procedures and of the uncertainties involved, see NIST SP Monograph Table 1 (mV)
250-35 [22] and NIST Monograph 175 (23] (or Monograph 125 (82]). 125
0.0 0.000 0.0395 0.000 0.000 0.0 0.000
Usually, the calibration data for most types of thermocouples are analyzed 100.0 4.092 0.414 -0.026 -0.001 100.0 4.093
relative to reference tables, such as those given in NBS Monograph 125 [82]. 200.0 8.130 0.0400 -0.040 -0.002 200.0 8.132
Monograph 125, of course, has reference tables for thermocouples based on the 300.0 12.195 0.0415 -0.039 -0.002 300.0 12.197
IPTS-68(75). This monograph has been revised and updated to give reference 400.0 16.383 0.0422 -0.048 -0.002 400.0 16.385
tables for all letter-designated thermocouples based on the ITS-90. The revised 500.0 20.633 0.0426 -0.079 -0.003 500.0 20.636
version of Monograph 125 is Monograph 175 (23) and it supersedes Monograph 125. 600.0 24.904 0.0425 -0.115 -0.005 600.0 24.909
700.0 29.136 0.0419 0.20 0.008 700.0 29.128
800.0 33.288 0.0410 0.34 0.014 800.0 29.128
The electromotive-force-temperature data for a thermocouple calibrated on the 900.0 37.338 0.0400 -0.01 0.000 900.0 37.338
IPTS-68(75) can be converted to an approximate ITS-90 calibration through the 1000.0 41.281 0.0389 -0.19 -0.007 1000.0 41.288
use of the differences (t90 - t68,) given in table 1 of this document and the S 1100.0 45.118 0.0378 -0.26 -0.010 1100.0 45.128
values in mV/˚C for the relevant thermocouple given in Monograph 175 or
Monograph 125. An example of this conversion is given in table 10. A typical
calibration report is presented in appendix 3 (see sec. 6.3.8).
a
emf90 - emf68 -∆

4.5 LIQUID-IN-GLASS THERMOMETERS

Liquid-in-glass thermometers have uncertainties of realization as small as ± 30

mK in the temperature range from 0˚C to about 100 ˚C, but deteriorates at
lower and higher temperaures. Liquid-in-glass (primarily,Mercury-in-glass)
thermometers are calibrated at NIST by comparison with SPRT’s in liquid baths of
various kinds that cover different temperature ranges. For details of the
calibration procedures and of the uncertainties involved, see NIST SP 250-23
(105]. An example of a calibration report, based on the IPTS-68(75), of a
liquid-in-glass thermometer is given in appendix 3 (see sec. 6.3.9). A were expressed as being on the ITS-90. (Note: the ASTM and the IEC are
calibration report for the same thermometer, with the IPTS-68(75) calibration converting their respective IPRT tables from the IPTS-68(75) to the ITS-90. ASTM
converted to an approximate ITS-90 calibration through the use of (t90 - t68) Committee E-20 on Temperature Measurements is responsible for this conversion
differences given in table 7 is given also in appendix 3 (see sec. 6.3.10). for the ASTM).

4.6 INDUSTRIAL PLATINUM RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS
Industrial platinum resistance thermometers (IPRT’s) are designed primarily for
use in the temperature range from about 77 K (approximate liquid nitrogen
boiling point) to 500 ˚C. Typically, the manufacturer of IPRT’s quotes minimum
instabilities of the IPRTs at the ± 0. 1 K level over this range of
temperatures. Some IPRT’s may be somewhat better than this but others may be
considerably worse. As seen from table 1, the maximum difference of (T9o - T68)
below 500˚C is about 0.08 K, and therefore the
difference in temperature due to the change in temperature scales is within the
instability of many IPRT’s. Continued use of the IPTS-68(75) and of equations
and standards [American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
Standard,E1137,and International ElectrotechnicalCommission (IEC) Standard,
Publication 751] referenced to the IPTS-68(75),therefore, would result in an
increase in uncertainty of temperature of only about 0.1 K if the temperature
When IPRT’s are calibrated on the ITS-90, of course, they may be calibrated in
the same manner as is used for SPRT’s. A better method of calibrating IPRT’s,
however, is to obtain resistance-temperature data by comparison with a
calibrated SPRT at numerous temperatures the range of interest and then fit a
p o l y n o m i a l i n t 9o t o R ( t 90) / R ( 0 ˚ C ) , o r t o R ( t 90) / R ( 0 . 0 l ˚ C ) d a t a b y a
least squares technique.
4.7 THERMISTOR THERMOMETERS, DIGITAL THERMOMETERS, AND OTHER TYPES OF
THERMOMETERS.
Thermistor thermometers, digital thermometers (with resistance, thermocouple, or
diode sensors), and other types of thermometers are calibrated at NIST by
comparison with SPRT’s in liquid baths. The calibration procedures followed are
similar to those used with liquid-in-glass thermometers. The uncertainties of
calibration range from as small as ± 2 mk for thermistor thermometers to tenths

Z-182
Guidelines for Realizing the ITS-90 Cont’d
of kelvins for the others. The temperatures of calibration for these types
ofthermometers usually lie somewhere within the range from about 77 K to 850 K
Bead-in-glass probe type thermistors used in the moderate temperature range are
quite stable and they may be used to approximate the ITS-90 at a level of about
± 1 . 5mK to ± 2.0 mK [67] . In their case , a polynomial, the degree of which
depends on the temperature range of the calibration, is fitted to resistance-
temperature data and the results reported in terms of that polynomial. A
calibration on the IPTS-68 (75) may be converted to an approximate ITS-90
calibration by the same procedure as outlined for RIRT’s .
4.8 THE LOGO OF THE NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF STANDARDS LABORATORIES FOR THE ITS-90
The National Conference of Standards Laboratories (NCSL) formed an Ad Hoc
Committee on the Change of the Temperature Scale at the beginning of l988 in
order to publicize the new temperature scale (ITS-90) and to facilitate its
implementation. At the NCSL meeting in July 1989, the Ad Hoc Committee adopted a
logo available from the NCSL [1800 30th Street, Suite 305B , Boulder, CO 80301,
Tel. (303) 440-3339 ] , that may be affixed to thermometers that have been
calibrated on the ITS-90. The purpose of the logo, illustrated in figure 26, is
to indicate at a glance, without having to refer to documentation, those
thermometers in a laboratory that have been calibrated on the new scale. This is
particularly useful for those laboratories that have their various thermometers
calibrated on a prescribed schedule, with different thermometers being
Figure 26. The NCSL ITS-90 logo.
Z-183
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[83] Preston-Thomas, H., The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90),
Metrologia 27, 3-10 (1990).
[84] Proces-Verbaux des Seances du Comite International des Poid. et Mesures,
(78• session, octobre 1989), in press.
[85] Quinn, T. J., News from the BIPM, Metrologia 26, 69-74 (1989).
[86] Quinn, T. J. and Chandler, T. R. D., The Freezing Point of Platinum
Determined by the NPL Photoelectric Pyrometer, Temperature, Its Measurement and
Control in Science and Industry. Edited by H. H . Plumb, Vol. 4, Part 1, pp.
295- 309 (Instrument Society of America, Pittsburgh, PA, 1972).
1871 Quinn, T. J., Temperature (Academic Press, Inc., New York, N. Y. (1983).
[88] Ricci, J. E., The Phase Rule and Heterogeneous Equilibrium, (Dover
Publications, Inc., New York, NY, 1966).
[97] Streett, W. B. and D. H. Jones, Liquid Phase Separation and Liquid-vapor
Equilibrium in the System Neon-Hydrogen, J. Chem. Phys. 42, 3989-3994 (1965).
[98] Takiya, M., Precise Measurement of the Freezing Point of Silver with a
Platinum Resistance Thermometer, Comitee Consultatif de Thermometrie. 12th
Session, Annexe T30, T154-T159 (1978).
[99] The 1976 Provisional 0.5.K to 30 K Temperature Scale, Metrologia 15, 65-68
(1979).
[100] The International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968, Metrologia 5,
35-44(1969).
[101] The International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968, Amended Edition of1975,
Metrologia 12, 7-17 (1976)
[102] Weber,S. and Schmidt,G., Experimentelle Untersuchungen Ober die
Thermomolekulare Druckdifferenz in der Nahe der Grenzbedingung Pl/P2 = (T1/T2)1/2
und Vergleichung nit der Theorie, Leiden Communication 246C, 1-13 (1936).

[89] Righini, F., Rosso, A., and Ruffino, G., Temperature Dependence of [103] Weeks. J. R., Liquidus Curves and Corrosion of Fe, Cr , Ni, Co, V, Cb, Ta,
Effective Wavelength in Optical Pyrometry, Temperature. Its, Measurement and Ti, Zr, in 500-750 ˚C Mercury, Corrosion 23, 98-106 (1967).
Control in Science and Industry, Edited by H. H. Plumb, Vol. 4, Part 1, pp. 413-
421 (Instrument Society of America, Pittsburgh, PA, 1972).
[104] Weitzel, D. H. and Park, 0. E., Iron Catalyst for Production of Liquid
[90] Roberts, T. R., Sherman, R. H., and Sydoriak, S. G., The 1962 The Scale of para-Hydrogen, Rev. Sci. Instr. 27,57-58 (1956).
Temperatures III. Evaluation and Status, J. Res. Natl. Bur. Stands. 68A, 567-578
(1964). [105] Wise, Jacquelyn, Liquid-In-Glass Thermometer Calibration Service, NIST
Special Publication 250-23 (September 1988).
[91] Rusby, R. L. and Swenson, C. A., A New Determination of the Helium Vapour
Pressure Scales Using a CMN Magnetic Thermometer and the NPL-75 Gas Thermometer
Scale, Metrologia-16, 73-87 (1980).

[92] Sawada, S., Realization of the triple point of Indium in a sealed glass
cell, Temperature Its Measurement and Control in Science and Industry, Edited by
J. F. Schooley, Vol. 5, Part 1, pp. 343-346 (American Institute of Physics, New
York 1982).

[93] . Simon,M ., On the Phase Separation in the Liquid System Ne-pH2, Phys.
Letters, 5, 319 (1963).

[94] Sostman, H. E., Melting point of gallium as a temperature calibration

standard, Rev. Sci. Instrum . 41, 127-130 (1977).

Reproduced with permission of National Institute of Standards and Technology

Z-185
The International
Temperature Scale of 1990
metrologia ©Springer-Verlag 1990
The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90)
H. Preston-Thomas
President of the Comité Consultatif de
Thermométrie and Vice-President of the Comité
International des Poids et Mesures Division of Physics,
National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, K1A
OS1 Canada
Received: October 24, 1989
The International
Temperature Scale of 1990
The International Temperature Scale of 1990 was
adopted by the International Committee of Weights and
Measures at its meeting in 1989, in accordance with the
request embodied in Resolution 7 of the 18th General
Conference of Weights and Measures of 1987. This
scale supersedes the International Practical Temperature
Scale of 1968 (amended edition of 1975) and the 1976
Provisional 0.5 K to 30 K Temperature Scale.
1. Units of Temperature
The unit of the fundamental physical quantity known as
thermodynamic temperature, symbol T, is th kelvin
symbol K, defined as the fraction 1/273.16 of the
thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water 1.
Because of the way earlier temperature scales were
defined, it remains common practice to express a
temperature in terms of its difference from 273.15 K,
the ice point. A thermodynamic temperature, T,
expressed in this way is known as a Celsius
temperature, symbol t, defined by:
t / °C=T/K —273.15 . (1)
The unit of Celsius temperature is the degree Celsius,
symbol °C, which is by definition equal in magnitude to
the kelvin. A difference of temperature may be
expressed in kelvins or degrees Celsius.
The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90)
defines both International Kelvin Temperatures, symbol
T90, and International Celsius Temperatures, symbol
t 90. The relation between T90 and t 90 is the same as
that between T and t, i.e.:
t 90 /°C = T90 /K —273.15 . (2)
The unit of the physical quantity T90 is the kelvin,
symbol K, and the unit of the physical quantity t90 is the
degree Celsius, symbol °C, as is the case for the
thermodynamic temperature T and the Celsius
temperature t.
1
Comptes Rendux des Séances de la Treizième Conférence
Générale des Poids et Mesures (1967-1968). Resolutions
3 and 4, p. 104
Reprinted with permission of Bureau International des Poids et Mesures.
This copy incorporates textual corrections detailed in Metrologia 27, 107 (1990)
Introductory Note
The official French text of the ITS-90 is published by
the BIPM as part of the Prochès-verbaux of the Comité
Z
International des Poids et Mesures (CIPM). However,
the English version of the text reproduced here has
been authorized by the Comité Consultatif de
Thermométrie (CCT) and approved by the CIPM.
2. Principles of the International
Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90)
The ITS-90 extends upwards from 0.65 K to the
highest temperature practicably measurable in terms
of the Planck radiation law using monochromatic
radiation. The ITS-90 comprises a number of ranges
and sub-ranges throughout each of which
temperatures T90 are defined. Several of these ranges
or sub-ranges overlap, and where such overlapping
occurs, differing definitions of T90 exist: these differing
definitions have equal status. For measurements of the
very highest precision there may be detectable
numerical differences between measurements made at
the same temperature but in accordance with differing
definitions. Similarly, even using one definition, at a
temperature between defining fixed points two
acceptable interpolating instruments (e.g. resistance
thermometers) may give detectably differing numerical
values of T90. In virtually all cases these differences
are of negligible practical importance and are at the
minimum level consistent with a scale of no more than
reasonable complexity; for further information on this
point see “Supplementary information for the ITS-90”
(BIPM-1990).
The ITS-90 has been constructed in such a way that,
throughout its range, for any given temperature the
numerical value of T90 is a close approximation to the
numerical value of T according to best estimates at the
time the scale was adopted. By comparison with direct
measurements of thermodynamic temperatures,
measurements of T90 are more easily made, are more
precise and are highly reproducible.
There are significant numerical differences between
the values of T90 and the corresponding values of T90
measured on the International Practical Temperature
Scale of 1968 (IPTS-68), see Fig. 1 and Table 6.
Similarly there were differences between the IPTS-68
and the International Practical Temperature Scale of
1948 (IPTS-48), and between the International
Temperature Scale of 1948 (ITS-48) and the
International Temperature Scale of 1927 (ITS-27).
See the Appendix, and, for more detailed information,
“Supplementary Information for the ITS-90”.
Z- 186
The International Temperature Scale of 1990 Cont’d

0.02
Temperature difference (t 90-t 68)/°C

0 0.4

-0.02

-0.04 0.2

-200 0 200 400

0 0
0 100

-0.01 -0.2
-0.2

-0.02

-200 0 200 400 600 800 1000

t 90/°C
FIG. 1. The differences (t 90 — t 68) as a function of Celsius temperatue t 90

3. Definition of the International 3.1. From 0.65 K: Helium Vapour-Pressure

Temperature Scale of 1990 Temperature Equations
Between 0.65 K and 5.0 K T90 is defined in terms of the In this range T90 is defined in terms of the vapour
vapour-pressure temperature relations 3He and 4He. pressure p of 3He and 4He using equations of the form:
9
Between 3.0 K and the triple point of neon (24.5561 K) T90 /K = A0 + ∑ Ai [(ln (p /Pa) — B )/C ) i . (3)
T90 is defined by means of a helium gas thermometer i=1

calibrated at three experimentally realizable temperatures

having assigned numerical values (defining fixed points)
and using specified interpolation procedures.
Between the triple point of equilibrium hydrogen
(13.8033 K) and the freezing point of silver (961.78 °C)
T90 is defined by means of platinum resistance
thermometers calibrated at specified sets of defining
fixed points and using specified interpolation
procedures.
Above the freezing point of silver (961.78°C) T90 is
defined in terms of a defining fixed point and the
Planck radiation law.
The defining fixed points of the ITS-90 are listed in
Table 1. The effects of pressure, arising from
significant depths of immersion of the sensor or from
other causes, on the temperature of most of these
points are given in Table 2.
Z- 187
The values of the constants A0, Ai, B and C are given
in Table 3 for 3He in the range of 0.65 K to 3.2 K, and
for 4He in the ranges 1.25 K to 2.1768 K (the l point)
and 2.1768 K to 5.0 K.
3.2 From 3.0 K to the Triple Point of Neon (24.5561 K):
Gas Thermometer
In this range T90 is defined in terms of a 3He or a 4He
gas thermometer of the constant-volume type that has
been calibrated at three temperatures. These are the
triple point of neon (24.5561 K), the triple point of
equilibrium hydrogen (13.8033 K), and a temperature
is between 3.0 K and 5.0 K. This last temperature is
determined using a 3He or a 4He vapour pressure
thermometer as specified in Sect. 3.1.
Table 1. Defining fixed points of the ITS-90 Table 3. Values of the constants for the helium vapour
pressure Eqs. (3), and the temperature range for which
Number Temperature Sub- Stateb Wr(T90)
—————————— stancea each equation, identified by its set of constants, is valid
T90 /K t 90 /°C 3
He He
4
He
4

1 3 to 5— 270.15 to He V 0,65 K to 3,2 K 1,25 K to 2,1768 K 2,1768 K to 5,0 K

— 268.15
2
3
13.8033 — 259.3467
≈ 17 ≈ — 256.15
e-H2
e-H2
T
V
0.0001 190 07
A0
A1
1.053 447
0.980 106
1.392 408
0.527 153
3.146 631
1.357 655 Z
A2 0.676 380 0.166 756 0.413 923
(or He) (or G) A3 0.372 692 0.050 988 0.091 159
4 ≈ 20.3 ≈ — 252.85 e-H2 V A4 0.151 656 0.026 514 0.016 349
(or He) (or G) A5 — 0.002 263 0.001 975 0.001 826
5 24.5561 — 248.5939 Ne T 0.008 449 74
6 54.3584 — 218.7916 O2 T 0.091 718 04 A6 0.006 596 — 0.017 976 — 0.00 4325
7 83.8058 — 189.3442 Ar T 0.215 859 75 A7 0.088 966 0.005 409 — 0.00 4973
8 234.3156 — 38.8344 Hg T 0.844 142 11 A8 — 0.004 770 0.013 259 0
9 273.16 0.01 H2O T 1.000 000 00 A9 — 0.054 943 0 0
10 302.9146 29.7646 Ga M 1.118 138 89 B 7.3 5.6 10.3
11 429.7485 156.5985 In F 1.609 801 85 C 4.3 2.9 1.9
12 505.078 231.928 Sn F 1.892 797 68

13 692.677 419.527 Zn F 2.568 917 30

14 933.473 660.323 Al F 3.376 008 60 3.2.1. From 4.2 K to the Triple Point of Neon (24.5561
15 1234.93 961.78 Ag F 4.286 420 53 K) with 4He as the Thermometric Gas. In this range T90
16 1337.33 1064.18 Au F is defined by the relation:
17 1357.77 1084.62 Cu F
T90 = a + bp + cp 2 , (4)
a
All substances except 3He are of natural isotopic composition. e-H2 where p is the pressure in the gas thermometer and a, b
is hydrogen at the equilibrium concentration of the ortho- and para-
molecular forms and c are coefficients the numerical values of which are
b
For complete definitions and advice on the realization of these obtained from measurements made at the three defining
various states, see “Supplementary Information for the ITS-90”. The fixed points given in Sect. 3.2. but with the further
symbols have the following meanings: V: vapour pressure point; T: restriction that the lowest one of these points lies
triple point (temperature at which the solid liquid and vapour phases are
in equilibrium); G: gas thermometer point; M, F: melting point, freezing between 4.2 K and 5.0 K.
point (temperature, at a pressure of 101 325 Pa, at which the solid and 3.2.2. From 3.0 K to the Triple Point of Neon
liquid phases are in equilibrium)
(24.5561 K) with 3He or 4He as the Thermometric Gas.
For a 3He gas thermometer, and for a 4He gas
Table 2. Effect of pressure on the temperatures thermometer used below 4.2 K, the non-ideality of the
of some defining fixed points ‡ gas must be accounted for explicitly, using the
Substance Assignment Temperature Variation appropriate second virial coefficient B3 (T90) or B4 (T90).
value of with pressure, p with depth, l In this range T90 is defined by the relation:
equilibrium (dT/dp)/ (dT/dl)/
temperature (10 -8 K · Pa -1)* (10-3 K · m-1)** a + bp + cp 2
T90 /K T90 = ————————— , (5)
1 + BX (T90) N /V
e-Hydrogen (T) 13.8033 34 0.25
Neon (T) 24.5561 16 1.9 where p is the pressure in the gas thermometer, a, b
Oxygen (T) 54.3584 12 1.5 and c are coefficients the numerical values of which
Argon (T) 83.8058 25 3.3 are obtained from measurements at three defining
temperatures as given in Sect. 3.2, N /V is the gas
Mercury (T) 234.3156 5.4 7.1 density with N being the quantity of gas and V the
Water (T) 273.16 — 7.5 — 0.73 volume of the bulb, X is 3 or 4 according to the isotope
Gallium 302.9146 — 2.0 — 1.2 used, and the values of the second virial coefficients
Indium 429.7485 4.9 3.3 are given by the relations:
Tin 505.078 3.3 2.2 For 3He,
Zinc 692.677 4.3 2.7
Aluminium 933.473 7.0 1.6 B (T90)/m3 mol — 1 = {16.69 — 336.98 (T90 /K) — 1 (6a)
Silver 1234.93 6.0 5.4 + 91.04 (T90 /K) — 2 — 13.82 (T90 /K) — 3} 10 — 6 .
Gold 1337.33 6.1 10 For 4He,
Copper 1357.77 3.3 2.6 B4 (T90)/m3 mol-1 = {16.708 — 374.05 (T90 /K) — 1 (6b)
* Equivalent to millikelvins per standard atmosphere — 383.53 (T90 /K) — 2 + 1799.2 (T90 /K) — 3
** Equivalent to millikelvins per metre of liquid — 4033.2 (T90 /K) — 4 + 3252.8 (T90 /K) — 3} 10 — 6 .
‡
The Reference pressure for melting and freezing points is the
standard atmosphere (p0=101 325 Pa). For triple points (T) the
pressure effect is a consequence only of the hydrostatic head of liquid
in the cell
Z- 188
The International Temperature Scale of 1990 Cont’d

Table 4. The constants A 0, A i; B o, B i; C 0, C i; D 0 and Temperatures are determined in terms of the ratio of
D i in the reference functions of equations (9a); (9b); the resistance R (T90) at a temperature T90 and the
(10a); and (10b), respectively resistance R (273.16 K) at the triple point of water.
This ratio, W (T90), is 2:
A0 — 2.135 347 29 B0 0.183 324 722 B13 — 0.091 173 542 W (T90) = R (T90)/R (273.16 K) . (7)
A1 3.183 247 20 B1 0.240 975 303 B14 0.001 317 696
A2 — 1.801 435 97 B2 0.209 108 771 B15 0.026 025 526 An acceptable platinum resistance thermometer must
A3 0.717 272 04 B3 0.190 439 972 be made from pure, strain-free platinum, and it must
satisfy at least one of the following two relations:
A4 0.503 440 27 B4 0.142 648 498 W (29.7646 °C) ≥ 1.118 07 , (8a)
A5 — 0.618 993 95 B5 0.077 993 465
A6 — 0.053 323 22 B6 0.012 475 611 W (— 38.8344 °C) ≥ 0.844 235 . (8b)
A7 0.280 213 62 B7 — 0.032 267 127 An acceptable platinum resistance thermometer that is
A8 0.107 152 24 B8 — 0.075 291 522 to be used up to the freezing point of silver must also
A9 — 0.293 028 65 B9 — 0.056 470 670 satisfy the relation:
A10 0.044 598 72 B10 0.076 201 285 W (961.78 °C) ≥ 4.2844 . (8c)
A11 0.118 686 32 B11 — 0.123 893 204
A12 — 0.052 481 34 B12 — 0.029 201 193 In each of the resistance thermometer ranges, T90
is obtained from W (T90) as given by the appropriate
C0 2.781 572 54 D0 439.932 854 reference function {Eqs. (9b) or (10b)}, and the
C1 1.646 509 16 D1 472.418 020 deviation W (T90) — Wr (T90). At the defining fixed
C2 — 0.137 143 90 D2 37.684 494 points this deviation is obtained directly from the
C3 — 0.006 497 67 D3 7.472 018 calibration of the thermometer: at intermediate
temperatures it is obtained by means of the
C4 — 0.002 344 44 D4 2.920 828
C5 0.005 118 68 D5 0.005 184 appropriate deviation function {Eqs. (12), (13)
C6 0.001 879 82 D6 — 0.963 864 and (14)}.
C7 — 0.002 044 72 D7 — 0.188 732 (i) — For the range 13.8033 K to 273.16 K the
following reference function is defined:
C8 — 0.000 461 22 D8 0.191 203 12
In (T90)/273.16 K) + 1,5 i
C9 0.000 457 24 D9 0.049 025
[
In [Wr (T90)] = A0 + ∑ A i ——————————
i=1
1,5
]
.(9a)
The accuracy with which T90 can be realized using
Eqs. (4) and (5) depends on the design of the gas An inverse function, equivalent to Eq. (9a) to within 0,1
thermometer and the gas density used. Design criteria mK, is:
and current good practice required to achieve a 15
Wr (T90)1/6 — 0.65 i

selected accuracy are given in “Supplementary i=1

[
T90 /273.16 K = B 0 + ∑ B i ————————
0.35
]
.(9b)
Information for the ITS-90”.
3.3. The Triple Point of Equilibrium Hydrogen The values of the constants A0, A i, B 0 and B i are given
(13.8033 K) to the Freezing Point of Silver (961.78 °C): in Table 4.
Platinum Resistance Thermometer A thermometer may be calibrated for use throughout
In this range T90 is defined by means of a platinum this range or, using progressively fewer calibration
resistance thermometer calibrated at specified sets points, for ranges with low temperature limits of
of defining fixed points, and using specified reference 24.5561 K, 54.3584 K and 83.8058 K, all having an
and deviation functions for interpolation at intervening upper limit of 273.16 K.
temperatures. (ii) — For the range 0 °C to 961.78 °C the following
No single platinum resistance thermometer can provide reference function is defined:
high accuracy, or is even likely to be usable, over all of 9
T90 /K — 754.15 i
the temperature range 13.8033 K to 961.78 °C. The i=1
[
Wr (T90 ) = C 0 + ∑ C i ———————
481
]
. (10a)
choice of temperature range, or ranges, from among
those listed below for which a particular thermometer An inverse function, equivalent to equation (10a) to
can be used is normally limited by its construction. within 0,13 mK is:
For practical details and current good practice, in 9
Wr (T90) — 2.64 i
particular concerning types of thermometer available, T90 /K — 273.15 = D 0 + ∑ D i ———————
i=1
[ 1.64
]
.(10b)
their acceptable operating ranges, probable
accuracies, permissible leakage resistance, resistance The values of the constants C 0, C i, D 0 and D i are
values, and thermal treatment, see “Supplementary given in Table 4.
Information for ITS-90”. It is particularly important to —————
take account of the appropriate heat treatments that 2
Note that this definition of W (T90) differs from the corresponding
should be followed each time a platinum resistance definition used in the ITS-27, ITS-48, IPTS-48, and IPTS-68: for all of
thermometer is subjected to a temperature above these earlier scales W (T) was defined in terms of reference temperature
about 420°C. of 0°C, which since 1954 has itself been defined as 273.15 K

Z- 189
A thermometer may be calibrated for use throughout Table 5. Deviation functions and calibration points for
this range or, using fewer calibration points, for ranges platinum resistance thermometers in the various
with upper limits of 660.323 °C, 419.527 °C, 231.928 ranges in which they define T90
°C, 156.5985 °C or 29.7646 °C, all having a lower limit
of 0°C. a Ranges with an upper limit of 273,16 K
(iii) — A thermometer may be calibrated for use in the Sec- Lower Deviation functions Calibration
range 234.3156 K ( — 38.8344 °C) to 29.7646 °C, the tion temper- points (see
calibration being made at these temperatures and at ature limit Table 1) Z
the triple point of water. Both reference functions {Eqs. T /K
(9) and (10)} are required to cover this range.
3.3.1 13.8033 a [W (T90) — 1]+b [W (T90) — 1] 2 2-9
The defining fixed points and deviation functions for the 5

various ranges are given below, and in summary from + ∑ ci [ln W (T90)] i + n, n = 2
i=1
in Table 5.
3.3.1.1 24.5561 As for 3.3.1 with c4 = c5 = n = 0 2, 5-9
3.3.1. The Triple Point of Equilibrium Hydrogen 3.3.1.2 54.3584 As for 3.3.1 with 6-9
(13.8033 K) to the Triple Point of Water (273.16 K). c2 = c3 =c4 = c5 = 0, n = 1
The thermometer is calibrated at the triple points of
equilibrium hydrogen (13.8033 K), neon (24.5561 K), 3.3.1.3 83.8058 a [W (T90) — 1] 7-9
oxygen (54.3584 K), argon (83.8058 K), mercury +b [W (T90) — 1] ln W (T90)
(234.3156 K), and water (273.16 K), and at two
additional temperatures close to 17.0 K and 20.3 K. b Ranges with a lower limit of 0°C
These last two may be determined either: by using a Sec- Upper Deviation functions Calibration
gas thermometer as described in Sect. 3.2, in which tion temper- points (see
case the two temperatures must lie within the ranges ature limit Table 1)
16.9 K to 17.1 K and 20.2 K to 20.4 K respectively; or t /°C
by using the vapour pressure-temperature relation of
equilibrium hydrogen, in which case the tow 3.3.2* 961.78 a [W (T90) — 1]+b [W (T90) — 1] 2 9, 12-15
temperatures must lie within the ranges 17.025 K to + c [W (T90) — 1] 3, + d [W (T90)
17.045 K and 20.26 K to 20.28 K respectively, with the — W (660.323 °C)]2
precise values being determined from Eqs. (11a) and 3.3.2.1 660.323 As for 3.3.2 with d = 0 9, 12 - 14
(11b) respectively: 3.3.2.2 419.527 As for 3.3.2 with c = d = 0 9, 12, 13
T90/K — 17.035 = (p/kPa — 33.3213)/13.32 (11a) 3.3.2.3 231.928 As for 3.3.2 with c = d = 0 9, 11, 12
T90/K — 20.27 = (p/kPa — 101.292)/30 . (11b) 3.3.2.4 156.5982 As for 3.3.2 with b = c = d = 0 9, 11
The deviation function is 3: 3.3.2.5 29.7646 As for 3.3.2 with b = c = d = 0 9, 10
W (T90) — Wr (T90) = a [W (T90)—1] + b [W (T90)—1] 2 c Range from 234.3156 K ( — 38.8344 °C) to 29.7646°C
5
+ ∑ c i [ln W (T90)] i+n
(12) 3.3.3 As for 3.3.2 with c = d = 0 8-10
i=1
* Calibration points 9, 12-14 are used with d = 0 for t 90 ≤ 660.323 °C;
the values of a, b and c thus obtained are retained for t 90 > 660.323 °C
with values for the coefficients a, b and ci being with d being determined from calibration point 15
obtained from measurements at the defining fixed
points and with n = 2. calibrated at the triple points of oxygen (54.3584 K),
For this range and for the sub-ranges 3.3.1.1 to 3.3.1.3 argon (83.8058 K), mercury (234.3156 K) and water
the required values Wr (T90) are obtained from Eq. (9a) (273.16 K).
or from Table 1. The deviation function is given by Eq. (12) with values
3.3.1.1. The Triple Point of Neon (24.5561 K) to the for the coefficients a, b and c 1 being obtained from
Triple Point of Water (273.16 K). The thermometer is measurements at the defining fixed points, with c2 = c3
calibrated at the triple points of equilibrium hydrogen = c4 = c 5 = 0 and with n = 1.
(13.8033 K), neon (24.5561 K), oxygen (54.3584 K), 3.3.1.3. The Triple Point of Argon (83.8058 K) to the
argon (83.8058 K), mercury (234.3156 K) and water Triple Point of Water (273.16 K). The thermometer is
(273.16 K). calibrated at the triple points of argon (83.8058 K),
The deviation function is given by Eq. (12) with values mercury (234.3156 K) and water (273.16 K).
for the coefficients a, b, c1, c2 and c3 being obtained The deviation function is:
from measurements at the defining fixed points and
with c4 = c5 = n = 0. W (T90) — Wr (T90) = a [W (T90)—1]
3.3.1.2 The Triple Point of Oxygen (54.3584 K) to the + b [W (T90)—1] In W (T90) (13)
Triple Point of Water (273.16 K). The thermometer is with the values of a and b being obtained from
measurements at the defining fixed points.
3
This deviation function {and also those of Eqs. (13) and (14)} may
be expressed in terms of Wr rather than W; for this procedure see 3.3.2. From 0 °C to the Freezing Point of Silver
“Supplementary Information for ITS-90” (961.78 °C). The thermometer is calibrated at the triple
Z- 190
The International Temperature Scale of 1990 Cont’d
point of water (0.01 °C), and at the freezing points of
tin (231.928 °C), zinc (419.527 °C), aluminium
(660.323 °C) and silver (961.78 °C).
The deviation function is:
W (T90) — Wr (T90) = a [W (T90)—1] + b [W (T90)—1] 2(14)
+ c [W (T90)—1] 3 + d [W (T90)—W (660.323 °C)] 2 .
For temperatures below the freezing point of aluminium
d = 0, with the values of a, b and c being determined
from the measured deviations from Wr (T90) at the
freezing points of tin, zinc and aluminium. From the
freezing point of aluminium to the freezing point of
silver the above values of a, b and c are retained and
the value of d is determined from the measured
deviation from Wr (T90) at the freezing point of silver.
For this range and for the sub-ranges 3.3.2.1 to 3.3.2.5
the required values for Wr (T90) are obtained from Eq.
(10a) or from Table 1.
3.3.2.1. From 0 °C to the Freezing Point of Aluminium
(660.323 °C). The thermometer is calibrated at the
triple point of water (0.01 °C), and at the freezing
points of tin (231.928 °C), zinc (419.527 °C) and
aluminium (660.323 °C).
The deviation function is given by Eq. (14), with the values
of a, b and c being determined from measurements at the
defining fixed points and with d = 0.
3.3.2.2. From 0 °C to the Freezing Point of Zinc
(419.527 °C). The thermometer is calibrated at the
triple point of water (0.0 °C), and at the freezing points
of tin (231.928 °C) and zinc (419.527 °C).
The deviation function is given by Eq. (14), with the
values of a and b being obtained from measurements
at the defining fixed points and with c = d = 0.
3.3.2.3. From 0 °C to the Freezing Point of Tin
(231.928 °C). The thermometer is calibrated at the
triple point of water (0.01 °C), and at the freezing
points of indium (156.5985 °C) and tin (231.928 °C).
The deviation function is given by Eq. (14), with the
values of a and b being obtained from measurements
at the defining fixed points and with c = d = 0.
3.3.2.4.From 0 °C to the Freezing Point of Indium
(156.5985 °C). The thermometer is calibrated at the
triple point of water (0.01 °C), and at the freezing point
of indium (156.5985 °C).
The deviation function is given by Eq. (14) with the
value of a being obtained from measurements at the
defining fixed points and with b = c = d = 0.
3.3.2.5. From 0 °C to the Melting Point of Gallium
(29.7646 °C). The thermometer is calibrated at the
triple point of water (0.01 °C), and the melting point of
gallium (29.7646 °C).
The deviation function is given by Eq. (14) with the
value of a being obtained from measurements at the
defining fixed points and with b = c = d = 0.
Z- 191
3.3.3. The Triple Point of Mercury (—38.8344 °C) to
the Melting Point of Gallium (29.7646 °C). The
thermometer is calibrated at the triple points of mercury
(— 38.8344 °C), and water (0.01 °C), and at the
melting point of gallium (29.7646 °C).
The deviation function is given by Eq. (14) with the
values of a and b being obtained from measurements
at the defining fixed points and with c = d = 0.
The required values of Wr (T90) are obtained from Eqs.
(9a) and (10a) for measurements below and above
273.16 K respectively, or from Table 1.
3.4. The Range Above the Freezing Point of Silver
(961.78 °C): Planck Radiation Law
Above the freezing point of silver the temperature T90
is defined by the equation:
Ll(T90) exp (c 2 [lT90(X)] —1)—1
—————— = ——————————— . (15)
Ll [(T90 (X)] exp (c 2 [lT90] —1)—1
where T90 (X) refers to any one of the silver {T90 (Ag) =
1234.93 K}, the gold {T90 (Au) = 1337.33 K} or the
copper {T90(Cu) = 1357.77 K} freezing points4 and in
which Ll(T90) and Ll[T90 (X)] are the spectral
concentrations of the radiance of a blackbody at the
wavelength (in vacuo) l at T90 and at T90 (X)
respectively, and c 2 = 0.014388 m · K.
For practical details and current good practice for
optical pyrometry, see “Supplementary Information for
the ITS-90” (BIPM-1990).
4. Supplementary Information and Differences
from Earlier Scales
The apparatus, methods and procedures that will serve
to realize the ITS-90 are given in “Supplementary
Information for the ITS-90”. This document also gives
an account of the earlier International Temperature
Scales and the numerical differences between
successive scales that include, where practicable,
mathematical functions for differences T90 — T68. A
number of useful approximations to the ITS-90 are
given in “Techniques for Approximating the ITS-90”.
These two documents have been prepared by the
Comité Consultatif de Thermométrie and are
published by the BIPM; they are revised and
updated periodically.
The differences T90 — T68 are shown in Fig. 1 and
Table 6. The number of significant figures given in
Table 6 allows smooth interpolations to be made.
However, the reproducibility of the IPTS-68 is, in
many areas, substantially worse than is implied by
this number.
4
The T90 values of the freezing points of silver, gold and copper are
believed to be self consistent to such a degree that the substitution of
any one of them in place of one of the other two as the reference
temperature T90 (X) will not result in significant differences in the
measured values of T90.
Table 6. Differences between ITS-90 and EPT-76, and between ITS-90 and IPTS-68 for specified values of T90
and t 90

(T90 — T76)/mK
T90 /K 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10
0
— 0.6 — 0.7 — 0.8 — 1.0 —1.1
— 0.1
—1.3
—0.2
— 1.4
— 0.3
— 1.6
— 0.4
— 1.8
— 0.5
— 2.0
Z
20 — 2.2 — 2.5 — 2.7 — 3.0 — 3.2 — 3.5 — 3.8 — 4.1

(T90 — T68)/K
T90 /K 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 — 0.006 — 0.003 —0.004 — 0.006 — 0.008 — 0.009
20 — 0.009 — 0.008 —0.007 — 0.007 — 0.006 — 0.005 —0.004 — 0.004 — 0.005 — 0.006
30 — 0.006 — 0.007 —0.008 — 0.008 — 0.008 — 0.007 —0.007 — 0.007 — 0.006 — 0.006
40 — 0.006 — 0.006 —0.006 — 0.006 — 0.006 — 0.007 —0.007 — 0.007 — 0.006 — 0.006
50 — 0.006 — 0.005 —0.004 — 0.004 — 0.003 — 0.002 —0.001 0.000 0.001 0.002
60 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.006 0.006 0.007 0.007
70 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008
80 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008
90 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.009 0.009 0.009
T90/K 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
100 0.009 0.011 0.013 0.014 0.014 0.014 0.014 0.013 0.012 0.012
200 0.011 0.010 0.009 0.008 0.007 0.005 0.003 0.001

(t 90 — t 68)/°C
t 90 /°C 0 — 10 — 20 — 30 — 40 — 50 — 60 — 70 — 80 — 90
— 100 0.013 0.013 0.014 0.014 0.014 0.013 0.012 0.010 0.008 0.008
0 0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.009 0.010 0.011 0.012 0.012
t 90 /°C 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0 0.000 — 0.002 — 0.005 — 0.007 — 0.010 — 0.013 — 0.016 — 0.018 — 0.021 — 0.024
100 — 0.026 — 0.028 — 0.030 — 0.032 — 0.034 — 0.036 — 0.037 — 0.038 — 0.039 — 0.039
200 — 0.040 — 0.040 — 0.040 — 0.040 — 0.040 — 0.040 — 0.040 — 0.039 — 0.039 — 0.039
300 — 0.039 — 0.039 — 0.039 — 0.040 — 0.040 — 0.041 — 0.042 — 0.043 — 0.045 — 0.046
400 — 0.048 — 0.051 — 0.053 — 0.056 — 0.059 — 0.062 — 0.065 — 0.068 — 0.072 — 0.075
500 — 0.079 — 0.083 — 0.087 — 0.090 — 0.094 — 0.098 — 0.101 — 0.105 — 0.108 — 0.112
600 — 0.115 — 0.118 — 0.122 — 0.125* — 0.08 — 0.03 0.02 0.06 0.11 0.16
700 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.31 0.33 0.35 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.35
800 0.34 0.32 0.29 0.25 0.22 0.18 0.14 0.10 0.06 0.03
900 — 0.01 — 0.03 — 0.06 — 0.08 — 0.10 — 0.12 — 0.14 — 0.16 — 0.17 — 0.18
1000 — 0.19 — 0.20 — 0.21 — 0.22 — 0.23 — 0.24 — 0.25 — 0.25 — 0.26 — 0.26
t 90 /°C 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
1000 — 0.26 — 0.30 — 0.35 — 0.39 — 0.44 — 0.49 — 0.54 — 0.60 — 0.66
2000 — 0.72 — 0.79 — 0.85 — 0.93 — 1.00 — 1.07 — 1.15 — 1.24 — 1.32 — 1.41
3000 — 1.50 — 1.59 — 1.69 — 1.78 — 1.89 — 1.99 — 2.10 — 2.21 — 2.32 — 2.43

* A discontinuity in the first derivative of (t 90 — t 68) occurs at a temperature of t 90 = 630.6 °C, at which (t 90 — t 68) = — 0.125 °C

Appendix temperatures, or fixed points, to which numerical values were

The International Temperature Scale of 1927 (ITS-27)
The International Temperature Scale of 1927 was adopted by
the seventh General Conference of Weights and Measures to
overcome the practical difficulties of the direct realization of
thermodynamic temperatures by gas thermometry, and as a
universally acceptable replacement for the differing existing
national temperature scales. The ITS-27 was formulated so as
to allow measurements of temperature to be made precisely
and reproducibly, with as close an approximation to
thermodynamic temperatures as could be determined at that
time. Between the oxygen boiling point and the gold freezing
point it was based upon a number of reproducible
assigned, and two standard interpolating instruments. Each of
these interpolating instruments was calibrated at several of the
fixed points, this giving the constants for the interpolating
formula in the appropriate temperature range. A platinum
resistance thermometer was used for the low part and a
platinum rhodium/platinum thermocouple for temperatures
above 660 °C. For the region above the gold freezing point,
temperatures were defined in terms of the Wien radiation law:
in practice, this invariably resulted in the selection of an optical
pyrometer as the realizing instrument.
The International Temperature Scale of 1948 (ITS-48)
The International Temperature Scale of 1948 was adopted by

Z- 192
The International Temperature Scale of 1990 Cont’d
the ninth General Conference. Changes from the ITS-27 were:
the lower limit of platinum resistance thermometer range was
changed from —190 °C to the defined oxygen boiling point of
—182.97 °C, and the junction of the platinum resistance
thermometer range and the thermocouple range became the
measured antimony freezing point (about 630 °C) in place
660 °C; the silver freezing point was defined as being 960.8 °C
instead of 960.5 °C; the gold freezing point replaced the gold
melting point (1063 °C); the Planck radiation law replaced the
Wien law; the value assigned to the second radiation constant
became 1.438 x 10 —2 m · K in place of 1.432 x 10 —2 m · K; the
permitted ranges for the constants of the interpolation formula
for the standard resistance thermometer and thermocouple
were modified; the limitation on lT for optical pyrometry
(lT<3x10 —3 m · K) was changed on the requirement that
“visible” radiation be used.
The International Practical Temperature Scale
of 1948 (Amended Edition of 1960) (IPTS-48)
The International Practical Temperature Scale of 1948,
amended edition of 1960, was adopted by the eleventh General
Conference: the tenth General Conference had already
adopted the triple point of water as the sole point defining the
kelvin, the unit of thermodynamic temperature. In addition to the
introduction of the word “Practical”, the modifications to the ITS-
48 were: the triple point of water, defined as being 0,01 °C,
replaced the freezing point of zinc, defined as being
419.505 °C, became a preferred alternative to the sulphur
boiling point (444.6 °C) as a calibration point; the permitted
ranges for the constants of the interpolation formulae for the
standard resistance thermometer and the thermocouple were
further modified; the restriction to “visible” radiation for optical
pyrometry was removed.
Inasmuch as the numerical values of temperature on the
IPTS-48 were the same as on the ITS-48, the former was not a
revision of the scale of 1948 but merely an amended form of it.
The International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968
(IPTS-68)
In 1968 the International Committee of Weights and Measures
promulgated the International Practical Temperature Scale of
1968, having been empowered to do so by the thirteenth
General Conference of 1967 — 1968. The IPTS-68
incorporated very extensive changes from the IPTS-48. These
included numerical changes, designed to bring to more nearly
in accord with thermodynamic temperatures, that were
sufficiently large to be apparent to many users. Other changes
were as follows: the lower limit of the scale was extended down
to 13.81 K; at even lower temperatures (0.5 K to 5.2 K), the use
of two helium vapour pressure scales was recommended; six
new defining fixed points were introduced — the triple point of
equilibrium hydrogen (13.81 K), an intermediate equilibrium
hydrogen point (17.042 K), the normal boiling point of
equilibrium hydrogen (20.28 K), the boiling point of neon
Z- 193
(27.102 K), the triple point of oxygen (54.361 K), and the
freezing point of tin (231.9681 °C) which became a permitted
alternative to the boiling point of water; the boiling point of
sulphur was deleted; the values assigned to four fixed points
were changed — the boiling point of oxygen (90.188 K), the
freezing point of zinc (419.58 °C), the freezing point of silver
(961.93 °C), and the freezing point of gold (1064.43 °C): the
interpolating formulae for the resistance thermometer range
became much more complex; the value assigned to the
second radiation constant c 2 became 1.4388 x 10 —2 m · K;
the permitted ranges of the constants for the interpolation
formulae for the resistance thermometer and thermocouple
were again modified.
The International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968
(Amended Edition of 1975) (IPTS-68)
The International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968,
amended edition of 1975, was adopted by the fifteenth General
Conference in 1975. As was the case for the IPTS-48 with
respect to the ITS-48, the IPTS-68 (75) introduced no
numerical changes. Most of the extensive textural changes
were; the oxygen point was defined as the condensation point
rather than the boiling point; the triple point of argon (83.798 K)
was introduced as a permitted alternative to the condensation
point of oxygen; new values of the isotopic composition of
naturally occurring neon were adopted; the recommendation to
use values of T given by the 1958 4He and 1962 3He vapor-
pressure scales was rescinded.
The 1976 Provisional 0,5 K to 30 K Temperature Scale
(EPT-76)
The 1976 Provisional 0.5 K to 30 K Temperature Scale was
introduced to meet two important requirements: these were to
provide means of substantially reducing the errors (with respect
to corresponding thermodynamic values) below 27 K that were
then known to exist in the IPTS-68 and throughout the
temperature ranges of the 4He and 3He vapour pressure scales
of 1958 and 1962 respectively, and to bridge the gap between
5.2 K and 13.81 K in which there had not previously been an
international scale. Other objectives in devising the ETP-76
were “that it should be thermodynamically smooth, that it should
be continuous with the IPTS-68 at 27.1 K, and that is should
agree with thermodynamic temperature T as closely as these
two conditions allow”. In contrast with the IPTS-68, and to
ensure its rapid adoption, several methods of realizing the
ETP-76 were approved. These included: using a
thermodynamic interpolation instrument and one or more of
eleven assigned reference points; taking differences from the
IPTS-68 above 13.81 K; taking differences from certain well-
established laboratory scales. Because there was a certain
“lack of internal consistency” it was admitted that “slight
ambiguities between realizations” might be introduced.
However the advantages gained by adopting the EPT-76 as a
working scale until such time as the IPTS-68 should be revised
and extended were considered to outweigh the disadvantages.
International Standards
International Standards Agencies 1st Protection from
Argentina Germany Mexico South Africa Digit Solid Objects
0 No Protection
Australia Hungary Netherlands Spain
1 Protected against solid objects
Austria India New Zealand Sweden greater than 50 mm

Belgium Indonesia Norway Switzerland

2 Protected against solid objects
Canada Iran Pakistan United Kingdom
greater than 12 mm
Z
Denmark Ireland Poland Protected against solid objects
United States 3 greater than 2.5 mm
Egypt Israel Portugal
®
Finland Italy Romania Venezuela Protected against solid objects
4 greater than 1.0 mm
France Japan Singapore Yugoslavia

5 Dust Protected
International Power Plugs IP Codes
and Sockets (Ingress Protection)
Continental IEC 529 outlines an international
Europe classification system for the sealing 6 Dust Tight
effectiveness of enclosures of
electrical equipment against the
Europlug intrusion into the equipment of
(ungrounded) foreign bodies (i.e., tools, dust,
fingers) and moisture. This 2nd Protection from
Australia
classification system utilises the Digit Moisture
letters ‘IP’ (Ingress Protection)
followed by two digits. An ‘X’ is used 0 No Protection
Australia for one of the digits if there is only
(ungrounded) one class of protection; i.e., IPX4, 1 Protected against vertically
which addressed moisture dripping water
resistance only.
United
Kingdom Degrees of Protection –
First Digit 2 Protected against
The first digit of the IP code dripping water when
Denmark tilted up to 15°
indicates the degree that persons
are protected against contact with
France
moving parts (other than rotating 3 Protected against
shafts, etc.) and the degree that spraying water @ up to
equipment is protected against solid 60° from vertical
India bodies intruding into a enclosure.

Degrees of Protection – 4 Protected against

Second Digit splashing water
Israel from all directions
The second digit indicates the
degree of protection of the
Italy equipment inside the enclosure 5 Protected against
against the harmful entry of various water jets
forms of moisture (e.g., dripping,
Japan spraying, submersion, etc.).
6 Protected against
heavy seas & streaming
water
North
America 7 Protected against
effects of short-term
immersion

Switzerland
8 Protected against
5
Reproduced with permission of Panel submersion
Components Corp.
IEC 906-1 18.5

3
19

Z-194
Standards
NEMA, UL and CSA Ratings
What’s in a rating?
As a way of standardizing enclosure
performance, organizations like NEMA, UL,
CSA, IEC, VDE and TUV use rating systems
to identify an enclosure’s ability to resist
external environmental influences.
Resistance to everything from dripping liquid
to hose-down to total submersion is defined
by the ratings systems. While these ratings
systems are all intended to provide
information to help you make a safer, more
informed product choice, there are
differences among them.
Exposure type non-hazardous location
National Electrical
NEMA Manufacturers
Association
(NEMA Standard 250)
and Electrical and
Electronic Mfg.
Enclosure Association of
Rating Canada (EEMAC)
Enclosures are intended for indoor
use primarily to provide a degree of
Type 1 protection against contact with the
enclosed equipment or locations where
unusual service conditions do not exist
Enclosures are intended for indoor
use primarily to provide a degree of
Type 2 protection against limited amounts
of falling water and dirt.
Enclosures are intended for
outdoor use primarily to provide
Type 3 a degree of protection against
windblown dust, rain and sleet;
undamaged by the formation
of ice on the enclosure.
Enclosures are intended for outdoor
use primarily to provide a degree of
Type 3R protection against falling rain and
sleet; undamaged by the formation
of ice on the enclosure.
Enclosures are intended for
indoor or outdoor use primarily
to provide a degree of protection
Type 4 against windblown dust and rain.
splashing water, and hose-
directed water; undamaged by
the formation of ice on the enclosure.
Enclosures are intended for indoor
or outdoor use primarily to provide
a degree of protection against
corrosion,windblown dust and
Type 4X rain, splashing water, and hose-
directed water; undamaged by the
formation of ice on the enclosure.
Enclosures are intended for
use indoors or outdoors where
Type 6 occasional submersion is
encountered; limited depth;
undamaged by the formation of ice
on the enclosure; resists corrosion.
Enclosures are intended for
indoor use primarily to provide
Type 12 a degree of protection against
dust, falling dirt, and dripping
non-corrosive liquids.
Enclosures are intended for
indoor use primarily to provide
Type 13 a degree of protection against
dust, spraying of water, oil, and
non-corrosive coolant.
This material is reproduced with permission
from NEMA. The preceding descriptions,
however, are not intended to be complete
representations of National Electrical
Manufacturers Association standards for
enclosures nor those of the Electrical and
Electronic Manufacturers Association of
Canada
NEMA, UL and CSA Ratings
NEMA, UL and CSA are standard-writing
organizations commonly recognized in North
America. Their ratings are based on similar
application descriptions and expected
performance. UL and CSA both require
enclosure testing by qualified evaluators. They
also send site inspectors to make sure a
manufacturer adheres to prescribed
manufacturing methods and material
specifications. NEMA, on the other hand, does
not require independent testing and leaves
compliance completely up to the manufacturer.
Underwriters
Laboratories Inc.
(UL 50 and UL508)
®
LISTED
Indoor use primarily to provide
protection against contact with
the enclosed equipment and
against a limited amount of
falling dirt.
Indoor use to provide a degree
of protection against limited
amounts of falling water and
dirt.
Outdoor use to provide a
degree of protection against
windblown dust and windblown
rain; undamaged by the
formation of ice on the
enclosure.
Outdoor use to provide a
degree of protection against
falling rain; undamaged by the
formation of ice on the
enclosure.
Either indoor or outdoor use to
provide a degree of protection
against falling rain, splashing
water, and hose-directed water;
undamaged by the formation
of ice on the enclosure.
Either indoor or outdoor use to
provide a degree of protection
against falling rain, splashing
water, and hose-directed water;
undamaged by the formation
of ice on the enclosure;
resists corrosion.
Indoor or outdoor use to provide
a degree of protection against
entry of water during temporary
submersion at a limited depth;
undamaged by the formation of
ice on the enclosure.
Indoor use to provide a degree of
protection against dust, dirt, fiber
flyings, dripping water, and
external condensation of
non-corrosive liquids.
Indoor use to provide a degree of
protection against lint, dust seepage,
external condensation and spraying of
water, oil, and non-corrosive liquids.
This material is reproduced with permission from
Underwriters Laboratories Inc. Enclosures for
Electrical Equipment, UL 50.Copyright 1995;
and Industrial Control Equipment, 508, Copyright
1996 by Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
Underwriters Laboratories Inc.(UL) shall not be
responsible for the use of or reliance upon a UL
Standard by anyone. UL shall not incur any
obligation or liability for damages, including
consequential damages, arising out of or in
connection with, interpretation of, or reliance
upon a UL Standard.
Z-195
North American enclosure ratings systems
also include a 4X rating that indicates
resistance to corrosion. This rating is based
on the enclosure’s ability to withstand
prolonged exposure to salt water spray.
While a 4X rating is a good indicator that an
enclosure can resist corrosion, it does not
provide information on how a specific
corrosive agent will affect a given enclosure
material. It is best to conduct a full analysis of
the specific application and environment to
determine the best enclosure choice.
Canadian
Standards
Association
(Standard C22.2 No.94)
General purpose enclosure.
Protects against accidental contact
with live parts.
Indoor use to provide a degree
of protection against dripping and
light splashing of non-corrosive
liquids and falling dirt.
Indoor or outdoor use; provides
a degree of protection against
rain, snow, and windblown dust;
undamaged by the external
formation of ice on the enclosure.
Indoor or outdoor use; provides
a degree of protection against
rain and snow; undamaged by the
external formation of ice on the
enclosure.
Indoor or outdoor use; provides
a degree of protection against
rain, snow, windblown dust,
splashing and hose-directed water;
undamaged by the external formation
of ice on the enclosure.
Indoor or outdoor use; provides
a degree of protection against
rain, snow, windblown dust,
splashing and hose-directed water;
undamaged by the external formation
of ice on the enclosure; resists corrosion.
Indoor or outdoor use; provides
a degree of protection against
the entry of water during temporary
submersion.
Indoor use; provides a degree of
protection against circulating dust, lint,
fibers and flyings; dripping and light
splashing of non-corrosive liquids; not
provided with knockouts.
Indoor use; provides a degree of
protection against circulating dust, lint,
fibers and flyings, seepage and spraying of
non-corrosive liquids, including oils and
coolants.
This material is reproduced with permission from
Canadian Standards Association.
Standards
CE and IEC Classifications
CE
The CE Mark is a European Union (EU)
compliance symbol and acronym for
Conformité Européenne. The CE Mark
indicates that a product complies with all
European directives and essential
Harmonized Standards for health, safety,
environment, and
consumer protection
that may apply to that
product. In addition,
the CE Mark promotes
free trade movement
from outside and within
the EU.
For industrial control equipment, the CE
Mark is not intended to be applied to
empty enclosures because such
enclosures are inactive components of a
final assembly. The responsibility for
insuring compliance to all applicable EU
Directives and Harmonized Standards
belongs with the final equipment
manufacturer.
Hoffman enclosures are designed in
compliance with European standards
and are eligible to receive a
Manufacturer’s Declaration of
Conformity. The certificate assists the
final equipment manufacturer in
obtaining the CE Mark. Contact
Applications Engineering at (612) 422-
2868 for further information.
Hoffman enclosures meet the
requirements of the applicable
European standards specified below.
Applicable European Directives
73/23/EEC Low Voltage Directive for
Electrical Equipment within Certain
Voltage Limits
89/336/EEC EMC Directive Relating to
Electromagnetic Compatibility
Note: The EMC Directive is only
secondarily applicable since an empty
enclosure does not produce
electromagnetic interference.
Applicable European Standards
EN60529-1 (IEC529-1) Degrees of
Protection Provided by Enclosures
EN60204-1 (IEC204-1) Electrical
Equipment of Industrial Machines
International Standards’ IP
Protection Classification
IEC Publication 529, Classification of
Degrees of Protection by Enclosures,
provides a system for specifying
enclosures of electrical equipment on
the basis of the degree of protection
required. IEC 529 does
not specify degrees of
protection against risk
of explosions or
conditions such as
moisture (produced, for
example, by
condensation),
corrosive vapors, fungus, or vermin.
NEMA Standards Publication 250 does
not test for environmental conditions
such as corrosion, rust, icing, oil, and
coolants. For this reason, and because
the tests and evaluations for other
characteristics are not identical, the IEC
enclosure classification designations
cannot be exactly equated with NEMA
enclosure Type numbers.
Z
The table on below provides a cross-
reference from NEMA enclosure Type
numbers to IEC enclosure classification
designations. This cross-reference is a
Hoffman approximation based on the
most current available information on
enclosure test performance and is not
sanctioned by NEMA, IEC, VDE, or any
affiliated agency.
To use the table, first find the
appropriate NEMA rating along the
vertical axis and then read across the
horizontal axis for the corresponding IP
rating. Do not use this table to convert
IEC classification designations to NEMA
Type numbers.

In Europe, IEC ratings are based on performance criteria similar to NEMA. Nevertheless, there are differences in how enclosure performance is
interpreted. For example, UL and CSA test requirements specify that an enclosure fails the watertight test if even a single drop of water enters
the enclosure. In the IEC standards for each protection level (IP), a certain amount of water is allowed to enter the enclosure. IEC does not
specify degrees of protection against risk of explosions or conditions such as moisture or corrosive vapors. NEMA, on the other hand, does
specify for most environmental conditions. For this reason, and because the tests and evaluations for other characteristics are not identical, the
IEC enclosure classification designations cannot be exactly equated with NEMA enclosure Type numbers.

Cross Reference (Approximate) NEMA, UL, CSA, vs. IEC Enclosure Type
(Cannot be used to convert IEC Classifications to NEMA Type numbers)

Enclosure
Rating IP23 IP30 IP32 IP55 IP64 IP65 IP66 IP67
Type 1 •
Type 2 •
Type 3 •
Type 3R •
Type 3S •
Type 4 •
Type 4X •
Type 6 •
Type 12 •
Type 13 •
IEC 529 has no equivalents to NEMA enclosure Types 7, 8, 9, 10, or 11.
•Indicates compliance
Z-196
Application Notes
Low Cost Non-Electronic Temperature Gages
When the need arises for measuring
temperatures in various industrial
situations, most engineers think in terms
of expensive electronic temperature
measuring equipment. In many cases,
though, you can do the job with less
costly and much simpler methods. When
the need is only for an indication that a
pre-determined temperature has or has
not been reached, heat-sensitive
materials in the form of crayons, paints,
pellets, or labels can do the job readily,
inexpensively, and accurately enough for
most industrial applications.
WHAT ARE THESE NON-ELECTRONIC
TEMPERATURE INDICATING
DEVICES?
These heat-sensitive, fusible materials
consist of crystalline solids. When heated,
a temperature will be reached in which
the solids change sharply to a liquid. The
melting point is reproducible and is
virtually unaffected by ambient conditions
that may cause errors with other
temperature-sensing methods. For
example, electrical means of measuring
temperatures often function erratically in
the presence of static electricity, electrical
“noise” or ionized air near electrical
equipment.
ADVANTAGES OVER ELECTRONIC
DEVICES
This family of fusible temperature
indicators has several advantages over
other methods of determining surface
temperature. First, the temperature
indications obtained are unquestionably
those of the surface being tested. The
temperature sensitive material is applied
directly to the surface, and therefore
changes state in direct response to that
surface, and only that surface.
A second advantage of using fusible
temperature indicators is the fact that
there is no delay in obtaining a signal.
Since a mark left by a crayon or a lacquer
has an extremely small mass, it attains
rapid equilibrium with the surface. The
use of a “massive” probe tends to prolong
response time and could result in an
erroneously low reading. With the use of
fusible temperature indicators, there is no
conduction of heat away from the
surface. Nor is there any dependence on
the duration of heating.
The third advantage of fusible indicators
is that the technique for using them is
simple and economical. Determining
surface temperatures by most other
means requires some technical
competence and skill and, in many cases,
sophisticated instrumentation. Surface
temperature readings can be obtained
from fusible indicators with little effort,
training, and expense.
WHAT FORMS DO THESE
TEMPERATURE INDICATORS TAKE?
1. Crayons: The most commonly used of
all the fusible indicators is the
temperature sensitive stick, or crayon.
Each crayon has a calibrated melting
point. These indicators are manufactured
in 100 different temperature ratings and
range from 100˚F to 2500˚F. Each has a
temperature indicating accuracy within
1% of its temperature rating.
Using the crayons is simple. The
workpiece to be tested is marked with a
crayon. When the pre-determined melting
point of the crayon mark is attained, the
mark instantly liquifies, notifying the
observer that the workpiece has reached
that temperature.
However, under some circumstances,
premarking with a crayon is not practical.
This can be the case if a prolonged
heating period is involved (the crayon
mark may evaporate), if the surface is
highly polished and does not readily
accept a crayon mark, or if the material
being marked is such that it absorbs the
liquid phase of the crayon. In such
instances, the operator can repeatedly
stroke the workpiece with the crayon. The
point at which the surface reaches the
desired temperature is determined by
noting when the crayon ceases to make
dry marks and instead leaves a liquid
smear.
2. Lacquers: Another form of heat
sensitive material is a dull lacquer-type
liquid that turns glossy and transparent at
a predetermined temperature. This phase
changing liquid is a fusible coating
material that offers greater flexibility than
crayons as to the types of surfaces on
which it can be applied.
Chemically, this lacquer-type fluid
contains a solid material that has a
calibrated melting point. These solids are
suspended in an inert, volatile, but non-
flammable vehicle. Upon reaching its
rated temperature, the dull lacquer mark
liquifies. On subsequent cooling,
however, the fluid does not revert to its
original dull appearance, but rather to a
glossy or crystalline coating. This shiny
state of appearance is evidence that the
lacquer has reached the rated
temperature.
Due to their physical properties, these
lacquers are often used instead of
crayons on very smooth surfaces (glass,
plastic film, laminated plastic), soft
surfaces (paper, cloth), or on surfaces not
readily accessible for application of a
crayon mark during heating. Within
seconds after application, the lacquer
dries to a dull matte finish. Response is
only a fraction of a second when the
temperature to be indicated is reached.
This time can be reduced to milliseconds
by applying a mark of minimal thickness.
Z-197
These fluids are available in over 100
different temperature ratings, covering the
range from 100˚F to 2500˚F. As with the
crayon type indicators, accuracy is within
±1%. The temperature ratings available
range from 100˚F to 350˚F in
6 increments, from 350˚F to 500˚F in
12 increments, from 500˚F to 750˚F in
25 increments, and from 750˚F to 2500˚F
in 50 increments.
The temperature-sensitive lacquers are
supplied in the proper consistency for
brushing. If spraying or dipping is
preferred, a special thinner is added to
alter the viscosity without impairing the
temperature indicating performance.
3. Pellets: The first commercial form of
the fusible indicator was the pellet, which
continues to be useful in certain
applications. Pellets are most frequently
employed when extended heating periods
are involved or when oxidation of a metal
workpiece might obscure a crayon mark.
Pellets are also ideal when a relatively
large bulk of indicator material is
necessary because observations must be
made from a distance. Another major use
of pellet-type indicators is for determining
specific air-space temperatures. A typical
application is the monitoring of heat
zones in industrial ovens and furnaces.
Phase change temperature indicating
pellets are available in flat tablets, 7⁄16” in
diameter and 1⁄8” thick. For special
applications, smaller 1⁄8” by 1⁄8” thick pellets
are also available. One application for
these miniature pellets is that of thermal
fuses. The solid pellet acts as a circuit
breaker as it melts and releases tension
on a spring which, in relaxing, opens a
contact, in turn, cutting off electrical
continuity.
Pellets come in the extended range from
100˚F to 3000˚F. For temperature
measurements in hydrogen, carbon
monoxide, or other reducing
environments, a special series of pellets
is also available.
4. Labels: Another variation of the
phase-change indicators is the
temperature sensitive label. These
adhesive backed monitors consist of one
or more heat sensitive indicators sealed
under transparent, heat-resistant
windows. The centers of these indicators
turn from white to black at the
temperature ratings as shown on the
label face. This color change, caused by
the temperature-sensitive substance
being absorbed into its backing material,
is irreversible. After registering the
temperature history of the workpiece, the
exposed monitor label can then be
removed and affixed to a service report to
remain part of a permanent record.
Reproduced with permision of Penton
Publishing
 ITS-90 Thermocouple Direct &
Inverse Polynomials
Direct Polynomials provide the thermoelectric voltage (µV) from a known temperature (°C); Inverse Polynomials
provide the temperature (°C) from a known thermoelectric voltage (µV).
Type J Thermocouples - coefficients, ci, of reference Type J Thermocouples - coefficients of approximate
equations giving the thermoelectric voltage, E, as a inverse functions giving temperature, t90 , as a function of
function of temperature t90, for the indicated temperature the thermoelectric voltage, E, in selected temperature and
ranges. The equations are of the form: voltage ranges. The functions are of the form:
n
t90 = c0 + c1E + c2 E 2+…ci E i
Z
E = ( ci (t90)i
i=0 where E is in microvolts and t90 is in degrees Celsius.
where E is in microvolts and t90 is in degrees Celsius. -210 0 760
Temperature to to to
-210 760 Range:
Temperature 0°C 760°C 1,200°C
Range: to to
760°C 1,200°C -8,095 0 42,919
Voltage to to to
c0 = 0.000 000 000 0 .... 2.964 562 568 1 x 105 Range: 0 µV 42,919 µV 69,553 µV
c1 = 5.038 118 781 5 x101 -1.497 612 778 6 x 103
c2 = 3.047 583 693 0 x 10-2 3.178 710 392 4 c0 = 0.000 000 0 .... 0.000 000 .... -3.113 581 87 x 103
c3 = -8.568 106 572 0 x 10-5 -3.184 768 670 1 x 10-3 c1 = 1.952 826 8 x 10-2 1.978 425 x 10-2 3.005 436 84 x 10-1
c2 = -1.228 618 5 x 10 -6 -2.001 204 x 10-7 -9.947 732 30 x 10-6
c4 = 1.322 819 529 5 x 10-7 1.572 081 900 4 x 10-6
c5 = -1.705 295 833 7 x 10-10 -3.069 136 905 6 x 10-10 c3 = -1.075 217 8 x 10-9 1.036 969 x 10-11 1.702 766 30 x 10-10
c6 = 2.094 809 069 7 x 10-13 c4 = -5.908 693 3 x 10-13 -2.549 687 x 10-16 -1.430 334 68 x 10-15
c7 = -1.253 839 533 6 x 10-16 c5 = -1.725 671 3 x 10-16 3.585 153 x 10-21 4.738 860 84 x 10-21
c8 = 1.563 172 569 7 x 10-20 c6 = -2.813 151 3 x 10-20 -5.344 285 x 10-26
c7 = -2.396 337 0 x 10-24 5.099 890 x 10-31
c8 = -8.382 332 1 x 10-29

Error 0.03 0.04 0.03

Range: to to to
-0.05°C -0.04°C -0.04°C

Type K Thermocouples - coefficients α0, α1 and αi , of Type K Thermocouples - coefficients of approximate

reference equations giving the thermoelectric voltage, E, as inverse functions giving temperature, t90, as a function of
a function of temperature, t90 for the indicated temperature the thermoelectric voltage, E, in selected temperature and
ranges. The equation below 0°C is of the form: voltage ranges. The functions are of the form:
n
E = ( c1 (t90) i t90 = co + c1E + c2E2 ciE i
i=0 where E is in microvolts and t90 is in degrees Celsius.
the equation above 0°C is of the form: -200 0 500
n Temperature to to to
E =( ci (t90) + i α0e α1 (t90 - 126.9686)2 Range:
0°C 500°C 1,372°C
i=0 -5891 0 20,644
Voltage to to to
where E is the natural logarithm constant, E is in Range: 0 µV 20,644 µV 54,886 µV
microvolts and t90 is in degrees Celsius.
c0 = 0.000 000 0 .... 0.000 000 .... -1.318 058 x 102
Temperature Range: Coefficients c1 = 2.517 346 2 x 10-2 2.508 355 x 10-2 4.830 222 x 10-2
c2 = -1.166 287 8 x 10 -6 7.860 106 x 10-8 -1.646 031 x 10-6
c0 = 0.000 000 000 0 .... -9
c1 = 3.945 012 802 5 x 101 c3 = -1.083 363 8 x 10 -2.503 131 x 10-10 5.464 731 x 10-11
c2 = 2.362 237 359 8 x 10-2 c4 = -8.977 354 0 x 10-13 8.315 270 x 10-14 -9.650 715 x 10-16
c3 = -3.285 890 678 4 x 10-4 c5 = -3.734 237 7 x 10-16 -1.228 034 x 10-17 8.802 193 x 10-21
c4 = -4.990 482 877 7 x 10-6 c6 = -8.663 264 3 x 10-20 9.804 036 x 10-22 -3.110 810 x 10-26
270 to 0°C c5 = -6.750 905 917 3 x 10-8 c7 = -1.045 059 8 x 10-23 -4.413 030 x 10-26
c6 = -5.741 032 742 8 x 10-10 c8 = -5.192 057 7 x 10-28 1.057 734 x 10-30
c7 = -3.108 887 289 4 x 10-12 c9 = -1.052 755 x 10-35
c8 = -1.045 160 936 5 x 10-14 0.04°C 0.04°C 0.06°C
c9 = -1.988 926 687 8 x 10-17 Error
Range: to to to
c10 = -1.632 269 748 6 x 10-20 -0.02°C -0.05°C -0.05°C
c0 = 1.760 041 368 6 x 101
c1 = 3.892 120 497 5 x 101
c2 = 1.855 877 003 2 x 10-2
c3 = -9.945 759 287 4 x 10-5
c4 = 3.184 094 571 9 x 10-7
0 to 1372°C c5 = -5.607 284 488 9 x 10-10
c6 = 5.607 505 905 9 x 10-13
c7 = -3.202 072 000 3 x 10-16
c8 = 9.715 114 715 2 x 10-20
c9 = -1.210 472 127 5 x 10-23
α0 = 1.185 976 x 102
α1 = -1.183 432 x 10-4

Z-198
ITS-90 Thermocouple Direct & Inverse
Polynomials Cont’d

Type T Thermocouples - coefficients, ci , of reference Type T Thermocouples - coefficients of approximate

equations giving the thermoelectric voltage, E, as a inverse functions giving temperature, t90, as a function
function of temperature, t90, for the indicated of the thermoelectric voltage, E, in selected temperature
temperature ranges. The equations are of the form: and voltage ranges. The functions are of the form:
n t90 = c0 + c1E + c2 E 2+…ciE i
E =( ci (t90)i
i=0 where E is in microvolts and t90 is in degrees Celsius.
where E is in microvolts and t90 is in degrees Celsius.

Temperature -270 0 Temperature -200 0

Range: to to Range: to to
0°C 400° 0°C 400°C
c0 = 0.000 000 000 0.... 0.000 000 000 0.... Voltage: -5,603 0
c1 = 3.874 810 636 4 x101 3.874 810 636 4 x101 Range: to to
c2 = 4.419 443 434 7 x 10-2 3.329 222 788 0 x10-2 0 µV 20,872 µV
c3 = 1.184 432 310 5 x 10-4 2.061 824 340 4 x 10-4 c0 = 0.000 000 0.... 0.000 000 .... -2
c4 = 2.003 297 355 4 x 10-5 -2.188 225 684 6 x 10-6 c1
c5 = 9.013 801 955 9 x 10-7 1.099 688 092 8 x 10-8 = 2.592 919 2 x 10-2 2.592 800 x 10
c6 = 2.265 115 659 3 x 10-8 c2 = -2.131 696 7 x 10-7 -7.602 961 x 10-7
-3.081 575 877 2 x 10-11 c3 = 7.901 869 2 x 10-10 4.637 791 x 10-11
c7 = 3.607 115 420 5 x 10-10 4.547 913 529 0 x 10-14
c8 = 3.849 393 988 3 x 10-12 c4 = 4.252 777 7 x 10-13 -2.165 394 x 10-15
-2.751 290 167 3 x 10-17 c5 = 1.330 447 3 x 10-16 6.048 144 x 10-20
c9 = 2.821 352 192 5 x 10-14
c10 = 1.425 159 477 9 x 10-16 c6 = 2.024 144 6 x 10-20 -7.293 422 x 10-25
c11 = 4.876 866 228 6 x 10-19 c7 = 1.266 817 1 x 10-24
c12 = 1.079 553 927 0 x 10-21 0.04 0.03
c13 = 1.394 502 706 2 x 10-24 Error
Range: to to
c14 = 7.979 515 392 7 x 10-28 -0.02°C -0.03°C

Type E Thermocouples - coefficients, ci, of reference Type E Thermocouples - coefficients of approximate

equations giving the thermoelectric voltage, E, as a inverse functions giving temperature, t90, as a function
function of temperature, t90, for the indicated of the thermoelectric voltage, E, in selected temperature
temperature ranges. The equations are of the form: and voltage ranges. The functions are of the form:
n t90 = c0 + c1E + c2E 2+… ciE i
E = ( ci (t90)i where E is in microvolts and t90 is in degrees Celsius.
i=0

where E is in microvolts and t90 is in degrees Celsius. Temperature -200 0

Range: to to
0°C 1,000°C
Temperature -270 0
to to Voltage -8,825 0
Range: to to
0°C 400°C Range:
0 µV 76,373 µV
c0 = 0.000 000 000 0 .... 0.000 000 000 0 ....
c1 = 5.866 550 870 8 x101 5.866 550 871 0 x101 c0 = 0.000 000 0 .... 0.000 000 0 ....
c2 = 4.541 097 712 4 x 10-2 4.503 227 558 2 x10-2 c1 = 1.697 728 8 x 10-2 1.705 703 5 x 10-2
c3 = -7.799 804 868 6 x 10-4 2.890 840 721 2 x 10-5 c2 = -4.351 497 0 x 10-7 -2.330 175 9 x 10-7
c4 = -2.580 016 084 3 x 10-5 -3.305 689 665 2 x 10-7 c3 = -1.585 969 7 x 10-10 6.543 558 5 x 10-12
c5 = -5.945 258 305 7 x 10-7 6.502 440 327 0 x 10-10 c4 = -9.250 287 1 x 10-14 -7.356 274 9 x 10-17
c6 = -9.321 405 866 7 x 10-9 -1.919 749 550 4 x 10-1 c5 = -2.608 431 4 x 10-17 -1.789 600 1 x 10-21
c7 = -1.028 760 553 4 x 10-10 -1.253 660 049 7 x 10-15 c6 = -4.136 019 9 x 10-21 8.403 616 5 x 10-26
c8 = -8.037 012 362 1 x 10-13 2.148 921 756 9 x 10-18 c7 = -3.403 403 0 x 10-25 -1.373 587 9 x 10-30
c9 = -4.397 949 739 1 x 10-15 -1.438 804 178 2 x 10-21 c8 = -1.156 489 0 x 10-29 1.062 982 3 x 10-35
c10 = -1.641 477 635 5 x 10-17 3.596 089 948 1 x 10-25 c9 = -3.244 708 7 x 10-41
c11 = -3.967 361 951 6 x 10-20 0.03 0.02
c12 = -5.582 732 872 1 x 10-23 Error
Range: to to
c13 = -3.465 784 201 3 x 10-26 -0.01°C -0.02°C

Z-199
Type N Thermocouples - coefficients, ci , of reference Temperature -270 0
equations giving the thermoelectric voltage, E, as a Range: to to
function of temperature, t90, for the indicated 0°C 1,300°C
temperature ranges. The equations are of the form: c0 = 0.000 000 000 0.... 0.000 000 000 0....
c1 = 2.615 910 596 2 x101 2.592 939 460 1 x 101
n c2 = 1.095 748 422 8 x 10-2 1.571 014 188 0 x 10-2
E = ( ci (t90)i c3 = -9.384 111 155 4 x 10-5 4.382 562 723 7 x 10-5
i=0 c4
c5
=
=
-4.641 203 975 9 x 10-8
-2.630 335 771 6 x 10-9
-2.526 116 979 4 x 10-7
6.431 181 933 9 x 10-10 Z
where E is in microvolts and t90 is in degrees Celsius. c6 = -2.265 343 800 3 x 10-11 -1.006 347 151 9 x 10-12
c7 = -7.608 930 079 1 x 10-14 9.974 533 899 2 x 10-16
c8 = -9.341 966 783 5 x 10-17 -6.086 324 560 7 x 10-19
c9 = 2.084 922 933 9 x 10-22
c10 = -3.068 219 615 1 x 10-26

Type N Thermocouples - Temperature -200 0 600 0

coefficients of approximate inverse Range: to to to to
functions giving temperature, t90, as 0°C 600°C 1,300°C 1,300°C
a function of the thermoelectric Voltage -3,990 0 20,613 0
voltage, E, in selected temperature Range: to to to
0 µV 20,613 µV 47,513 µV 47,513 µV
and voltage ranges. The functions
are of the form: c0 = 0.000 000 0 .... 0.000 00 .... 1.972 485 x 101 0.000 000 0 ....
c1 = 3.843 684 7 x 10-2 3.868 96 x 10-2 3.300 943 x 10-2 3.878 327 7 x 10-2
t90 = c0 + c1E + c2E 2+… ci E i c2 = 1.101 048 5 x 10-6 -1.082 67 x 10 -6
-3.915 159 x 10-7
-1.161 234 4 x 10-6
c3 = 5.222 931 2 x 10-9 4.702 05 x 10-11 9.855 391 x 10-12 6.952 565 5 x 10-11
where E is in microvolts and t90 is in c4 = 7.206 052 5 x 10-12 -2.121 69 x 10-18 -1.274 371 x 10-16 -3.009 007 7 x 10-15
c5 = 5.848 858 6 x 10-15 -1.172 72 x 10-19 7.767 022 x 10-22 8.831 158 4 x 10-20
degrees Celsius. c6 = 2.775 491 6 x 10-18 5.392 80 x 10-24 -1.621 383 9 x 10-24
c7 = 7.707.516 6 x 10-22 -7.981 56 x 10-29 1.669 336 2 x 10-29
c8 = 1.158 266 5 x 10-25 -7.311 754 0 x 10-35
c9 = 7.313 886 8 x 10-30
Error 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.06
Range: to to to to
-0.02°C -0.02°C -0.04°C -0.06°C

Type B Thermocouples - coefficients, ci , of reference Type B Thermocouples - coefficients of approximate

equations giving the thermoelectric voltage, E, as a inverse functions giving temperature, t90, as a function
function of temperature, t90, for the indicated of the thermoelectric voltage, E, in selected temperature
temperature ranges. The equations are of the form: and voltage ranges. The functions are of the form:
n t90 = c0 + c1E + c2E 2+… ci E i
E = ( ci (t90)i
i=0 where E is in microvolts and t90 is in degrees Celsius.
where E is in microvolts and t90 is in degrees Celsius. Temperature 250 700
Range: to to
0 630.615 700°C 1,820°C
Temperature
Range: to to Voltage 291 2,431
630.615°C 1,820°C Range: to to
c0 = 0.000 000 000 0 .... -3.893 816 862 1 x 103 2,431 µV 13,820 µV
c1 = -2.465 081 834 6 x10-1 2.857 174 747 0 x 101 c0 = 9.842 332 1 x 101 -2.131 507 1 x 102
c2 = 5.904 042 117 1 x 10-3 -8.488 510 478 5 x 10-2 c1 = 6.997 150 0 x 10-1 2.851 050 4 x 10-1
c3 = -1.325 793 163 6 x 10-6 1.578 528 016 4 x 10-4 c2 = -8.476 530 4 x 10-4 -5.274 288 7 x 10-5
c4 = 1.566 829 190 1 x 10-9 -1.683 534 486 4 x 10-7 c3 = 1.005 264 4 x 10-6 9.916 080 4 x 10-9
c5 = -1.694 452 924 0 x 10-12 1.110 979 401 3 x 10-10 c4 = -8.334 595 2 x 10-10 -1.296 530 3 x 10-12
c6 = 6.229 034 709 4 x 10-16 -4.451 543 103 3 x 10-14 c5 = 4.550 854 2 x 10-13 1.119 587 0 x 10-16
c7 = 9.897 564 082 1 x 10-18 c6 = -1.552 303 7 x 10-16 -6.062 519 9 x 10-21
c8 = -9.379 133 028 9 x 10-22 c7 = 2.988 675 0 x 10-20 1.866 169 6 x 10-25
c8 = -2.474 286 0 x 10-24 -2.487 858 5 x 10-30

Error 0.03 0.02

Range: to to
-0.02°C -0.01°C

Z-200
ITS-90 Thermocouple Direct & Inverse
Polynomials Cont’d

Type R Thermocouples - Temperature -50 1,064.18 1,664.5

coefficients, ci , of reference equations Range: to to to
1,064.18°C 1,664.5°C 1,768.1°C
giving the thermoelectric voltage, E, as
c0 = 0.000 000 000 0 .... 2.951 579 253 16 x 103 1.522 321 182 09 x 105
a function of temperature, t90, for the c1 = 5.289 617 297 65 .... -2.520 612 513 32 .... -2.688 198 885 45 x 102
indicated temperature ranges. The c2 = 1.391 665 897 82 x 10-2 1.595 645 018 65 x 10-2 1.712 802 804 71 x 10-1
equations are of the for: c3 = -2.388 556 930 17 x 10-5 -7.640 859 475 76 x 10-6 -3.458 957 064 53 x 10-5
n
c4 = 3.569 160 010 63 x 10-8 2.053 052 910 24 x 10-9 -9.346 339 710 46 x 10-12
c5 = -4.623 476 662 98 x 10-11 -2.933 596 681 73 x 10-13
E = ( ci (t90)i c6 = 5.007 774 410 34 x 10-14
i=0 c7 = -3.731 058 861 91 x 10-17
c8 = 1.577 164 823 67 x 10-20
where E is in microvolts and t90 is in c9 = -2.810 386 252 51 x 10-24
degrees Celsius.

Type R Thermocouples - Temperature -50°C 2,500 1,064 1,664.5

coefficients of approximate Range: to to to to
250°C 1,200°C 1,664.5°C 1,768.1°C
inverse functions giving -226 1,923 11,361 19,739
temperature, t90 , as a Voltage to to to to
Range: 1,923 µV 13,228 µV 19,739 µV 21,103 µV
function of the
thermoelectric voltage, E, in c0 = 0.000 000 0 .... 1.334 584 505 x 101 -8.199 599 416 x 101 3.406 177 836 x 104
selected temperature and c1 = 1.889 138 0 x 10-1 1.472 644 573 x 10-1 1.553 962 042 x 10-1 -7.023 729 171 ....
c3 = 1.306 861 9 x 10-7 4.031 129 x 726 10-9 4.279 433 549 x 10-10 -5.582 903 813 x 10-4
voltage ranges. The c4 = -2.270 358 0 x 10-10 -6.249 428 360 x 10-13 -1.191 577 910 x 10-14 -1.952 394 635 x 10-8
functions are of the form: c5 = 3.514 565 9 x 10-13 6.468 412 046 x 10-17 1.492 290 091 x 10-19 2.560 740 231 x 10-13
c6 = -3.895 390 0 x 10-16 -4.458 750 426 x 10-21
t90 = c0 + c1E + c2E2+…ciEi c7 = 2.823.947 1 x 10-19 1.994 710 146 x 10-25
c8 = -1.260 728 1 x 10-22 -5.313 401 790 x 10-30
where E is in microvolts and c9 = 3.135 361 1 x 10-26 6.481 976 217 x 10-35
t90 is in degrees Celsius. c10 = -3.318 776 9 x 10-30
Error 0.02 0.005 0.001 0.002
Range: to to to to
-0.02°C -0.005°C -0.0005°C -0.001°C

Type S Thermocouples - Temperature -50 1,064.18 1,664.5

coefficients, ci , of reference equations Range: to to to
1,064.18°C 1,664.5°C 1,768.1°C
giving the thermoelectric voltage, E, as
c0 = 0.000 000 000 0 .... 1.329 004 450 85 x 103 1.466 282 326 36 x 105
a function of temperature, t90, for the c1 = 5.403 133 086 31.... 3.345 093 113 44 .... -2.584 305 167 52 x 102
indicated temperature ranges. The c2 = 1.259 342 897 40 x 10-2 6.548 051 928 18 x 10-3 1.636 935 746 41 x 10-1
equations are of the for: c3 = -2.324 779 686 89 x 10-5 -1.648 562 592 09 x 10-6 -3.304 390 469 87 x 10-5
c4 = 3.220 288 230 36 x 10-8 1.299 896 051 74 x 10-11 -9.432 236 906 12 x 10-12
n c5 = -3.314 651 963 89 x 10-11
E = ( ci (t90)i c6 = 2.557 442 517 86 x 10-14
c7 = -1.250 688 713 93 x 10-17
i=0
c8 = 2.714 431 761 45 x 10-21
where E is in microvolts and t90 is in
degrees Celsius.

Type S Thermocouples - Temperature -50 250 1,064 1,664.5

coefficients of approximate Range: to to to to
250°C 1,200°C 1,664.5°C 1,768.1°C
inverse functions giving
Voltage -235 1,874 10,332 17,536
temperature, t90 , as a Range: to to to to
function of the 1,874 µV 11,950 µV 17,536 µV 18,693 µV
thermoelectric voltage, E, in c0 = 0.000 000 0 .... 1.291 507 177 x 101 -8.087 801 117 x 101 5.333 875 126 x 104
selected temperature and c1 = 1.849 494 60 x 10-1 1.466 298 863 x 10-1 1.621 573 104 x 10-1 -1.235 892 298 x 101
c2 = -8.005 040 62 x 10-5 -1.534 713 402 x 10-5 -8.536 869 453 x 10-6 1.092 657 613 x 10-3
voltage ranges. The c3 = 1.022 374 30 x 10-7 3.145 945 973 x 10-9 4.719 686 976 x 10-10 -4.265 693 686 x 10-8
functions are of the form: c4 = -1.522 485 92 x 10-10 -4.163 257 839 x 10-13 -1.441 693 666 x 10-14 6.247 205 420 x 10-13
c5 = 1.888 213 43 x 10-13 3.187 963 771 x 10-17 2.081 618 890 x 10-19
t90 = c0 + c1E + c2E 2+…ci E i c6 = -1.590 859 41 x 10-16 -1.291 637 500 x 10-21
c7 = 8.230 278 80 x 10-20 2.183 475 087 x 10-26
c8 = -2.341 819 44 x 10-23 -1.447 379 511 x 10-31
where E is in microvolts and c9 = 2.797 862 60 x 10-27 8.211 272 125 x 10-36
t90 is in degrees Celsius. 0.02 0.01 0.0002 0.002
Error to to to to
Range: -0.02°C -0.01°C -0.0002°C -0.002°C

Z-201
 Tungsten-Rhenium
Thermocouples Calibration Equivalents
CALIBRATIONS G AND C
The nominal emf versus temperature values for
WM26Re (type G) and W5ReM26Re (type C)
thermocouples are defined by fifth degree
polynominals. The emf in absolute millivolts (IPTS68)
is determined, using the equation and coefficients
shown below, from the temperature in Fahrenheit
degrees.
CALIBRATION D
A similar equation is used to generate emf versus
temperature values for W3ReM25Re thermocouples.
For this combination, however, the curve is broken into
two functions and the temperature is expressed in
Celsius degrees.

Gen. Form: EMF = AT + BT2 + CT3 + DT4 + ET5 + K Gen. Form: EMF = AT + BT2 + CT3 + DT4 + ET5
Temp. Range: 32˚F to 4200˚F (0 to 2315˚C) Temp. Range: 32 to 4208˚F (0 to 2320˚C)

THERMOCOUPLE WIRE IDENTIFICATION GUIDE

Coefficients W/W26Re
A 0.2883146 x 10-3
B 0.6783829 x 10-5
C -0.1795965 x 10-8
D 0.2125270 x 10-12
E -0.1176051 x 10-16
K -0.1580014 x 10-1
W5Re/W26Re Coefficients T<783˚C T≥ 783 ˚C
0.7190027 x 10-2 A 9.5685256 x 10-3 9.9109462 x 10-3
0.3956443 x 10-5 B 2.0592621 x 10-5 1.8666488 x 10-5
-0.1842722 x 10-8 C -1.8464573 x 10-8 -1.4935266 x 10-8
0.3471851 x 10-12 D 7.9498033 x 10-12 5.3743821 x 10-12
-0.2616792 x 10-16 E -1.4240735 x 10-15 -7.9026726 x 10-16
-0.234471
Reprinted with Permission, from the Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Copyright
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, PA 19103

THERMOCOUPLE WIRE IDENTIFICATION GUIDE

Alloy Combination Color EMF(mV)
Letter +Lead -Lead Coding Maximum Useful Over Useful Standard Comments
Code Ext. Grade Temperature Range Temperature Limits of Error Environment
Range Bare WIre
TUNGSTEN TUNGSTEN + WHITE 32 TO 4208˚F 0 TO 38.564 4.5˚C TO 425˚C Vacuum Inert Hydrogen.
W 26% RHENIUM + 0 TO 2320˚C 1.0% TO 2320˚C Beware of Embrittlement.

G W-26% Re –

-RED
WHITE -
BLUE TRACE
Thermocouple Grade
32 to 500˚F
0 to 260˚C
Not Practical Below 750˚F
Not for Oxidizing
Atmosphere
Extension Grade
TUNGSTEN TUNGSTEN + WHITE 32 TO 4208˚F 0 TO 37.066 4.5˚C TO 425˚C Vacuum Inert Hydrogen.
5% RHENIUM 26% RHENIUM + 0 TO 2320˚C 1.0% TO 2320˚C Beware of Embrittlement.

C
–
W-5% Re W-26% Re Thermocouple Grade Not Practical Below 750˚F
-RED 32 to 1600˚F Not for Oxidizing
WHITE - 0 to 870˚C Atmosphere
RED TRACE
Extension Grade
TUNGSTEN TUNGSTEN + WHITE 32 TO 4208˚F 0 TO 39.506 4.5˚C TO 425˚C Vacuum Inert Hydrogen.
+
3% RHENIUM 25% RHENIUM – 0 TO 2320˚C 1.0% TO 2320˚C Beware of Embrittlement.

D W-3% Re W-56% Re
-RED
WHITE -
YELLOW TRACE
Thermocouple Grade
32 to 5000˚F
0 to 260˚C
Not Practical Below 750˚F
Not for Oxidizing
Atmosphere
Extension Grade

Z-202
Revised Thermocouple + Thermocouple MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE
Grade Thermocouple Grade
–
Reference Tables 32 to 1382°F
0 to 750°C
Extension Grade
32 to 392°F

J
TYPE
0 to 200°C
Iron LIMITS OF ERROR
vs. (whichever is greater)
Reference Copper-Nickel
Standard: 2.2°C or 0.75%
Special: 1.1°C or 0.4%
Tables + COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT:
N.I.S.T. Reducing, Vacuum, Inert; Limited Use in
Monograph 175 – Oxidizing at High Temperatures;
Not Recommended for Low Temperatures
Revised to Extension TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °C
ITS-90 Grade REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 0°C

Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts

°C -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C
-200 -8.095 -8.076 -8.057 -8.037 -8.017 -7.996 -7.976 -7.955 -7.934 -7.912 -7.890 -200
-190 -7.890 -7.868 -7.846 -7.824 -7.801 -7.778 -7.755 -7.731 -7.707 -7.683 -7.659 -190 500 27.393 27.449 27.505 27.561 27.617 27.673 27.729 27.785 27.841 27.897 27.953 500
-180 -7.659 -7.634 -7.610 -7.585 -7.559 -7.534 -7.508 -7.482 -7.456 -7.429 -7.403 -180 510 27.953 28.010 28.066 28.122 28.178 28.234 28.291 28.347 28.403 28.460 28.516 510
-170 -7.403 -7.376 -7.348 -7.321 -7.293 -7.265 -7.237 -7.209 -7.181 -7.152 -7.123 -170 520 28.516 28.572 28.629 28.685 28.741 28.798 28.854 28.911 28.967 29.024 29.080 520
-160 -7.123 -7.094 -7.064 -7.035 -7.005 -6.975 -6.944 -6.914 -6.883 -6.853 -6.821 -160 530 29.080 29.137 29.194 29.250 29.307 29.363 29.420 29.477 29.534 29.590 29.647 530
-150 -6.821 -6.790 -6.759 -6.727 -6.695 -6.663 -6.631 -6.598 -6.566 -6.533 -6.500 -150 540 29.647 29.704 29.761 29.818 29.874 29.931 29.988 30.045 30.102 30.159 30.216 540

-140 -6.500 -6.467 -6.433 -6.400 -6.366 -6.332 -6.298 -6.263 -6.229 -6.194 -6.159 -140 550 30.216 30.273 30.330 30.387 30.444 30.502 30.559 30.616 30.673 30.730 30.788 550
-130 -6.159 -6.124 -6.089 -6.054 -6.018 -5.982 -5.946 -5.910 -5.874 -5.838 -5.801 -130 560 30.788 30.845 30.902 30.960 31.017 31.074 31.132 31.189 31.247 31.304 31.362 560
-120 -5.801 -5.764 -5.727 -5.690 -5.653 -5.616 -5.578 -5.541 -5.503 -5.465 -5.426 -120 570 31.362 31.419 31.477 31.535 31.592 31.650 31.708 31.766 31.823 31.881 31.939 570
-110 -5.426 -5.388 -5.350 -5.311 -5.272 -5.233 -5.194 -5.155 -5.116 -5.076 -5.037 -110 580 31.939 31.997 32.055 32.113 32.171 32.229 32.287 32.345 32.403 32.461 32.519 580
-100 -5.037 -4.997 -4.957 -4.917 -4.877 -4.836 -4.796 -4.755 -4.714 -4.674 -4.633 -100 590 32.519 32.577 32.636 32.694 32.752 32.810 32.869 32.927 32.985 33.044 33.102 590
-90 -4.633 -4.591 -4.550 -4.509 -4.467 -4.425 -4.384 -4.342 -4.300 -4.257 -4.215 -90 600 33.102 33.161 33.219 33.278 33.337 33.395 33.454 33.513 33.571 33.630 33.689 600
-80 -4.215 -4.173 -4.130 -4.088 -4.045 -4.002 -3.959 -3.916 -3.872 -3.829 -3.786 -80 610 33.689 33.748 33.807 33.866 33.925 33.984 34.043 34.102 34.161 34.220 34.279 610
-70 -3.786 -3.742 -3.698 -3.654 -3.610 -3.566 -3.522 -3.478 -3.434 -3.389 -3.344 -70 620 34.279 34.338 34.397 34.457 34.516 34.575 34.635 34.694 34.754 34.813 34.873 620
-60 -3.344 -3.300 -3.255 -3.210 -3.165 -3.120 -3.075 -3.029 -2.984 -2.938 -2.893 -60 630 34.873 34.932 34.992 35.051 35.111 35.171 35.230 35.290 35.350 35.410 35.470 630
-50 -2.893 -2.847 -2.801 -2.755 -2.709 -2.663 -2.617 -2.571 -2.524 -2.478 -2.431 -50 640 35.470 35.530 35.590 35.650 35.710 35.770 35.830 35.890 35.950 36.010 36.071 640

-40 -2.431 -2.385 -2.338 -2.291 -2.244 -2.197 -2.150 -2.103 -2.055 -2.008 -1.961 -40 650 36.071 36.131 36.191 36.252 36.312 36.373 36.433 36.494 36.554 36.615 36.675 650
-30 -1.961 -1.913 -1.865 -1.818 -1.770 -1.722 -1.674 -1.626 -1.578 -1.530 -1.482 -30 660 36.675 36.736 36.797 36.858 36.918 36.979 37.040 37.101 37.162 37.223 37.284 660
-20 -1.482 -1.433 -1.385 -1.336 -1.288 -1.239 -1.190 -1.142 -1.093 -1.044 -0.995 -20 670 37.284 37.345 37.406 37.467 37.528 37.590 37.651 37.712 37.773 37.835 37.896 670
-10 -0.995 -0.946 -0.896 -0.847 -0.798 -0.749 -0.699 -0.650 -0.600 -0.550 -0.501 -10 680 37.896 37.958 38.019 38.081 38.142 38.204 38.265 38.327 38.389 38.450 38.512 680
0 -0.501 -0.451 -0.401 -0.351 -0.301 -0.251 -0.201 -0.151 -0.101 -0.050 0.000 0 690 38.512 38.574 38.636 38.698 38.760 38.822 38.884 38.946 39.008 39.070 39.132 690
0 0.000 0.050 0.101 0.151 0.202 0.253 0.303 0.354 0.405 0.456 0.507 0 700 39.132 39.194 39.256 39.318 39.381 39.443 39.505 39.568 39.630 39.693 39.755 700
10 0.507 0.558 0.609 0.660 0.711 0.762 0.814 0.865 0.916 0.968 1.019 10 710 39.755 39.818 39.880 39.943 40.005 40.068 40.131 40.193 40.256 40.319 40.382 710
20 1.019 1.071 1.122 1.174 1.226 1.277 1.329 1.381 1.433 1.485 1.537 20 720 40.382 40.445 40.508 40.570 40.633 40.696 40.759 40.822 40.886 40.949 41.012 720
30 1.537 1.589 1.641 1.693 1.745 1.797 1.849 1.902 1.954 2.006 2.059 30 730 41.012 41.075 41.138 41.201 41.265 41.328 41.391 41.455 41.518 41.581 41.645 730
40 2.059 2.111 2.164 2.216 2.269 2.322 2.374 2.427 2.480 2.532 2.585 40 740 41.645 41.708 41.772 41.835 41.899 41.962 42.026 42.090 42.153 42.217 42.281 740

50 2.585 2.638 2.691 2.744 2.797 2.850 2.903 2.956 3.009 3.062 3.116 50 750 42.281 42.344 42.408 42.472 42.536 42.599 42.663 42.727 42.791 42.855 42.919 750
60 3.116 3.169 3.222 3.275 3.329 3.382 3.436 3.489 3.543 3.596 3.650 60 760 42.919 42.983 43.047 43.111 43.175 43.239 43.303 43.367 43.431 43.495 43.559 760
70 3.650 3.703 3.757 3.810 3.864 3.918 3.971 4.025 4.079 4.133 4.187 70 770 43.559 43.624 43.688 43.752 43.817 43.881 43.945 44.010 44.074 44.139 44.203 770
80 4.187 4.240 4.294 4.348 4.402 4.456 4.510 4.564 4.618 4.672 4.726 80 780 44.203 44.267 44.332 44.396 44.461 44.525 44.590 44.655 44.719 44.784 44.848 780
90 4.726 4.781 4.835 4.889 4.943 4.997 5.052 5.106 5.160 5.215 5.269 90 790 44.848 44.913 44.977 45.042 45.107 45.171 45.236 45.301 45.365 45.430 45.494 790

100 5.269 5.323 5.378 5.432 5.487 5.541 5.595 5.650 5.705 5.759 5.814 100 800 45.494 45.559 45.624 45.688 45.753 45.818 45.882 45.947 46.011 46.076 46.141 800
110 5.814 5.868 5.923 5.977 6.032 6.087 6.141 6.196 6.251 6.306 6.360 110 810 46.141 46.205 46.270 46.334 46.399 46.464 46.528 46.593 46.657 46.722 46.786 810
120 6.360 6.415 6.470 6.525 6.579 6.634 6.689 6.744 6.799 6.854 6.909 120 820 46.786 46.851 46.915 46.980 47.044 47.109 47.173 47.238 47.302 47.367 47.431 820
130 6.909 6.964 7.019 7.074 7.129 7.184 7.239 7.294 7.349 7.404 7.459 130 830 47.431 47.495 47.560 47.624 47.688 47.753 47.817 47.881 47.946 48.010 48.074 830
140 7.459 7.514 7.569 7.624 7.679 7.734 7.789 7.844 7.900 7.955 8.010 140 840 48.074 48.138 48.202 48.267 48.331 48.395 48.459 48.523 48.587 48.651 48.715 840
150 8.010 8.065 8.120 8.175 8.231 8.286 8.341 8.396 8.452 8.507 8.562 150 850 48.715 48.779 48.843 48.907 48.971 49.034 49.098 49.162 49.226 49.290 49.353 850
160 8.562 8.618 8.673 8.728 8.783 8.839 8.894 8.949 9.005 9.060 9.115 160 860 49.353 49.417 49.481 49.544 49.608 49.672 49.735 49.799 49.862 49.926 49.989 860
170 9.115 9.171 9.226 9.282 9.337 9.392 9.448 9.503 9.559 9.614 9.669 170 870 49.989 50.052 50.116 50.179 50.243 50.306 50.369 50.432 50.495 50.559 50.622 870
180 9.669 9.725 9.780 9.836 9.891 9.947 10.002 10.057 10.113 10.168 10.224 180 880 50.622 50.685 50.748 50.811 50.874 50.937 51.000 51.063 51.126 51.188 51.251 880
190 10.224 10.279 10.335 10.390 10.446 10.501 10.557 10.612 10.668 10.723 10.779 190 890 51.251 51.314 51.377 51.439 51.502 51.565 51.627 51.690 51.752 51.815 51.877 890

200 10.779 10.834 10.890 10.945 11.001 11.056 11.112 11.167 11.223 11.278 11.334 200 900 51.877 51.940 52.002 52.064 52.127 52.189 52.251 52.314 52.376 52.438 52.500 900
210 11.334 11.389 11.445 11.501 11.556 11.612 11.667 11.723 11.778 11.834 11.889 210 910 52.500 52.562 52.624 52.686 52.748 52.810 52.872 52.934 52.996 53.057 53.119 910
220 11.889 11.945 12.000 12.056 12.111 12.167 12.222 12.278 12.334 12.389 12.445 220 920 53.119 53.181 53.243 53.304 53.366 53.427 53.489 53.550 53.612 53.673 53.735 920
230 12.445 12.500 12.556 12.611 12.667 12.722 12.778 12.833 12.889 12.944 13.000 230 930 53.735 53.796 53.857 53.919 53.980 54.041 54.102 54.164 54.225 54.286 54.347 930
240 13.000 13.056 13.111 13.167 13.222 13.278 13.333 13.389 13.444 13.500 13.555 240 940 54.347 54.408 54.469 54.530 54.591 54.652 54.713 54.773 54.834 54.895 54.956 940

250 13.555 13.611 13.666 13.722 13.777 13.833 13.888 13.944 13.999 14.055 14.110 250 950 54.956 55.016 55.077 55.138 55.198 55.259 55.319 55.380 55.440 55.501 55.561 950
260 14.110 14.166 14.221 14.277 14.332 14.388 14.443 14.499 14.554 14.609 14.665 260 960 55.561 55.622 55.682 55.742 55.803 55.863 55.923 55.983 56.043 56.104 56.164 960
270 14.665 14.720 14.776 14.831 14.887 14.942 14.998 15.053 15.109 15.164 15.219 270 970 56.164 56.224 56.284 56.344 56.404 56.464 56.524 56.584 56.643 56.703 56.763 970
280 15.219 15.275 15.330 15.386 15.441 15.496 15.552 15.607 15.663 15.718 15.773 280 980 56.763 56.823 56.883 56.942 57.002 57.062 57.121 57.181 57.240 57.300 57.360 980
290 15.773 15.829 15.884 15.940 15.995 16.050 16.106 16.161 16.216 16.272 16.327 290 990 57.360 57.419 57.479 57.538 57.597 57.657 57.716 57.776 57.835 57.894 57.953 990
300 16.327 16.383 16.438 16.493 16.549 16.604 16.659 16.715 16.770 16.825 16.881 300 1000 57.953 58.013 58.072 58.131 58.190 58.249 58.309 58.368 58.427 58.486 58.545 1000
310 16.881 16.936 16.991 17.046 17.102 17.157 17.212 17.268 17.323 17.378 17.434 310 1010 58.545 58.604 58.663 58.722 58.781 58.840 58.899 58.957 59.016 59.075 59.134 1010
320 17.434 17.489 17.544 17.599 17.655 17.710 17.765 17.820 17.876 17.931 17.986 320 1020 59.134 59.193 59.252 59.310 59.369 59.428 59.487 59.545 59.604 59.663 59.721 1020
330 17.986 18.041 18.097 18.152 18.207 18.262 18.318 18.373 18.428 18.483 18.538 330 1030 59.721 59.780 59.838 59.897 59.956 60.014 60.073 60.131 60.190 60.248 60.307 1030
340 18.538 18.594 18.649 18.704 18.759 18.814 18.870 18.925 18.980 19.035 19.090 340 1040 60.307 60.365 60.423 60.482 60.540 60.599 60.657 60.715 60.774 60.832 60.890 1040

350 19.090 19.146 19.201 19.256 19.311 19.366 19.422 19.477 19.532 19.587 19.642 350 1050 60.890 60.949 61.007 61.065 61.123 61.182 61.240 61.298 61.356 61.415 61.473 1050
360 19.642 19.697 19.753 19.808 19.863 19.918 19.973 20.028 20.083 20.139 20.194 360 1060 61.473 61.531 61.589 61.647 61.705 61.763 61.822 61.880 61.938 61.996 62.054 1060
370 20.194 20.249 20.304 20.359 20.414 20.469 20.525 20.580 20.635 20.690 20.745 370 1070 62.054 62.112 62.170 62.228 62.286 62.344 62.402 62.460 62.518 62.576 62.634 1070
380 20.745 20.800 20.855 20.911 20.966 21.021 21.076 21.131 21.186 21.241 21.297 380 1080 62.634 62.692 62.750 62.808 62.866 62.924 62.982 63.040 63.098 63.156 63.214 1080
390 21.297 21.352 21.407 21.462 21.517 21.572 21.627 21.683 21.738 21.793 21.848 390 1090 63.214 63.271 63.329 63.387 63.445 63.503 63.561 63.619 63.677 63.734 63.792 1090
400 21.848 21.903 21.958 22.014 22.069 22.124 22.179 22.234 22.289 22.345 22.400 400 1100 63.792 63.850 63.908 63.966 64.024 64.081 64.139 64.197 64.255 64.313 64.370 1100
410 22.400 22.455 22.510 22.565 22.620 22.676 22.731 22.786 22.841 22.896 22.952 410 1110 64.370 64.428 64.486 64.544 64.602 64.659 64.717 64.775 64.833 64.890 64.948 1110
420 22.952 23.007 23.062 23.117 23.172 23.228 23.283 23.338 23.393 23.449 23.504 420 1120 64.948 65.006 65.064 65.121 65.179 65.237 65.295 65.352 65.410 65.468 65.525 1120
430 23.504 23.559 23.614 23.670 23.725 23.780 23.835 23.891 23.946 24.001 24.057 430 1130 65.525 65.583 65.641 65.699 65.756 65.814 65.872 65.929 65.987 66.045 66.102 1130
440 24.057 24.112 24.167 24.223 24.278 24.333 24.389 24.444 24.499 24.555 24.610 440 1140 66.102 66.160 66.218 66.275 66.333 66.391 66.448 66.506 66.564 66.621 66.679 1140
450 24.610 24.665 24.721 24.776 24.832 24.887 24.943 24.998 25.053 25.109 25.164 450 1150 66.679 66.737 66.794 66.852 66.910 66.967 67.025 67.082 67.140 67.198 67.255 1150
460 25.164 25.220 25.275 25.331 25.386 25.442 25.497 25.553 25.608 25.664 25.720 460 1160 67.255 67.313 67.370 67.428 67.486 67.543 67.601 67.658 67.716 67.773 67.831 1160
470 25.720 25.775 25.831 25.886 25.942 25.998 26.053 26.109 26.165 26.220 26.276 470 1170 67.831 67.888 67.946 68.003 68.061 68.119 68.176 68.234 68.291 68.348 68.406 1170
480 26.276 26.332 26.387 26.443 26.499 26.555 26.610 26.666 26.722 26.778 26.834 480 1180 68.406 68.463 68.521 68.578 68.636 68.693 68.751 68.808 68.865 68.923 68.980 1180
490 26.834 26.889 26.945 27.001 27.057 27.113 27.169 27.225 27.281 27.337 27.393 490 1190 68.980 69.037 69.095 69.152 69.209 69.267 69.324 69.381 69.439 69.496 69.553 1190
°C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C

Z-203
 MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE + Thermocouple
Revised Thermocouple
Thermocouple Grade Grade
–
– 328 to 2282°F
– 200 to 1250°C Reference Tables
Extension Grade
32 to 392°F
0 to 200°C

K
LIMITS OF ERROR
(whichever is greater)
Standard: 2.2°C or 0.75% Above 0°C
Nickel-Chromium
vs. TYPE
Reference
2.2°C or 2.0% Below 0°C
Special: 1.1°C or 0.4%
Nickel-Aluminum Tables
COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT: +
Clean Oxidizing and Inert; Limited Use in – N.I.S.T.
Vacuum or Reducing; Wide Temperature Monograph 175
Range; Most Popular Calibration
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °C
Extension Revised to
Grade ITS-90
REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 0°C
Z
Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts
°C -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C
250 10.153 10.194 10.235 10.276 10.316 10.357 10.398 10.439 10.480 10.520 10.561 250
260 10.561 10.602 10.643 10.684 10.725 10.766 10.807 10.848 10.889 10.930 10.971 260
270 10.971 11.012 11.053 11.094 11.135 11.176 11.217 11.259 11.300 11.341 11.382 270
-260 -6.458 -6.457 -6.456 -6.455 -6.453 -6.452 -6.450 -6.448 -6.446 -6.444 -6.441 -260 280 11.382 11.423 11.465 11.506 11.547 11.588 11.630 11.671 11.712 11.753 11.795 280
-250 -6.441 -6.438 -6.435 -6.432 -6.429 -6.425 -6.421 -6.417 -6.413 -6.408 -6.404 -250 290 11.795 11.836 11.877 11.919 11.960 12.001 12.043 12.084 12.126 12.167 12.209 290

-240 -6.404 -6.399 -6.393 -6.388 -6.382 -6.377 -6.370 -6.364 -6.358 -6.351 -6.344 -240 300 12.209 12.250 12.291 12.333 12.374 12.416 12.457 12.499 12.540 12.582 12.624 300
-230 -6.344 -6.337 -6.329 -6.322 -6.314 -6.306 -6.297 -6.289 -6.280 -6.271 -6.262 -230 310 12.624 12.665 12.707 12.748 12.790 12.831 12.873 12.915 12.956 12.998 13.040 310
-220 -6.262 -6.252 -6.243 -6.233 -6.223 -6.213 -6.202 -6.192 -6.181 -6.170 -6.158 -220 320 13.040 13.081 13.123 13.165 13.206 13.248 13.290 13.331 13.373 13.415 13.457 320
-210 -6.158 -6.147 -6.135 -6.123 -6.111 -6.099 -6.087 -6.074 -6.061 -6.048 -6.035 -210 330 13.457 13.498 13.540 13.582 13.624 13.665 13.707 13.749 13.791 13.833 13.874 330
-200 -6.035 -6.021 -6.007 -5.994 -5.980 -5.965 -5.951 -5.936 -5.922 -5.907 -5.891 -200 340 13.874 13.916 13.958 14.000 14.042 14.084 14.126 14.167 14.209 14.251 14.293 340

-190 -5.891 -5.876 -5.861 -5.845 -5.829 -5.813 -5.797 -5.780 -5.763 -5.747 -5.730 -190 350 14.293 14.335 14.377 14.419 14.461 14.503 14.545 14.587 14.629 14.671 14.713 350
-180 -5.730 -5.713 -5.695 -5.678 -5.660 -5.642 -5.624 -5.606 -5.588 -5.569 -5.550 -180 360 14.713 14.755 14.797 14.839 14.881 14.923 14.965 15.007 15.049 15.091 15.133 360
-170 -5.550 -5.531 -5.512 -5.493 -5.474 -5.454 -5.435 -5.415 -5.395 -5.374 -5.354 -170 370 15.133 15.175 15.217 15.259 15.301 15.343 15.385 15.427 15.469 15.511 15.554 370
-160 -5.354 -5.333 -5.313 -5.292 -5.271 -5.250 -5.228 -5.207 -5.185 -5.163 -5.141 -160 380 15.554 15.596 15.638 15.680 15.722 15.764 15.806 15.849 15.891 15.933 15.975 380
-150 -5.141 -5.119 -5.097 -5.074 -5.052 -5.029 -5.006 -4.983 -4.960 -4.936 -4.913 -150 390 15.975 16.017 16.059 16.102 16.144 16.186 16.228 16.270 16.313 16.355 16.397 390

-140 -4.913 -4.889 -4.865 -4.841 -4.817 -4.793 -4.768 -4.744 -4.719 -4.694 -4.669 -140 400 16.397 16.439 16.482 16.524 16.566 16.608 16.651 16.693 16.735 16.778 16.820 400
-130 -4.669 -4.644 -4.618 -4.593 -4.567 -4.542 -4.516 -4.490 -4.463 -4.437 -4.411 -130 410 16.820 16.862 16.904 16.947 16.989 17.031 17.074 17.116 17.158 17.201 17.243 410
-120 -4.411 -4.384 -4.357 -4.330 -4.303 -4.276 -4.249 -4.221 -4.194 -4.166 -4.138 -120 420 17.243 17.285 17.328 17.370 17.413 17.455 17.497 17.540 17.582 17.624 17.667 420
-110 -4.138 -4.110 -4.082 -4.054 -4.025 -3.997 -3.968 -3.939 -3.911 -3.882 -3.852 -110 430 17.667 17.709 17.752 17.794 17.837 17.879 17.921 17.964 18.006 18.049 18.091 430
-100 -3.852 -3.823 -3.794 -3.764 -3.734 -3.705 -3.675 -3.645 -3.614 -3.584 -3.554 -100 440 18.091 18.134 18.176 18.218 18.261 18.303 18.346 18.388 18.431 18.473 18.516 440

-90 -3.554 -3.523 -3.492 -3.462 -3.431 -3.400 -3.368 -3.337 -3.306 -3.274 -3.243 -90 450 18.516 18.558 18.601 18.643 18.686 18.728 18.771 18.813 18.856 18.898 18.941 450
-80 -3.243 -3.211 -3.179 -3.147 -3.115 -3.083 -3.050 -3.018 -2.986 -2.953 -2.920 -80 460 18.941 18.983 19.026 19.068 19.111 19.154 19.196 19.239 19.281 19.324 19.366 460
-70 -2.920 -2.887 -2.854 -2.821 -2.788 -2.755 -2.721 -2.688 -2.654 -2.620 -2.587 -70 470 19.366 19.409 19.451 19.494 19.537 19.579 19.622 19.664 19.707 19.750 19.792 470
-60 -2.587 -2.553 -2.519 -2.485 -2.450 -2.416 -2.382 -2.347 -2.312 -2.278 -2.243 -60 480 19.792 19.835 19.877 19.920 19.962 20.005 20.048 20.090 20.133 20.175 20.218 480
-50 -2.243 -2.208 -2.173 -2.138 -2.103 -2.067 -2.032 -1.996 -1.961 -1.925 -1.889 -50 490 20.218 20.261 20.303 20.346 20.389 20.431 20.474 20.516 20.559 20.602 20.644 490

-40 -1.889 -1.854 -1.818 -1.782 -1.745 -1.709 -1.673 -1.637 -1.600 -1.564 -1.527 -40 500 20.644 20.687 20.730 20.772 20.815 20.857 20.900 20.943 20.985 21.028 21.071 500
-30 -1.527 -1.490 -1.453 -1.417 -1.380 -1.343 -1.305 -1.268 -1.231 -1.194 -1.156 -30 510 21.071 21.113 21.156 21.199 21.241 21.284 21.326 21.369 21.412 21.454 21.497 510
-20 -1.156 -1.119 -1.081 -1.043 -1.006 -0.968 -0.930 -0.892 -0.854 -0.816 -0.778 -20 520 21.497 21.540 21.582 21.625 21.668 21.710 21.753 21.796 21.838 21.881 21.924 520
-10 -0.778 -0.739 -0.701 -0.663 -0.624 -0.586 -0.547 -0.508 -0.470 -0.431 -0.392 -10 530 21.924 21.966 22.009 22.052 22.094 22.137 22.179 22.222 22.265 22.307 22.350 530
0 -0.392 -0.353 -0.314 -0.275 -0.236 -0.197 -0.157 -0.118 -0.079 -0.039 0.000 0 540 22.350 22.393 22.435 22.478 22.521 22.563 22.606 22.649 22.691 22.734 22.776 540

0 0.000 0.039 0.079 0.119 0.158 0.198 0.238 0.277 0.317 0.357 0.397 0 550 22.776 22.819 22.862 22.904 22.947 22.990 23.032 23.075 23.117 23.160 23.203 550
10 0.397 0.437 0.477 0.517 0.557 0.597 0.637 0.677 0.718 0.758 0.798 10 560 23.203 23.245 23.288 23.331 23.373 23.416 23.458 23.501 23.544 23.586 23.629 560
20 0.798 0.838 0.879 0.919 0.960 1.000 1.041 1.081 1.122 1.163 1.203 20 570 23.629 23.671 23.714 23.757 23.799 23.842 23.884 23.927 23.970 24.012 24.055 570
30 1.203 1.244 1.285 1.326 1.366 1.407 1.448 1.489 1.530 1.571 1.612 30 580 24.055 24.097 24.140 24.182 24.225 24.267 24.310 24.353 24.395 24.438 24.480 580
40 1.612 1.653 1.694 1.735 1.776 1.817 1.858 1.899 1.941 1.982 2.023 40 590 24.480 24.523 24.565 24.608 24.650 24.693 24.735 24.778 24.820 24.863 24.905 590

50 2.023 2.064 2.106 2.147 2.188 2.230 2.271 2.312 2.354 2.395 2.436 50 600 24.905 24.948 24.990 25.033 25.075 25.118 25.160 25.203 25.245 25.288 25.330 600
60 2.436 2.478 2.519 2.561 2.602 2.644 2.685 2.727 2.768 2.810 2.851 60 610 25.330 25.373 25.415 25.458 25.500 25.543 25.585 25.627 25.670 25.712 25.755 610
70 2.851 2.893 2.934 2.976 3.017 3.059 3.100 3.142 3.184 3.225 3.267 70 620 25.755 25.797 25.840 25.882 25.924 25.967 26.009 26.052 26.094 26.136 26.179 620
80 3.267 3.308 3.350 3.391 3.433 3.474 3.516 3.557 3.599 3.640 3.682 80 630 26.179 26.221 26.263 26.306 26.348 26.390 26.433 26.475 26.517 26.560 26.602 630
90 3.682 3.723 3.765 3.806 3.848 3.889 3.931 3.972 4.013 4.055 4.096 90 640 26.602 26.644 26.687 26.729 26.771 26.814 26.856 26.898 26.940 26.983 27.025 640

100 4.096 4.138 4.179 4.220 4.262 4.303 4.344 4.385 4.427 4.468 4.509 100 650 27.025 27.067 27.109 27.152 27.194 27.236 27.278 27.320 27.363 27.405 27.447 650
110 4.509 4.550 4.591 4.633 4.674 4.715 4.756 4.797 4.838 4.879 4.920 110 660 27.447 27.489 27.531 27.574 27.616 27.658 27.700 27.742 27.784 27.826 27.869 660
120 4.920 4.961 5.002 5.043 5.084 5.124 5.165 5.206 5.247 5.288 5.328 120 670 27.869 27.911 27.953 27.995 28.037 28.079 28.121 28.163 28.205 28.247 28.289 670
130 5.328 5.369 5.410 5.450 5.491 5.532 5.572 5.613 5.653 5.694 5.735 130 680 28.289 28.332 28.374 28.416 28.458 28.500 28.542 28.584 28.626 28.668 28.710 680
140 5.735 5.775 5.815 5.856 5.896 5.937 5.977 6.017 6.058 6.098 6.138 140 690 28.710 28.752 28.794 28.835 28.877 28.919 28.961 29.003 29.045 29.087 29.129 690

150 6.138 6.179 6.219 6.259 6.299 6.339 6.380 6.420 6.460 6.500 6.540 150 700 29.129 29.171 29.213 29.255 29.297 29.338 29.380 29.422 29.464 29.506 29.548 700
160 6.540 6.580 6.620 6.660 6.701 6.741 6.781 6.821 6.861 6.901 6.941 160 710 29.548 29.589 29.631 29.673 29.715 29.757 29.798 29.840 29.882 29.924 29.965 710
170 6.941 6.981 7.021 7.060 7.100 7.140 7.180 7.220 7.260 7.300 7.340 170 720 29.965 30.007 30.049 30.090 30.132 30.174 30.216 30.257 30.299 30.341 30.382 720
180 7.340 7.380 7.420 7.460 7.500 7.540 7.579 7.619 7.659 7.699 7.739 180 730 30.382 30.424 30.466 30.507 30.549 30.590 30.632 30.674 30.715 30.757 30.798 730
190 7.739 7.779 7.819 7.859 7.899 7.939 7.979 8.019 8.059 8.099 8.138 190 740 30.798 30.840 30.881 30.923 30.964 31.006 31.047 31.089 31.130 31.172 31.213 740

200 8.138 8.178 8.218 8.258 8.298 8.338 8.378 8.418 8.458 8.499 8.539 200 750 31.213 31.255 31.296 31.338 31.379 31.421 31.462 31.504 31.545 31.586 31.628 750
210 8.539 8.579 8.619 8.659 8.699 8.739 8.779 8.819 8.860 8.900 8.940 210 760 31.628 31.669 31.710 31.752 31.793 31.834 31.876 31.917 31.958 32.000 32.041 760
220 8.940 8.980 9.020 9.061 9.101 9.141 9.181 9.222 9.262 9.302 9.343 220 770 32.041 32.082 32.124 32.165 32.206 32.247 32.289 32.330 32.371 32.412 32.453 770
230 9.343 9.383 9.423 9.464 9.504 9.545 9.585 9.626 9.666 9.707 9.747 230 780 32.453 32.495 32.536 32.577 32.618 32.659 32.700 32.742 32.783 32.824 32.865 780
240 9.747 9.788 9.828 9.869 9.909 9.950 9.991 10.031 10.072 10.113 10.153 240 790 32.865 32.906 32.947 32.988 33.029 33.070 33.111 33.152 33.193 33.234 33.275 790

°C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C

Z-204
Revised Thermocouple + Thermocouple MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE
Grade Thermocouple Grade
–
Reference Tables – 328 to 2282°F
– 200 to 1250°C
Extension Grade
32 to 392°F
0 to 200°C

K
TYPE
Reference
Nickel-Chromium
vs.
LIMITS OF ERROR
(whichever is greater)
Standard: 2.2°C or 0.75% Above 0°C
2.2°C or 2.0% Below 0°C
Tables
Nickel-Aluminum Special: 1.1°C or 0.4%
+ COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT:
N.I.S.T. – Clean Oxidizing and Inert; Limited Use in
Monograph 175 Vacuum or Reducing; Wide Temperature
Range; Most Popular Calibration
Revised to Extension TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °C
ITS-90 Grade REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 0°C

Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts

°C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C
800 33.275 33.316 33.357 33.398 33.439 33.480 33.521 33.562 33.603 33.644 33.685 800 1100 45.119 45.157 45.194 45.232 45.270 45.308 45.346 45.383 45.421 45.459 45.497 1100
810 33.685 33.726 33.767 33.808 33.848 33.889 33.930 33.971 34.012 34.053 34.093 810 1110 45.497 45.534 45.572 45.610 45.647 45.685 45.723 45.760 45.798 45.836 45.873 1110
820 34.093 34.134 34.175 34.216 34.257 34.297 34.338 34.379 34.420 34.460 34.501 820 1120 45.873 45.911 45.948 45.986 46.024 46.061 46.099 46.136 46.174 46.211 46.249 1120
830 34.501 34.542 34.582 34.623 34.664 34.704 34.745 34.786 34.826 34.867 34.908 830 1130 46.249 46.286 46.324 46.361 46.398 46.436 46.473 46.511 46.548 46.585 46.623 1130
840 34.908 34.948 34.989 35.029 35.070 35.110 35.151 35.192 35.232 35.273 35.313 840 1140 46.623 46.660 46.697 46.735 46.772 46.809 46.847 46.884 46.921 46.958 46.995 1140

850 35.313 35.354 35.394 35.435 35.475 35.516 35.556 35.596 35.637 35.677 35.718 850 1150 46.995 47.033 47.070 47.107 47.144 47.181 47.218 47.256 47.293 47.330 47.367 1150
860 35.718 35.758 35.798 35.839 35.879 35.920 35.960 36.000 36.041 36.081 36.121 860 1160 47.367 47.404 47.441 47.478 47.515 47.552 47.589 47.626 47.663 47.700 47.737 1160
870 36.121 36.162 36.202 36.242 36.282 36.323 36.363 36.403 36.443 36.484 36.524 870 1170 47.737 47.774 47.811 47.848 47.884 47.921 47.958 47.995 48.032 48.069 48.105 1170
880 36.524 36.564 36.604 36.644 36.685 36.725 36.765 36.805 36.845 36.885 36.925 880 1180 48.105 48.142 48.179 48.216 48.252 48.289 48.326 48.363 48.399 48.436 48.473 1180
890 36.925 36.965 37.006 37.046 37.086 37.126 37.166 37.206 37.246 37.286 37.326 890 1190 48.473 48.509 48.546 48.582 48.619 48.656 48.692 48.729 48.765 48.802 48.838 1190

900 37.326 37.366 37.406 37.446 37.486 37.526 37.566 37.606 37.646 37.686 37.725 900 1200 48.838 48.875 48.911 48.948 48.984 49.021 49.057 49.093 49.130 49.166 49.202 1200
910 37.725 37.765 37.805 37.845 37.885 37.925 37.965 38.005 38.044 38.084 38.124 910 1210 49.202 49.239 49.275 49.311 49.348 49.384 49.420 49.456 49.493 49.529 49.565 1210
920 38.124 38.164 38.204 38.243 38.283 38.323 38.363 38.402 38.442 38.482 38.522 920 1220 49.565 49.601 49.637 49.674 49.710 49.746 49.782 49.818 49.854 49.890 49.926 1220
930 38.522 38.561 38.601 38.641 38.680 38.720 38.760 38.799 38.839 38.878 38.918 930 1230 49.926 49.962 49.998 50.034 50.070 50.106 50.142 50.178 50.214 50.250 50.286 1230
940 38.918 38.958 38.997 39.037 39.076 39.116 39.155 39.195 39.235 39.274 39.314 940 1240 50.286 50.322 50.358 50.393 50.429 50.465 50.501 50.537 50.572 50.608 50.644 1240

950 39.314 39.353 39.393 39.432 39.471 39.511 39.550 39.590 39.629 39.669 39.708 950 1250 50.644 50.680 50.715 50.751 50.787 50.822 50.858 50.894 50.929 50.965 51.000 1250
960 39.708 39.747 39.787 39.826 39.866 39.905 39.944 39.984 40.023 40.062 40.101 960 1260 51.000 51.036 51.071 51.107 51.142 51.178 51.213 51.249 51.284 51.320 51.355 1260
970 40.101 40.141 40.180 40.219 40.259 40.298 40.337 40.376 40.415 40.455 40.494 970 1270 51.355 51.391 51.426 51.461 51.497 51.532 51.567 51.603 51.638 51.673 51.708 1270
980 40.494 40.533 40.572 40.611 40.651 40.690 40.729 40.768 40.807 40.846 40.885 980 1280 51.708 51.744 51.779 51.814 51.849 51.885 51.920 51.955 51.990 52.025 52.060 1280
990 40.885 40.924 40.963 41.002 41.042 41.081 41.120 41.159 41.198 41.237 41.276 990 1290 52.060 52.095 52.130 52.165 52.200 52.235 52.270 52.305 52.340 52.375 52.410 1290

1000 41.276 41.315 41.354 41.393 41.431 41.470 41.509 41.548 41.587 41.626 41.665 1000 1300 52.410 52.445 52.480 52.515 52.550 52.585 52.620 52.654 52.689 52.724 52.759 1300
1010 41.665 41.704 41.743 41.781 41.820 41.859 41.898 41.937 41.976 42.014 42.053 1010 1310 52.759 52.794 52.828 52.863 52.898 52.932 52.967 53.002 53.037 53.071 53.106 1310
1020 42.053 42.092 42.131 42.169 42.208 42.247 42.286 42.324 42.363 42.402 42.440 1020 1320 53.106 53.140 53.175 53.210 53.244 53.279 53.313 53.348 53.382 53.417 53.451 1320
1030 42.440 42.479 42.518 42.556 42.595 42.633 42.672 42.711 42.749 42.788 42.826 1030 1330 53.451 53.486 53.520 53.555 53.589 53.623 53.658 53.692 53.727 53.761 53.795 1330
1040 42.826 42.865 42.903 42.942 42.980 43.019 43.057 43.096 43.134 43.173 43.211 1040 1340 53.795 53.830 53.864 53.898 53.932 53.967 54.001 54.035 54.069 54.104 54.138 1340

1050 43.211 43.250 43.288 43.327 43.365 43.403 43.442 43.480 43.518 43.557 43.595 1050 1350 54.138 54.172 54.206 54.240 54.274 54.308 54.343 54.377 54.411 54.445 54.479 1350
1060 43.595 43.633 43.672 43.710 43.748 43.787 43.825 43.863 43.901 43.940 43.978 1060 1360 54.479 54.513 54.547 54.581 54.615 54.649 54.683 54.717 54.751 54.785 54.819 1360
1070 43.978 44.016 44.054 44.092 44.130 44.169 44.207 44.245 44.283 44.321 44.359 1070 1370 54.819 54.852 54.886 1370
1080 44.359 44.397 44.435 44.473 44.512 44.550 44.588 44.626 44.664 44.702 44.740 1080
1090 44.740 44.778 44.816 44.853 44.891 44.929 44.967 45.005 45.043 45.081 45.119 1090
°C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C

Z-205
 MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE + Thermocouple
Revised Thermocouple
Thermocouple Grade Grade
–
– 328 to 1652°F
– 200 to 900°C Reference Tables
Extension Grade
32 to 392°F

E
TYPE
0 to 200°C
LIMITS OF ERROR Nickel-Chromium
(whichever is greater) vs.
Standard: 1.7°C or 0.5% Above 0°C
1.7°C or 1.0% Below 0°C Copper-Nickel Reference
Special: 1.0°C or 0.4% + Tables
COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT:
– N.I.S.T.
Oxidizing or Inert; Limited Use in Vacuum or
Reducing; Highest EMF Change per Degree Monograph 175
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °C Extension Revised to
REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 0°C Grade ITS-90
Z
Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts
°C -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C
350 24.964 25.044 25.123 25.202 25.281 25.360 25.440 25.519 25.598 25.678 25.757 350
360 25.757 25.836 25.916 25.995 26.075 26.154 26.233 26.313 26.392 26.472 26.552 360
370 26.552 26.631 26.711 26.790 26.870 26.950 27.029 27.109 27.189 27.268 27.348 370
-260 -9.835 -9.833 -9.831 -9.828 -9.825 -9.821 -9.817 -9.813 -9.808 -9.802 -9.797 -260 380 27.348 27.428 27.507 27.587 27.667 27.747 27.827 27.907 27.986 28.066 28.146 380
-250 -9.797 -9.790 -9.784 -9.777 -9.770 -9.762 -9.754 -9.746 -9.737 -9.728 -9.718 -250 390 28.146 28.226 28.306 28.386 28.466 28.546 28.626 28.706 28.786 28.866 28.946 390

-240 -9.718 -9.709 -9.698 -9.688 -9.677 -9.666 -9.654 -9.642 -9.630 -9.617 -9.604 -240 400 28.946 29.026 29.106 29.186 29.266 29.346 29.427 29.507 29.587 29.667 29.747 400
-230 -9.604 -9.591 -9.577 -9.563 -9.548 -9.534 -9.519 -9.503 -9.487 -9.471 -9.455 -230 410 29.747 29.827 29.908 29.988 30.068 30.148 30.229 30.309 30.389 30.470 30.550 410
-220 -9.455 -9.438 -9.421 -9.404 -9.386 -9.368 -9.350 -9.331 -9.313 -9.293 -9.274 -220 420 30.550 30.630 30.711 30.791 30.871 30.952 31.032 31.112 31.193 31.273 31.354 420
-210 -9.274 -9.254 -9.234 -9.214 -9.193 -9.172 -9.151 -9.129 -9.107 -9.085 -9.063 -210 430 31.354 31.434 31.515 31.595 31.676 31.756 31.837 31.917 31.998 32.078 32.159 430
-200 -9.063 -9.040 -9.017 -8.994 -8.971 -8.947 -8.923 -8.899 -8.874 -8.850 -8.825 -200 440 32.159 32.239 32.320 32.400 32.481 32.562 32.642 32.723 32.803 32.884 32.965 440
-190 -8.825 -8.799 -8.774 -8.748 -8.722 -8.696 -8.669 -8.643 -8.616 -8.588 -8.561 -190 450 32.965 33.045 33.126 33.207 33.287 33.368 33.449 33.529 33.610 33.691 33.772 450
-180 -8.561 -8.533 -8.505 -8.477 -8.449 -8.420 -8.391 -8.362 -8.333 -8.303 -8.273 -180 460 33.772 33.852 33.933 34.014 34.095 34.175 34.256 34.337 34.418 34.498 34.579 460
-170 -8.273 -8.243 -8.213 -8.183 -8.152 -8.121 -8.090 -8.059 -8.027 -7.995 -7.963 -170 470 34.579 34.660 34.741 34.822 34.902 34.983 35.064 35.145 35.226 35.307 35.387 470
-160 -7.963 -7.931 -7.899 -7.866 -7.833 -7.800 -7.767 -7.733 -7.700 -7.666 -7.632 -160 480 35.387 35.468 35.549 35.630 35.711 35.792 35.873 35.954 36.034 36.115 36.196 480
-150 -7.632 -7.597 -7.563 -7.528 -7.493 -7.458 -7.423 -7.387 -7.351 -7.315 -7.279 -150 490 36.196 36.277 36.358 36.439 36.520 36.601 36.682 36.763 36.843 36.924 37.005 490
-140 -7.279 -7.243 -7.206 -7.170 -7.133 -7.096 -7.058 -7.021 -6.983 -6.945 -6.907 -140 500 37.005 37.086 37.167 37.248 37.329 37.410 37.491 37.572 37.653 37.734 37.815 500
-130 -6.907 -6.869 -6.831 -6.792 -6.753 -6.714 -6.675 -6.636 -6.596 -6.556 -6.516 -130 510 37.815 37.896 37.977 38.058 38.139 38.220 38.300 38.381 38.462 38.543 38.624 510
-120 -6.516 -6.476 -6.436 -6.396 -6.355 -6.314 -6.273 -6.232 -6.191 -6.149 -6.107 -120 520 38.624 38.705 38.786 38.867 38.948 39.029 39.110 39.191 39.272 39.353 39.434 520
-110 -6.107 -6.065 -6.023 -5.981 -5.939 -5.896 -5.853 -5.810 -5.767 -5.724 -5.681 -110 530 39.434 39.515 39.596 39.677 39.758 39.839 39.920 40.001 40.082 40.163 40.243 530
-100 -5.681 -5.637 -5.593 -5.549 -5.505 -5.461 -5.417 -5.372 -5.327 -5.282 -5.237 -100 540 40.243 40.324 40.405 40.486 40.567 40.648 40.729 40.810 40.891 40.972 41.053 540
-90 -5.237 -5.192 -5.147 -5.101 -5.055 -5.009 -4.963 -4.917 -4.871 -4.824 -4.777 -90 550 41.053 41.134 41.215 41.296 41.377 41.457 41.538 41.619 41.700 41.781 41.862 550
-80 -4.777 -4.731 -4.684 -4.636 -4.589 -4.542 -4.494 -4.446 -4.398 -4.350 -4.302 -80 560 41.862 41.943 42.024 42.105 42.185 42.266 42.347 42.428 42.509 42.590 42.671 560
-70 -4.302 -4.254 -4.205 -4.156 -4.107 -4.058 -4.009 -3.960 -3.911 -3.861 -3.811 -70 570 42.671 42.751 42.832 42.913 42.994 43.075 43.156 43.236 43.317 43.398 43.479 570
-60 -3.811 -3.761 -3.711 -3.661 -3.611 -3.561 -3.510 -3.459 -3.408 -3.357 -3.306 -60 580 43.479 43.560 43.640 43.721 43.802 43.883 43.963 44.044 44.125 44.206 44.286 580
-50 -3.306 -3.255 -3.204 -3.152 -3.100 -3.048 -2.996 -2.944 -2.892 -2.840 -2.787 -50 590 44.286 44.367 44.448 44.529 44.609 44.690 44.771 44.851 44.932 45.013 45.093 590

-40 -2.787 -2.735 -2.682 -2.629 -2.576 -2.523 -2.469 -2.416 -2.362 -2.309 -2.255 -40 600 45.093 45.174 45.255 45.335 45.416 45.497 45.577 45.658 45.738 45.819 45.900 600
-30 -2.255 -2.201 -2.147 -2.093 -2.038 -1.984 -1.929 -1.874 -1.820 -1.765 -1.709 -30 610 45.900 45.980 46.061 46.141 46.222 46.302 46.383 46.463 46.544 46.624 46.705 610
-20 -1.709 -1.654 -1.599 -1.543 -1.488 -1.432 -1.376 -1.320 -1.264 -1.208 -1.152 -20 620 46.705 46.785 46.866 46.946 47.027 47.107 47.188 47.268 47.349 47.429 47.509 620
-10 -1.152 -1.095 -1.039 -0.982 -0.925 -0.868 -0.811 -0.754 -0.697 -0.639 -0.582 -10 630 47.509 47.590 47.670 47.751 47.831 47.911 47.992 48.072 48.152 48.233 48.313 630
0 -0.582 -0.524 -0.466 -0.408 -0.350 -0.292 -0.234 -0.176 -0.117 -0.059 0.000 0 640 48.313 48.393 48.474 48.554 48.634 48.715 48.795 48.875 48.955 49.035 49.116 640
0 0.000 0.059 0.118 0.176 0.235 0.294 0.354 0.413 0.472 0.532 0.591 0 650 49.116 49.196 49.276 49.356 49.436 49.517 49.597 49.677 49.757 49.837 49.917 650
10 0.591 0.651 0.711 0.770 0.830 0.890 0.950 1.010 1.071 1.131 1.192 10 660 49.917 49.997 50.077 50.157 50.238 50.318 50.398 50.478 50.558 50.638 50.718 660
20 1.192 1.252 1.313 1.373 1.434 1.495 1.556 1.617 1.678 1.740 1.801 20 670 50.718 50.798 50.878 50.958 51.038 51.118 51.197 51.277 51.357 51.437 51.517 670
30 1.801 1.862 1.924 1.986 2.047 2.109 2.171 2.233 2.295 2.357 2.420 30 680 51.517 51.597 51.677 51.757 51.837 51.916 51.996 52.076 52.156 52.236 52.315 680
40 2.420 2.482 2.545 2.607 2.670 2.733 2.795 2.858 2.921 2.984 3.048 40 690 52.315 52.395 52.475 52.555 52.634 52.714 52.794 52.873 52.953 53.033 53.112 690
50 3.048 3.111 3.174 3.238 3.301 3.365 3.429 3.492 3.556 3.620 3.685 50 700 53.112 53.192 53.272 53.351 53.431 53.510 53.590 53.670 53.749 53.829 53.908 700
60 3.685 3.749 3.813 3.877 3.942 4.006 4.071 4.136 4.200 4.265 4.330 60 710 53.908 53.988 54.067 54.147 54.226 54.306 54.385 54.465 54.544 54.624 54.703 710
70 4.330 4.395 4.460 4.526 4.591 4.656 4.722 4.788 4.853 4.919 4.985 70 720 54.703 54.782 54.862 54.941 55.021 55.100 55.179 55.259 55.338 55.417 55.497 720
80 4.985 5.051 5.117 5.183 5.249 5.315 5.382 5.448 5.514 5.581 5.648 80 730 55.497 55.576 55.655 55.734 55.814 55.893 55.972 56.051 56.131 56.210 56.289 730
90 5.648 5.714 5.781 5.848 5.915 5.982 6.049 6.117 6.184 6.251 6.319 90 740 56.289 56.368 56.447 56.526 56.606 56.685 56.764 56.843 56.922 57.001 57.080 740

100 6.319 6.386 6.454 6.522 6.590 6.658 6.725 6.794 6.862 6.930 6.998 100 750 57.080 57.159 57.238 57.317 57.396 57.475 57.554 57.633 57.712 57.791 57.870 750
110 6.998 7.066 7.135 7.203 7.272 7.341 7.409 7.478 7.547 7.616 7.685 110 760 57.870 57.949 58.028 58.107 58.186 58.265 58.343 58.422 58.501 58.580 58.659 760
120 7.685 7.754 7.823 7.892 7.962 8.031 8.101 8.170 8.240 8.309 8.379 120 770 58.659 58.738 58.816 58.895 58.974 59.053 59.131 59.210 59.289 59.367 59.446 770
130 8.379 8.449 8.519 8.589 8.659 8.729 8.799 8.869 8.940 9.010 9.081 130 780 59.446 59.525 59.604 59.682 59.761 59.839 59.918 59.997 60.075 60.154 60.232 780
140 9.081 9.151 9.222 9.292 9.363 9.434 9.505 9.576 9.647 9.718 9.789 140 790 60.232 60.311 60.390 60.468 60.547 60.625 60.704 60.782 60.860 60.939 61.017 790

150 9.789 9.860 9.931 10.003 10.074 10.145 10.217 10.288 10.360 10.432 10.503 150 800 61.017 61.096 61.174 61.253 61.331 61.409 61.488 61.566 61.644 61.723 61.801 800
160 10.503 10.575 10.647 10.719 10.791 10.863 10.935 11.007 11.080 11.152 11.224 160 810 61.801 61.879 61.958 62.036 62.114 62.192 62.271 62.349 62.427 62.505 62.583 810
170 11.224 11.297 11.369 11.442 11.514 11.587 11.660 11.733 11.805 11.878 11.951 170 820 62.583 62.662 62.740 62.818 62.896 62.974 63.052 63.130 63.208 63.286 63.364 820
180 11.951 12.024 12.097 12.170 12.243 12.317 12.390 12.463 12.537 12.610 12.684 180 830 63.364 63.442 63.520 63.598 63.676 63.754 63.832 63.910 63.988 64.066 64.144 830
190 12.684 12.757 12.831 12.904 12.978 13.052 13.126 13.199 13.273 13.347 13.421 190 840 64.144 64.222 64.300 64.377 64.455 64.533 64.611 64.689 64.766 64.844 64.922 840
200 13.421 13.495 13.569 13.644 13.718 13.792 13.866 13.941 14.015 14.090 14.164 200 850 64.922 65.000 65.077 65.155 65.233 65.310 65.388 65.465 65.543 65.621 65.698 850
210 14.164 14.239 14.313 14.388 14.463 14.537 14.612 14.687 14.762 14.837 14.912 210 860 65.698 65.776 65.853 65.931 66.008 66.086 66.163 66.241 66.318 66.396 66.473 860
220 14.912 14.987 15.062 15.137 15.212 15.287 15.362 15.438 15.513 15.588 15.664 220 870 66.473 66.550 66.628 66.705 66.782 66.860 66.937 67.014 67.092 67.169 67.246 870
230 15.664 15.739 15.815 15.890 15.966 16.041 16.117 16.193 16.269 16.344 16.420 230 880 67.246 67.323 67.400 67.478 67.555 67.632 67.709 67.786 67.863 67.940 68.017 880
240 16.420 16.496 16.572 16.648 16.724 16.800 16.876 16.952 17.028 17.104 17.181 240 890 68.017 68.094 68.171 68.248 68.325 68.402 68.479 68.556 68.633 68.710 68.787 890

250 17.181 17.257 17.333 17.409 17.486 17.562 17.639 17.715 17.792 17.868 17.945 250 900 68.787 68.863 68.940 69.017 69.094 69.171 69.247 69.324 69.401 69.477 69.554 900
260 17.945 18.021 18.098 18.175 18.252 18.328 18.405 18.482 18.559 18.636 18.713 260 910 69.554 69.631 69.707 69.784 69.860 69.937 70.013 70.090 70.166 70.243 70.319 910
270 18.713 18.790 18.867 18.944 19.021 19.098 19.175 19.252 19.330 19.407 19.484 270 920 70.319 70.396 70.472 70.548 70.625 70.701 70.777 70.854 70.930 71.006 71.082 920
280 19.484 19.561 19.639 19.716 19.794 19.871 19.948 20.026 20.103 20.181 20.259 280 930 71.082 71.159 71.235 71.311 71.387 71.463 71.539 71.615 71.692 71.768 71.844 930
290 20.259 20.336 20.414 20.492 20.569 20.647 20.725 20.803 20.880 20.958 21.036 290 940 71.844 71.920 71.996 72.072 72.147 72.223 72.299 72.375 72.451 72.527 72.603 940
300 21.036 21.114 21.192 21.270 21.348 21.426 21.504 21.582 21.660 21.739 21.817 300 950 72.603 72.678 72.754 72.830 72.906 72.981 73.057 73.133 73.208 73.284 73.360 950
310 21.817 21.895 21.973 22.051 22.130 22.208 22.286 22.365 22.443 22.522 22.600 310 960 73.360 73.435 73.511 73.586 73.662 73.738 73.813 73.889 73.964 74.040 74.115 960
320 22.600 22.678 22.757 22.835 22.914 22.993 23.071 23.150 23.228 23.307 23.386 320 970 74.115 74.190 74.266 74.341 74.417 74.492 74.567 74.643 74.718 74.793 74.869 970
330 23.386 23.464 23.543 23.622 23.701 23.780 23.858 23.937 24.016 24.095 24.174 330 980 74.869 74.944 75.019 75.095 75.170 75.245 75.320 75.395 75.471 75.546 75.621 980
340 24.174 24.253 24.332 24.411 24.490 24.569 24.648 24.727 24.806 24.885 24.964 340 990 75.621 75.696 75.771 75.847 75.922 75.997 76.072 76.147 76.223 76.298 76.373 990
°C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C

Z-206
Revised Thermocouple + Thermocouple
Grade
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE
Thermocouple Grade
–
Reference Tables – 328 to 662°F
– 200 to 350°C
Extension Grade
– 76 to 212°F
– 60 to 100°C

T
TYPE
Reference
Copper
vs.
LIMITS OF ERROR
(whichever is greater)
Standard: 1.0°C or 0.75% Above 0°C
1.0°C or 1.5% Below 0°C
Tables
Copper-Nickel Special: 0.5°C or 0.4%
+ COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT:
N.I.S.T. Mild Oxidizing, Reducing Vacuum or Inert; Good
Monograph 175 – Where Moisture Is Present; Low Temperature
and Cryogenic Applications
Revised to Extension TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °C
ITS-90 Grade REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 0°C

Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts

°C -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C
50 2.036 2.079 2.122 2.165 2.208 2.251 2.294 2.338 2.381 2.425 2.468 50
60 2.468 2.512 2.556 2.600 2.643 2.687 2.732 2.776 2.820 2.864 2.909 60
70 2.909 2.953 2.998 3.043 3.087 3.132 3.177 3.222 3.267 3.312 3.358 70
-260 -6.258 -6.256 -6.255 -6.253 -6.251 -6.248 -6.245 -6.242 -6.239 -6.236 -6.232 -260 80 3.358 3.403 3.448 3.494 3.539 3.585 3.631 3.677 3.722 3.768 3.814 80
-250 -6.232 -6.228 -6.223 -6.219 -6.214 -6.209 -6.204 -6.198 -6.193 -6.187 -6.180 -250 90 3.814 3.860 3.907 3.953 3.999 4.046 4.092 4.138 4.185 4.232 4.279 90

-240 -6.180 -6.174 -6.167 -6.160 -6.153 -6.146 -6.138 -6.130 -6.122 -6.114 -6.105 -240 100 4.279 4.325 4.372 4.419 4.466 4.513 4.561 4.608 4.655 4.702 4.750 100
-230 -6.105 -6.096 -6.087 -6.078 -6.068 -6.059 -6.049 -6.038 -6.028 -6.017 -6.007 -230 110 4.750 4.798 4.845 4.893 4.941 4.988 5.036 5.084 5.132 5.180 5.228 110
-220 -6.007 -5.996 -5.985 -5.973 -5.962 -5.950 -5.938 -5.926 -5.914 -5.901 -5.888 -220 120 5.228 5.277 5.325 5.373 5.422 5.470 5.519 5.567 5.616 5.665 5.714 120
-210 -5.888 -5.876 -5.863 -5.850 -5.836 -5.823 -5.809 -5.795 -5.782 -5.767 -5.753 -210 130 5.714 5.763 5.812 5.861 5.910 5.959 6.008 6.057 6.107 6.156 6.206 130
-200 -5.753 -5.739 -5.724 -5.710 -5.695 -5.680 -5.665 -5.650 -5.634 -5.619 -5.603 -200 140 6.206 6.255 6.305 6.355 6.404 6.454 6.504 6.554 6.604 6.654 6.704 140
-190 -5.603 -5.587 -5.571 -5.555 -5.539 -5.523 -5.506 -5.489 -5.473 -5.456 -5.439 -190 150 6.704 6.754 6.805 6.855 6.905 6.956 7.006 7.057 7.107 7.158 7.209 150
-180 -5.439 -5.421 -5.404 -5.387 -5.369 -5.351 -5.334 -5.316 -5.297 -5.279 -5.261 -180 160 7.209 7.260 7.310 7.361 7.412 7.463 7.515 7.566 7.617 7.668 7.720 160
-170 -5.261 -5.242 -5.224 -5.205 -5.186 -5.167 -5.148 -5.128 -5.109 -5.089 -5.070 -170 170 7.720 7.771 7.823 7.874 7.926 7.977 8.029 8.081 8.133 8.185 8.237 170
-160 -5.070 -5.050 -5.030 -5.010 -4.989 -4.969 -4.949 -4.928 -4.907 -4.886 -4.865 -160 180 8.237 8.289 8.341 8.393 8.445 8.497 8.550 8.602 8.654 8.707 8.759 180
-150 -4.865 -4.844 -4.823 -4.802 -4.780 -4.759 -4.737 -4.715 -4.693 -4.671 -4.648 -150 190 8.759 8.812 8.865 8.917 8.970 9.023 9.076 9.129 9.182 9.235 9.288 190
-140 -4.648 -4.626 -4.604 -4.581 -4.558 -4.535 -4.512 -4.489 -4.466 -4.443 -4.419 -140 200 9.288 9.341 9.395 9.448 9.501 9.555 9.608 9.662 9.715 9.769 9.822 200
-130 -4.419 -4.395 -4.372 -4.348 -4.324 -4.300 -4.275 -4.251 -4.226 -4.202 -4.177 -130 210 9.822 9.876 9.930 9.984 10.038 10.092 10.146 10.200 10.254 10.308 10.362 210
-120 -4.177 -4.152 -4.127 -4.102 -4.077 -4.052 -4.026 -4.000 -3.975 -3.949 -3.923 -120 220 10.362 10.417 10.471 10.525 10.580 10.634 10.689 10.743 10.798 10.853 10.907 220
-110 -3.923 -3.897 -3.871 -3.844 -3.818 -3.791 -3.765 -3.738 -3.711 -3.684 -3.657 -110 230 10.907 10.962 11.017 11.072 11.127 11.182 11.237 11.292 11.347 11.403 11.458 230
-100 -3.657 -3.629 -3.602 -3.574 -3.547 -3.519 -3.491 -3.463 -3.435 -3.407 -3.379 -100 240 11.458 11.513 11.569 11.624 11.680 11.735 11.791 11.846 11.902 11.958 12.013 240
-90 -3.379 -3.350 -3.322 -3.293 -3.264 -3.235 -3.206 -3.177 -3.148 -3.118 -3.089 -90 250 12.013 12.069 12.125 12.181 12.237 12.293 12.349 12.405 12.461 12.518 12.574 250
-80 -3.089 -3.059 -3.030 -3.000 -2.970 -2.940 -2.910 -2.879 -2.849 -2.818 -2.788 -80 260 12.574 12.630 12.687 12.743 12.799 12.856 12.912 12.969 13.026 13.082 13.139 260
-70 -2.788 -2.757 -2.726 -2.695 -2.664 -2.633 -2.602 -2.571 -2.539 -2.507 -2.476 -70 270 13.139 13.196 13.253 13.310 13.366 13.423 13.480 13.537 13.595 13.652 13.709 270
-60 -2.476 -2.444 -2.412 -2.380 -2.348 -2.316 -2.283 -2.251 -2.218 -2.186 -2.153 -60 280 13.709 13.766 13.823 13.881 13.938 13.995 14.053 14.110 14.168 14.226 14.283 280
-50 -2.153 -2.120 -2.087 -2.054 -2.021 -1.987 -1.954 -1.920 -1.887 -1.853 -1.819 -50 290 14.283 14.341 14.399 14.456 14.514 14.572 14.630 14.688 14.746 14.804 14.862 290

-40 -1.819 -1.785 -1.751 -1.717 -1.683 -1.648 -1.614 -1.579 -1.545 -1.510 -1.475 -40 300 14.862 14.920 14.978 15.036 15.095 15.153 15.211 15.270 15.328 15.386 15.445 300
-30 -1.475 -1.440 -1.405 -1.370 -1.335 -1.299 -1.264 -1.228 -1.192 -1.157 -1.121 -30 310 15.445 15.503 15.562 15.621 15.679 15.738 15.797 15.856 15.914 15.973 16.032 310
-20 -1.121 -1.085 -1.049 -1.013 -0.976 -0.940 -0.904 -0.867 -0.830 -0.794 -0.757 -20 320 16.032 16.091 16.150 16.209 16.268 16.327 16.387 16.446 16.505 16.564 16.624 320
-10 -0.757 -0.720 -0.683 -0.646 -0.608 -0.571 -0.534 -0.496 -0.459 -0.421 -0.383 -10 330 16.624 16.683 16.742 16.802 16.861 16.921 16.980 17.040 17.100 17.159 17.219 330
0 -0.383 -0.345 -0.307 -0.269 -0.231 -0.193 -0.154 -0.116 -0.077 -0.039 0.000 0 340 17.219 17.279 17.339 17.399 17.458 17.518 17.578 17.638 17.698 17.759 17.819 340
0 0.000 0.039 0.078 0.117 0.156 0.195 0.234 0.273 0.312 0.352 0.391 0 350 17.819 17.879 17.939 17.999 18.060 18.120 18.180 18.241 18.301 18.362 18.422 350
10 0.391 0.431 0.470 0.510 0.549 0.589 0.629 0.669 0.709 0.749 0.790 10 360 18.422 18.483 18.543 18.604 18.665 18.725 18.786 18.847 18.908 18.969 19.030 360
20 0.790 0.830 0.870 0.911 0.951 0.992 1.033 1.074 1.114 1.155 1.196 20 370 19.030 19.091 19.152 19.213 19.274 19.335 19.396 19.457 19.518 19.579 19.641 370
30 1.196 1.238 1.279 1.320 1.362 1.403 1.445 1.486 1.528 1.570 1.612 30 380 19.641 19.702 19.763 19.825 19.886 19.947 20.009 20.070 20.132 20.193 20.255 380
40 1.612 1.654 1.696 1.738 1.780 1.823 1.865 1.908 1.950 1.993 2.036 40 390 20.255 20.317 20.378 20.440 20.502 20.563 20.625 20.687 20.748 20.810 20.872 390
°C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C

Z-207
 MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE + Thermocouple
Revised Thermocouple
Thermocouple Grade Grade
–
32 to 2642°F
0 to 1450°C NONE Reference Tables
Extension Grade ESTABLISHED
32 to 300°F

S
TYPE
0 to 150°C
LIMITS OF ERROR Platinum-10% Rhodium
(whichever is greater) vs.
Standard: 1.5°C or 0.25%
Special: 0.6°C or 0.1% Platinum Reference
COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT: + Tables
Oxidizing or Inert; Do Not Insert in Metal Tubes; N.I.S.T.
Beware of Contamination; High Temperature – Monograph 175
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °C
REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 0°C Extension Revised to
Grade ITS-90
Z
Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts
°C -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C
-40 -0.236 -0.232 -0.228 -0.224 -0.219 -0.215 -0.211 -0.207 -0.203 -0.199 -0.194 -40 550 4.732 4.742 4.752 4.762 4.772 4.782 4.793 4.803 4.813 4.823 4.833 550
-30 -0.194 -0.190 -0.186 -0.181 -0.177 -0.173 -0.168 -0.164 -0.159 -0.155 -0.150 -30 560 4.833 4.843 4.853 4.863 4.873 4.883 4.893 4.904 4.914 4.924 4.934 560
-20 -0.150 -0.146 -0.141 -0.136 -0.132 -0.127 -0.122 -0.117 -0.113 -0.108 -0.103 -20 570 4.934 4.944 4.954 4.964 4.974 4.984 4.995 5.005 5.015 5.025 5.035 570
-10 -0.103 -0.098 -0.093 -0.088 -0.083 -0.078 -0.073 -0.068 -0.063 -0.058 -0.053 -10 580 5.035 5.045 5.055 5.066 5.076 5.086 5.096 5.106 5.116 5.127 5.137 580
0 -0.053 -0.048 -0.042 -0.037 -0.032 -0.027 -0.021 -0.016 -0.011 -0.005 0.000 0 590 5.137 5.147 5.157 5.167 5.178 5.188 5.198 5.208 5.218 5.228 5.239 590

0 0.000 0.005 0.011 0.016 0.022 0.027 0.033 0.038 0.044 0.050 0.055 0 600 5.239 5.249 5.259 5.269 5.280 5.290 5.300 5.310 5.320 5.331 5.341 600
10 0.055 0.061 0.067 0.072 0.078 0.084 0.090 0.095 0.101 0.107 0.113 10 610 5.341 5.351 5.361 5.372 5.382 5.392 5.402 5.413 5.423 5.433 5.443 610
20 0.113 0.119 0.125 0.131 0.137 0.143 0.149 0.155 0.161 0.167 0.173 20 620 5.443 5.454 5.464 5.474 5.485 5.495 5.505 5.515 5.526 5.536 5.546 620
30 0.173 0.179 0.185 0.191 0.197 0.204 0.210 0.216 0.222 0.229 0.235 30 630 5.546 5.557 5.567 5.577 5.588 5.598 5.608 5.618 5.629 5.639 5.649 630
40 0.235 0.241 0.248 0.254 0.260 0.267 0.273 0.280 0.286 0.292 0.299 40 640 5.649 5.660 5.670 5.680 5.691 5.701 5.712 5.722 5.732 5.743 5.753 640

50 0.299 0.305 0.312 0.319 0.325 0.332 0.338 0.345 0.352 0.358 0.365 50 650 5.753 5.763 5.774 5.784 5.794 5.805 5.815 5.826 5.836 5.846 5.857 650
60 0.365 0.372 0.378 0.385 0.392 0.399 0.405 0.412 0.419 0.426 0.433 60 660 5.857 5.867 5.878 5.888 5.898 5.909 5.919 5.930 5.940 5.950 5.961 660
70 0.433 0.440 0.446 0.453 0.460 0.467 0.474 0.481 0.488 0.495 0.502 70 670 5.961 5.971 5.982 5.992 6.003 6.013 6.024 6.034 6.044 6.055 6.065 670
80 0.502 0.509 0.516 0.523 0.530 0.538 0.545 0.552 0.559 0.566 0.573 80 680 6.065 6.076 6.086 6.097 6.107 6.118 6.128 6.139 6.149 6.160 6.170 680
90 0.573 0.580 0.588 0.595 0.602 0.609 0.617 0.624 0.631 0.639 0.646 90 690 6.170 6.181 6.191 6.202 6.212 6.223 6.233 6.244 6.254 6.265 6.275 690

100 0.646 0.653 0.661 0.668 0.675 0.683 0.690 0.698 0.705 0.713 0.720 100 700 6.275 6.286 6.296 6.307 6.317 6.328 6.338 6.349 6.360 6.370 6.381 700
110 0.720 0.727 0.735 0.743 0.750 0.758 0.765 0.773 0.780 0.788 0.795 110 710 6.381 6.391 6.402 6.412 6.423 6.434 6.444 6.455 6.465 6.476 6.486 710
120 0.795 0.803 0.811 0.818 0.826 0.834 0.841 0.849 0.857 0.865 0.872 120 720 6.486 6.497 6.508 6.518 6.529 6.539 6.550 6.561 6.571 6.582 6.593 720
130 0.872 0.880 0.888 0.896 0.903 0.911 0.919 0.927 0.935 0.942 0.950 130 730 6.593 6.603 6.614 6.624 6.635 6.646 6.656 6.667 6.678 6.688 6.699 730
140 0.950 0.958 0.966 0.974 0.982 0.990 0.998 1.006 1.013 1.021 1.029 140 740 6.699 6.710 6.720 6.731 6.742 6.752 6.763 6.774 6.784 6.795 6.806 740

150 1.029 1.037 1.045 1.053 1.061 1.069 1.077 1.085 1.094 1.102 1.110 150 750 6.806 6.817 6.827 6.838 6.849 6.859 6.870 6.881 6.892 6.902 6.913 750
160 1.110 1.118 1.126 1.134 1.142 1.150 1.158 1.167 1.175 1.183 1.191 160 760 6.913 6.924 6.934 6.945 6.956 6.967 6.977 6.988 6.999 7.010 7.020 760
170 1.191 1.199 1.207 1.216 1.224 1.232 1.240 1.249 1.257 1.265 1.273 170 770 7.020 7.031 7.042 7.053 7.064 7.074 7.085 7.096 7.107 7.117 7.128 770
180 1.273 1.282 1.290 1.298 1.307 1.315 1.323 1.332 1.340 1.348 1.357 180 780 7.128 7.139 7.150 7.161 7.172 7.182 7.193 7.204 7.215 7.226 7.236 780
190 1.357 1.365 1.373 1.382 1.390 1.399 1.407 1.415 1.424 1.432 1.441 190 790 7.236 7.247 7.258 7.269 7.280 7.291 7.302 7.312 7.323 7.334 7.345 790

200 1.441 1.449 1.458 1.466 1.475 1.483 1.492 1.500 1.509 1.517 1.526 200 800 7.345 7.356 7.367 7.378 7.388 7.399 7.410 7.421 7.432 7.443 7.454 800
210 1.526 1.534 1.543 1.551 1.560 1.569 1.577 1.586 1.594 1.603 1.612 210 810 7.454 7.465 7.476 7.487 7.497 7.508 7.519 7.530 7.541 7.552 7.563 810
220 1.612 1.620 1.629 1.638 1.646 1.655 1.663 1.672 1.681 1.690 1.698 220 820 7.563 7.574 7.585 7.596 7.607 7.618 7.629 7.640 7.651 7.662 7.673 820
230 1.698 1.707 1.716 1.724 1.733 1.742 1.751 1.759 1.768 1.777 1.786 230 830 7.673 7.684 7.695 7.706 7.717 7.728 7.739 7.750 7.761 7.772 7.783 830
240 1.786 1.794 1.803 1.812 1.821 1.829 1.838 1.847 1.856 1.865 1.874 240 840 7.783 7.794 7.805 7.816 7.827 7.838 7.849 7.860 7.871 7.882 7.893 840

250 1.874 1.882 1.891 1.900 1.909 1.918 1.927 1.936 1.944 1.953 1.962 250 850 7.893 7.904 7.915 7.926 7.937 7.948 7.959 7.970 7.981 7.992 8.003 850
260 1.962 1.971 1.980 1.989 1.998 2.007 2.016 2.025 2.034 2.043 2.052 260 860 8.003 8.014 8.026 8.037 8.048 8.059 8.070 8.081 8.092 8.103 8.114 860
270 2.052 2.061 2.070 2.078 2.087 2.096 2.105 2.114 2.123 2.132 2.141 270 870 8.114 8.125 8.137 8.148 8.159 8.170 8.181 8.192 8.203 8.214 8.226 870
280 2.141 2.151 2.160 2.169 2.178 2.187 2.196 2.205 2.214 2.223 2.232 280 880 8.226 8.237 8.248 8.259 8.270 8.281 8.293 8.304 8.315 8.326 8.337 880
290 2.232 2.241 2.250 2.259 2.268 2.277 2.287 2.296 2.305 2.314 2.323 290 890 8.337 8.348 8.360 8.371 8.382 8.393 8.404 8.416 8.427 8.438 8.449 890

300 2.323 2.332 2.341 2.350 2.360 2.369 2.378 2.387 2.396 2.405 2.415 300 900 8.449 8.460 8.472 8.483 8.494 8.505 8.517 8.528 8.539 8.550 8.562 900
310 2.415 2.424 2.433 2.442 2.451 2.461 2.470 2.479 2.488 2.497 2.507 310 910 8.562 8.573 8.584 8.595 8.607 8.618 8.629 8.640 8.652 8.663 8.674 910
320 2.507 2.516 2.525 2.534 2.544 2.553 2.562 2.571 2.581 2.590 2.599 320 920 8.674 8.685 8.697 8.708 8.719 8.731 8.742 8.753 8.765 8.776 8.787 920
330 2.599 2.609 2.618 2.627 2.636 2.646 2.655 2.664 2.674 2.683 2.692 330 930 8.787 8.798 8.810 8.821 8.832 8.844 8.855 8.866 8.878 8.889 8.900 930
340 2.692 2.702 2.711 2.720 2.730 2.739 2.748 2.758 2.767 2.776 2.786 340 940 8.900 8.912 8.923 8.935 8.946 8.957 8.969 8.980 8.991 9.003 9.014 940

350 2.786 2.795 2.805 2.814 2.823 2.833 2.842 2.851 2.861 2.870 2.880 350 950 9.014 9.025 9.037 9.048 9.060 9.071 9.082 9.094 9.105 9.117 9.128 950
360 2.880 2.889 2.899 2.908 2.917 2.927 2.936 2.946 2.955 2.965 2.974 360 960 9.128 9.139 9.151 9.162 9.174 9.185 9.197 9.208 9.219 9.231 9.242 960
370 2.974 2.983 2.993 3.002 3.012 3.021 3.031 3.040 3.050 3.059 3.069 370 970 9.242 9.254 9.265 9.277 9.288 9.300 9.311 9.323 9.334 9.345 9.357 970
380 3.069 3.078 3.088 3.097 3.107 3.116 3.126 3.135 3.145 3.154 3.164 380 980 9.357 9.368 9.380 9.391 9.403 9.414 9.426 9.437 9.449 9.460 9.472 980
390 3.164 3.173 3.183 3.192 3.202 3.212 3.221 3.231 3.240 3.250 3.259 390 990 9.472 9.483 9.495 9.506 9.518 9.529 9.541 9.552 9.564 9.576 9.587 990

400 3.259 3.269 3.279 3.288 3.298 3.307 3.317 3.326 3.336 3.346 3.355 400 1000 9.587 9.599 9.610 9.622 9.633 9.645 9.656 9.668 9.680 9.691 9.703 1000
410 3.355 3.365 3.374 3.384 3.394 3.403 3.413 3.423 3.432 3.442 3.451 410 1010 9.703 9.714 9.726 9.737 9.749 9.761 9.772 9.784 9.795 9.807 9.819 1010
420 3.451 3.461 3.471 3.480 3.490 3.500 3.509 3.519 3.529 3.538 3.548 420 1020 9.819 9.830 9.842 9.853 9.865 9.877 9.888 9.900 9.911 9.923 9.935 1020
430 3.548 3.558 3.567 3.577 3.587 3.596 3.606 3.616 3.626 3.635 3.645 430 1030 9.935 9.946 9.958 9.970 9.981 9.993 10.005 10.016 10.028 10.040 10.051 1030
440 3.645 3.655 3.664 3.674 3.684 3.694 3.703 3.713 3.723 3.732 3.742 440 1040 10.051 10.063 10.075 10.086 10.098 10.110 10.121 10.133 10.145 10.156 10.168 1040

450 3.742 3.752 3.762 3.771 3.781 3.791 3.801 3.810 3.820 3.830 3.840 450 1050 10.168 10.180 10.191 10.203 10.215 10.227 10.238 10.250 10.262 10.273 10.285 1050
460 3.840 3.850 3.859 3.869 3.879 3.889 3.898 3.908 3.918 3.928 3.938 460 1060 10.285 10.297 10.309 10.320 10.332 10.344 10.356 10.367 10.379 10.391 10.403 1060
470 3.938 3.947 3.957 3.967 3.977 3.987 3.997 4.006 4.016 4.026 4.036 470 1070 10.403 10.414 10.426 10.438 10.450 10.461 10.473 10.485 10.497 10.509 10.520 1070
480 4.036 4.046 4.056 4.065 4.075 4.085 4.095 4.105 4.115 4.125 4.134 480 1080 10.520 10.532 10.544 10.556 10.567 10.579 10.591 10.603 10.615 10.626 10.638 1080
490 4.134 4.144 4.154 4.164 4.174 4.184 4.194 4.204 4.213 4.223 4.233 490 1090 10.638 10.650 10.662 10.674 10.686 10.697 10.709 10.721 10.733 10.745 10.757 1090

500 4.233 4.243 4.253 4.263 4.273 4.283 4.293 4.303 4.313 4.323 4.332 500 1100 10.757 10.768 10.780 10.792 10.804 10.816 10.828 10.839 10.851 10.863 10.875 1100
510 4.332 4.342 4.352 4.362 4.372 4.382 4.392 4.402 4.412 4.422 4.432 510 1110 10.875 10.887 10.899 10.911 10.922 10.934 10.946 10.958 10.970 10.982 10.994 1110
520 4.432 4.442 4.452 4.462 4.472 4.482 4.492 4.502 4.512 4.522 4.532 520 1120 10.994 11.006 11.017 11.029 11.041 11.053 11.065 11.077 11.089 11.101 11.113 1120
530 4.532 4.542 4.552 4.562 4.572 4.582 4.592 4.602 4.612 4.622 4.632 530 1130 11.113 11.125 11.136 11.148 11.160 11.172 11.184 11.196 11.208 11.220 11.232 1130
540 4.632 4.642 4.652 4.662 4.672 4.682 4.692 4.702 4.712 4.722 4.732 540 1140 11.232 11.244 11.256 11.268 11.280 11.291 11.303 11.315 11.327 11.339 11.351 1140

°C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C

Z-208
Revised Thermocouple + Thermocouple
Grade
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE
Thermocouple Grade
–
Reference Tables NONE
32 to 2642°F
0 to 1450°C
ESTABLISHED Extension Grade
32 to 300°F

S
TYPE
0 to 150°C
Platinum-10% Rhodium LIMITS OF ERROR
vs. (whichever is greater)
Reference Platinum
Standard: 1.5°C or 0.25%
Special: 0.6°C or 0.1%
Tables + COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT:
N.I.S.T. Oxidizing or Inert; Do Not Insert in Metal Tubes;
Monograph 175 – Beware of Contamination; High Temperature
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °C
Revised to Extension REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 0°C
ITS-90 Grade

Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts

°C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C
1150 11.351 11.363 11.375 11.387 11.399 11.411 11.423 11.435 11.447 11.459 11.471 1150 1500 15.582 15.594 15.606 15.618 15.630 15.642 15.654 15.666 15.678 15.690 15.702 1500
1160 11.471 11.483 11.495 11.507 11.519 11.531 11.542 11.554 11.566 11.578 11.590 1160 1510 15.702 15.714 15.726 15.738 15.750 15.762 15.774 15.786 15.798 15.810 15.822 1510
1170 11.590 11.602 11.614 11.626 11.638 11.650 11.662 11.674 11.686 11.698 11.710 1170 1520 15.822 15.834 15.846 15.858 15.870 15.882 15.894 15.906 15.918 15.930 15.942 1520
1180 11.710 11.722 11.734 11.746 11.758 11.770 11.782 11.794 11.806 11.818 11.830 1180 1530 15.942 15.954 15.966 15.978 15.990 16.002 16.014 16.026 16.038 16.050 16.062 1530
1190 11.830 11.842 11.854 11.866 11.878 11.890 11.902 11.914 11.926 11.939 11.951 1190 1540 16.062 16.074 16.086 16.098 16.110 16.122 16.134 16.146 16.158 16.170 16.182 1540

1200 11.951 11.963 11.975 11.987 11.999 12.011 12.023 12.035 12.047 12.059 12.071 1200 1550 16.182 16.194 16.205 16.217 16.229 16.241 16.253 16.265 16.277 16.289 16.301 1550
1210 12.071 12.083 12.095 12.107 12.119 12.131 12.143 12.155 12.167 12.179 12.191 1210 1560 16.301 16.313 16.325 16.337 16.349 16.361 16.373 16.385 16.396 16.408 16.420 1560
1220 12.191 12.203 12.216 12.228 12.240 12.252 12.264 12.276 12.288 12.300 12.312 1220 1570 16.420 16.432 16.444 16.456 16.468 16.480 16.492 16.504 16.516 16.527 16.539 1570
1230 12.312 12.324 12.336 12.348 12.360 12.372 12.384 12.397 12.409 12.421 12.433 1230 1580 16.539 16.551 16.563 16.575 16.587 16.599 16.611 16.623 16.634 16.646 16.658 1580
1240 12.433 12.445 12.457 12.469 12.481 12.493 12.505 12.517 12.529 12.542 12.554 1240 1590 16.658 16.670 16.682 16.694 16.706 16.718 16.729 16.741 16.753 16.765 16.777 1590

1250 12.554 12.566 12.578 12.590 12.602 12.614 12.626 12.638 12.650 12.662 12.675 1250 1600 16.777 16.789 16.801 16.812 16.824 16.836 16.848 16.860 16.872 16.883 16.895 1600
1260 12.675 12.687 12.699 12.711 12.723 12.735 12.747 12.759 12.771 12.783 12.796 1260 1610 16.895 16.907 16.919 16.931 16.943 16.954 16.966 16.978 16.990 17.002 17.013 1610
1270 12.796 12.808 12.820 12.832 12.844 12.856 12.868 12.880 12.892 12.905 12.917 1270 1620 17.013 17.025 17.037 17.049 17.061 17.072 17.084 17.096 17.108 17.120 17.131 1620
1280 12.917 12.929 12.941 12.953 12.965 12.977 12.989 13.001 13.014 13.026 13.038 1280 1630 17.131 17.143 17.155 17.167 17.178 17.190 17.202 17.214 17.225 17.237 17.249 1630
1290 13.038 13.050 13.062 13.074 13.086 13.098 13.111 13.123 13.135 13.147 13.159 1290 1640 17.249 17.261 17.272 17.284 17.296 17.308 17.319 17.331 17.343 17.355 17.366 1640

1300 13.159 13.171 13.183 13.195 13.208 13.220 13.232 13.244 13.256 13.268 13.280 1300 1650 17.366 17.378 17.390 17.401 17.413 17.425 17.437 17.448 17.460 17.472 17.483 1650
1310 13.280 13.292 13.305 13.317 13.329 13.341 13.353 13.365 13.377 13.390 13.402 1310 1660 17.483 17.495 17.507 17.518 17.530 17.542 17.553 17.565 17.577 17.588 17.600 1660
1320 13.402 13.414 13.426 13.438 13.450 13.462 13.474 13.487 13.499 13.511 13.523 1320 1670 17.600 17.612 17.623 17.635 17.647 17.658 17.670 17.682 17.693 17.705 17.717 1670
1330 13.523 13.535 13.547 13.559 13.572 13.584 13.596 13.608 13.620 13.632 13.644 1330 1680 17.717 17.728 17.740 17.751 17.763 17.775 17.786 17.798 17.809 17.821 17.832 1680
1340 13.644 13.657 13.669 13.681 13.693 13.705 13.717 13.729 13.742 13.754 13.766 1340 1690 17.832 17.844 17.855 17.867 17.878 17.890 17.901 17.913 17.924 17.936 17.947 1690

1350 13.766 13.778 13.790 13.802 13.814 13.826 13.839 13.851 13.863 13.875 13.887 1350 1700 17.947 17.959 17.970 17.982 17.993 18.004 18.016 18.027 18.039 18.050 18.061 1700
1360 13.887 13.899 13.911 13.924 13.936 13.948 13.960 13.972 13.984 13.996 14.009 1360 1710 18.061 18.073 18.084 18.095 18.107 18.118 18.129 18.140 18.152 18.163 18.174 1710
1370 14.009 14.021 14.033 14.045 14.057 14.069 14.081 14.094 14.106 14.118 14.130 1370 1720 18.174 18.185 18.196 18.208 18.219 18.230 18.241 18.252 18.263 18.274 18.285 1720
1380 14.130 14.142 14.154 14.166 14.178 14.191 14.203 14.215 14.227 14.239 14.251 1380 1730 18.285 18.297 18.308 18.319 18.330 18.341 18.352 18.362 18.373 18.384 18.395 1730
1390 14.251 14.263 14.276 14.288 14.300 14.312 14.324 14.336 14.348 14.360 14.373 1390 1740 18.395 18.406 18.417 18.428 18.439 18.449 18.460 18.471 18.482 18.493 18.503 1740

1400 14.373 14.385 14.397 14.409 14.421 14.433 14.445 14.457 14.470 14.482 14.494 1400 1750 18.503 18.514 18.525 18.535 18.546 18.557 18.567 18.578 18.588 18.599 18.609 1750
1410 14.494 14.506 14.518 14.530 14.542 14.554 14.567 14.579 14.591 14.603 14.615 1410 1760 18.609 18.620 18.630 18.641 18.651 18.661 18.672 18.682 18.693 1760
1420 14.615 14.627 14.639 14.651 14.664 14.676 14.688 14.700 14.712 14.724 14.736 1420
1430 14.736 14.748 14.760 14.773 14.785 14.797 14.809 14.821 14.833 14.845 14.857 1430
1440 14.857 14.869 14.881 14.894 14.906 14.918 14.930 14.942 14.954 14.966 14.978 1440

1450 14.978 14.990 15.002 15.015 15.027 15.039 15.051 15.063 15.075 15.087 15.099 1450
1460 15.099 15.111 15.123 15.135 15.148 15.160 15.172 15.184 15.196 15.208 15.220 1460
1470 15.220 15.232 15.244 15.256 15.268 15.280 15.292 15.304 15.317 15.329 15.341 1470
1480 15.341 15.353 15.365 15.377 15.389 15.401 15.413 15.425 15.437 15.449 15.461 1480
1490 15.461 15.473 15.485 15.497 15.509 15.521 15.534 15.546 15.558 15.570 15.582 1490
°C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C

Z-209
 MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE + Thermocouple
Revised Thermocouple
Thermocouple Grade Grade
–
32 to 2642°F
0 to 1450°C NONE Reference Tables
Extension Grade ESTABLISHED
32 to 300°F

R
TYPE
0 to 150°C
LIMITS OF ERROR Platinum-13% Rhodium
(whichever is greater) vs.
Standard: 1.5°C or 0.25%
Special: 0.6°C or 0.1% Platinum Reference
COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT: + Tables
Oxidizing or Inert; Do Not Insert in Metal Tubes; N.I.S.T.
Beware of Contamination; High Temperature – Monograph 175
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °C
REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 0°C Extension Revised to
Grade ITS-90
Z
Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts
°C -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C
-40 -0.226 -0.223 -0.219 -0.215 -0.211 -0.208 -0.204 -0.200 -0.196 -0.192 -0.188 -40 550 5.021 5.033 5.044 5.055 5.066 5.077 5.088 5.099 5.111 5.122 5.133 550
-30 -0.188 -0.184 -0.180 -0.175 -0.171 -0.167 -0.163 -0.158 -0.154 -0.150 -0.145 -30 560 5.133 5.144 5.155 5.166 5.178 5.189 5.200 5.211 5.222 5.234 5.245 560
-20 -0.145 -0.141 -0.137 -0.132 -0.128 -0.123 -0.119 -0.114 -0.109 -0.105 -0.100 -20 570 5.245 5.256 5.267 5.279 5.290 5.301 5.312 5.323 5.335 5.346 5.357 570
-10 -0.100 -0.095 -0.091 -0.086 -0.081 -0.076 -0.071 -0.066 -0.061 -0.056 -0.051 -10 580 5.357 5.369 5.380 5.391 5.402 5.414 5.425 5.436 5.448 5.459 5.470 580
0 -0.051 -0.046 -0.041 -0.036 -0.031 -0.026 -0.021 -0.016 -0.011 -0.005 0.000 0 590 5.470 5.481 5.493 5.504 5.515 5.527 5.538 5.549 5.561 5.572 5.583 590

0 0.000 0.005 0.011 0.016 0.021 0.027 0.032 0.038 0.043 0.049 0.054 0 600 5.583 5.595 5.606 5.618 5.629 5.640 5.652 5.663 5.674 5.686 5.697 600
10 0.054 0.060 0.065 0.071 0.077 0.082 0.088 0.094 0.100 0.105 0.111 10 610 5.697 5.709 5.720 5.731 5.743 5.754 5.766 5.777 5.789 5.800 5.812 610
20 0.111 0.117 0.123 0.129 0.135 0.141 0.147 0.153 0.159 0.165 0.171 20 620 5.812 5.823 5.834 5.846 5.857 5.869 5.880 5.892 5.903 5.915 5.926 620
30 0.171 0.177 0.183 0.189 0.195 0.201 0.207 0.214 0.220 0.226 0.232 30 630 5.926 5.938 5.949 5.961 5.972 5.984 5.995 6.007 6.018 6.030 6.041 630
40 0.232 0.239 0.245 0.251 0.258 0.264 0.271 0.277 0.284 0.290 0.296 40 640 6.041 6.053 6.065 6.076 6.088 6.099 6.111 6.122 6.134 6.146 6.157 640

50 0.296 0.303 0.310 0.316 0.323 0.329 0.336 0.343 0.349 0.356 0.363 50 650 6.157 6.169 6.180 6.192 6.204 6.215 6.227 6.238 6.250 6.262 6.273 650
60 0.363 0.369 0.376 0.383 0.390 0.397 0.403 0.410 0.417 0.424 0.431 60 660 6.273 6.285 6.297 6.308 6.320 6.332 6.343 6.355 6.367 6.378 6.390 660
70 0.431 0.438 0.445 0.452 0.459 0.466 0.473 0.480 0.487 0.494 0.501 70 670 6.390 6.402 6.413 6.425 6.437 6.448 6.460 6.472 6.484 6.495 6.507 670
80 0.501 0.508 0.516 0.523 0.530 0.537 0.544 0.552 0.559 0.566 0.573 80 680 6.507 6.519 6.531 6.542 6.554 6.566 6.578 6.589 6.601 6.613 6.625 680
90 0.573 0.581 0.588 0.595 0.603 0.610 0.618 0.625 0.632 0.640 0.647 90 690 6.625 6.636 6.648 6.660 6.672 6.684 6.695 6.707 6.719 6.731 6.743 690

100 0.647 0.655 0.662 0.670 0.677 0.685 0.693 0.700 0.708 0.715 0.723 100 700 6.743 6.755 6.766 6.778 6.790 6.802 6.814 6.826 6.838 6.849 6.861 700
110 0.723 0.731 0.738 0.746 0.754 0.761 0.769 0.777 0.785 0.792 0.800 110 710 6.861 6.873 6.885 6.897 6.909 6.921 6.933 6.945 6.956 6.968 6.980 710
120 0.800 0.808 0.816 0.824 0.832 0.839 0.847 0.855 0.863 0.871 0.879 120 720 6.980 6.992 7.004 7.016 7.028 7.040 7.052 7.064 7.076 7.088 7.100 720
130 0.879 0.887 0.895 0.903 0.911 0.919 0.927 0.935 0.943 0.951 0.959 130 730 7.100 7.112 7.124 7.136 7.148 7.160 7.172 7.184 7.196 7.208 7.220 730
140 0.959 0.967 0.976 0.984 0.992 1.000 1.008 1.016 1.025 1.033 1.041 140 740 7.220 7.232 7.244 7.256 7.268 7.280 7.292 7.304 7.316 7.328 7.340 740

150 1.041 1.049 1.058 1.066 1.074 1.082 1.091 1.099 1.107 1.116 1.124 150 750 7.340 7.352 7.364 7.376 7.389 7.401 7.413 7.425 7.437 7.449 7.461 750
160 1.124 1.132 1.141 1.149 1.158 1.166 1.175 1.183 1.191 1.200 1.208 160 760 7.461 7.473 7.485 7.498 7.510 7.522 7.534 7.546 7.558 7.570 7.583 760
170 1.208 1.217 1.225 1.234 1.242 1.251 1.260 1.268 1.277 1.285 1.294 170 770 7.583 7.595 7.607 7.619 7.631 7.644 7.656 7.668 7.680 7.692 7.705 770
180 1.294 1.303 1.311 1.320 1.329 1.337 1.346 1.355 1.363 1.372 1.381 180 780 7.705 7.717 7.729 7.741 7.753 7.766 7.778 7.790 7.802 7.815 7.827 780
190 1.381 1.389 1.398 1.407 1.416 1.425 1.433 1.442 1.451 1.460 1.469 190 790 7.827 7.839 7.851 7.864 7.876 7.888 7.901 7.913 7.925 7.938 7.950 790

200 1.469 1.477 1.486 1.495 1.504 1.513 1.522 1.531 1.540 1.549 1.558 200 800 7.950 7.962 7.974 7.987 7.999 8.011 8.024 8.036 8.048 8.061 8.073 800
210 1.558 1.567 1.575 1.584 1.593 1.602 1.611 1.620 1.629 1.639 1.648 210 810 8.073 8.086 8.098 8.110 8.123 8.135 8.147 8.160 8.172 8.185 8.197 810
220 1.648 1.657 1.666 1.675 1.684 1.693 1.702 1.711 1.720 1.729 1.739 220 820 8.197 8.209 8.222 8.234 8.247 8.259 8.272 8.284 8.296 8.309 8.321 820
230 1.739 1.748 1.757 1.766 1.775 1.784 1.794 1.803 1.812 1.821 1.831 230 830 8.321 8.334 8.346 8.359 8.371 8.384 8.396 8.409 8.421 8.434 8.446 830
240 1.831 1.840 1.849 1.858 1.868 1.877 1.886 1.895 1.905 1.914 1.923 240 840 8.446 8.459 8.471 8.484 8.496 8.509 8.521 8.534 8.546 8.559 8.571 840

250 1.923 1.933 1.942 1.951 1.961 1.970 1.980 1.989 1.998 2.008 2.017 250 850 8.571 8.584 8.597 8.609 8.622 8.634 8.647 8.659 8.672 8.685 8.697 850
260 2.017 2.027 2.036 2.046 2.055 2.064 2.074 2.083 2.093 2.102 2.112 260 860 8.697 8.710 8.722 8.735 8.748 8.760 8.773 8.785 8.798 8.811 8.823 860
270 2.112 2.121 2.131 2.140 2.150 2.159 2.169 2.179 2.188 2.198 2.207 270 870 8.823 8.836 8.849 8.861 8.874 8.887 8.899 8.912 8.925 8.937 8.950 870
280 2.207 2.217 2.226 2.236 2.246 2.255 2.265 2.275 2.284 2.294 2.304 280 880 8.950 8.963 8.975 8.988 9.001 9.014 9.026 9.039 9.052 9.065 9.077 880
290 2.304 2.313 2.323 2.333 2.342 2.352 2.362 2.371 2.381 2.391 2.401 290 890 9.077 9.090 9.103 9.115 9.128 9.141 9.154 9.167 9.179 9.192 9.205 890

300 2.401 2.410 2.420 2.430 2.440 2.449 2.459 2.469 2.479 2.488 2.498 300 900 9.205 9.218 9.230 9.243 9.256 9.269 9.282 9.294 9.307 9.320 9.333 900
310 2.498 2.508 2.518 2.528 2.538 2.547 2.557 2.567 2.577 2.587 2.597 310 910 9.333 9.346 9.359 9.371 9.384 9.397 9.410 9.423 9.436 9.449 9.461 910
320 2.597 2.607 2.617 2.626 2.636 2.646 2.656 2.666 2.676 2.686 2.696 320 920 9.461 9.474 9.487 9.500 9.513 9.526 9.539 9.552 9.565 9.578 9.590 920
330 2.696 2.706 2.716 2.726 2.736 2.746 2.756 2.766 2.776 2.786 2.796 330 930 9.590 9.603 9.616 9.629 9.642 9.655 9.668 9.681 9.694 9.707 9.720 930
340 2.796 2.806 2.816 2.826 2.836 2.846 2.856 2.866 2.876 2.886 2.896 340 940 9.720 9.733 9.746 9.759 9.772 9.785 9.798 9.811 9.824 9.837 9.850 940

350 2.896 2.906 2.916 2.926 2.937 2.947 2.957 2.967 2.977 2.987 2.997 350 950 9.850 9.863 9.876 9.889 9.902 9.915 9.928 9.941 9.954 9.967 9.980 950
360 2.997 3.007 3.018 3.028 3.038 3.048 3.058 3.068 3.079 3.089 3.099 360 960 9.980 9.993 10.006 10.019 10.032 10.046 10.059 10.072 10.085 10.098 10.111 960
370 3.099 3.109 3.119 3.130 3.140 3.150 3.160 3.171 3.181 3.191 3.201 370 970 10.111 10.124 10.137 10.150 10.163 10.177 10.190 10.203 10.216 10.229 10.242 970
380 3.201 3.212 3.222 3.232 3.242 3.253 3.263 3.273 3.284 3.294 3.304 380 980 10.242 10.255 10.268 10.282 10.295 10.308 10.321 10.334 10.347 10.361 10.374 980
390 3.304 3.315 3.325 3.335 3.346 3.356 3.366 3.377 3.387 3.397 3.408 390 990 10.374 10.387 10.400 10.413 10.427 10.440 10.453 10.466 10.480 10.493 10.506 990

400 3.408 3.418 3.428 3.439 3.449 3.460 3.470 3.480 3.491 3.501 3.512 400 1000 10.506 10.519 10.532 10.546 10.559 10.572 10.585 10.599 10.612 10.625 10.638 1000
410 3.512 3.522 3.533 3.543 3.553 3.564 3.574 3.585 3.595 3.606 3.616 410 1010 10.638 10.652 10.665 10.678 10.692 10.705 10.718 10.731 10.745 10.758 10.771 1010
420 3.616 3.627 3.637 3.648 3.658 3.669 3.679 3.690 3.700 3.711 3.721 420 1020 10.771 10.785 10.798 10.811 10.825 10.838 10.851 10.865 10.878 10.891 10.905 1020
430 3.721 3.732 3.742 3.753 3.764 3.774 3.785 3.795 3.806 3.816 3.827 430 1030 10.905 10.918 10.932 10.945 10.958 10.972 10.985 10.998 11.012 11.025 11.039 1030
440 3.827 3.838 3.848 3.859 3.869 3.880 3.891 3.901 3.912 3.922 3.933 440 1040 11.039 11.052 11.065 11.079 11.092 11.106 11.119 11.132 11.146 11.159 11.173 1040

450 3.933 3.944 3.954 3.965 3.976 3.986 3.997 4.008 4.018 4.029 4.040 450 1050 11.173 11.186 11.200 11.213 11.227 11.240 11.253 11.267 11.280 11.294 11.307 1050
460 4.040 4.050 4.061 4.072 4.083 4.093 4.104 4.115 4.125 4.136 4.147 460 1060 11.307 11.321 11.334 11.348 11.361 11.375 11.388 11.402 11.415 11.429 11.442 1060
470 4.147 4.158 4.168 4.179 4.190 4.201 4.211 4.222 4.233 4.244 4.255 470 1070 11.442 11.456 11.469 11.483 11.496 11.510 11.524 11.537 11.551 11.564 11.578 1070
480 4.255 4.265 4.276 4.287 4.298 4.309 4.319 4.330 4.341 4.352 4.363 480 1080 11.578 11.591 11.605 11.618 11.632 11.646 11.659 11.673 11.686 11.700 11.714 1080
490 4.363 4.373 4.384 4.395 4.406 4.417 4.428 4.439 4.449 4.460 4.471 490 1090 11.714 11.727 11.741 11.754 11.768 11.782 11.795 11.809 11.822 11.836 11.850 1090

500 4.471 4.482 4.493 4.504 4.515 4.526 4.537 4.548 4.558 4.569 4.580 500 1100 11.850 11.863 11.877 11.891 11.904 11.918 11.931 11.945 11.959 11.972 11.986 1100
510 4.580 4.591 4.602 4.613 4.624 4.635 4.646 4.657 4.668 4.679 4.690 510 1110 11.986 12.000 12.013 12.027 12.041 12.054 12.068 12.082 12.096 12.109 12.123 1110
520 4.690 4.701 4.712 4.723 4.734 4.745 4.756 4.767 4.778 4.789 4.800 520 1120 12.123 12.137 12.150 12.164 12.178 12.191 12.205 12.219 12.233 12.246 12.260 1120
530 4.800 4.811 4.822 4.833 4.844 4.855 4.866 4.877 4.888 4.899 4.910 530 1130 12.260 12.274 12.288 12.301 12.315 12.329 12.342 12.356 12.370 12.384 12.397 1130
540 4.910 4.922 4.933 4.944 4.955 4.966 4.977 4.988 4.999 5.010 5.021 540 1140 12.397 12.411 12.425 12.439 12.453 12.466 12.480 12.494 12.508 12.521 12.535 1140

°C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C

Z-210
Revised Thermocouple + Thermocouple MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE
Grade Thermocouple Grade
–
Reference Tables NONE
32 to 2642°F
0 to 1450°C
ESTABLISHED Extension Grade
32 to 300°F

R
TYPE
0 to 150°C
Platinum-13% Rhodium LIMITS OF ERROR
vs. (whichever is greater)
Reference Platinum
Standard: 1.5°C or 0.25%
Special: 0.6°C or 0.1%
Tables + COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT:
N.I.S.T. Oxidizing or Inert; Do Not Insert in Metal Tubes;
Monograph 175 – Beware of Contamination; High Temperature
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °C
Revised to Extension REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 0°C
ITS-90 Grade

Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts

°C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C
1150 12.535 12.549 12.563 12.577 12.590 12.604 12.618 12.632 12.646 12.659 12.673 1150 1500 17.451 17.465 17.479 17.493 17.507 17.521 17.535 17.549 17.563 17.577 17.591 1500
1160 12.673 12.687 12.701 12.715 12.729 12.742 12.756 12.770 12.784 12.798 12.812 1160 1510 17.591 17.605 17.619 17.633 17.647 17.661 17.676 17.690 17.704 17.718 17.732 1510
1170 12.812 12.825 12.839 12.853 12.867 12.881 12.895 12.909 12.922 12.936 12.950 1170 1520 17.732 17.746 17.760 17.774 17.788 17.802 17.816 17.830 17.844 17.858 17.872 1520
1180 12.950 12.964 12.978 12.992 13.006 13.019 13.033 13.047 13.061 13.075 13.089 1180 1530 17.872 17.886 17.900 17.914 17.928 17.942 17.956 17.970 17.984 17.998 18.012 1530
1190 13.089 13.103 13.117 13.131 13.145 13.158 13.172 13.186 13.200 13.214 13.228 1190 1540 18.012 18.026 18.040 18.054 18.068 18.082 18.096 18.110 18.124 18.138 18.152 1540

1200 13.228 13.242 13.256 13.270 13.284 13.298 13.311 13.325 13.339 13.353 13.367 1200 1550 18.152 18.166 18.180 18.194 18.208 18.222 18.236 18.250 18.264 18.278 18.292 1550
1210 13.367 13.381 13.395 13.409 13.423 13.437 13.451 13.465 13.479 13.493 13.507 1210 1560 18.292 18.306 18.320 18.334 18.348 18.362 18.376 18.390 18.404 18.417 18.431 1560
1220 13.507 13.521 13.535 13.549 13.563 13.577 13.590 13.604 13.618 13.632 13.646 1220 1570 18.431 18.445 18.459 18.473 18.487 18.501 18.515 18.529 18.543 18.557 18.571 1570
1230 13.646 13.660 13.674 13.688 13.702 13.716 13.730 13.744 13.758 13.772 13.786 1230 1580 18.571 18.585 18.599 18.613 18.627 18.640 18.654 18.668 18.682 18.696 18.710 1580
1240 13.786 13.800 13.814 13.828 13.842 13.856 13.870 13.884 13.898 13.912 13.926 1240 1590 18.710 18.724 18.738 18.752 18.766 18.779 18.793 18.807 18.821 18.835 18.849 1590

1250 13.926 13.940 13.954 13.968 13.982 13.996 14.010 14.024 14.038 14.052 14.066 1250 1600 18.849 18.863 18.877 18.891 18.904 18.918 18.932 18.946 18.960 18.974 18.988 1600
1260 14.066 14.081 14.095 14.109 14.123 14.137 14.151 14.165 14.179 14.193 14.207 1260 1610 18.988 19.002 19.015 19.029 19.043 19.057 19.071 19.085 19.098 19.112 19.126 1610
1270 14.207 14.221 14.235 14.249 14.263 14.277 14.291 14.305 14.319 14.333 14.347 1270 1620 19.126 19.140 19.154 19.168 19.181 19.195 19.209 19.223 19.237 19.250 19.264 1620
1280 14.347 14.361 14.375 14.390 14.404 14.418 14.432 14.446 14.460 14.474 14.488 1280 1630 19.264 19.278 19.292 19.306 19.319 19.333 19.347 19.361 19.375 19.388 19.402 1630
1290 14.488 14.502 14.516 14.530 14.544 14.558 14.572 14.586 14.601 14.615 14.629 1290 1640 19.402 19.416 19.430 19.444 19.457 19.471 19.485 19.499 19.512 19.526 19.540 1640

1300 14.629 14.643 14.657 14.671 14.685 14.699 14.713 14.727 14.741 14.755 14.770 1300 1650 19.540 19.554 19.567 19.581 19.595 19.609 19.622 19.636 19.650 19.663 19.677 1650
1310 14.770 14.784 14.798 14.812 14.826 14.840 14.854 14.868 14.882 14.896 14.911 1310 1660 19.677 19.691 19.705 19.718 19.732 19.746 19.759 19.773 19.787 19.800 19.814 1660
1320 14.911 14.925 14.939 14.953 14.967 14.981 14.995 15.009 15.023 15.037 15.052 1320 1670 19.814 19.828 19.841 19.855 19.869 19.882 19.896 19.910 19.923 19.937 19.951 1670
1330 15.052 15.066 15.080 15.094 15.108 15.122 15.136 15.150 15.164 15.179 15.193 1330 1680 19.951 19.964 19.978 19.992 20.005 20.019 20.032 20.046 20.060 20.073 20.087 1680
1340 15.193 15.207 15.221 15.235 15.249 15.263 15.277 15.291 15.306 15.320 15.334 1340 1690 20.087 20.100 20.114 20.127 20.141 20.154 20.168 20.181 20.195 20.208 20.222 1690

1350 15.334 15.348 15.362 15.376 15.390 15.404 15.419 15.433 15.447 15.461 15.475 1350 1700 20.222 20.235 20.249 20.262 20.275 20.289 20.302 20.316 20.329 20.342 20.356 1700
1360 15.475 15.489 15.503 15.517 15.531 15.546 15.560 15.574 15.588 15.602 15.616 1360 1710 20.356 20.369 20.382 20.396 20.409 20.422 20.436 20.449 20.462 20.475 20.488 1710
1370 15.616 15.630 15.645 15.659 15.673 15.687 15.701 15.715 15.729 15.743 15.758 1370 1720 20.488 20.502 20.515 20.528 20.541 20.554 20.567 20.581 20.594 20.607 20.620 1720
1380 15.758 15.772 15.786 15.800 15.814 15.828 15.842 15.856 15.871 15.885 15.899 1380 1730 20.620 20.633 20.646 20.659 20.672 20.685 20.698 20.711 20.724 20.736 20.749 1730
1390 15.899 15.913 15.927 15.941 15.955 15.969 15.984 15.998 16.012 16.026 16.040 1390 1740 20.749 20.762 20.775 20.788 20.801 20.813 20.826 20.839 20.852 20.864 20.877 1740

1400 16.040 16.054 16.068 16.082 16.097 16.111 16.125 16.139 16.153 16.167 16.181 1400 1750 20.877 20.890 20.902 20.915 20.928 20.940 20.953 20.965 20.978 20.990 21.003 1750
1410 16.181 16.196 16.210 16.224 16.238 16.252 16.266 16.280 16.294 16.309 16.323 1410 1760 21.003 21.015 21.027 21.040 21.052 21.065 21.077 21.089 21.101 1760
1420 16.323 16.337 16.351 16.365 16.379 16.393 16.407 16.422 16.436 16.450 16.464 1420
1430 16.464 16.478 16.492 16.506 16.520 16.534 16.549 16.563 16.577 16.591 16.605 1430
1440 16.605 16.619 16.633 16.647 16.662 16.676 16.690 16.704 16.718 16.732 16.746 1440

1450 16.746 16.760 16.774 16.789 16.803 16.817 16.831 16.845 16.859 16.873 16.887 1450
1460 16.887 16.901 16.915 16.930 16.944 16.958 16.972 16.986 17.000 17.014 17.028 1460
1470 17.028 17.042 17.056 17.071 17.085 17.099 17.113 17.127 17.141 17.155 17.169 1470
1480 17.169 17.183 17.197 17.211 17.225 17.240 17.254 17.268 17.282 17.296 17.310 1480
1490 17.310 17.324 17.338 17.352 17.366 17.380 17.394 17.408 17.423 17.437 17.451 1490
°C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C

Z-211
 MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE + Thermocouple
Revised Thermocouple
Thermocouple Grade Grade
–
32 to 3092°F
0 to 1700°C NONE Reference Tables
Extension Grade ESTABLISHED
32 to 212°F

B
TYPE
0 to 100°C
LIMITS OF ERROR Platinum-30% Rhodium
(whichever is greater) vs.
Standard: 0.5°C over 800°C
Special: NOT ESTABLISHED Platinum-6% Rhodium Reference
COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT: + Tables
Oxidizing or Inert; Do Not Insert in Metal Tubes;
– N.I.S.T.
Beware of Contamination; High Temperature;
Common Use in Glass Industry Monograph 175
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °C Extension Revised to
REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 0°C Grade ITS-90
Z
Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts
°C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C
0 0.000 0.000 0.000 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 0 600 1.792 1.798 1.804 1.810 1.816 1.822 1.828 1.834 1.840 1.846 1.852 600
10 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 10 610 1.852 1.858 1.864 1.870 1.876 1.882 1.888 1.894 1.901 1.907 1.913 610
20 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 20 620 1.913 1.919 1.925 1.931 1.937 1.944 1.950 1.956 1.962 1.968 1.975 620
30 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 0.000 30 630 1.975 1.981 1.987 1.993 1.999 2.006 2.012 2.018 2.025 2.031 2.037 630
40 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 40 640 2.037 2.043 2.050 2.056 2.062 2.069 2.075 2.082 2.088 2.094 2.101 640

50 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.006 0.006 50 650 2.101 2.107 2.113 2.120 2.126 2.133 2.139 2.146 2.152 2.158 2.165 650
60 0.006 0.007 0.007 0.008 0.008 0.009 0.009 0.010 0.010 0.011 0.011 60 660 2.165 2.171 2.178 2.184 2.191 2.197 2.204 2.210 2.217 2.224 2.230 660
70 0.011 0.012 0.012 0.013 0.014 0.014 0.015 0.015 0.016 0.017 0.017 70 670 2.230 2.237 2.243 2.250 2.256 2.263 2.270 2.276 2.283 2.289 2.296 670
80 0.017 0.018 0.019 0.020 0.020 0.021 0.022 0.022 0.023 0.024 0.025 80 680 2.296 2.303 2.309 2.316 2.323 2.329 2.336 2.343 2.350 2.356 2.363 680
90 0.025 0.026 0.026 0.027 0.028 0.029 0.030 0.031 0.031 0.032 0.033 90 690 2.363 2.370 2.376 2.383 2.390 2.397 2.403 2.410 2.417 2.424 2.431 690

100 0.033 0.034 0.035 0.036 0.037 0.038 0.039 0.040 0.041 0.042 0.043 100 700 2.431 2.437 2.444 2.451 2.458 2.465 2.472 2.479 2.485 2.492 2.499 700
110 0.043 0.044 0.045 0.046 0.047 0.048 0.049 0.050 0.051 0.052 0.053 110 710 2.499 2.506 2.513 2.520 2.527 2.534 2.541 2.548 2.555 2.562 2.569 710
120 0.053 0.055 0.056 0.057 0.058 0.059 0.060 0.062 0.063 0.064 0.065 120 720 2.569 2.576 2.583 2.590 2.597 2.604 2.611 2.618 2.625 2.632 2.639 720
130 0.065 0.066 0.068 0.069 0.070 0.072 0.073 0.074 0.075 0.077 0.078 130 730 2.639 2.646 2.653 2.660 2.667 2.674 2.681 2.688 2.696 2.703 2.710 730
140 0.078 0.079 0.081 0.082 0.084 0.085 0.086 0.088 0.089 0.091 0.092 140 740 2.710 2.717 2.724 2.731 2.738 2.746 2.753 2.760 2.767 2.775 2.782 740

150 0.092 0.094 0.095 0.096 0.098 0.099 0.101 0.102 0.104 0.106 0.107 150 750 2.782 2.789 2.796 2.803 2.811 2.818 2.825 2.833 2.840 2.847 2.854 750
160 0.107 0.109 0.110 0.112 0.113 0.115 0.117 0.118 0.120 0.122 0.123 160 760 2.854 2.862 2.869 2.876 2.884 2.891 2.898 2.906 2.913 2.921 2.928 760
170 0.123 0.125 0.127 0.128 0.130 0.132 0.134 0.135 0.137 0.139 0.141 170 770 2.928 2.935 2.943 2.950 2.958 2.965 2.973 2.980 2.987 2.995 3.002 770
180 0.141 0.142 0.144 0.146 0.148 0.150 0.151 0.153 0.155 0.157 0.159 180 780 3.002 3.010 3.017 3.025 3.032 3.040 3.047 3.055 3.062 3.070 3.078 780
190 0.159 0.161 0.163 0.165 0.166 0.168 0.170 0.172 0.174 0.176 0.178 190 790 3.078 3.085 3.093 3.100 3.108 3.116 3.123 3.131 3.138 3.146 3.154 790

200 0.178 0.180 0.182 0.184 0.186 0.188 0.190 0.192 0.195 0.197 0.199 200 800 3.154 3.161 3.169 3.177 3.184 3.192 3.200 3.207 3.215 3.223 3.230 800
210 0.199 0.201 0.203 0.205 0.207 0.209 0.212 0.214 0.216 0.218 0.220 210 810 3.230 3.238 3.246 3.254 3.261 3.269 3.277 3.285 3.292 3.300 3.308 810
220 0.220 0.222 0.225 0.227 0.229 0.231 0.234 0.236 0.238 0.241 0.243 220 820 3.308 3.316 3.324 3.331 3.339 3.347 3.355 3.363 3.371 3.379 3.386 820
230 0.243 0.245 0.248 0.250 0.252 0.255 0.257 0.259 0.262 0.264 0.267 230 830 3.386 3.394 3.402 3.410 3.418 3.426 3.434 3.442 3.450 3.458 3.466 830
240 0.267 0.269 0.271 0.274 0.276 0.279 0.281 0.284 0.286 0.289 0.291 240 840 3.466 3.474 3.482 3.490 3.498 3.506 3.514 3.522 3.530 3.538 3.546 840

250 0.291 0.294 0.296 0.299 0.301 0.304 0.307 0.309 0.312 0.314 0.317 250 850 3.546 3.554 3.562 3.570 3.578 3.586 3.594 3.602 3.610 3.618 3.626 850
260 0.317 0.320 0.322 0.325 0.328 0.330 0.333 0.336 0.338 0.341 0.344 260 860 3.626 3.634 3.643 3.651 3.659 3.667 3.675 3.683 3.692 3.700 3.708 860
270 0.344 0.347 0.349 0.352 0.355 0.358 0.360 0.363 0.366 0.369 0.372 270 870 3.708 3.716 3.724 3.732 3.741 3.749 3.757 3.765 3.774 3.782 3.790 870
280 0.372 0.375 0.377 0.380 0.383 0.386 0.389 0.392 0.395 0.398 0.401 280 880 3.790 3.798 3.807 3.815 3.823 3.832 3.840 3.848 3.857 3.865 3.873 880
290 0.401 0.404 0.407 0.410 0.413 0.416 0.419 0.422 0.425 0.428 0.431 290 890 3.873 3.882 3.890 3.898 3.907 3.915 3.923 3.932 3.940 3.949 3.957 890

300 0.431 0.434 0.437 0.440 0.443 0.446 0.449 0.452 0.455 0.458 0.462 300 900 3.957 3.965 3.974 3.982 3.991 3.999 4.008 4.016 4.024 4.033 4.041 900
310 0.462 0.465 0.468 0.471 0.474 0.478 0.481 0.484 0.487 0.490 0.494 310 910 4.041 4.050 4.058 4.067 4.075 4.084 4.093 4.101 4.110 4.118 4.127 910
320 0.494 0.497 0.500 0.503 0.507 0.510 0.513 0.517 0.520 0.523 0.527 320 920 4.127 4.135 4.144 4.152 4.161 4.170 4.178 4.187 4.195 4.204 4.213 920
330 0.527 0.530 0.533 0.537 0.540 0.544 0.547 0.550 0.554 0.557 0.561 330 930 4.213 4.221 4.230 4.239 4.247 4.256 4.265 4.273 4.282 4.291 4.299 930
340 0.561 0.564 0.568 0.571 0.575 0.578 0.582 0.585 0.589 0.592 0.596 340 940 4.299 4.308 4.317 4.326 4.334 4.343 4.352 4.360 4.369 4.378 4.387 940

350 0.596 0.599 0.603 0.607 0.610 0.614 0.617 0.621 0.625 0.628 0.632 350 950 4.387 4.396 4.404 4.413 4.422 4.431 4.440 4.448 4.457 4.466 4.475 950
360 0.632 0.636 0.639 0.643 0.647 0.650 0.654 0.658 0.662 0.665 0.669 360 960 4.475 4.484 4.493 4.501 4.510 4.519 4.528 4.537 4.546 4.555 4.564 960
370 0.669 0.673 0.677 0.680 0.684 0.688 0.692 0.696 0.700 0.703 0.707 370 970 4.564 4.573 4.582 4.591 4.599 4.608 4.617 4.626 4.635 4.644 4.653 970
380 0.707 0.711 0.715 0.719 0.723 0.727 0.731 0.735 0.738 0.742 0.746 380 980 4.653 4.662 4.671 4.680 4.689 4.698 4.707 4.716 4.725 4.734 4.743 980
390 0.746 0.750 0.754 0.758 0.762 0.766 0.770 0.774 0.778 0.782 0.787 390 990 4.743 4.753 4.762 4.771 4.780 4.789 4.798 4.807 4.816 4.825 4.834 990

400 0.787 0.791 0.795 0.799 0.803 0.807 0.811 0.815 0.819 0.824 0.828 400 1000 4.834 4.843 4.853 4.862 4.871 4.880 4.889 4.898 4.908 4.917 4.926 1000
410 0.828 0.832 0.836 0.840 0.844 0.849 0.853 0.857 0.861 0.866 0.870 410 1010 4.926 4.935 4.944 4.954 4.963 4.972 4.981 4.990 5.000 5.009 5.018 1010
420 0.870 0.874 0.878 0.883 0.887 0.891 0.896 0.900 0.904 0.909 0.913 420 1020 5.018 5.027 5.037 5.046 5.055 5.065 5.074 5.083 5.092 5.102 5.111 1020
430 0.913 0.917 0.922 0.926 0.930 0.935 0.939 0.944 0.948 0.953 0.957 430 1030 5.111 5.120 5.130 5.139 5.148 5.158 5.167 5.176 5.186 5.195 5.205 1030
440 0.957 0.961 0.966 0.970 0.975 0.979 0.984 0.988 0.993 0.997 1.002 440 1040 5.205 5.214 5.223 5.233 5.242 5.252 5.261 5.270 5.280 5.289 5.299 1040

450 1.002 1.007 1.011 1.016 1.020 1.025 1.030 1.034 1.039 1.043 1.048 450 1050 5.299 5.308 5.318 5.327 5.337 5.346 5.356 5.365 5.375 5.384 5.394 1050
460 1.048 1.053 1.057 1.062 1.067 1.071 1.076 1.081 1.086 1.090 1.095 460 1060 5.394 5.403 5.413 5.422 5.432 5.441 5.451 5.460 5.470 5.480 5.489 1060
470 1.095 1.100 1.105 1.109 1.114 1.119 1.124 1.129 1.133 1.138 1.143 470 1070 5.489 5.499 5.508 5.518 5.528 5.537 5.547 5.556 5.566 5.576 5.585 1070
480 1.143 1.148 1.153 1.158 1.163 1.167 1.172 1.177 1.182 1.187 1.192 480 1080 5.585 5.595 5.605 5.614 5.624 5.634 5.643 5.653 5.663 5.672 5.682 1080
490 1.192 1.197 1.202 1.207 1.212 1.217 1.222 1.227 1.232 1.237 1.242 490 1090 5.682 5.692 5.702 5.711 5.721 5.731 5.740 5.750 5.760 5.770 5.780 1090

500 1.242 1.247 1.252 1.257 1.262 1.267 1.272 1.277 1.282 1.288 1.293 500 1100 5.780 5.789 5.799 5.809 5.819 5.828 5.838 5.848 5.858 5.868 5.878 1100
510 1.293 1.298 1.303 1.308 1.313 1.318 1.324 1.329 1.334 1.339 1.344 510 1110 5.878 5.887 5.897 5.907 5.917 5.927 5.937 5.947 5.956 5.966 5.976 1110
520 1.344 1.350 1.355 1.360 1.365 1.371 1.376 1.381 1.387 1.392 1.397 520 1120 5.976 5.986 5.996 6.006 6.016 6.026 6.036 6.046 6.055 6.065 6.075 1120
530 1.397 1.402 1.408 1.413 1.418 1.424 1.429 1.435 1.440 1.445 1.451 530 1130 6.075 6.085 6.095 6.105 6.115 6.125 6.135 6.145 6.155 6.165 6.175 1130
540 1.451 1.456 1.462 1.467 1.472 1.478 1.483 1.489 1.494 1.500 1.505 540 1140 6.175 6.185 6.195 6.205 6.215 6.225 6.235 6.245 6.256 6.266 6.276 1140

550 1.505 1.511 1.516 1.522 1.527 1.533 1.539 1.544 1.550 1.555 1.561 550 1150 6.276 6.286 6.296 6.306 6.316 6.326 6.336 6.346 6.356 6.367 6.377 1150
560 1.561 1.566 1.572 1.578 1.583 1.589 1.595 1.600 1.606 1.612 1.617 560 1160 6.377 6.387 6.397 6.407 6.417 6.427 6.438 6.448 6.458 6.468 6.478 1160
570 1.617 1.623 1.629 1.634 1.640 1.646 1.652 1.657 1.663 1.669 1.675 570 1170 6.478 6.488 6.499 6.509 6.519 6.529 6.539 6.550 6.560 6.570 6.580 1170
580 1.675 1.680 1.686 1.692 1.698 1.704 1.709 1.715 1.721 1.727 1.733 580 1180 6.580 6.591 6.601 6.611 6.621 6.632 6.642 6.652 6.663 6.673 6.683 1180
590 1.733 1.739 1.745 1.750 1.756 1.762 1.768 1.774 1.780 1.786 1.792 590 1190 6.683 6.693 6.704 6.714 6.724 6.735 6.745 6.755 6.766 6.776 6.786 1190

°C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C

Z-212
Revised Thermocouple + Thermocouple
Grade
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE
Thermocouple Grade
–
Reference Tables NONE
32 to 3092°F
0 to 1700°C
ESTABLISHED Extension Grade
32 to 212°F

B
TYPE
0 to 100°C
Platinum-30% Rhodium LIMITS OF ERROR
vs. (whichever is greater)
Reference Platinum-6% Rhodium
Standard: 0.5°C over 800°C
Special: NOT ESTABLISHED
Tables + COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT:
N.I.S.T. –
Oxidizing or Inert; Do Not Insert in Metal Tubes;
Beware of Contamination; High Temperature;
Monograph 175 Common Use in Glass Industry
Revised to Extension TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °C
ITS-90 Grade REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 0°C

Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts

°C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C
1200 6.786 6.797 6.807 6.818 6.828 6.838 6.849 6.859 6.869 6.880 6.890 1200 1550 10.679 10.691 10.703 10.714 10.726 10.738 10.749 10.761 10.773 10.784 10.796 1550
1210 6.890 6.901 6.911 6.922 6.932 6.942 6.953 6.963 6.974 6.984 6.995 1210 1560 10.796 10.808 10.819 10.831 10.843 10.854 10.866 10.877 10.889 10.901 10.913 1560
1220 6.995 7.005 7.016 7.026 7.037 7.047 7.058 7.068 7.079 7.089 7.100 1220 1570 10.913 10.924 10.936 10.948 10.959 10.971 10.983 10.994 11.006 11.018 11.029 1570
1230 7.100 7.110 7.121 7.131 7.142 7.152 7.163 7.173 7.184 7.194 7.205 1230 1580 11.029 11.041 11.053 11.064 11.076 11.088 11.099 11.111 11.123 11.134 11.146 1580
1240 7.205 7.216 7.226 7.237 7.247 7.258 7.269 7.279 7.290 7.300 7.311 1240 1590 11.146 11.158 11.169 11.181 11.193 11.205 11.216 11.228 11.240 11.251 11.263 1590

1250 7.311 7.322 7.332 7.343 7.353 7.364 7.375 7.385 7.396 7.407 7.417 1250 1600 11.263 11.275 11.286 11.298 11.310 11.321 11.333 11.345 11.357 11.368 11.380 1600
1260 7.417 7.428 7.439 7.449 7.460 7.471 7.482 7.492 7.503 7.514 7.524 1260 1610 11.380 11.392 11.403 11.415 11.427 11.438 11.450 11.462 11.474 11.485 11.497 1610
1270 7.524 7.535 7.546 7.557 7.567 7.578 7.589 7.600 7.610 7.621 7.632 1270 1620 11.497 11.509 11.520 11.532 11.544 11.555 11.567 11.579 11.591 11.602 11.614 1620
1280 7.632 7.643 7.653 7.664 7.675 7.686 7.697 7.707 7.718 7.729 7.740 1280 1630 11.614 11.626 11.637 11.649 11.661 11.673 11.684 11.696 11.708 11.719 11.731 1630
1290 7.740 7.751 7.761 7.772 7.783 7.794 7.805 7.816 7.827 7.837 7.848 1290 1640 11.731 11.743 11.754 11.766 11.778 11.790 11.801 11.813 11.825 11.836 11.848 1640

1300 7.848 7.859 7.870 7.881 7.892 7.903 7.914 7.924 7.935 7.946 7.957 1300 1650 11.848 11.860 11.871 11.883 11.895 11.907 11.918 11.930 11.942 11.953 11.965 1650
1310 7.957 7.968 7.979 7.990 8.001 8.012 8.023 8.034 8.045 8.056 8.066 1310 1660 11.965 11.977 11.988 12.000 12.012 12.024 12.035 12.047 12.059 12.070 12.082 1660
1320 8.066 8.077 8.088 8.099 8.110 8.121 8.132 8.143 8.154 8.165 8.176 1320 1670 12.082 12.094 12.105 12.117 12.129 12.141 12.152 12.164 12.176 12.187 12.199 1670
1330 8.176 8.187 8.198 8.209 8.220 8.231 8.242 8.253 8.264 8.275 8.286 1330 1680 12.199 12.211 12.222 12.234 12.246 12.257 12.269 12.281 12.292 12.304 12.316 1680
1340 8.286 8.298 8.309 8.320 8.331 8.342 8.353 8.364 8.375 8.386 8.397 1340 1690 12.316 12.327 12.339 12.351 12.363 12.374 12.386 12.398 12.409 12.421 12.433 1690

1350 8.397 8.408 8.419 8.430 8.441 8.453 8.464 8.475 8.486 8.497 8.508 1350 1700 12.433 12.444 12.456 12.468 12.479 12.491 12.503 12.514 12.526 12.538 12.549 1700
1360 8.508 8.519 8.530 8.542 8.553 8.564 8.575 8.586 8.597 8.608 8.620 1360 1710 12.549 12.561 12.572 12.584 12.596 12.607 12.619 12.631 12.642 12.654 12.666 1710
1370 8.620 8.631 8.642 8.653 8.664 8.675 8.687 8.698 8.709 8.720 8.731 1370 1720 12.666 12.677 12.689 12.701 12.712 12.724 12.736 12.747 12.759 12.770 12.782 1720
1380 8.731 8.743 8.754 8.765 8.776 8.787 8.799 8.810 8.821 8.832 8.844 1380 1730 12.782 12.794 12.805 12.817 12.829 12.840 12.852 12.863 12.875 12.887 12.898 1730
1390 8.844 8.855 8.866 8.877 8.889 8.900 8.911 8.922 8.934 8.945 8.956 1390 1740 12.898 12.910 12.921 12.933 12.945 12.956 12.968 12.980 12.991 13.003 13.014 1740

1400 8.956 8.967 8.979 8.990 9.001 9.013 9.024 9.035 9.047 9.058 9.069 1400 1750 13.014 13.026 13.037 13.049 13.061 13.072 13.084 13.095 13.107 13.119 13.130 1750
1410 9.069 9.080 9.092 9.103 9.114 9.126 9.137 9.148 9.160 9.171 9.182 1410 1760 13.130 13.142 13.153 13.165 13.176 13.188 13.200 13.211 13.223 13.234 13.246 1760
1420 9.182 9.194 9.205 9.216 9.228 9.239 9.251 9.262 9.273 9.285 9.296 1420 1770 13.246 13.257 13.269 13.280 13.292 13.304 13.315 13.327 13.338 13.350 13.361 1770
1430 9.296 9.307 9.319 9.330 9.342 9.353 9.364 9.376 9.387 9.398 9.410 1430 1780 13.361 13.373 13.384 13.396 13.407 13.419 13.430 13.442 13.453 13.465 13.476 1780
1440 9.410 9.421 9.433 9.444 9.456 9.467 9.478 9.490 9.501 9.513 9.524 1440 1790 13.476 13.488 13.499 13.511 13.522 13.534 13.545 13.557 13.568 13.580 13.591 1790

1450 9.524 9.536 9.547 9.558 9.570 9.581 9.593 9.604 9.616 9.627 9.639 1450 1800 13.591 13.603 13.614 13.626 13.637 13.649 13.660 13.672 13.683 13.694 13.706 1800
1460 9.639 9.650 9.662 9.673 9.684 9.696 9.707 9.719 9.730 9.742 9.753 1460 1810 13.706 13.717 13.729 13.740 13.752 13.763 13.775 13.786 13.797 13.809 13.820 1810
1470 9.753 9.765 9.776 9.788 9.799 9.811 9.822 9.834 9.845 9.857 9.868 1470
1480 9.868 9.880 9.891 9.903 9.914 9.926 9.937 9.949 9.961 9.972 9.984 1480
1490 9.984 9.995 10.007 10.018 10.030 10.041 10.053 10.064 10.076 10.088 10.099 1490

1500 10.099 10.111 10.122 10.134 10.145 10.157 10.168 10.180 10.192 10.203 10.215 1500
1510 10.215 10.226 10.238 10.249 10.261 10.273 10.284 10.296 10.307 10.319 10.331 1510
1520 10.331 10.342 10.354 10.365 10.377 10.389 10.400 10.412 10.423 10.435 10.447 1520
1530 10.447 10.458 10.470 10.482 10.493 10.505 10.516 10.528 10.540 10.551 10.563 1530
1540 10.563 10.575 10.586 10.598 10.609 10.621 10.633 10.644 10.656 10.668 10.679 1540
°C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C

Z-213
 MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE + Thermocouple
Revised Thermocouple
Thermocouple Grade Grade
–
– 450 to 2372°F
– 270 to 1300°C Reference Tables
Extension Grade
32 to 392°F Nickel-14.2%

N
TYPE
0 to 200°C
LIMITS OF ERROR
Chromium-1.4% Silicon
(whichever is greater) vs.
Standard: 2.2°C or 0.75% Above 0°C
2.2°C or 2.0% Below 0°C Nickel-4.4% Silicon- Reference
Special: 1.1°C or 0.4% 0.1% Magnesium + Tables
COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT:
– N.I.S.T.
Alternative to Type K; More Stable
at High Temperatures Monograph 175
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °C Extension Revised to
REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 0°C Grade ITS-90
Z
Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts
°C -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C
300 9.341 9.377 9.412 9.448 9.483 9.519 9.554 9.590 9.625 9.661 9.696 300
310 9.696 9.732 9.768 9.803 9.839 9.875 9.910 9.946 9.982 10.018 10.054 310
320 10.054 10.089 10.125 10.161 10.197 10.233 10.269 10.305 10.341 10.377 10.413 320
-260 - 4.345 - 4.345 - 4.344 - 4.344 - 4.343 - 4.342 - 4.341 - 4.340 - 4.339 - 4.337 -4.336 -260 330 10.413 10.449 10.485 10.521 10.557 10.593 10.629 10.665 10.701 10.737 10.774 330
-250 -4.338 -4.334 -4.332 -4.330 -4.328 -4.326 -4.324 -4.321 -4.319 -4.318 -4.313 -250 340 10.774 10.810 10.846 10.882 10.918 10.955 10.991 11.027 11.064 11.100 11.136 340

-240 -4.313 -4.310 -4.307 -4.304 -4.300 -4.297 -4.293 -4.289 -4.285 -4.281 -4.277 -240 350 11.136 11.173 11.209 11.245 11.282 11.318 11.355 11.391 11.428 11.464 11.501 350
-230 -4.277 -4.273 -4.268 -4.263 -4.258 -4.254 -4.248 -4.243 -4.238 -4.232 -4.226 -230 360 11.501 11.537 11.574 1.610 11.647 11.683 11.720 11.757 11.793 11.830 11.867 360
-220 -4.226 -4.221 -4.215 -4.209 -4.202 -4.196 -4.189 -4.183 -4.176 - 4.169 -4.162 -220 370 11.867 11.903 11.940 11.977 12.013 12.050 12.087 12.124 12.160 12.197 12.234 370
-210 -4.162 -4.154 -4.147 -4.140 -4.132 -4.124 -4.116 -4.108 -4.100 -4.091 -4.083 -210 380 12.234 12.271 12.308 12.345 12.382 12.418 12.455 12.492 12.529 12.566 12.603 380
-200 -4.083 -4.074 -4.066 -4.057 -4.048 -4.038 -4.029 -4.020 -4.010 -4.000 -3.990 -200 390 12.603 12.640 12.677 12.714 12.751 12.788 12.825 12.862 12.899 12.937 12.974 390

-190 -3.990 -3.980 -3.970 -3.960 -3.950 -3.939 -3.928 -3.918 -3.907 -3.898 -3.884 -190 400 12.974 13.011 13.048 13.085 13.122 13.159 13.197 13.234 13.271 13.308 13.346 400
-180 -3.884 -3.873 -3.862 -3.850 -3.838 -3.827 -3.815 -3.803 -3.790 -3.778 -3.786 -180 410 13.346 13.383 13.420 13.457 13.495 13.532 13.569 13.607 13.644 13.682 13.719 410
-170 -3.766 -3.753 -3.740 -3.728 -3.715 -3.702 -3.688 -3.675 -3.662 -3.648 -3.634 -170 420 13.719 13.756 13.794 13.831 13.869 13.906 13.944 13.981 14.019 14.056 14.094 420
-160 -3.634 -3.621 -3.607 -3.593 -3.578 -3.564 -3.550 -3.535 -3.521 -3.506 -3.491 -160 430 14.094 14.131 14.169 14.206 14.244 14.281 14.319 14.356 14.394 14.432 14.469 430
-150 -3.491 -3.476 -3.461 -3.446 -3.431 -3.415 -3.400 -3.384 -3.368 -3.352 -3.336 -150 440 14.469 14.507 14.545 14.582 14.620 14.658 14.695 14.733 14.771 14.809 14.846 440

-140 -3.336 -3.320 -3.304 -3.288 -3.271 -3.255 -3.238 -3.221 -3.205 -3.188 -3.171 -140 450 14.848 14.884 14.922 14.960 14.998 15.035 15.073 15.111 15.149 15.187 15.225 450
-130 -3.171 -3.153 -3.136 -3.119 -3.101 -3.084 -3.066 -3.048 -3.030 -3.012 -2.994 -130 460 15.225 15.262 15.300 15.338 15.376 15.414 15.452 15.490 15.528 15.566 15.604 460
-120 -2.994 -2.976 -2.958 -2.939 -2.921 -2.902 -2.883 -2.865 -2.846 -2.827 -2.808 -120 470 15.604 15.642 15.680 15.718 15.756 15.794 15.832 15.870 15.908 15.946 15.984 470
-110 -2.808 -2.789 -2.769 -2.750 -2.730 -2.711 -2.691 -2.672 -2.652 -2.632 -2.612 -110 480 15.984 16.022 16.060 I 6.099 16.137 16.175 16.213 16.251 16.289 16.327 16.366 480
-100 -2.612 -2.592 -2.571 -2.551 -2.531 -2.510 -2.490 -2.469 -2.448 -2.428 -2.407 -100 490 16.366 16.404 16.442 16.480 16.518 16.557 16.595 16.633 16.671 16.710 16.748 490

-90 -2.407 -2.386 -2.385 -2.344 -2.322 -2.301 -2.280 -2.258 -2.237 -2.215 -2.193 -90 500 16.748 16.786 I 6.824 16.883 16.901 16.939 16.978 17.016 17.054 17.093 17.131 Soo
-80 -2.193 -2.172 -2.150 -2.128 -2.106 -2.084 -2.082 -2. 039 -2.017 -1.995 -1.972 -80 510 17.131 17.169 17.208 17.246 17.285 17.323 17.361 17.400 17.438 17.477 17.515 510
-70 -1.972 -1.950 -1.927 -1.905 -1.882 -1.859 -1.836 -1.813 -1.790 -1.767 -1.744 -70 520 17.515 17.554 17.592 17.630 17.669 17.707 17.746 17.784 17.823 17.861 17.900 520
-60 -1.744 -1.721 -1.698 -1.674 -1.651 -1.627 -1.604 -1.580 -1.557 -1.533 -1.509 -60 530 17.900 17.938 17.977 18.016 18.054 18.093 18.131 18.170 18.208 18.247 18.286 530
-50 -1.509 -1.485 -1.462 -1.438 -1.414 -1.390 -1.366 -1.341 -1.317 -1.293 -1.269 -50 540 18.286 18.324 18.363 18.401 18.440 18.479 18.517 18.556 18.595 18.633 18.672 540

-40 -1.269 -1.244 -1.220 -1.195 -1.171 -1.146 -1.122 -1.097 -1.072 -1.048 -1.023 -40 550 18.672 18.711 18.749 18.788 18.827 18.865 18.904 18.943 18.982 19.020 19.059 550
-30 -1.023 -0.998 -0.973 -0.948 -0.923 -0.898 -0.873 -0.848 -0.823 -0.798 -0.772 -30 560 19.059 19.096 19.136 19.175 19.214 19.253 19.292 19.330 19.369 19.408 19.447 560
-20 -0.772 -0.747 -0.722 -0.696 -0.671 -0.646 -0.620 -0.595 -0.589 -0.544 -0.518 -20 570 19.447 19.485 19.524 19.563 19.602 19.641 19.680 19.718 19.757 19.796 19.835 570
-10 -0.518 -0.492 -0.467 -0.441 -0.415 -0.390 -0.364 -0.338 -0.312 -0.286 -0.260 -10 580 19.835 19.874 19.913 19.952 19.990 20.029 20.068 20.107 20.146 20.185 20.224 580
0 -0.260 -0.234 -0.209 -0.183 -0.157 -0.131 -0.104 -0.078 -0.052 -0.026 0.000 0 590 20.224 20.263 20.302 20.341 20.379 20.418 20.457 20.496 20.535 20.574 20.613 590

0 0.000 0.026 0.052 0.078 0.104 0.130 0.156 0.182 0.208 0.235 0.261 0 600 20.613 20.652 20.69l 20.730 20.769 20.808 20.847 20.886 20.925 20.964 21.003 600
10 0.261 0.287 0.313 0.340 0.366 0.393 0.419 0.446 0.472 0.499 0.525 10 610 21.003 21.042 21.081 21.120 21.159 21.198 21.237 21.276 21.315 21.354 21.393 610
20 0.525 0.552 0.578 O.605 0.632 O.659 0.685 0.712 0.739 0.766 0.793 20 620 21.393 21.432 21.471 21.510 21.549 21.588 21.628 21.667 21.706 21.745 21.784 620
30 0.793 0.820 0.847 0.874 0.901 0.928 0.955 0.983 1.010 1.037 1.065 30 630 21.784 21.823 21.862 21.901 21.940 21.979 22.018 22.058 22.097 22.136 22.175 630
40 1.065 1.092 1.119 1.147 1.174 1.202 1.229 1.257 1.284 1.312 1.340 40 640 22.175 22.214 22.253 22.292 22.331 22.370 22.410 22.449 22.488 22.527 22.566 640

50 1.340 1.368 1.395 1.423 1.451 1.479 1.507 1.535 1.563 1.501 1.619 50 650 22.556 22.605 22.644 22.684 22.723 22.762 22.801 22.840 22.879 22.919 22.958 650
60 1.619 1.647 1.675 1.703 1.732 1.760 1.788 1.817 1.845 1.873 1.902 60 660 22.958 22.997 23.036 23.075 23.115 23.154 23.193 23.232 23.271 23.311 23.350 660
70 1.902 1.930 1.959 1.988 2.016 2.045 2.074 2.102 2.131 2.160 2.189 70 670 23.350 23.389 23.428 23.467 23.507 23.546 23.585 23.624 23.663 23.703 23.742 670
80 2.189 2.218 2.247 2.276 2.305 2.334 2.363 2.392 2.421 2.450 2.480 80 680 23.742 23.781 23.820 23.860 23.899 23.938 23.977 24.016 24.056 24.095 24.134 680
90 2.480 2.509 2.538 2.568 2.597 2.826 2.656 2.685 2.715 2.744 2.774 90 690 24.134 24.173 24.213 24.252 24.291 24.330 24.370 24.409 24.448 24.487 24.527 690

100 2.774 2.804 2.833 2.863 2.893 2.923 2.953 2.983 3.012 3.042 3.072 100 700 24.527 24.566 24.605 24.644 24.684 24.723 24.762 24.801 24.841 24.880 24.919 700
110 3.072 3.102 3.133 3.163 3.193 3.223 3.253 3.283 3.314 3.344 3.374 110 710 24.919 24.959 24.998 25.037 25.076 25.116 25.155 25.194 25.233 25.273 25.312 710
120 3.374 3.405 3.435 3.466 3.496 3.527 3.557 3.588 3.619 3.649 3.680 120 720 25.312 25.351 25.391 25.430 25.469 25.508 25.548 25.587 25.626 25.666 25.705 720
130 3.680 3.711 3.742 3.772 3.803 3.834 3.865 3.896 3.927 3.958 3.989 130 730 25.705 25.744 25.783 25.823 25.862 25.901 25.941 25.980 26.019 26.058 26.098 730
140 3.989 4.020 4.051 4.083 4.114 4.145 4.176 4.208 4.239 4.270 4.302 140 740 26.098 26.137 26.176 26.216 26.255 26.294 26.333 26.373 26.412 26.451 26.491 740

150 4.302 4.333 4.365 4.396 4.428 4.459 4.491 4.523 4.554 4.586 4.618 I5O 750 26.491 26.530 26.569 26.608 26.648 26.687 26.726 26.766 26.805 26.844 26.883 75O
160 4.618 4.650 4.681 4.713 4.745 4.777 4.809 4.841 4.873 4.905 4.937 160 760 26.883 26.923 26.962 27.001 27.041 27.080 27.119 27.158 27.198 27.237 27.276 760
170 4.937 4.969 5.001 5.033 5.066 5.098 5.130 5.162 5.195 5.227 5.259 170 770 27.276 27.316 27.355 27.394 27.433 27.473 27.512 27.551 27.591 27.630 27.669 770
180 5.259 5.292 5.324 5.357 5.389 5.422 5.454 5.487 5.520 5.552 5.585 ISO 780 27.669 27.708 27.748 27.787 27.826 27.866 27.905 27.944 27.983 28.023 28.062 780
190 5.585 5.618 5.650 5.683 5.716 5.749 5.782 5.815 5.847 5.880 5.913 190 790 28.062 28.101 28.140 28.180 28.219 28.258 28.297 28.337 28.376 28.415 28.455 790

200 5.913 5.946 5.979 6.013 6.046 6.079 6.112 6.145 6.178 6.211 6.245 200 800 28.455 28.494 28.533 28.572 28.612 28.651 28.690 28.729 28.769 28.808 28.847 800
210 6.245 6.278 6.311 6.345 6.378 6.411 6.445 6.478 6.512 6.545 6.579 210 810 28.847 28.886 28.926 28.965 29.004 29.043 29.083 29.122 29.161 29.200 29.239 810
220 6.579 68.612 e.e" 6.680 8.713 15.747 6.781 6.814 6.848 6.882 6.918 220 820 29.239 29.279 29.318 29.357 29.396 29.436 29.475 29.514 29.553 29.592 29.632 820
230 6.916 6.949 6.983 7.017 7.051 7.085 7.119 7.153 7.187 7.221 7.255 230 830 29.632 29.671 29.710 29.749 29.789 29.828 29.867 29.906 29.945 29.985 30.024 830
240 7.255 7.289 7.323 7.357 7.392 7.426 7.460 7.494 7.528 7.583 7.597 240 840 30.024 30.063 30.102 30.141 30.181 30.220 30.259 30.298 30.337 30.376 30.416 840

250 7.597 7.631 7.666 7.700 7.734 7.769 7.803 7.838 7.872 7.907 7.941 250 850 30.416 30.455 30.494 30.533 30.572 30.611 30.651 30.690 30.729 30.768 30.807 850
260 7.941 7.976 8.010 8.045 8.080 8.114 8.149 8.184 8.218 8.253 8.288 260 860 30.807 30.846 30.886 30.925 30.964 31.003 31.042 31.081 31.120 31.160 31.199 860
270 8.288 8.323 8.358 8.392 8.427 8.462 8.497 8.532 8.567 8.602 8.637 270 870 31.199 31.238 31.277 31.316 31.355 31.394 31.433 31.473 31.512 31.551 31.590 870
280 8.637 8.672 8.707 8.742 8.777 8.812 8.847 8.882 8.918 8.953 8.988 280 880 31.590 31.629 31.668 31.707 31.746 31.785 31.824 31.863 31.903 31.942 31.981 880
290 8.988 9.023 9.058 9.094 9.129 9.164 9.200 9.235 9.270 9.306 9.341 290 890 31.981 32.020 32.059 32.098 32.137 32.176 32.215 32.254 32.293 32.332 32.371 890

°C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C

Z-214
Revised Thermocouple + Thermocouple
Grade
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE
Thermocouple Grade
–
Reference Tables – 450 to 2372°F
– 270 to 1300°C
Extension Grade
Nickel-14.2% 32 to 392°F

N
TYPE
0 to 200°C
Chromium-1.4% Silicon LIMITS OF ERROR
vs. (whichever is greater)
Reference Nickel-4.4% Silicon- Standard: 2.2°C or 0.75% Above 0°C
2.2°C or 2.0% Below 0°C
Tables 0.1% Magnesium + Special: 1.1°C or 0.4%
N.I.S.T. –
COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT:
Alternative to Type K; More Stable
Monograph 175 at High Temperatures
Revised to Extension TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °C
ITS-90 Grade REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 0°C

Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts

°C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C
900 32.371 32.410 32.449 32.488 32.527 32.566 32.605 32.644 32.683 32.722 32.761 900 1150 41.976 42.014 42.052 42.089 42.127 42.164 42.202 42.239 42.277 42.314 42.352 1150
910 32.761 32.800 32.839 32.878 32.917 32.956 32.995 33.034 33.073 33.112 33.151 910 1160 42.352 42.390 42.427 42.465 42.502 42.540 42.577 42.614 42.652 42.689 42.727 1160
920 33.151 33.190 33.229 33.268 33.307 33.346 33.385 33.424 33.463 33.502 33.541 920 1170 42.727 42.764 42.802 42.839 42.877 42.914 42.951 42.989 43.026 43.064 43.101 1170
930 33.541 33.580 33.619 33.658 33.697 33.736 33.774 33.813 33.852 33.891 33.930 930 1180 43.101 43.138 43.176 43.213 43.250 43.288 43.325 43.362 43.399 43.437 43.474 1190
940 33.930 33.969 34.008 34.047 34.086 34.124 34.163 34.202 34.241 34.280 34.319 940 1190 43.474 43.511 43.549 43.586 43.623 43.660 43.698 43.735 43.772 43.809 43.846 1190

950 34.319 34.358 34.396 34.435 34.474 34.513 34.552 34.591 34.629 34.668 34.707 950 1200 43.846 43.884 43.921 43.958 43.995 44.032 44.069 44.106 44.144 44.181 44.218 1900
960 34.707 34.746 34.785 34.823 34.862 34.901 34.940 34.979 35.017 35.056 35.095 960 1210 44.218 44.255 44.292 44.329 44.366 44.403 44.440 44.477 44.514 44.551 44.551 1210
970 35.095 35.134 35.172 35.211 35.250 35.289 35.327 35.366 35.405 35.444 35.482 970 1220 44.588 44.625 44.662 44.699 44.736 44.773 44.810 44.847 44.884 44.921 44.958 1220
980 35.482 35.521 35.560 35.598 35.637 35.676 35.714 35.753 35.792 35.831 35.889 980 1230 44.958 44.995 45.032 45.069 45.105 45.142 45.179 45.216 45.253 45.290 45.326 1230
990 35.869 35.908 35.946 35.985 36.024 36.062 36.101 36.140 36.178 36.217 36.256 990 1240 45.326 45.363 45.400 45.437 45.474 45.510 45.547 45.584 45.621 45.657 45.694 1240

1000 36.256 38.294 36.333 36.371 36.410 36.449 36.487 36.526 36.564 36.603 36.641 1000 1250 45.694 45.731 45.767 45.804 45.841 45.877 45.914 45.951 45.987 46.024 46.080 1250
1010 36.841 36.680 36.718 38.757 38.796 38.834 36.873 36.911 36.950 36.988 37.027 1010 1260 46.060 46.097 46.133 46.170 46.207 46.243 46.280 46.316 46.353 46.389 46.425 1260
1020 37.027 37.065 37.104 37.142 37.181 37.219 37.258 37.296 37.334 37.373 37.411 1020 1270 46.425 46.462 46.498 46.535 46.571 46.608 46.844 46.880 46.717 46.753 46.789 1270
1030 37.411 37.450 37.488 37.527 37.565 37.603 37.642 37.680 37.719 37.757 37.795 1030 1280 46.789 46.826 46.862 46.898 46.935 46.971 47.007 47.043 47.079 47.116 47.152 1280
1040 37.795 37.834 37.872 37.911 37.949 37.987 38.026 38.064 38.102 38.141 38.179 1040 1290 47.152 47.188 47.224 47.260 47.296 47.333 47.369 47.405 47.441 47.477 47.513 1290

1050 38.179 38.217 38.256 38.294 38.332 38.370 38.409 38.447 38.485 38.524 38.562 1050
1060 38.562 38.600 38.638 38.677 38.715 38.753 38.791 38.829 38.868 38.906 38.944 1060
1070 38.944 38.982 39.020 39.059 39.097 39.135 39.173 39.211 39.249 39.287 39.326 1070
1080 39.326 39.364 39.402 39.440 39.478 39.516 30.554 39.592 39.630 39.668 39.706 1000
1090 39.708 39.744 39.783 39.821 39.859 39.897 39.935 39.973 40.011 40.049 40.087 1090

1100 40.087 40.125 40.163 40.201 40.238 40.276 40.314 40.352 40.390 40.428 40.466 1100
1110 40.466 40.504 40.542 40.580 40.818 40.655 40.693 40.731 40.769 40.807 40.845 1110
1120 40.845 40.883 40.920 40.958 40.996 41.034 41.072 41.109 41.147 41.185 41.223 1120
1130 41.223 41.260 41.298 41.336 41.374 41.411 41.449 41.487 41.525 41.562 41.6OO 1130
1140 41.600 41.638 41.675 41.713 41.751 41.788 41.826 41.864 41.901 41.939 41.976 1140
°C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C

Z-215
 MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE Thermocouple
Thermocouple Grade
+ Grade Revised Thermocouple
–
32 to 1382°F
0 to 750°C Reference Tables
Extension Grade
32 to 392°F

J
TYPE
0 to 200°C
LIMITS OF ERROR Iron
(whichever is greater) vs.
Standard: 2.2°C or 0.75%
Special: 1.1°C or 0.4% Copper-Nickel Reference
COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT: + Tables
Reducing, Vacuum, Inert; Limited Use in N.I.S.T.
Oxidizing at High Temperatures; – Monograph 175
Not Recommended for Low Temperatures
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °F Extension Revised to
REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 32°F Grade ITS-90
Z
Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts
°F -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
-340 -8.095 -8.085 -8.074 -8.063 -8.052 -8.041 -8.030 -340 300 7.949 7.979 8.010 8.041 8.071 8.102 8.133 8.163 8.194 8.225 8.255 300
-330 -8.030 -8.019 -8.008 -7.996 -7.985 -7.973 -7.962 -7.950 -7.938 -7.927 -7.915 -330 310 8.255 8.286 8.317 8.347 8.378 8.409 8.439 8.470 8.501 8.532 8.562 310
-320 -7.915 -7.903 -7.890 -7.878 -7.866 -7.854 -7.841 -7.829 -7.816 -7.804 -7.791 -320 320 8.562 8.593 8.624 8.654 8.685 8.716 8.747 8.777 8.808 8.839 8.869 320
-310 -7.791 -7.778 -7.765 -7.752 -7.739 -7.726 -7.713 -7.699 -7.686 -7.672 -7.659 -310 330 8.869 8.900 8.931 8.962 8.992 9.023 9.054 9.085 9.115 9.146 9.177 330
-300 -7.659 -7.645 -7.632 -7.618 -7.604 -7.590 -7.576 -7.562 -7.548 -7.534 -7.519 -300 340 9.177 9.208 9.238 9.269 9.300 9.331 9.362 9.392 9.423 9.454 9.485 340

-290 -7.519 -7.505 -7.491 -7.476 -7.462 -7.447 -7.432 -7.417 -7.403 -7.388 -7.373 -290 350 9.485 9.515 9.546 9.577 9.608 9.639 9.669 9.700 9.731 9.762 9.793 350
-280 -7.373 -7.357 -7.342 -7.327 -7.312 -7.296 -7.281 -7.265 -7.250 -7.234 -7.219 -280 360 9.793 9.823 9.854 9.885 9.916 9.947 9.977 10.008 10.039 10.070 10.101 360
-270 -7.219 -7.203 -7.187 -7.171 -7.155 -7.139 -7.123 -7.107 -7.090 -7.074 -7.058 -270 370 10.101 10.131 10.162 10.193 10.224 10.255 10.285 10.316 10.347 10.378 10.409 370
-260 -7.058 -7.041 -7.025 -7.008 -6.991 -6.975 -6.958 -6.941 -6.924 -6.907 -6.890 -260 380 10.409 10.440 10.470 10.501 10.532 10.563 10.594 10.625 10.655 10.686 10.717 380
-250 -6.890 -6.873 -6.856 -6.839 -6.821 -6.804 -6.787 -6.769 -6.752 -6.734 -6.716 -250 390 10.717 10.748 10.779 10.810 10.840 10.871 10.902 10.933 10.964 10.995 11.025 390

-240 -6.716 -6.699 -6.681 -6.663 -6.645 -6.627 -6.609 -6.591 -6.573 -6.555 -6.536 -240 400 11.025 11.056 11.087 11.118 11.149 11.180 11.211 11.241 11.272 11.303 11.334 400
-230 -6.536 -6.518 -6.500 -6.481 -6.463 -6.444 -6.426 -6.407 -6.388 -6.370 -6.351 -230 410 11.334 11.365 11.396 11.426 11.457 11.488 11.519 11.550 11.581 11.612 11.642 410
-220 -6.351 -6.332 -6.313 -6.294 -6.275 -6.256 -6.236 -6.217 -6.198 -6.179 -6.159 -220 420 11.642 11.673 11.704 11.735 11.766 11.797 11.828 11.858 11.889 11.920 11.951 420
-210 -6.159 -6.140 -6.120 -6.101 -6.081 -6.061 -6.042 -6.022 -6.002 -5.982 -5.962 -210 430 11.951 11.982 12.013 12.044 12.074 12.105 12.136 12.167 12.198 12.229 12.260 430
-200 -5.962 -5.942 -5.922 -5.902 -5.882 -5.862 -5.842 -5.821 -5.801 -5.781 -5.760 -200 440 12.260 12.290 12.321 12.352 12.383 12.414 12.445 12.476 12.506 12.537 12.568 440

-190 -5.760 -5.740 -5.719 -5.699 -5.678 -5.657 -5.637 -5.616 -5.595 -5.574 -5.553 -190 450 12.568 12.599 12.630 12.661 12.691 12.722 12.753 12.784 12.815 12.846 12.877 450
-180 -5.553 -5.532 -5.511 -5.490 -5.469 -5.448 -5.426 -5.405 -5.384 -5.363 -5.341 -180 460 12.877 12.907 12.938 12.969 13.000 13.031 13.062 13.093 13.123 13.154 13.185 460
-170 -5.341 -5.320 -5.298 -5.277 -5.255 -5.233 -5.212 -5.190 -5.168 -5.146 -5.125 -170 470 13.185 13.216 13.247 13.278 13.308 13.339 13.370 13.401 13.432 13.463 13.494 470
-160 -5.125 -5.103 -5.081 -5.059 -5.037 -5.015 -4.992 -4.970 -4.948 -4.926 -4.903 -160 480 13.494 13.524 13.555 13.586 13.617 13.648 13.679 13.709 13.740 13.771 13.802 480
-150 -4.903 -4.881 -4.859 -4.836 -4.814 -4.791 -4.769 -4.746 -4.724 -4.701 -4.678 -150 490 13.802 13.833 13.864 13.894 13.925 13.956 13.987 14.018 14.049 14.079 14.110 490

-140 -4.678 -4.655 -4.633 -4.610 -4.587 -4.564 -4.541 -4.518 -4.495 -4.472 -4.449 -140 500 14.110 14.141 14.172 14.203 14.233 14.264 14.295 14.326 14.357 14.388 14.418 500
-130 -4.449 -4.425 -4.402 -4.379 -4.356 -4.332 -4.309 -4.286 -4.262 -4.239 -4.215 -130 510 14.418 14.449 14.480 14.511 14.542 14.573 14.603 14.634 14.665 14.696 14.727 510
-120 -4.215 -4.192 -4.168 -4.144 -4.121 -4.097 -4.073 -4.050 -4.026 -4.002 -3.978 -120 520 14.727 14.757 14.788 14.819 14.850 14.881 14.911 14.942 14.973 15.004 15.035 520
-110 -3.978 -3.954 -3.930 -3.906 -3.882 -3.858 -3.834 -3.810 -3.786 -3.761 -3.737 -110 530 15.035 15.065 15.096 15.127 15.158 15.189 15.219 15.250 15.281 15.312 15.343 530
-100 -3.737 -3.713 -3.688 -3.664 -3.640 -3.615 -3.591 -3.566 -3.542 -3.517 -3.493 -100 540 15.343 15.373 15.404 15.435 15.466 15.496 15.527 15.558 15.589 15.620 15.650 540

-90 -3.493 -3.468 -3.443 -3.419 -3.394 -3.369 -3.344 -3.320 -3.295 -3.270 -3.245 -90 550 15.650 15.681 15.712 15.743 15.773 15.804 15.835 15.866 15.897 15.927 15.958 550
-80 -3.245 -3.220 -3.195 -3.170 -3.145 -3.120 -3.095 -3.070 -3.044 -3.019 -2.994 -80 560 15.958 15.989 16.020 16.050 16.081 16.112 16.143 16.173 16.204 16.235 16.266 560
-70 -2.994 -2.969 -2.943 -2.918 -2.893 -2.867 -2.842 -2.817 -2.791 -2.766 -2.740 -70 570 16.266 16.296 16.327 16.358 16.389 16.419 16.450 16.481 16.512 16.542 16.573 570
-60 -2.740 -2.714 -2.689 -2.663 -2.638 -2.612 -2.586 -2.560 -2.535 -2.509 -2.483 -60 580 16.573 16.604 16.635 16.665 16.696 16.727 16.758 16.788 16.819 16.850 16.881 580
- 50 -2.483 -2.457 -2.431 -2.405 -2.379 -2.353 -2.327 -2.301 -2.275 -2.249 -2.223 -50 590 16.881 16.911 16.942 16.973 17.003 17.034 17.065 17.096 17.126 17.157 17.188 590

-40 -2.223 -2.197 -2.171 -2.145 -2.118 -2.092 -2.066 -2.040 -2.013 -1.987 -1.961 -40 600 17.188 17.219 17.249 17.280 17.311 17.341 17.372 17.403 17.434 17.464 17.495 600
-30 -1.961 -1.934 -1.908 -1.881 -1.855 -1.828 -1.802 -1.775 -1.749 -1.722 -1.695 -30 610 17.495 17.526 17.556 17.587 17.618 17.649 17.679 17.710 17.741 17.771 17.802 610
-20 -1.695 -1.669 -1.642 -1.615 -1.589 -1.562 -1.535 -1.508 -1.482 -1.455 -1.428 -20 620 17.802 17.833 17.863 17.894 17.925 17.955 17.986 18.017 18.048 18.078 18.109 620
-10 -1.428 -1.401 -1.374 -1.347 -1.320 -1.293 -1.266 -1.239 -1.212 -1.185 -1.158 -10 630 18.109 18.140 18.170 18.201 18.232 18.262 18.293 18.324 18.354 18.385 18.416 630
0 -1.158 -1.131 -1.104 -1.076 -1.049 -1.022 -0.995 -0.967 -0.940 -0.913 -0.886 0 640 18.416 18.446 18.477 18.508 18.538 18.569 18.600 18.630 18.661 18.692 18.722 640

0 -0.886 -0.858 -0.831 -0.803 -0.776 -0.749 -0.721 -0.694 -0.666 -0.639 -0.611 0 650 18.722 18.753 18.784 18.814 18.845 18.876 18.906 18.937 18.968 18.998 19.029 650
10 -0.611 -0.583 -0.556 -0.528 -0.501 -0.473 -0.445 -0.418 -0.390 -0.362 -0.334 10 660 19.029 19.060 19.090 19.121 19.152 19.182 19.213 19.244 19.274 19.305 19.336 660
20 -0.334 -0.307 -0.279 -0.251 -0.223 -0.195 -0.168 -0.140 -0.112 -0.084 -0.056 20 670 19.336 19.366 19.397 19.428 19.458 19.489 19.520 19.550 19.581 19.612 19.642 670
30 -0.056 -0.028 0.000 0.028 0.056 0.084 0.112 0.140 0.168 0.196 0.225 30 680 19.642 19.673 19.704 19.734 19.765 19.795 19.826 19.857 19.887 19.918 19.949 680
40 0.225 0.253 0.281 0.309 0.337 0.365 0.394 0.422 0.450 0.478 0.507 40 690 19.949 19.979 20.010 20.041 20.071 20.102 20.132 20.163 20.194 20.224 20.255 690

50 0.507 0.535 0.563 0.592 0.620 0.649 0.677 0.705 0.734 0.762 0.791 50 700 20.255 20.286 20.316 20.347 20.378 20.408 20.439 20.469 20.500 20.531 20.561 700
60 0.791 0.819 0.848 0.876 0.905 0.933 0.962 0.991 1.019 1.048 1.076 60 710 20.561 20.592 20.623 20.653 20.684 20.715 20.745 20.776 20.806 20.837 20.868 710
70 1.076 1.105 1.134 1.162 1.191 1.220 1.249 1.277 1.306 1.335 1.364 70 720 20.868 20.898 20.929 20.960 20.990 21.021 21.052 21.082 21.113 21.143 21.174 720
80 1.364 1.392 1.421 1.450 1.479 1.508 1.537 1.566 1.594 1.623 1.652 80 730 21.174 21.205 21.235 21.266 21.297 21.327 21.358 21.389 21.419 21.450 21.480 730
90 1.652 1.681 1.710 1.739 1.768 1.797 1.826 1.855 1.884 1.913 1.942 90 740 21.480 21.511 21.542 21.572 21.603 21.634 21.664 21.695 21.726 21.756 21.787 740

100 1.942 1.972 2.001 2.030 2.059 2.088 2.117 2.146 2.175 2.205 2.234 100 750 21.787 21.817 21.848 21.879 21.909 21.940 21.971 22.001 22.032 22.063 22.093 750
110 2.234 2.263 2.292 2.322 2.351 2.380 2.409 2.439 2.468 2.497 2.527 110 760 22.093 22.124 22.154 22.185 22.216 22.246 22.277 22.308 22.338 22.369 22.400 760
120 2.527 2.556 2.585 2.615 2.644 2.673 2.703 2.732 2.762 2.791 2.821 120 770 22.400 22.430 22.461 22.492 22.522 22.553 22.584 22.614 22.645 22.676 22.706 770
130 2.821 2.850 2.880 2.909 2.938 2.968 2.997 3.027 3.057 3.086 3.116 130 780 22.706 22.737 22.768 22.798 22.829 22.860 22.890 22.921 22.952 22.982 23.013 780
140 3.116 3.145 3.175 3.204 3.234 3.264 3.293 3.323 3.353 3.382 3.412 140 790 23.013 23.044 23.074 23.105 23.136 23.166 23.197 23.228 23.258 23.289 23.320 790

150 3.412 3.442 3.471 3.501 3.531 3.560 3.590 3.620 3.650 3.679 3.709 150 800 23.320 23.350 23.381 23.412 23.442 23.473 23.504 23.535 23.565 23.596 23.627 800
160 3.709 3.739 3.769 3.798 3.828 3.858 3.888 3.918 3.948 3.977 4.007 160 810 23.627 23.657 23.688 23.719 23.749 23.780 23.811 23.842 23.872 23.903 23.934 810
170 4.007 4.037 4.067 4.097 4.127 4.157 4.187 4.217 4.246 4.276 4.306 170 820 23.934 23.964 23.995 24.026 24.057 24.087 24.118 24.149 24.180 24.210 24.241 820
180 4.306 4.336 4.366 4.396 4.426 4.456 4.486 4.516 4.546 4.576 4.606 180 830 24.241 24.272 24.303 24.333 24.364 24.395 24.426 24.456 24.487 24.518 24.549 830
190 4.606 4.636 4.666 4.696 4.726 4.757 4.787 4.817 4.847 4.877 4.907 190 840 24.549 24.579 24.610 24.641 24.672 24.702 24.733 24.764 24.795 24.826 24.856 840

200 4.907 4.937 4.967 4.997 5.028 5.058 5.088 5.118 5.148 5.178 5.209 200 850 24.856 24.887 24.918 24.949 24.979 25.010 25.041 25.072 25.103 25.134 25.164 850
210 5.209 5.239 5.269 5.299 5.329 5.360 5.390 5.420 5.450 5.480 5.511 210 860 25.164 25.195 25.226 25.257 25.288 25.318 25.349 25.380 25.411 25.442 25.473 860
220 5.511 5.541 5.571 5.602 5.632 5.662 5.692 5.723 5.753 5.783 5.814 220 870 25.473 25.504 25.534 25.565 25.596 25.627 25.658 25.689 25.720 25.750 25.781 870
230 5.814 5.844 5.874 5.905 5.935 5.965 5.996 6.026 6.056 6.087 6.117 230 880 25.781 25.812 25.843 25.874 25.905 25.936 25.967 25.998 26.028 26.059 26.090 880
240 6.117 6.147 6.178 6.208 6.239 6.269 6.299 6.330 6.360 6.391 6.421 240 890 26.090 26.121 26.152 26.183 26.214 26.245 26.276 26.307 26.338 26.369 26.400 890

250 6.421 6.452 6.482 6.512 6.543 6.573 6.604 6.634 6.665 6.695 6.726 250 900 26.400 26.431 26.462 26.493 26.524 26.555 26.586 26.617 26.648 26.679 26.710 900
260 6.726 6.756 6.787 6.817 6.848 6.878 6.909 6.939 6.970 7.000 7.031 260 910 26.710 26.741 26.772 26.803 26.834 26.865 26.896 26.927 26.958 26.989 27.020 910
270 7.031 7.061 7.092 7.122 7.153 7.184 7.214 7.245 7.275 7.306 7.336 270 920 27.020 27.051 27.082 27.113 27.144 27.175 27.206 27.237 27.268 27.299 27.330 920
280 7.336 7.367 7.398 7.428 7.459 7.489 7.520 7.550 7.581 7.612 7.642 280 930 27.330 27.362 27.393 27.424 27.455 27.486 27.517 27.548 27.579 27.610 27.642 930
290 7.642 7.673 7.704 7.734 7.765 7.795 7.826 7.857 7.887 7.918 7.949 290 940 27.642 27.673 27.704 27.735 27.766 27.797 27.829 27.860 27.891 27.922 27.953 940

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

Z-216
Revised Thermocouple + Thermocouple
Grade
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE
Thermocouple Grade
–
Reference Tables 32 to 1382°F
0 to 750°C
Extension Grade
32 to 392°F

J
TYPE
0 to 200°C
Iron LIMITS OF ERROR
vs. (whichever is greater)
Reference Copper-Nickel
Standard: 2.2°C or 0.75%
Special: 1.1°C or 0.4%
Tables + COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT:
N.I.S.T. Reducing, Vacuum, Inert; Limited Use in
Monograph 175 – Oxidizing at High Temperatures;
Not Recommended for Low Temperatures
Revised to Extension TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °F
ITS-90 Grade REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 32°F

Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
950 27.953 27.985 28.016 28.047 28.078 28.109 28.141 28.172 28.203 28.234 28.266 950 1600 50.060 50.095 50.130 50.165 50.200 50.235 50.271 50.306 50.341 50.376 50.411 1600
960 28.266 28.297 28.328 28.359 28.391 28.422 28.453 28.485 28.516 28.547 28.579 960 1610 50.411 50.446 50.481 50.517 50.552 50.587 50.622 50.657 50.692 50.727 50.762 1610
970 28.579 28.610 28.641 28.672 28.704 28.735 28.767 28.798 28.829 28.861 28.892 970 1620 50.762 50.797 50.832 50.867 50.902 50.937 50.972 51.007 51.042 51.077 51.112 1620
980 28.892 28.923 28.955 28.986 29.018 29.049 29.080 29.112 29.143 29.175 29.206 980 1630 51.112 51.147 51.181 51.216 51.251 51.286 51.321 51.356 51.391 51.425 51.460 1630
990 29.206 29.238 29.269 29.301 29.332 29.363 29.395 29.426 29.458 29.489 29.521 990 1640 51.460 51.495 51.530 51.565 51.599 51.634 51.669 51.704 51.738 51.773 51.808 1640

1000 29.521 29.552 29.584 29.616 29.647 29.679 29.710 29.742 29.773 29.805 29.836 1000 1650 51.808 51.843 51.877 51.912 51.947 51.981 52.016 52.051 52.085 52.120 52.154 1650
1010 29.836 29.868 29.900 29.931 29.963 29.995 30.026 30.058 30.089 30.121 30.153 1010 1660 52.154 52.189 52.224 52.258 52.293 52.327 52.362 52.396 52.431 52.465 52.500 1660
1020 30.153 30.184 30.216 30.248 30.279 30.311 30.343 30.375 30.406 30.438 30.470 1020 1670 52.500 52.534 52.569 52.603 52.638 52.672 52.707 52.741 52.776 52.810 52.844 1670
1030 30.470 30.502 30.533 30.565 30.597 30.629 30.660 30.692 30.724 30.756 30.788 1030 1680 52.844 52.879 52.913 52.947 52.982 53.016 53.050 53.085 53.119 53.153 53.188 1680
1040 30.788 30.819 30.851 30.883 30.915 30.947 30.979 31.011 31.043 31.074 31.106 1040 1690 53.188 53.222 53.256 53.290 53.325 53.359 53.393 53.427 53.462 53.496 53.530 1690

1050 31.106 31.138 31.170 31.202 31.234 31.266 31.298 31.330 31.362 31.394 31.426 1050 1700 53.530 53.564 53.598 53.632 53.667 53.701 53.735 53.769 53.803 53.837 53.871 1700
1060 31.426 31.458 31.490 31.522 31.554 31.586 31.618 31.650 31.682 31.714 31.746 1060 1710 53.871 53.905 53.939 53.973 54.007 54.041 54.075 54.109 54.143 54.177 54.211 1710
1070 31.746 31.778 31.811 31.843 31.875 31.907 31.939 31.971 32.003 32.035 32.068 1070 1720 54.211 54.245 54.279 54.313 54.347 54.381 54.415 54.449 54.483 54.516 54.550 1720
1080 32.068 32.100 32.132 32.164 32.196 32.229 32.261 32.293 32.325 32.358 32.390 1080 1730 54.550 54.584 54.618 54.652 54.686 54.719 54.753 54.787 54.821 54.855 54.888 1730
1090 32.390 32.422 32.455 32.487 32.519 32.551 32.584 32.616 32.648 32.681 32.713 1090 1740 54.888 54.922 54.956 54.990 55.023 55.057 55.091 55.124 55.158 55.192 55.225 1740

1100 32.713 32.746 32.778 32.810 32.843 32.875 32.908 32.940 32.973 33.005 33.037 1100 1750 55.225 55.259 55.293 55.326 55.360 55.393 55.427 55.461 55.494 55.528 55.561 1750
1110 33.037 33.070 33.102 33.135 33.167 33.200 33.232 33.265 33.298 33.330 33.363 1110 1760 55.561 55.595 55.628 55.662 55.695 55.729 55.762 55.796 55.829 55.863 55.896 1760
1120 33.363 33.395 33.428 33.460 33.493 33.526 33.558 33.591 33.624 33.656 33.689 1120 1770 55.896 55.930 55.963 55.997 56.030 56.063 56.097 56.130 56.164 56.197 56.230 1770
1130 33.689 33.722 33.754 33.787 33.820 33.853 33.885 33.918 33.951 33.984 34.016 1130 1780 56.230 56.264 56.297 56.330 56.364 56.397 56.430 56.464 56.497 56.530 56.564 1780
1140 34.016 34.049 34.082 34.115 34.148 34.180 34.213 34.246 34.279 34.312 34.345 1140 1790 56.564 56.597 56.630 56.663 56.697 56.730 56.763 56.796 56.829 56.863 56.896 1790

1150 34.345 34.378 34.411 34.444 34.476 34.509 34.542 34.575 34.608 34.641 34.674 1150 1800 56.896 56.929 56.962 56.995 57.028 57.062 57.095 57.128 57.161 57.194 57.227 1800
1160 34.674 34.707 34.740 34.773 34.806 34.840 34.873 34.906 34.939 34.972 35.005 1160 1810 57.227 57.260 57.293 57.326 57.360 57.393 57.426 57.459 57.492 57.525 57.558 1810
1170 35.005 35.038 35.071 35.104 35.138 35.171 35.204 35.237 35.270 35.304 35.337 1170 1820 57.558 57.591 57.624 57.657 57.690 57.723 57.756 57.789 57.822 57.855 57.888 1820
1180 35.337 35.370 35.403 35.437 35.470 35.503 35.536 35.570 35.603 35.636 35.670 1180 1830 57.888 57.920 57.953 57.986 58.019 58.052 58.085 58.118 58.151 58.184 58.217 1830
1190 35.670 35.703 35.736 35.770 35.803 35.837 35.870 35.903 35.937 35.970 36.004 1190 1840 58.217 58.249 58.282 58.315 58.348 58.381 58.414 58.446 58.479 58.512 58.545 1840

1200 36.004 36.037 36.071 36.104 36.138 36.171 36.205 36.238 36.272 36.305 36.339 1200 1850 58.545 58.578 58.610 58.643 58.676 58.709 58.741 58.774 58.807 58.840 58.872 1850
1210 36.339 36.373 36.406 36.440 36.473 36.507 36.541 36.574 36.608 36.642 36.675 1210 1860 58.872 58.905 58.938 58.971 59.003 59.036 59.069 59.101 59.134 59.167 59.199 1860
1220 36.675 36.709 36.743 36.777 36.810 36.844 36.878 36.912 36.945 36.979 37.013 1220 1870 59.199 59.232 59.265 59.297 59.330 59.363 59.395 59.428 59.460 59.493 59.526 1870
1230 37.013 37.047 37.081 37.114 37.148 37.182 37.216 37.250 37.284 37.318 37.352 1230 1880 59.526 59.558 59.591 59.623 59.656 59.689 59.721 59.754 59.786 59.819 59.851 1880
1240 37.352 37.386 37.420 37.454 37.488 37.522 37.556 37.590 37.624 37.658 37.692 1240 1890 59.851 59.884 59.916 59.949 59.982 60.014 60.047 60.079 60.112 60.144 60.177 1890

1250 37.692 37.726 37.760 37.794 37.828 37.862 37.896 37.930 37.964 37.999 38.033 1250 1900 60.177 60.209 60.242 60.274 60.307 60.339 60.371 60.404 60.436 60.469 60.501 1900
1260 38.033 38.067 38.101 38.135 38.169 38.204 38.238 38.272 38.306 38.341 38.375 1260 1910 60.501 60.534 60.566 60.599 60.631 60.663 60.696 60.728 60.761 60.793 60.826 1910
1270 38.375 38.409 38.444 38.478 38.512 38.546 38.581 38.615 38.650 38.684 38.718 1270 1920 60.826 60.858 60.890 60.923 60.955 60.987 61.020 61.052 61.085 61.117 61.149 1920
1280 38.718 38.753 38.787 38.822 38.856 38.890 38.925 38.959 38.994 39.028 39.063 1280 1930 61.149 61.182 61.214 61.246 61.279 61.311 61.343 61.376 61.408 61.440 61.473 1930
1290 39.063 39.097 39.132 39.166 39.201 39.235 39.270 39.305 39.339 39.374 39.408 1290 1940 61.473 61.505 61.537 61.570 61.602 61.634 61.667 61.699 61.731 61.763 61.796 1940

1300 39.408 39.443 39.478 39.512 39.547 39.582 39.616 39.651 39.686 39.720 39.755 1300 1950 61.796 61.828 61.860 61.893 61.925 61.957 61.989 62.022 62.054 62.086 62.118 1950
1310 39.755 39.790 39.825 39.859 39.894 39.929 39.964 39.998 40.033 40.068 40.103 1310 1960 62.118 62.151 62.183 62.215 62.247 62.280 62.312 62.344 62.376 62.409 62.441 1960
1320 40.103 40.138 40.173 40.207 40.242 40.277 40.312 40.347 40.382 40.417 40.452 1320 1970 62.441 62.473 62.505 62.537 62.570 62.602 62.634 62.666 62.699 62.731 62.763 1970
1330 40.452 40.487 40.522 40.556 40.591 40.626 40.661 40.696 40.731 40.766 40.801 1330 1980 62.763 62.795 62.827 62.860 62.892 62.924 62.956 62.988 63.020 63.053 63.085 1980
1340 40.801 40.836 40.872 40.907 40.942 40.977 41.012 41.047 41.082 41.117 41.152 1340 1990 63.085 63.117 63.149 63.181 63.214 63.246 63.278 63.310 63.342 63.374 63.406 1990

1350 41.152 41.187 41.222 41.258 41.293 41.328 41.363 41.398 41.433 41.469 41.504 1350 2000 63.406 63.439 63.471 63.503 63.535 63.567 63.599 63.632 63.664 63.696 63.728 2000
1360 41.504 41.539 41.574 41.610 41.645 41.680 41.715 41.751 41.786 41.821 41.856 1360 2010 63.728 63.760 63.792 63.824 63.856 63.889 63.921 63.953 63.985 64.017 64.049 2010
1370 41.856 41.892 41.927 41.962 41.998 42.033 42.068 42.104 42.139 42.174 42.210 1370 2020 64.049 64.081 64.113 64.146 64.178 64.210 64.242 64.274 64.306 64.338 64.370 2020
1380 42.210 42.245 42.281 42.316 42.351 42.387 42.422 42.458 42.493 42.528 42.564 1380 2030 64.370 64.402 64.435 64.467 64.499 64.531 64.563 64.595 64.627 64.659 64.691 2030
1390 42.564 42.599 42.635 42.670 42.706 42.741 42.777 42.812 42.848 42.883 42.919 1390 2040 64.691 64.723 64.756 64.788 64.820 64.852 64.884 64.916 64.948 64.980 65.012 2040

1400 42.919 42.954 42.990 43.025 43.061 43.096 43.132 43.167 43.203 43.239 43.274 1400 2050 65.012 65.044 65.076 65.109 65.141 65.173 65.205 65.237 65.269 65.301 65.333 2050
1410 43.274 43.310 43.346 43.381 43.417 43.452 43.488 43.524 43.559 43.595 43.631 1410 2060 65.333 65.365 65.397 65.429 65.461 65.493 65.525 65.557 65.590 65.622 65.654 2060
1420 43.631 43.667 43.702 43.738 43.774 43.809 43.845 43.881 43.917 43.953 43.988 1420 2070 65.654 65.686 65.718 65.750 65.782 65.814 65.846 65.878 65.910 65.942 65.974 2070
1430 43.988 44.024 44.060 44.096 44.131 44.167 44.203 44.239 44.275 44.310 44.346 1430 2080 65.974 66.006 66.038 66.070 66.102 66.134 66.166 66.199 66.231 66.263 66.295 2080
1440 44.346 44.382 44.418 44.454 44.490 44.525 44.561 44.597 44.633 44.669 44.705 1440 2090 66.295 66.327 66.359 66.391 66.423 66.455 66.487 66.519 66.551 66.583 66.615 2090

1450 44.705 44.741 44.777 44.812 44.848 44.884 44.920 44.956 44.992 45.028 45.064 1450 2100 66.615 66.647 66.679 66.711 66.743 66.775 66.807 66.839 66.871 66.903 66.935 2100
1460 45.064 45.099 45.135 45.171 45.207 45.243 45.279 45.315 45.351 45.387 45.423 1460 2110 66.935 66.967 66.999 67.031 67.063 67.095 67.127 67.159 67.191 67.223 67.255 2110
1470 45.423 45.458 45.494 45.530 45.566 45.602 45.638 45.674 45.710 45.746 45.782 1470 2120 67.255 67.287 67.319 67.351 67.383 67.415 67.447 67.479 67.511 67.543 67.575 2120
1480 45.782 45.818 45.853 45.889 45.925 45.961 45.997 46.033 46.069 46.105 46.141 1480 2130 67.575 67.607 67.639 67.671 67.703 67.735 67.767 67.799 67.831 67.863 67.895 2130
1490 46.141 46.177 46.212 46.248 46.284 46.320 46.356 46.392 46.428 46.464 46.500 1490 2140 67.895 67.927 67.959 67.991 68.023 68.055 68.087 68.119 68.150 68.182 68.214 2140

1500 46.500 46.535 46.571 46.607 46.643 46.679 46.715 46.751 46.786 46.822 46.858 1500 2150 68.214 68.246 68.278 68.310 68.342 68.374 68.406 68.438 68.470 68.502 68.534 2150
1510 46.858 46.894 46.930 46.966 47.001 47.037 47.073 47.109 47.145 47.181 47.216 1510 2160 68.534 68.566 68.597 68.629 68.661 68.693 68.725 68.757 68.789 68.821 68.853 2160
1520 47.216 47.252 47.288 47.324 47.359 47.395 47.431 47.467 47.503 47.538 47.574 1520 2170 68.853 68.884 68.916 68.948 68.980 69.012 69.044 69.076 69.108 69.139 69.171 2170
1530 47.574 47.610 47.646 47.681 47.717 47.753 47.788 47.824 47.860 47.896 47.931 1530 2180 69.171 69.203 69.235 69.267 69.299 69.330 69.362 69.394 69.426 69.458 69.490 2180
1540 47.931 47.967 48.003 48.038 48.074 48.110 48.145 48.181 48.217 48.252 48.288 1540 2190 69.490 69.521 69.553 2190

1550 48.288 48.324 48.359 48.395 48.430 48.466 48.502 48.537 48.573 48.608 48.644 1550
1560 48.644 48.679 48.715 48.750 48.786 48.822 48.857 48.893 48.928 48.964 48.999 1560
1570 48.999 49.034 49.070 49.105 49.141 49.176 49.212 49.247 49.283 49.318 49.353 1570
1580 49.353 49.389 49.424 49.460 49.495 49.530 49.566 49.601 49.636 49.672 49.707 1580
1590 49.707 49.742 49.778 49.813 49.848 49.883 49.919 49.954 49.989 50.024 50.060 1590

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

Z-217
 MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE + Thermocouple
Revised Thermocouple
Thermocouple Grade Grade
–
– 328 to 2282°F
– 200 to 1250°C Reference Tables
Extension Grade
32 to 392°F
0 to 200°C

K
LIMITS OF ERROR
(whichever is greater)
Standard: 2.2°C or 0.75% Above 0°C
Nickel-Chromium
vs. TYPE
Reference
2.2°C or 2.0% Below 0°C
Special: 1.1°C or 0.4%
Nickel-Aluminum Tables
COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT: +
Clean Oxidizing and Inert; Limited Use in – N.I.S.T.
Vacuum or Reducing; Wide Temperature Monograph 175
Range; Most Popular Calibration
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °F
Extension Revised to
Grade ITS-90
REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 32°F
Z
Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts
°F -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
100 1.521 1.543 1.566 1.589 1.612 1.635 1.657 1.680 1.703 1.726 1.749 100
110 1.749 1.771 1.794 1.817 1.840 1.863 1.886 1.909 1.931 1.954 1.977 110
120 1.977 2.000 2.023 2.046 2.069 2.092 2.115 2.138 2.161 2.184 2.207 120
130 2.207 2.230 2.253 2.276 2.298 2.321 2.344 2.367 2.390 2.413 2.436 130
-450 -6.458 -6.457 -6.457 -6.456 -6.456 -450 140 2.436 2.459 2.483 2.506 2.529 2.552 2.575 2.598 2.621 2.644 2.667 140

-440 -6.456 -6.455 -6.454 -6.454 -6.453 -6.452 -6.451 -6.450 -6.449 -6.448 -6.446 -440 150 2.667 2.690 2.713 2.736 2.759 2.782 2.805 2.828 2.851 2.874 2.897 150
-430 -6.446 -6.445 -6.444 -6.443 -6.441 -6.440 -6.438 -6.436 -6.435 -6.433 -6.431 -430 160 2.897 2.920 2.944 2.967 2.990 3.013 3.036 3.059 3.082 3.105 3.128 160
-420 -6.431 -6.429 -6.427 -6.425 -6.423 -6.421 -6.419 -6.416 -6.414 -6.411 -6.409 -420 170 3.128 3.151 3.174 3.197 3.220 3.244 3.267 3.290 3.313 3.336 3.359 170
-410 -6.409 -6.406 -6.404 -6.401 -6.398 -6.395 -6.392 -6.389 -6.386 -6.383 -6.380 -410 180 3.359 3.382 3.405 3.428 3.451 3.474 3.497 3.520 3.544 3.567 3.590 180
-400 -6.380 -6.377 -6.373 -6.370 -6.366 -6.363 -6.359 -6.355 -6.352 -6.348 -6.344 -400 190 3.590 3.613 3.636 3.659 3.682 3.705 3.728 3.751 3.774 3.797 3.820 190

-390 -6.344 -6.340 -6.336 -6.332 -6.328 -6.323 -6.319 -6.315 -6.310 -6.306 -6.301 -390 200 3.820 3.843 3.866 3.889 3.912 3.935 3.958 3.981 4.004 4.027 4.050 200
-380 -6.301 -6.296 -6.292 -6.287 -6.282 -6.277 -6.272 -6.267 -6.262 -6.257 -6.251 -380 210 4.050 4.073 4.096 4.119 4.142 4.165 4.188 4.211 4.234 4.257 4.280 210
-370 -6.251 -6.246 -6.241 -6.235 -6.230 -6.224 -6.218 -6.213 -6.207 -6.201 -6.195 -370 220 4.280 4.303 4.326 4.349 4.372 4.395 4.417 4.440 4.463 4.486 4.509 220
-360 -6.195 -6.189 -6.183 -6.177 -6.171 -6.165 -6.158 -6.152 -6.146 -6.139 -6.133 -360 230 4.509 4.532 4.555 4.578 4.601 4.623 4.646 4.669 4.692 4.715 4.738 230
-350 -6.133 -6.126 -6.119 -6.113 -6.106 -6.099 -6.092 -6.085 -6.078 -6.071 -6.064 -350 240 4.738 4.760 4.783 4.806 4.829 4.852 4.874 4.897 4.920 4.943 4.965 240

-340 -6.064 -6.057 -6.049 -6.042 -6.035 -6.027 -6.020 -6.012 -6.004 -5.997 -5.989 -340 250 4.965 4.988 5.011 5.034 5.056 5.079 5.102 5.124 5.147 5.170 5.192 250
-330 -5.989 -5.981 -5.973 -5.965 -5.957 -5.949 -5.941 -5.933 -5.925 -5.917 -5.908 -330 260 5.192 5.215 5.238 5.260 5.283 5.306 5.328 5.351 5.374 5.396 5.419 260
-320 -5.908 -5.900 -5.891 -5.883 -5.874 -5.866 -5.857 -5.848 -5.840 -5.831 -5.822 -320 270 5.419 5.441 5.464 5.487 5.509 5.532 5.554 5.577 5.599 5.622 5.644 270
-310 -5.822 -5.813 -5.804 -5.795 -5.786 -5.776 -5.767 -5.758 -5.749 -5.739 -5.730 -310 280 5.644 5.667 5.690 5.712 5.735 5.757 5.779 5.802 5.824 5.847 5.869 280
-300 -5.730 -5.720 -5.711 -5.701 -5.691 -5.682 -5.672 -5.662 -5.652 -5.642 -5.632 -300 290 5.869 5.892 5.914 5.937 5.959 5.982 6.004 6.026 6.049 6.071 6.094 290

-290 -5.632 -5.622 -5.612 -5.602 -5.592 -5.581 -5.571 -5.561 -5.550 -5.540 -5.529 -290 300 6.094 6.116 6.138 6.161 6.183 6.205 6.228 6.250 6.272 6.295 6.317 300
-280 -5.529 -5.519 -5.508 -5.497 -5.487 -5.476 -5.465 -5.454 -5.443 -5.432 -5.421 -280 310 6.317 6.339 6.362 6.384 6.406 6.429 6.451 6.473 6.496 6.518 6.540 310
-270 -5.421 -5.410 -5.399 -5.388 -5.377 -5.365 -5.354 -5.343 -5.331 -5.320 -5.308 -270 320 6.540 6.562 6.585 6.607 6.629 6.652 6.674 6.696 6.718 6.741 6.763 320
-260 -5.308 -5.296 -5.285 -5.273 -5.261 -5.250 -5.238 -5.226 -5.214 -5.202 -5.190 -260 330 6.763 6.785 6.807 6.829 6.852 6.874 6.896 6.918 6.941 6.963 6.985 330
-250 -5.190 -5.178 -5.166 -5.153 -5.141 -5.129 -5.117 -5.104 -5.092 -5.079 -5.067 -250 340 6.985 7.007 7.029 7.052 7.074 7.096 7.118 7.140 7.163 7.185 7.207 340

-240 -5.067 -5.054 -5.042 -5.029 -5.016 -5.003 -4.991 -4.978 -4.965 -4.952 -4.939 -240 350 7.207 7.229 7.251 7.273 7.296 7.318 7.340 7.362 7.384 7.407 7.429 350
-230 -4.939 -4.926 -4.913 -4.900 -4.886 -4.873 -4.860 -4.847 -4.833 -4.820 -4.806 -230 360 7.429 7.451 7.473 7.495 7.517 7.540 7.562 7.584 7.606 7.628 7.650 360
-220 -4.806 -4.793 -4.779 -4.766 -4.752 -4.738 -4.724 -4.711 -4.697 -4.683 -4.669 -220 370 7.650 7.673 7.695 7.717 7.739 7.761 7.783 7.806 7.828 7.850 7.872 370
-210 -4.669 -4.655 -4.641 -4.627 -4.613 -4.599 -4.584 -4.570 -4.556 -4.542 -4.527 -210 380 7.872 7.894 7.917 7.939 7.961 7.983 8.005 8.027 8.050 8.072 8.094 380
-200 -4.527 -4.513 -4.498 -4.484 -4.469 -4.455 -4.440 -4.425 -4.411 -4.396 -4.381 -200 390 8.094 8.116 8.138 8.161 8.183 8.205 8.227 8.250 8.272 8.294 8.316 390

-190 -4.381 -4.366 -4.351 -4.336 -4.321 -4.306 -4.291 -4.276 -4.261 -4.246 -4.231 -190 400 8.316 8.338 8.361 8.383 8.405 8.427 8.450 8.472 8.494 8.516 8.539 400
-180 -4.231 -4.215 -4.200 -4.185 -4.169 -4.154 -4.138 -4.123 -4.107 -4.091 -4.076 -180 410 8.539 8.561 8.583 8.605 8.628 8.650 8.672 8.694 8.717 8.739 8.761 410
-170 -4.076 -4.060 -4.044 -4.029 -4.013 -3.997 -3.981 -3.965 -3.949 -3.933 -3.917 -170 420 8.761 8.784 8.806 8.828 8.851 8.873 8.895 8.918 8.940 8.962 8.985 420
-160 -3.917 -3.901 -3.885 -3.869 -3.852 -3.836 -3.820 -3.803 -3.787 -3.771 -3.754 -160 430 8.985 9.007 9.029 9.052 9.074 9.096 9.119 9.141 9.163 9.186 9.208 430
-150 -3.754 -3.738 -3.721 -3.705 -3.688 -3.671 -3.655 -3.638 -3.621 -3.604 -3.587 -150 440 9.208 9.231 9.253 9.275 9.298 9.320 9.343 9.365 9.388 9.410 9.432 440

-140 -3.587 -3.571 -3.554 -3.537 -3.520 -3.503 -3.486 -3.468 -3.451 -3.434 -3.417 -140 450 9.432 9.455 9.477 9.500 9.522 9.545 9.567 9.590 9.612 9.635 9.657 450
-130 -3.417 -3.400 -3.382 -3.365 -3.348 -3.330 -3.313 -3.295 -3.278 -3.260 -3.243 -130 460 9.657 9.680 9.702 9.725 9.747 9.770 9.792 9.815 9.837 9.860 9.882 460
-120 -3.243 -3.225 -3.207 -3.190 -3.172 -3.154 -3.136 -3.119 -3.101 -3.083 -3.065 -120 470 9.882 9.905 9.927 9.950 9.973 9.995 10.018 10.040 10.063 10.086 10.108 470
-110 -3.065 -3.047 -3.029 -3.011 -2.993 -2.975 -2.957 -2.938 -2.920 -2.902 -2.884 -110 480 10.108 10.131 10.153 10.176 10.199 10.221 10.244 10.267 10.289 10.312 10.334 480
-100 -2.884 -2.865 -2.847 -2.829 -2.810 -2.792 -2.773 -2.755 -2.736 -2.718 -2.699 -100 490 10.334 10.357 10.380 10.402 10.425 10.448 10.471 10.493 10.516 10.539 10.561 490

-90 -2.699 -2.680 -2.662 -2.643 -2.624 -2.605 -2.587 -2.568 -2.549 -2.530 -2.511 -90 500 10.561 10.584 10.607 10.629 10.652 10.675 10.698 10.720 10.743 10.766 10.789 500
-80 -2.511 -2.492 -2.473 -2.454 -2.435 -2.416 -2.397 -2.378 -2.359 -2.339 -2.320 -80 510 10.789 10.811 10.834 10.857 10.880 10.903 10.925 10.948 10.971 10.994 11.017 510
-70 -2.320 -2.301 -2.282 -2.262 -2.243 -2.223 -2.204 -2.185 -2.165 -2.146 -2.126 -70 520 11.017 11.039 11.062 11.085 11.108 11.131 11.154 11.176 11.199 11.222 11.245 520
-60 -2.126 -2.106 -2.087 -2.067 -2.048 -2.028 -2.008 -1.988 -1.969 -1.949 -1.929 -60 530 11.245 11.268 11.291 11.313 11.336 11.359 11.382 11.405 11.428 11.451 11.474 530
-50 -1.929 -1.909 -1.889 -1.869 -1.850 -1.830 -1.810 -1.790 -1.770 -1.749 -1.729 -50 540 11.474 11.497 11.519 11.542 11.565 11.588 11.611 11.634 11.657 11.680 11.703 540

-40 -1.729 -1.709 -1.689 -1.669 -1.649 -1.628 -1.608 -1.588 -1.568 -1.547 -1.527 -40 550 11.703 11.726 11.749 11.772 11.795 11.818 11.841 11.864 11.887 11.910 11.933 550
-30 -1.527 -1.507 -1.486 -1.466 -1.445 -1.425 -1.404 -1.384 -1.363 -1.343 -1.322 -30 560 11.933 11.956 11.978 12.001 12.024 12.047 12.070 12.093 12.116 12.140 12.163 560
-20 -1.322 -1.301 -1.281 -1.260 -1.239 -1.218 -1.198 -1.177 -1.156 -1.135 -1.114 -20 570 12.163 12.186 12.209 12.232 12.255 12.278 12.301 12.324 12.347 12.370 12.393 570
-10 -1.114 -1.094 -1.073 -1.052 -1.031 -1.010 -0.989 -0.968 -0.947 -0.926 -0.905 -10 580 12.393 12.416 12.439 12.462 12.485 12.508 12.531 12.554 12.577 12.600 12.624 580
0 -0.905 -0.883 -0.862 -0.841 -0.820 -0.799 -0.778 -0.756 -0.735 -0.714 -0.692 0 590 12.624 12.647 12.670 12.693 12.716 12.739 12.762 12.785 12.808 12.831 12.855 590

0 -0.692 -0.671 -0.650 -0.628 -0.607 -0.586 -0.564 -0.543 -0.521 -0.500 -0.478 0 600 12.855 12.878 12.901 12.924 12.947 12.970 12.993 13.016 13.040 13.063 13.086 600
10 -0.478 -0.457 -0.435 -0.413 -0.392 -0.370 -0.349 -0.327 -0.305 -0.284 -0.262 10 610 13.086 13.109 13.132 13.155 13.179 13.202 13.225 13.248 13.271 13.294 13.318 610
20 -0.262 -0.240 -0.218 -0.197 -0.175 -0.153 -0.131 -0.109 -0.088 -0.066 -0.044 20 620 13.318 13.341 13.364 13.387 13.410 13.433 13.457 13.480 13.503 13.526 13.549 620
30 -0.044 -0.022 0.000 0.022 0.044 0.066 0.088 0.110 0.132 0.154 0.176 30 630 13.549 13.573 13.596 13.619 13.642 13.665 13.689 13.712 13.735 13.758 13.782 630
40 0.176 0.198 0.220 0.242 0.264 0.286 0.308 0.330 0.353 0.375 0.397 40 640 13.782 13.805 13.828 13.851 13.874 13.898 13.921 13.944 13.967 13.991 14.014 640

50 0.397 0.419 0.441 0.463 0.486 0.508 0.530 0.552 0.575 0.597 0.619 50 650 14.014 14.037 14.060 14.084 14.107 14.130 14.154 14.177 14.200 14.223 14.247 650
60 0.619 0.642 0.664 0.686 0.709 0.731 0.753 0.776 0.798 0.821 0.843 60 660 14.247 14.270 14.293 14.316 14.340 14.363 14.386 14.410 14.433 14.456 14.479 660
70 0.843 0.865 0.888 0.910 0.933 0.955 0.978 1.000 1.023 1.045 1.068 70 670 14.479 14.503 14.526 14.549 14.573 14.596 14.619 14.643 14.666 14.689 14.713 670
80 1.068 1.090 1.113 1.136 1.158 1.181 1.203 1.226 1.249 1.271 1.294 80 680 14.713 14.736 14.759 14.783 14.806 14.829 14.853 14.876 14.899 14.923 14.946 680
90 1.294 1.316 1.339 1.362 1.384 1.407 1.430 1.453 1.475 1.498 1.521 90 690 14.946 14.969 14.993 15.016 15.039 15.063 15.086 15.109 15.133 15.156 15.179 690

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

Z-218
Revised Thermocouple + Thermocouple MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE
Grade Thermocouple Grade
–
Reference Tables – 328 to 2282°F
– 200 to 1250°C
Extension Grade
32 to 392°F
0 to 200°C

K
TYPE
Reference
Nickel-Chromium
vs.
LIMITS OF ERROR
(whichever is greater)
Standard: 2.2°C or 0.75% Above 0°C

Tables
Nickel-Aluminum 2.2°C or 2.0% Below 0°C
Special: 1.1°C or 0.4%
+ COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT:
N.I.S.T.
Monograph 175 – Clean Oxidizing and Inert; Limited Use in
Vacuum or Reducing; Wide Temperature
Range; Most Popular Calibration
Revised to Extension
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °F
ITS-90 Grade
REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 32°F

Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
700 15.179 15.203 15.226 15.250 15.273 15.296 15.320 15.343 15.366 15.390 15.413 700 1300 29.315 29.338 29.362 29.385 29.408 29.431 29.455 29.478 29.501 29.524 29.548 1300
710 15.413 15.437 15.460 15.483 15.507 15.530 15.554 15.577 15.600 15.624 15.647 710 1310 29.548 29.571 29.594 29.617 29.640 29.664 29.687 29.710 29.733 29.757 29.780 1310
720 15.647 15.671 15.694 15.717 15.741 15.764 15.788 15.811 15.834 15.858 15.881 720 1320 29.780 29.803 29.826 29.849 29.873 29.896 29.919 29.942 29.965 29.989 30.012 1320
730 15.881 15.905 15.928 15.952 15.975 15.998 16.022 16.045 16.069 16.092 16.116 730 1330 30.012 30.035 30.058 30.081 30.104 30.128 30.151 30.174 30.197 30.220 30.243 1330
740 16.116 16.139 16.163 16.186 16.209 16.233 16.256 16.280 16.303 16.327 16.350 740 1340 30.243 30.267 30.290 30.313 30.336 30.359 30.382 30.405 30.429 30.452 30.475 1340

750 16.350 16.374 16.397 16.421 16.444 16.468 16.491 16.514 16.538 16.561 16.585 750 1350 30.475 30.498 30.521 30.544 30.567 30.590 30.613 30.637 30.660 30.683 30.706 1350
760 16.585 16.608 16.632 16.655 16.679 16.702 16.726 16.749 16.773 16.796 16.820 760 1360 30.706 30.729 30.752 30.775 30.798 30.821 30.844 30.868 30.891 30.914 30.937 1360
770 16.820 16.843 16.867 16.890 16.914 16.937 16.961 16.984 17.008 17.031 17.055 770 1370 30.937 30.960 30.983 31.006 31.029 31.052 31.075 31.098 31.121 31.144 31.167 1370
780 17.055 17.078 17.102 17.125 17.149 17.173 17.196 17.220 17.243 17.267 17.290 780 1380 31.167 31.190 31.213 31.236 31.260 31.283 31.306 31.329 31.352 31.375 31.398 1380
790 17.290 17.314 17.337 17.361 17.384 17.408 17.431 17.455 17.478 17.502 17.526 790 1390 31.398 31.421 31.444 31.467 31.490 31.513 31.536 31.559 31.582 31.605 31.628 1390

800 17.526 17.549 17.573 17.596 17.620 17.643 17.667 17.690 17.714 17.738 17.761 800 1400 31.628 31.651 31.674 31.697 31.720 31.743 31.766 31.789 31.812 31.834 31.857 1400
810 17.761 17.785 17.808 17.832 17.855 17.879 17.902 17.926 17.950 17.973 17.997 810 1410 31.857 31.880 31.903 31.926 31.949 31.972 31.995 32.018 32.041 32.064 32.087 1410
820 17.997 18.020 18.044 18.068 18.091 18.115 18.138 18.162 18.185 18.209 18.233 820 1420 32.087 32.110 32.133 32.156 32.179 32.202 32.224 32.247 32.270 32.293 32.316 1420
830 18.233 18.256 18.280 18.303 18.327 18.351 18.374 18.398 18.421 18.445 18.469 830 1430 32.316 32.339 32.362 32.385 32.408 32.431 32.453 32.476 32.499 32.522 32.545 1430
840 18.469 18.492 18.516 18.539 18.563 18.587 18.610 18.634 18.657 18.681 18.705 840 1440 32.545 32.568 32.591 32.614 32.636 32.659 32.682 32.705 32.728 32.751 32.774 1440

850 18.705 18.728 18.752 18.776 18.799 18.823 18.846 18.870 18.894 18.917 18.941 850 1450 32.774 32.796 32.819 32.842 32.865 32.888 32.911 32.933 32.956 32.979 33.002 1450
860 18.941 18.965 18.988 19.012 19.035 19.059 19.083 19.106 19.130 19.154 19.177 860 1460 33.002 33.025 33.047 33.070 33.093 33.116 33.139 33.161 33.184 33.207 33.230 1460
870 19.177 19.201 19.224 19.248 19.272 19.295 19.319 19.343 19.366 19.390 19.414 870 1470 33.230 33.253 33.275 33.298 33.321 33.344 33.366 33.389 33.412 33.435 33.458 1470
880 19.414 19.437 19.461 19.485 19.508 19.532 19.556 19.579 19.603 19.626 19.650 880 1480 33.458 33.480 33.503 33.526 33.548 33.571 33.594 33.617 33.639 33.662 33.685 1480
890 19.650 19.674 19.697 19.721 19.745 19.768 19.792 19.816 19.839 19.863 19.887 890 1490 33.685 33.708 33.730 33.753 33.776 33.798 33.821 33.844 33.867 33.889 33.912 1490

900 19.887 19.910 19.934 19.958 19.981 20.005 20.029 20.052 20.076 20.100 20.123 900 1500 33.912 33.935 33.957 33.980 34.003 34.025 34.048 34.071 34.093 34.116 34.139 1500
910 20.123 20.147 20.171 20.194 20.218 20.242 20.265 20.289 20.313 20.336 20.360 910 1510 34.139 34.161 34.184 34.207 34.229 34.252 34.275 34.297 34.320 34.343 34.365 1510
920 20.360 20.384 20.407 20.431 20.455 20.479 20.502 20.526 20.550 20.573 20.597 920 1520 34.365 34.388 34.410 34.433 34.456 34.478 34.501 34.524 34.546 34.569 34.591 1520
930 20.597 20.621 20.644 20.668 20.692 20.715 20.739 20.763 20.786 20.810 20.834 930 1530 34.591 34.614 34.637 34.659 34.682 34.704 34.727 34.750 34.772 34.795 34.817 1530
940 20.834 20.857 20.881 20.905 20.929 20.952 20.976 21.000 21.023 21.047 21.071 940 1540 34.817 34.840 34.862 34.885 34.908 34.930 34.953 34.975 34.998 35.020 35.043 1540

950 21.071 21.094 21.118 21.142 21.165 21.189 21.213 21.236 21.260 21.284 21.308 950 1550 35.043 35.065 35.088 35.110 35.133 35.156 35.178 35.201 35.223 35.246 35.268 1550
960 21.308 21.331 21.355 21.379 21.402 21.426 21.450 21.473 21.497 21.521 21.544 960 1560 35.268 35.291 35.313 35.336 35.358 35.381 35.403 35.426 35.448 35.471 35.493 1560
970 21.544 21.568 21.592 21.616 21.639 21.663 21.687 21.710 21.734 21.758 21.781 970 1570 35.493 35.516 35.538 35.560 35.583 35.605 35.628 35.650 35.673 35.695 35.718 1570
980 21.781 21.805 21.829 21.852 21.876 21.900 21.924 21.947 21.971 21.995 22.018 980 1580 35.718 35.740 35.763 35.785 35.807 35.830 35.852 35.875 35.897 35.920 35.942 1580
990 22.018 22.042 22.066 22.089 22.113 22.137 22.160 22.184 22.208 22.232 22.255 990 1590 35.942 35.964 35.987 36.009 36.032 36.054 36.076 36.099 36.121 36.144 36.166 1590

1000 22.255 22.279 22.303 22.326 22.350 22.374 22.397 22.421 22.445 22.468 22.492 1000 1600 36.166 36.188 36.211 36.233 36.256 36.278 36.300 36.323 36.345 36.367 36.390 1600
1010 22.492 22.516 22.540 22.563 22.587 22.611 22.634 22.658 22.682 22.705 22.729 1010 1610 36.390 36.412 36.434 36.457 36.479 36.501 36.524 36.546 36.568 36.591 36.613 1610
1020 22.729 22.753 22.776 22.800 22.824 22.847 22.871 22.895 22.919 22.942 22.966 1020 1620 36.613 36.635 36.658 36.680 36.702 36.725 36.747 36.769 36.792 36.814 36.836 1620
1030 22.966 22.990 23.013 23.037 23.061 23.084 23.108 23.132 23.155 23.179 23.203 1030 1630 36.836 36.859 36.881 36.903 36.925 36.948 36.970 36.992 37.014 37.037 37.059 1630
1040 23.203 23.226 23.250 23.274 23.297 23.321 23.345 23.368 23.392 23.416 23.439 1040 1640 37.059 37.081 37.104 37.126 37.148 37.170 37.193 37.215 37.237 37.259 37.281 1640

1050 23.439 23.463 23.487 23.510 23.534 23.558 23.581 23.605 23.629 23.652 23.676 1050 1650 37.281 37.304 37.326 37.348 37.370 37.393 37.415 37.437 37.459 37.481 37.504 1650
1060 23.676 23.700 23.723 23.747 23.771 23.794 23.818 23.842 23.865 23.889 23.913 1060 1660 37.504 37.526 37.548 37.570 37.592 37.615 37.637 37.659 37.681 37.703 37.725 1660
1070 23.913 23.936 23.960 23.984 24.007 24.031 24.055 24.078 24.102 24.126 24.149 1070 1670 37.725 37.748 37.770 37.792 37.814 37.836 37.858 37.881 37.903 37.925 37.947 1670
1080 24.149 24.173 24.197 24.220 24.244 24.267 24.291 24.315 24.338 24.362 24.386 1080 1680 37.947 37.969 37.991 38.013 38.036 38.058 38.080 38.102 38.124 38.146 38.168 1680
1090 24.386 24.409 24.433 24.457 24.480 24.504 24.527 24.551 24.575 24.598 24.622 1090 1690 38.168 38.190 38.212 38.235 38.257 38.279 38.301 38.323 38.345 38.367 38.389 1690

1100 24.622 24.646 24.669 24.693 24.717 24.740 24.764 24.787 24.811 24.835 24.858 1100 1700 38.389 38.411 38.433 38.455 38.477 38.499 38.522 38.544 38.566 38.588 38.610 1700
1110 24.858 24.882 24.905 24.929 24.953 24.976 25.000 25.024 25.047 25.071 25.094 1110 1710 38.610 38.632 38.654 38.676 38.698 38.720 38.742 38.764 38.786 38.808 38.830 1710
1120 25.094 25.118 25.142 25.165 25.189 25.212 25.236 25.260 25.283 25.307 25.330 1120 1720 38.830 38.852 38.874 38.896 38.918 38.940 38.962 38.984 39.006 39.028 39.050 1720
1130 25.330 25.354 25.377 25.401 25.425 25.448 25.472 25.495 25.519 25.543 25.566 1130 1730 39.050 39.072 39.094 39.116 39.138 39.160 39.182 39.204 39.226 39.248 39.270 1730
1140 25.566 25.590 25.613 25.637 25.660 25.684 25.708 25.731 25.755 25.778 25.802 1140 1740 39.270 39.292 39.314 39.335 39.357 39.379 39.401 39.423 39.445 39.467 39.489 1740

1150 25.802 25.825 25.849 25.873 25.896 25.920 25.943 25.967 25.990 26.014 26.037 1150 1750 39.489 39.511 39.533 39.555 39.577 39.599 39.620 39.642 39.664 39.686 39.708 1750
1160 26.037 26.061 26.084 26.108 26.132 26.155 26.179 26.202 26.226 26.249 26.273 1160 1760 39.708 39.730 39.752 39.774 39.796 39.817 39.839 39.861 39.883 39.905 39.927 1760
1170 26.273 26.296 26.320 26.343 26.367 26.390 26.414 26.437 26.461 26.484 26.508 1170 1770 39.927 39.949 39.970 39.992 40.014 40.036 40.058 40.080 40.101 40.123 40.145 1770
1180 26.508 26.532 26.555 26.579 26.602 26.626 26.649 26.673 26.696 26.720 26.743 1180 1780 40.145 40.167 40.189 40.211 40.232 40.254 40.276 40.298 40.320 40.341 40.363 1780
1190 26.743 26.767 26.790 26.814 26.837 26.861 26.884 26.907 26.931 26.954 26.978 1190 1790 40.363 40.385 40.407 40.429 40.450 40.472 40.494 40.516 40.537 40.559 40.581 1790

1200 26.978 27.001 27.025 27.048 27.072 27.095 27.119 27.142 27.166 27.189 27.213 1200 1800 40.581 40.603 40.624 40.646 40.668 40.690 40.711 40.733 40.755 40.777 40.798 1800
1210 27.213 27.236 27.259 27.283 27.306 27.330 27.353 27.377 27.400 27.424 27.447 1210 1810 40.798 40.820 40.842 40.864 40.885 40.907 40.929 40.950 40.972 40.994 41.015 1810
1220 27.447 27.471 27.494 27.517 27.541 27.564 27.588 27.611 27.635 27.658 27.681 1220 1820 41.015 41.037 41.059 41.081 41.102 41.124 41.146 41.167 41.189 41.211 41.232 1820
1230 27.681 27.705 27.728 27.752 27.775 27.798 27.822 27.845 27.869 27.892 27.915 1230 1830 41.232 41.254 41.276 41.297 41.319 41.341 41.362 41.384 41.405 41.427 41.449 1830
1240 27.915 27.939 27.962 27.986 28.009 28.032 28.056 28.079 28.103 28.126 28.149 1240 1840 41.449 41.470 41.492 41.514 41.535 41.557 41.578 41.600 41.622 41.643 41.665 1840

1250 28.149 28.173 28.196 28.219 28.243 28.266 28.289 28.313 28.336 28.360 28.383 1250 1850 41.665 41.686 41.708 41.730 41.751 41.773 41.794 41.816 41.838 41.859 41.881 1850
1260 28.383 28.406 28.430 28.453 28.476 28.500 28.523 28.546 28.570 28.593 28.616 1260 1860 41.881 41.902 41.924 41.945 41.967 41.988 42.010 42.032 42.053 42.075 42.096 1860
1270 28.616 28.640 28.663 28.686 28.710 28.733 28.756 28.780 28.803 28.826 28.849 1270 1870 42.096 42.118 42.139 42.161 42.182 42.204 42.225 42.247 42.268 42.290 42.311 1870
1280 28.849 28.873 28.896 28.919 28.943 28.966 28.989 29.013 29.036 29.059 29.082 1280 1880 42.311 42.333 42.354 42.376 42.397 42.419 42.440 42.462 42.483 42.505 42.526 1880
1290 29.082 29.106 29.129 29.152 29.176 29.199 29.222 29.245 29.269 29.292 29.315 1290 1890 42.526 42.548 42.569 42.591 42.612 42.633 42.655 42.676 42.698 42.719 42.741 1890

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

Z-219
 MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE + Thermocouple
Revised Thermocouple
Thermocouple Grade Grade
–
– 328 to 2282°F
– 200 to 1250°C Reference Tables
Extension Grade
32 to 392°F
0 to 200°C

K
LIMITS OF ERROR
(whichever is greater)
Standard: 2.2°C or 0.75% Above 0°C
Nickel-Chromium
vs. TYPE
Reference
2.2°C or 2.0% Below 0°C
Special: 1.1°C or 0.4%
Nickel-Aluminum Tables
COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT: +
Clean Oxidizing and Inert; Limited Use in – N.I.S.T.
Vacuum or Reducing; Wide Temperature Monograph 175
Range; Most Popular Calibration
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °F
Extension Revised to
Grade ITS-90
REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 32°F
Z
Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts
°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
1900 42.741 42.762 42.783 42.805 42.826 42.848 42.869 42.891 42.912 42.933 42.955 1900 2250 50.006 50.026 50.046 50.066 50.086 50.106 50.126 50.146 50.166 50.186 50.206 2250
1910 42.955 42.976 42.998 43.019 43.040 43.062 43.083 43.104 43.126 43.147 43.169 1910 2260 50.206 50.226 50.246 50.266 50.286 50.306 50.326 50.346 50.366 50.385 50.405 2260
1920 43.169 43.190 43.211 43.233 43.254 43.275 43.297 43.318 43.339 43.361 43.382 1920 2270 50.405 50.425 50.445 50.465 50.485 50.505 50.525 50.545 50.564 50.584 50.604 2270
1930 43.382 43.403 43.425 43.446 43.467 43.489 43.510 43.531 43.552 43.574 43.595 1930 2280 50.604 50.624 50.644 50.664 50.684 50.703 50.723 50.743 50.763 50.783 50.802 2280
1940 43.595 43.616 43.638 43.659 43.680 43.701 43.723 43.744 43.765 43.787 43.808 1940 2290 50.802 50.822 50.842 50.862 50.882 50.901 50.921 50.941 50.961 50.981 51.000 2290

1950 43.808 43.829 43.850 43.872 43.893 43.914 43.935 43.957 43.978 43.999 44.020 1950 2300 51.000 51.020 51.040 51.060 51.079 51.099 51.119 51.139 51.158 51.178 51.198 2300
1960 44.020 44.041 44.063 44.084 44.105 44.126 44.147 44.169 44.190 44.211 44.232 1960 2310 51.198 51.217 51.237 51.257 51.276 51.296 51.316 51.336 51.355 51.375 51.395 2310
1970 44.232 44.253 44.275 44.296 44.317 44.338 44.359 44.380 44.402 44.423 44.444 1970 2320 51.395 51.414 51.434 51.453 51.473 51.493 51.512 51.532 51.552 51.571 51.591 2320
1980 44.444 44.465 44.486 44.507 44.528 44.550 44.571 44.592 44.613 44.634 44.655 1980 2330 51.591 51.611 51.630 51.650 51.669 51.689 51.708 51.728 51.748 51.767 51.787 2330
1990 44.655 44.676 44.697 44.719 44.740 44.761 44.782 44.803 44.824 44.845 44.866 1990 2340 51.787 51.806 51.826 51.845 51.865 51.885 51.904 51.924 51.943 51.963 51.982 2340

2000 44.866 44.887 44.908 44.929 44.950 44.971 44.992 45.014 45.035 45.056 45.077 2000 2350 51.982 52.002 52.021 52.041 52.060 52.080 52.099 52.119 52.138 52.158 52.177 2350
2010 45.077 45.098 45.119 45.140 45.161 45.182 45.203 45.224 45.245 45.266 45.287 2010 2360 52.177 52.197 52.216 52.235 52.255 52.274 52.294 52.313 52.333 52.352 52.371 2360
2020 45.287 45.308 45.329 45.350 45.371 45.392 45.413 45.434 45.455 45.476 45.497 2020 2370 52.371 52.391 52.410 52.430 52.449 52.468 52.488 52.507 52.527 52.546 52.565 2370
2030 45.497 45.518 45.539 45.560 45.580 45.601 45.622 45.643 45.664 45.685 45.706 2030 2380 52.565 52.585 52.604 52.623 52.643 52.662 52.681 52.701 52.720 52.739 52.759 2380
2040 45.706 45.727 45.748 45.769 45.790 45.811 45.832 45.852 45.873 45.894 45.915 2040 239052.759 52.778 52.797 52.817 52.836 52.855 52.875 52.894 52.913 52.932 52.952 2390

2050 45.915 45.936 45.957 45.978 45.999 46.019 46.040 46.061 46.082 46.103 46.124 2050 2400 52.952 52.971 52.990 53.010 53.029 53.048 53.067 53.087 53.106 53.125 53.144 2400
2060 46.124 46.145 46.165 46.186 46.207 46.228 46.249 46.269 46.290 46.311 46.332 2060 2410 53.144 53.163 53.183 53.202 53.221 53.240 53.260 53.279 53.298 53.317 53.336 2410
2070 46.332 46.353 46.373 46.394 46.415 46.436 46.457 46.477 46.498 46.519 46.540 2070 2420 53.336 53.355 53.375 53.394 53.413 53.432 53.451 53.470 53.490 53.509 53.528 2420
2080 46.540 46.560 46.581 46.602 46.623 46.643 46.664 46.685 46.706 46.726 46.747 2080 2430 53.528 53.547 53.566 53.585 53.604 53.623 53.643 53.662 53.681 53.700 53.719 2430
2090 46.747 46.768 46.789 46.809 46.830 46.851 46.871 46.892 46.913 46.933 46.954 2090 2440 53.719 53.738 53.757 53.776 53.795 53.814 53.833 53.852 53.871 53.890 53.910 2440

2100 46.954 46.975 46.995 47.016 47.037 47.057 47.078 47.099 47.119 47.140 47.161 2100 2450 53.910 53.929 53.948 53.967 53.986 54.005 54.024 54.043 54.062 54.081 54.100 2450
2110 47.161 47.181 47.202 47.223 47.243 47.264 47.284 47.305 47.326 47.346 47.367 2110 2460 54.100 54.119 54.138 54.157 54.176 54.195 54.214 54.233 54.252 54.271 54.289 2460
2120 47.367 47.387 47.408 47.429 47.449 47.470 47.490 47.511 47.531 47.552 47.573 2120 2470 54.289 54.308 54.327 54.346 54.365 54.384 54.403 54.422 54.441 54.460 54.479 2470
2130 47.573 47.593 47.614 47.634 47.655 47.675 47.696 47.716 47.737 47.757 47.778 2130 2480 54.479 54.498 54.517 54.536 54.554 54.573 54.592 54.611 54.630 54.649 54.668 2480
2140 47.778 47.798 47.819 47.839 47.860 47.880 47.901 47.921 47.942 47.962 47.983 2140 2490 54.668 54.687 54.705 54.724 54.743 54.762 54.781 54.800 54.819 54.837 54.856 2490

2150 47.983 48.003 48.024 48.044 48.065 48.085 48.105 48.126 48.146 48.167 48.187 2150 2500 54.856 54.875 54.894 2500
2160 48.187 48.208 48.228 48.248 48.269 48.289 48.310 48.330 48.350 48.371 48.391 2160
2170 48.391 48.411 48.432 48.452 48.473 48.493 48.513 48.534 48.554 48.574 48.595 2170
2180 48.595 48.615 48.635 48.656 48.676 48.696 48.717 48.737 48.757 48.777 48.798 2180
2190 48.798 48.818 48.838 48.859 48.879 48.899 48.919 48.940 48.960 48.980 49.000 2190

2200 49.000 49.021 49.041 49.061 49.081 49.101 49.122 49.142 49.162 49.182 49.202 2200
2210 49.202 49.223 49.243 49.263 49.283 49.303 49.323 49.344 49.364 49.384 49.404 2210
2220 49.404 49.424 49.444 49.465 49.485 49.505 49.525 49.545 49.565 49.585 49.605 2220
2230 49.605 49.625 49.645 49.666 49.686 49.706 49.726 49.746 49.766 49.786 49.806 2230
2240 49.806 49.826 49.846 49.866 49.886 49.906 49.926 49.946 49.966 49.986 50.006 2240
°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

Z-220
Revised Thermocouple + Thermocouple
Grade
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE
Thermocouple Grade
–
Reference Tables – 328 to 1652°F
– 200 to 900°C
Extension Grade
32 to 392°F

E
TYPE
0 to 200°C
Nickel-Chromium LIMITS OF ERROR
vs. (whichever is greater)
Reference Copper-Nickel
Standard: 1.7°C or 0.5% Above 0°C
1.7°C or 1.0°C Below 0°C
Tables + Special: 1.0°C or 0.4%
N.I.S.T. COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT:
Monograph 175 – Oxidizing or Inert; Limited Use in Vacuum or
Reducing; Highest EMF Change per Degree
Revised to Extension TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °F
ITS-90 Grade REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 32°F

Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts

°F -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
100 2.281 2.316 2.351 2.385 2.420 2.454 2.489 2.524 2.558 2.593 2.628 100
110 2.628 2.663 2.698 2.733 2.767 2.802 2.837 2.872 2.907 2.942 2.977 110
120 2.977 3.012 3.048 3.083 3.118 3.153 3.188 3.224 3.259 3.294 3.330 120
130 3.330 3.365 3.400 3.436 3.471 3.507 3.542 3.578 3.613 3.649 3.685 130
-450 -9.835 -9.834 -9.833 -9.832 -9.830 -450 140 3.685 3.720 3.756 3.792 3.827 3.863 3.899 3.935 3.970 4.006 4.042 140

-440 -9.830 -9.829 -9.827 -9.825 -9.823 -9.821 -9.819 -9.817 -9.814 -9.812 -9.809 -440 150 4.042 4.078 4.114 4.150 4.186 4.222 4.258 4.294 4.330 4.366 4.403 150
-430 -9.809 -9.806 -9.803 -9.800 -9.797 -9.793 -9.790 -9.786 -9.782 -9.779 -9.775 -430 160 4.403 4.439 4.475 4.511 4.547 4.584 4.620 4.656 4.693 4.729 4.766 160
-420 -9.775 -9.771 -9.766 -9.762 -9.758 -9.753 -9.749 -9.744 -9.739 -9.734 -9.729 -420 170 4.766 4.802 4.839 4.875 4.912 4.948 4.985 5.021 5.058 5.095 5.131 170
-410 -9.729 -9.724 -9.718 -9.713 -9.707 -9.702 -9.696 -9.690 -9.684 -9.678 -9.672 -410 180 5.131 5.168 5.205 5.242 5.278 5.315 5.352 5.389 5.426 5.463 5.500 180
-400 -9.672 -9.666 -9.659 -9.653 -9.646 -9.639 -9.632 -9.625 -9.618 -9.611 -9.604 -400 190 5.500 5.537 5.574 5.611 5.648 5.685 5.722 5.759 5.796 5.833 5.871 190

-390 -9.604 -9.597 -9.589 -9.581 -9.574 -9.566 -9.558 -9.550 -9.542 -9.534 -9.525 -390 200 5.871 5.908 5.945 5.982 6.020 6.057 6.094 6.132 6.169 6.207 6.244 200
-380 -9.525 -9.517 -9.508 -9.500 -9.491 -9.482 -9.473 -9.464 -9.455 -9.446 -9.436 -380 210 6.244 6.281 6.319 6.356 6.394 6.432 6.469 6.507 6.544 6.582 6.620 210
-370 -9.436 -9.427 -9.417 -9.408 -9.398 -9.388 -9.378 -9.368 -9.358 -9.348 -9.338 -370 220 6.620 6.658 6.695 6.733 6.771 6.809 6.847 6.884 6.922 6.960 6.998 220
-360 -9.338 -9.327 -9.317 -9.306 -9.295 -9.285 -9.274 -9.263 -9.252 -9.241 -9.229 -360 230 6.998 7.036 7.074 7.112 7.150 7.188 7.226 7.264 7.302 7.341 7.379 230
-350 -9.229 -9.218 -9.207 -9.195 -9.184 -9.172 -9.160 -9.148 -9.136 -9.124 -9.112 -350 240 7.379 7.417 7.455 7.493 7.532 7.570 7.608 7.647 7.685 7.723 7.762 240

-340 -9.112 -9.100 -9.088 -9.075 -9.063 -9.050 -9.038 -9.025 -9.012 -8.999 -8.986 -340 250 7.762 7.800 7.839 7.877 7.916 7.954 7.993 8.031 8.070 8.108 8.147 250
-330 -8.986 -8.973 -8.960 -8.947 -8.934 -8.920 -8.907 -8.893 -8.880 -8.866 -8.852 -330 260 8.147 8.186 8.224 8.263 8.302 8.340 8.379 8.418 8.457 8.496 8.535 260
-320 -8.852 -8.839 -8.825 -8.811 -8.797 -8.782 -8.768 -8.754 -8.739 -8.725 -8.710 -320 270 8.535 8.573 8.612 8.651 8.690 8.729 8.768 8.807 8.846 8.885 8.924 270
-310 -8.710 -8.696 -8.681 -8.666 -8.652 -8.637 -8.622 -8.607 -8.591 -8.576 -8.561 -310 280 8.924 8.963 9.002 9.041 9.081 9.120 9.159 9.198 9.237 9.277 9.316 280
-300 -8.561 -8.546 -8.530 -8.515 -8.499 -8.483 -8.468 -8.452 -8.436 -8.420 -8.404 -300 290 9.316 9.355 9.395 9.434 9.473 9.513 9.552 9.591 9.631 9.670 9.710 290

-290 -8.404 -8.388 -8.372 -8.356 -8.339 -8.323 -8.307 -8.290 -8.273 -8.257 -8.240 -290 300 9.710 9.749 9.789 9.828 9.868 9.907 9.947 9.987 10.026 10.066 10.106 300
-280 -8.240 -8.223 -8.206 -8.189 -8.173 -8.155 -8.138 -8.121 -8.104 -8.087 -8.069 -280 310 10.106 10.145 10.185 10.225 10.265 10.304 10.344 10.384 10.424 10.464 10.503 310
-270 -8.069 -8.052 -8.034 -8.017 -7.999 -7.981 -7.963 -7.945 -7.928 -7.910 -7.891 -270 320 10.503 10.543 10.583 10.623 10.663 10.703 10.743 10.783 10.823 10.863 10.903 320
-260 -7.891 -7.873 -7.855 -7.837 -7.819 -7.800 -7.782 -7.763 -7.745 -7.726 -7.707 -260 330 10.903 10.943 10.983 11.024 11.064 11.104 11.144 11.184 11.224 11.265 11.305 330
-250 -7.707 -7.688 -7.670 -7.651 -7.632 -7.613 -7.593 -7.574 -7.555 -7.536 -7.516 -250 340 11.305 11.345 11.385 11.426 11.466 11.506 11.547 11.587 11.627 11.668 11.708 340

-240 -7.516 -7.497 -7.478 -7.458 -7.438 -7.419 -7.399 -7.379 -7.359 -7.339 -7.319 -240 350 11.708 11.749 11.789 11.830 11.870 11.911 11.951 11.992 12.032 12.073 12.113 350
-230 -7.319 -7.299 -7.279 -7.259 -7.239 -7.219 -7.198 -7.178 -7.157 -7.137 -7.116 -230 360 12.113 12.154 12.195 12.235 12.276 12.317 12.357 12.398 12.439 12.480 12.520 360
-220 -7.116 -7.096 -7.075 -7.054 -7.033 -7.013 -6.992 -6.971 -6.950 -6.928 -6.907 -220 370 12.520 12.561 12.602 12.643 12.684 12.724 12.765 12.806 12.847 12.888 12.929 370
-210 -6.907 -6.886 -6.865 -6.843 -6.822 -6.801 -6.779 -6.757 -6.736 -6.714 -6.692 -210 380 12.929 12.970 13.011 13.052 13.093 13.134 13.175 13.216 13.257 13.298 13.339 380
-200 -6.692 -6.671 -6.649 -6.627 -6.605 -6.583 -6.561 -6.539 -6.516 -6.494 -6.472 -200 390 13.339 13.380 13.421 13.462 13.504 13.545 13.586 13.627 13.668 13.710 13.751 390

-190 -6.472 -6.449 -6.427 -6.405 -6.382 -6.359 -6.337 -6.314 -6.291 -6.269 -6.246 -190 400 13.751 13.792 13.833 13.875 13.916 13.957 13.999 14.040 14.081 14.123 14.164 400
-180 -6.246 -6.223 -6.200 -6.177 -6.154 -6.130 -6.107 -6.084 -6.061 -6.037 -6.014 -180 410 14.164 14.205 14.247 14.288 14.330 14.371 14.413 14.454 14.496 14.537 14.579 410
-170 -6.014 -5.991 -5.967 -5.943 -5.920 -5.896 -5.872 -5.849 -5.825 -5.801 -5.777 -170 420 14.579 14.620 14.662 14.704 14.745 14.787 14.828 14.870 14.912 14.953 14.995 420
-160 -5.777 -5.753 -5.729 -5.705 -5.681 -5.656 -5.632 -5.608 -5.584 -5.559 -5.535 -160 430 14.995 15.037 15.078 15.120 15.162 15.204 15.245 15.287 15.329 15.371 15.413 430
-150 -5.535 -5.510 -5.486 -5.461 -5.436 -5.412 -5.387 -5.362 -5.337 -5.312 -5.287 -150 440 15.413 15.454 15.496 15.538 15.580 15.622 15.664 15.706 15.748 15.790 15.831 440

-140 -5.287 -5.262 -5.237 -5.212 -5.187 -5.162 -5.136 -5.111 -5.086 -5.060 -5.035 -140 450 15.831 15.873 15.915 15.957 15.999 16.041 16.083 16.125 16.168 16.210 16.252 450
-130 -5.035 -5.009 -4.984 -4.958 -4.932 -4.907 -4.881 -4.855 -4.829 -4.803 -4.777 -130 460 16.252 16.294 16.336 16.378 16.420 16.462 16.504 16.547 16.589 16.631 16.673 460
-120 -4.777 -4.751 -4.725 -4.699 -4.673 -4.647 -4.621 -4.594 -4.568 -4.542 -4.515 -120 470 16.673 16.715 16.758 16.800 16.842 16.884 16.927 16.969 17.011 17.054 17.096 470
-110 -4.515 -4.489 -4.462 -4.436 -4.409 -4.382 -4.355 -4.329 -4.302 -4.275 -4.248 -110 480 17.096 17.138 17.181 17.223 17.265 17.308 17.350 17.392 17.435 17.477 17.520 480
-100 -4.248 -4.221 -4.194 -4.167 -4.140 -4.113 -4.086 -4.058 -4.031 -4.004 -3.976 -100 490 17.520 17.562 17.605 17.647 17.690 17.732 17.775 17.817 17.860 17.902 17.945 490

-90 -3.976 -3.949 -3.922 -3.894 -3.867 -3.839 -3.811 -3.784 -3.756 -3.728 -3.700 -90 500 17.945 17.987 18.030 18.073 18.115 18.158 18.200 18.243 18.286 18.328 18.371 500
-80 -3.700 -3.672 -3.645 -3.617 -3.589 -3.561 -3.532 -3.504 -3.476 -3.448 -3.420 -80 510 18.371 18.414 18.456 18.499 18.542 18.585 18.627 18.670 18.713 18.756 18.798 510
-70 -3.420 -3.391 -3.363 -3.335 -3.306 -3.278 -3.249 -3.221 -3.192 -3.163 -3.135 -70 520 18.798 18.841 18.884 18.927 18.969 19.012 19.055 19.098 19.141 19.184 19.227 520
-60 -3.135 -3.106 -3.077 -3.048 -3.020 -2.991 -2.962 -2.933 -2.904 -2.875 -2.846 -60 530 19.227 19.269 19.312 19.355 19.398 19.441 19.484 19.527 19.570 19.613 19.656 530
-50 -2.846 -2.816 -2.787 -2.758 -2.729 -2.699 -2.670 -2.641 -2.611 -2.582 -2.552 -50 540 19.656 19.699 19.742 19.785 19.828 19.871 19.914 19.957 20.000 20.043 20.086 540

-40 -2.552 -2.523 -2.493 -2.463 -2.434 -2.404 -2.374 -2.344 -2.315 -2.285 -2.255 -40 550 20.086 20.129 20.172 20.216 20.259 20.302 20.345 20.388 20.431 20.474 20.517 550
-30 -2.255 -2.225 -2.195 -2.165 -2.135 -2.105 -2.074 -2.044 -2.014 -1.984 -1.953 -30 560 20.517 20.561 20.604 20.647 20.690 20.733 20.777 20.820 20.863 20.906 20.950 560
-20 -1.953 -1.923 -1.893 -1.862 -1.832 -1.801 -1.771 -1.740 -1.709 -1.679 -1.648 -20 570 20.950 20.993 21.036 21.080 21.123 21.166 21.209 21.253 21.296 21.339 21.383 570
-10 -1.648 -1.617 -1.587 -1.556 -1.525 -1.494 -1.463 -1.432 -1.401 -1.370 -1.339 -10 580 21.383 21.426 21.470 21.513 21.556 21.600 21.643 21.686 21.730 21.773 21.817 580
0 -1.339 -1.308 -1.277 -1.245 -1.214 -1.183 -1.152 -1.120 -1.089 -1.057 -1.026 0 590 21.817 21.860 21.904 21.947 21.991 22.034 22.078 22.121 22.165 22.208 22.252 590

0 -1.026 -0.994 -0.963 -0.931 -0.900 -0.868 -0.836 -0.805 -0.773 -0.741 -0.709 0 600 22.252 22.295 22.339 22.382 22.426 22.469 22.513 22.556 22.600 22.644 22.687 600
10 -0.709 -0.677 -0.645 -0.614 -0.582 -0.550 -0.517 -0.485 -0.453 -0.421 -0.389 10 610 22.687 22.731 22.774 22.818 22.862 22.905 22.949 22.993 23.036 23.080 23.124 610
20 -0.389 -0.357 -0.324 -0.292 -0.260 -0.227 -0.195 -0.163 -0.130 -0.098 -0.065 20 620 23.124 23.167 23.211 23.255 23.298 23.342 23.386 23.429 23.473 23.517 23.561 620
30 -0.065 -0.033 0.000 0.033 0.065 0.098 0.131 0.163 0.196 0.229 0.262 30 630 23.561 23.604 23.648 23.692 23.736 23.780 23.823 23.867 23.911 23.955 23.999 630
40 0.262 0.294 0.327 0.360 0.393 0.426 0.459 0.492 0.525 0.558 0.591 40 640 23.999 24.042 24.086 24.130 24.174 24.218 24.262 24.305 24.349 24.393 24.437 640

50 0.591 0.624 0.657 0.691 0.724 0.757 0.790 0.824 0.857 0.890 0.924 50 650 24.437 24.481 24.525 24.569 24.613 24.657 24.701 24.745 24.789 24.832 24.876 650
60 0.924 0.957 0.990 1.024 1.057 1.091 1.124 1.158 1.192 1.225 1.259 60 660 24.876 24.920 24.964 25.008 25.052 25.096 25.140 25.184 25.228 25.272 25.316 660
70 1.259 1.292 1.326 1.360 1.394 1.427 1.461 1.495 1.529 1.563 1.597 70 670 25.316 25.360 25.404 25.448 25.493 25.537 25.581 25.625 25.669 25.713 25.757 670
80 1.597 1.631 1.665 1.699 1.733 1.767 1.801 1.835 1.869 1.904 1.938 80 680 25.757 25.801 25.845 25.889 25.933 25.977 26.022 26.066 26.110 26.154 26.198 680
90 1.938 1.972 2.006 2.041 2.075 2.109 2.144 2.178 2.212 2.247 2.281 90 690 26.198 26.242 26.286 26.331 26.375 26.419 26.463 26.507 26.552 26.596 26.640 690

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

Z-221
 MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE + Thermocouple
Revised Thermocouple
Thermocouple Grade Grade
–
– 328 to 1652°F
– 200 to 900°C Reference Tables
Extension Grade
32 to 392°F

E
TYPE
0 to 200°C
LIMITS OF ERROR Nickel-Chromium
(whichever is greater) vs.
Standard: 1.7°C or 0.5% Above 0°C
1.7°C or 1.0°C Below 0°C Copper-Nickel Reference
Special: 1.0°C or 0.4% + Tables
COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT: N.I.S.T.
Oxidizing or Inert; Limited Use in Vacuum or – Monograph 175
Reducing; Highest EMF Change per Degree
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °F Extension Revised to
REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 32°F Grade ITS-90
Z
Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts
°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
700 26.640 26.684 26.728 26.773 26.817 26.861 26.905 26.950 26.994 27.038 27.082 700 1300 53.466 53.510 53.555 53.599 53.643 53.687 53.732 53.776 53.820 53.864 53.908 1300
710 27.082 27.127 27.171 27.215 27.259 27.304 27.348 27.392 27.437 27.481 27.525 710 1310 53.908 53.952 53.997 54.041 54.085 54.129 54.173 54.218 54.262 54.306 54.350 1310
720 27.525 27.570 27.614 27.658 27.703 27.747 27.791 27.836 27.880 27.924 27.969 720 1320 54.350 54.394 54.438 54.482 54.527 54.571 54.615 54.659 54.703 54.747 54.791 1320
730 27.969 28.013 28.057 28.102 28.146 28.191 28.235 28.279 28.324 28.368 28.413 730 1330 54.791 54.835 54.879 54.924 54.968 55.012 55.056 55.100 55.144 55.188 55.232 1330
740 28.413 28.457 28.501 28.546 28.590 28.635 28.679 28.724 28.768 28.813 28.857 740 1340 55.232 55.276 55.320 55.364 55.408 55.453 55.497 55.541 55.585 55.629 55.673 1340

750 28.857 28.901 28.946 28.990 29.035 29.079 29.124 29.168 29.213 29.257 29.302 750 1350 55.673 55.717 55.761 55.805 55.849 55.893 55.937 55.981 56.025 56.069 56.113 1350
760 29.302 29.346 29.391 29.435 29.480 29.525 29.569 29.614 29.658 29.703 29.747 760 1360 56.113 56.157 56.201 56.245 56.289 56.333 56.377 56.421 56.465 56.509 56.553 1360
770 29.747 29.792 29.836 29.881 29.925 29.970 30.015 30.059 30.104 30.148 30.193 770 1370 56.553 56.597 56.641 56.685 56.729 56.773 56.816 56.860 56.904 56.948 56.992 1370
780 30.193 30.238 30.282 30.327 30.371 30.416 30.461 30.505 30.550 30.595 30.639 780 1380 56.992 57.036 57.080 57.124 57.168 57.212 57.256 57.300 57.344 57.387 57.431 1380
790 30.639 30.684 30.728 30.773 30.818 30.862 30.907 30.952 30.996 31.041 31.086 790 1390 57.431 57.475 57.519 57.563 57.607 57.651 57.695 57.738 57.782 57.826 57.870 1390

800 31.086 31.130 31.175 31.220 31.264 31.309 31.354 31.398 31.443 31.488 31.533 800 1400 57.870 57.914 57.958 58.002 58.045 58.089 58.133 58.177 58.221 58.265 58.308 1400
810 31.533 31.577 31.622 31.667 31.711 31.756 31.801 31.846 31.890 31.935 31.980 810 1410 58.308 58.352 58.396 58.440 58.484 58.527 58.571 58.615 58.659 58.702 58.746 1410
820 31.980 32.025 32.069 32.114 32.159 32.204 32.248 32.293 32.338 32.383 32.427 820 1420 58.746 58.790 58.834 58.878 58.921 58.965 59.009 59.053 59.096 59.140 59.184 1420
830 32.427 32.472 32.517 32.562 32.606 32.651 32.696 32.741 32.786 32.830 32.875 830 1430 59.184 59.228 59.271 59.315 59.359 59.402 59.446 59.490 59.534 59.577 59.621 1430
840 32.875 32.920 32.965 33.010 33.054 33.099 33.144 33.189 33.234 33.278 33.323 840 1440 59.621 59.665 59.708 59.752 59.796 59.839 59.883 59.927 59.970 60.014 60.058 1440

850 33.323 33.368 33.413 33.458 33.503 33.547 33.592 33.637 33.682 33.727 33.772 850 1450 60.058 60.101 60.145 60.189 60.232 60.276 60.320 60.363 60.407 60.451 60.494 1450
860 33.772 33.816 33.861 33.906 33.951 33.996 34.041 34.086 34.130 34.175 34.220 860 1460 60.494 60.538 60.581 60.625 60.669 60.712 60.756 60.799 60.843 60.887 60.930 1460
870 34.220 34.265 34.310 34.355 34.400 34.445 34.489 34.534 34.579 34.624 34.669 870 1470 60.930 60.974 61.017 61.061 61.105 61.148 61.192 61.235 61.279 61.322 61.366 1470
880 34.669 34.714 34.759 34.804 34.849 34.893 34.938 34.983 35.028 35.073 35.118 880 1480 61.366 61.409 61.453 61.496 61.540 61.583 61.627 61.671 61.714 61.758 61.801 1480
890 35.118 35.163 35.208 35.253 35.298 35.343 35.387 35.432 35.477 35.522 35.567 890 1490 61.801 61.845 61.888 61.932 61.975 62.018 62.062 62.105 62.149 62.192 62.236 1490

900 35.567 35.612 35.657 35.702 35.747 35.792 35.837 35.882 35.927 35.972 36.016 900 1500 62.236 62.279 62.323 62.366 62.410 62.453 62.496 62.540 62.583 62.627 62.670 1500
910 36.016 36.061 36.106 36.151 36.196 36.241 36.286 36.331 36.376 36.421 36.466 910 1510 62.670 62.714 62.757 62.800 62.844 62.887 62.931 62.974 63.017 63.061 63.104 1510
920 36.466 36.511 36.556 36.601 36.646 36.691 36.736 36.781 36.826 36.870 36.915 920 1520 63.104 63.148 63.191 63.234 63.278 63.321 63.364 63.408 63.451 63.494 63.538 1520
930 36.915 36.960 37.005 37.050 37.095 37.140 37.185 37.230 37.275 37.320 37.365 930 1530 63.538 63.581 63.624 63.668 63.711 63.754 63.798 63.841 63.884 63.927 63.971 1530
940 37.365 37.410 37.455 37.500 37.545 37.590 37.635 37.680 37.725 37.770 37.815 940 1540 63.971 64.014 64.057 64.101 64.144 64.187 64.230 64.274 64.317 64.360 64.403 1540

950 37.815 37.860 37.905 37.950 37.995 38.040 38.085 38.130 38.175 38.220 38.265 950 1550 64.403 64.447 64.490 64.533 64.576 64.619 64.663 64.706 64.749 64.792 64.835 1550
960 38.265 38.309 38.354 38.399 38.444 38.489 38.534 38.579 38.624 38.669 38.714 960 1560 64.835 64.879 64.922 64.965 65.008 65.051 65.094 65.138 65.181 65.224 65.267 1560
970 38.714 38.759 38.804 38.849 38.894 38.939 38.984 39.029 39.074 39.119 39.164 970 1570 65.267 65.310 65.353 65.396 65.440 65.483 65.526 65.569 65.612 65.655 65.698 1570
980 39.164 39.209 39.254 39.299 39.344 39.389 39.434 39.479 39.524 39.569 39.614 980 1580 65.698 65.741 65.784 65.827 65.871 65.914 65.957 66.000 66.043 66.086 66.129 1580
990 39.614 39.659 39.704 39.749 39.794 39.839 39.884 39.929 39.974 40.019 40.064 990 1590 66.129 66.172 66.215 66.258 66.301 66.344 66.387 66.430 66.473 66.516 66.559 1590

1000 40.064 40.109 40.154 40.199 40.243 40.288 40.333 40.378 40.423 40.468 40.513 1000 1600 66.559 66.602 66.645 66.688 66.731 66.774 66.817 66.860 66.903 66.946 66.989 1600
1010 40.513 40.558 40.603 40.648 40.693 40.738 40.783 40.828 40.873 40.918 40.963 1010 1610 66.989 67.031 67.074 67.117 67.160 67.203 67.246 67.289 67.332 67.375 67.418 1610
1020 40.963 41.008 41.053 41.098 41.143 41.188 41.233 41.278 41.323 41.368 41.412 1020 1620 67.418 67.460 67.503 67.546 67.589 67.632 67.675 67.718 67.760 67.803 67.846 1620
1030 41.412 41.457 41.502 41.547 41.592 41.637 41.682 41.727 41.772 41.817 41.862 1030 1630 67.846 67.889 67.932 67.974 68.017 68.060 68.103 68.146 68.188 68.231 68.274 1630
1040 41.862 41.907 41.952 41.997 42.042 42.087 42.132 42.176 42.221 42.266 42.311 1040 1640 68.274 68.317 68.359 68.402 68.445 68.488 68.530 68.573 68.616 68.659 68.701 1640

1050 42.311 42.356 42.401 42.446 42.491 42.536 42.581 42.626 42.671 42.715 42.760 1050 1650 68.701 68.744 68.787 68.829 68.872 68.915 68.957 69.000 69.043 69.085 69.128 1650
1060 42.760 42.805 42.850 42.895 42.940 42.985 43.030 43.075 43.120 43.165 43.209 1060 1660 69.128 69.171 69.213 69.256 69.298 69.341 69.384 69.426 69.469 69.511 69.554 1660
1070 43.209 43.254 43.299 43.344 43.389 43.434 43.479 43.524 43.569 43.613 43.658 1070 1670 69.554 69.597 69.639 69.682 69.724 69.767 69.809 69.852 69.894 69.937 69.979 1670
1080 43.658 43.703 43.748 43.793 43.838 43.883 43.928 43.972 44.017 44.062 44.107 1080 1680 69.979 70.022 70.064 70.107 70.149 70.192 70.234 70.277 70.319 70.362 70.404 1680
1090 44.107 44.152 44.197 44.242 44.286 44.331 44.376 44.421 44.466 44.511 44.555 1090 1690 70.404 70.447 70.489 70.531 70.574 70.616 70.659 70.701 70.744 70.786 70.828 1690

1100 44.555 44.600 44.645 44.690 44.735 44.780 44.824 44.869 44.914 44.959 45.004 1100 1700 70.828 70.871 70.913 70.955 70.998 71.040 71.082 71.125 71.167 71.209 71.252 1700
1110 45.004 45.049 45.093 45.138 45.183 45.228 45.273 45.317 45.362 45.407 45.452 1110 1710 71.252 71.294 71.336 71.379 71.421 71.463 71.506 71.548 71.590 71.632 71.675 1710
1120 45.452 45.497 45.541 45.586 45.631 45.676 45.720 45.765 45.810 45.855 45.900 1120 1720 71.675 71.717 71.759 71.801 71.844 71.886 71.928 71.970 72.012 72.055 72.097 1720
1130 45.900 45.944 45.989 46.034 46.079 46.123 46.168 46.213 46.258 46.302 46.347 1130 1730 72.097 72.139 72.181 72.223 72.266 72.308 72.350 72.392 72.434 72.476 72.518 1730
1140 46.347 46.392 46.437 46.481 46.526 46.571 46.616 46.660 46.705 46.750 46.794 1140 1740 72.518 72.561 72.603 72.645 72.687 72.729 72.771 72.813 72.855 72.897 72.939 1740

1150 46.794 46.839 46.884 46.929 46.973 47.018 47.063 47.107 47.152 47.197 47.241 1150 1750 72.939 72.981 73.023 73.066 73.108 73.150 73.192 73.234 73.276 73.318 73.360 1750
1160 47.241 47.286 47.331 47.375 47.420 47.465 47.509 47.554 47.599 47.643 47.688 1160 1760 73.360 73.402 73.444 73.486 73.528 73.570 73.612 73.654 73.696 73.738 73.780 1760
1170 47.688 47.733 47.777 47.822 47.867 47.911 47.956 48.001 48.045 48.090 48.135 1170 1770 73.780 73.821 73.863 73.905 73.947 73.989 74.031 74.073 74.115 74.157 74.199 1770
1180 48.135 48.179 48.224 48.268 48.313 48.358 48.402 48.447 48.492 48.536 48.581 1180 1780 74.199 74.241 74.283 74.324 74.366 74.408 74.450 74.492 74.534 74.576 74.618 1780
1190 48.581 48.625 48.670 48.715 48.759 48.804 48.848 48.893 48.937 48.982 49.027 1190 1790 74.618 74.659 74.701 74.743 74.785 74.827 74.869 74.910 74.952 74.994 75.036 1790

1200 49.027 49.071 49.116 49.160 49.205 49.249 49.294 49.338 49.383 49.428 49.472 1200 1800 75.036 75.078 75.120 75.161 75.203 75.245 75.287 75.329 75.370 75.412 75.454 1800
1210 49.472 49.517 49.561 49.606 49.650 49.695 49.739 49.784 49.828 49.873 49.917 1210 1810 75.454 75.496 75.538 75.579 75.621 75.663 75.705 75.746 75.788 75.830 75.872 1810
1220 49.917 49.962 50.006 50.051 50.095 50.140 50.184 50.229 50.273 50.318 50.362 1220 1820 75.872 75.913 75.955 75.997 76.039 76.081 76.122 76.164 76.206 76.248 76.289 1820
1230 50.362 50.407 50.451 50.495 50.540 50.584 50.629 50.673 50.718 50.762 50.807 1230 1830 76.289 76.331 76.373 1830
1240 50.807 50.851 50.895 50.940 50.984 51.029 51.073 51.118 51.162 51.206 51.251 1240

1250 51.251 51.295 51.340 51.384 51.428 51.473 51.517 51.561 51.606 51.650 51.695 1250
1260 51.695 51.739 51.783 51.828 51.872 51.916 51.961 52.005 52.049 52.094 52.138 1260
1270 52.138 52.182 52.227 52.271 52.315 52.360 52.404 52.448 52.493 52.537 52.581 1270
1280 52.581 52.625 52.670 52.714 52.758 52.803 52.847 52.891 52.935 52.980 53.024 1280
1290 53.024 53.068 53.112 53.157 53.201 53.245 53.289 53.334 53.378 53.422 53.466 1290

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

Z-222
Revised Thermocouple + Thermocouple
Grade
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE
Thermocouple Grade
–
Reference Tables – 328 to 662°F
– 200 to 350°C
Extension Grade
– 76 to 212°F
– 60 to 100°C

T
TYPE
Reference
Copper
vs.
LIMITS OF ERROR
(whichever is greater)
Standard: 1.0°C or 0.75% Above 0°C
1.0°C or 1.5% Below 0°C
Tables
Copper-Nickel Special: 0.5°C or 0.4%
+ COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT:
N.I.S.T. Mild Oxidizing, Reducing Vacuum
Monograph 175 – or Insert; Good Where Moisture Is Present;
Low Temperature and Cryogenic Applications
Revised to Extension TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °F
ITS-90 Grade REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 32°F

Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts

°F -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
150 2.712 2.737 2.761 2.786 2.810 2.835 2.860 2.884 2.909 2.934 2.958 150
160 2.958 2.983 3.008 3.033 3.058 3.082 3.107 3.132 3.157 3.182 3.207 160
170 3.207 3.232 3.257 3.282 3.307 3.333 3.358 3.383 3.408 3.433 3.459 170
180 3.459 3.484 3.509 3.534 3.560 3.585 3.610 3.636 3.661 3.687 3.712 180
-450 -6.258 -6.257 -6.256 -6.255 -6.254 -450 190 3.712 3.738 3.763 3.789 3.814 3.840 3.866 3.891 3.917 3.943 3.968 190

-440 -6.254 -6.253 -6.252 -6.251 -6.250 -6.248 -6.247 -6.245 -6.243 -6.242 -6.240 -440 200 3.968 3.994 4.020 4.046 4.071 4.097 4.123 4.149 4.175 4.201 4.227 200
-430 -6.240 -6.238 -6.236 -6.234 -6.232 -6.230 -6.227 -6.225 -6.222 -6.220 -6.217 -430 210 4.227 4.253 4.279 4.305 4.331 4.357 4.383 4.409 4.435 4.461 4.487 210
-420 -6.217 -6.215 -6.212 -6.209 -6.206 -6.203 -6.200 -6.197 -6.194 -6.191 -6.187 -420 220 4.487 4.513 4.540 4.566 4.592 4.618 4.645 4.671 4.697 4.724 4.750 220
-410 -6.187 -6.184 -6.180 -6.177 -6.173 -6.170 -6.166 -6.162 -6.158 -6.154 -6.150 -410 230 4.750 4.776 4.803 4.829 4.856 4.882 4.909 4.935 4.962 4.988 5.015 230
-400 -6.150 -6.146 -6.141 -6.137 -6.133 -6.128 -6.124 -6.119 -6.115 -6.110 -6.105 -400 240 5.015 5.042 5.068 5.095 5.122 5.148 5.175 5.202 5.228 5.255 5.282 240

-390 -6.105 -6.100 -6.095 -6.090 -6.085 -6.080 -6.075 -6.069 -6.064 -6.059 -6.053 -390 250 5.282 5.309 5.336 5.363 5.389 5.416 5.443 5.470 5.497 5.524 5.551 250
-380 -6.053 -6.047 -6.042 -6.036 -6.030 -6.025 -6.019 -6.013 -6.007 -6.001 -5.994 -380 260 5.551 5.578 5.605 5.632 5.660 5.687 5.714 5.741 5.768 5.795 5.823 260
-370 -5.994 -5.988 -5.982 -5.976 -5.969 -5.963 -5.956 -5.950 -5.943 -5.937 -5.930 -370 270 5.823 5.850 5.877 5.904 5.932 5.959 5.986 6.014 6.041 6.068 6.096 270
-360 -5.930 -5.923 -5.916 -5.909 -5.902 -5.896 -5.888 -5.881 -5.874 -5.867 -5.860 -360 280 6.096 6.123 6.151 6.178 6.206 6.233 6.261 6.288 6.316 6.343 6.371 280
-350 -5.860 -5.853 -5.845 -5.838 -5.830 -5.823 -5.815 -5.808 -5.800 -5.792 -5.785 -350 290 6.371 6.399 6.426 6.454 6.482 6.510 6.537 6.565 6.593 6.621 6.648 290

-340 -5.785 -5.777 -5.769 -5.761 -5.753 -5.745 -5.737 -5.729 -5.721 -5.713 -5.705 -340 300 6.648 6.676 6.704 6.732 6.760 6.788 6.816 6.844 6.872 6.900 6.928 300
-330 -5.705 -5.697 -5.688 -5.680 -5.672 -5.663 -5.655 -5.646 -5.638 -5.629 -5.620 -330 310 6.928 6.956 6.984 7.012 7.040 7.068 7.096 7.124 7.152 7.181 7.209 310
-320 -5.620 -5.612 -5.603 -5.594 -5.585 -5.577 -5.568 -5.559 -5.550 -5.541 -5.532 -320 320 7.209 7.237 7.265 7.294 7.322 7.350 7.378 7.407 7.435 7.463 7.492 320
-310 -5.532 -5.523 -5.513 -5.504 -5.495 -5.486 -5.476 -5.467 -5.458 -5.448 -5.439 -310 330 7.492 7.520 7.549 7.577 7.606 7.634 7.663 7.691 7.720 7.748 7.777 330
-300 -5.439 -5.429 -5.420 -5.410 -5.400 -5.391 -5.381 -5.371 -5.361 -5.351 -5.341 -300 340 7.777 7.805 7.834 7.863 7.891 7.920 7.949 7.977 8.006 8.035 8.064 340

-290 -5.341 -5.332 -5.322 -5.312 -5.301 -5.291 -5.281 -5.271 -5.261 -5.250 -5.240 -290 350 8.064 8.092 8.121 8.150 8.179 8.208 8.237 8.266 8.294 8.323 8.352 350
-280 -5.240 -5.230 -5.219 -5.209 -5.198 -5.188 -5.177 -5.167 -5.156 -5.145 -5.135 -280 360 8.352 8.381 8.410 8.439 8.468 8.497 8.526 8.555 8.585 8.614 8.643 360
-270 -5.135 -5.124 -5.113 -5.102 -5.091 -5.081 -5.070 -5.059 -5.048 -5.036 -5.025 -270 370 8.643 8.672 8.701 8.730 8.759 8.789 8.818 8.847 8.876 8.906 8.935 370
-260 -5.025 -5.014 -5.003 -4.992 -4.980 -4.969 -4.958 -4.946 -4.935 -4.923 -4.912 -260 380 8.935 8.964 8.994 9.023 9.052 9.082 9.111 9.141 9.170 9.200 9.229 380
-250 -4.912 -4.900 -4.889 -4.877 -4.865 -4.854 -4.842 -4.830 -4.818 -4.806 -4.794 -250 390 9.229 9.259 9.288 9.318 9.347 9.377 9.406 9.436 9.466 9.495 9.525 390

-240 -4.794 -4.783 -4.771 -4.759 -4.746 -4.734 -4.722 -4.710 -4.698 -4.685 -4.673 -240 400 9.525 9.555 9.584 9.614 9.644 9.673 9.703 9.733 9.763 9.793 9.822 400
-230 -4.673 -4.661 -4.648 -4.636 -4.624 -4.611 -4.599 -4.586 -4.573 -4.561 -4.548 -230 410 9.822 9.852 9.882 9.912 9.942 9.972 10.002 10.032 10.062 10.092 10.122 410
-220 -4.548 -4.535 -4.523 -4.510 -4.497 -4.484 -4.471 -4.458 -4.445 -4.432 -4.419 -220 420 10.122 10.152 10.182 10.212 10.242 10.272 10.302 10.332 10.362 10.392 10.423 420
-210 -4.419 -4.406 -4.393 -4.380 -4.366 -4.353 -4.340 -4.326 -4.313 -4.300 -4.286 -210 430 10.423 10.453 10.483 10.513 10.543 10.574 10.604 10.634 10.664 10.695 10.725 430
-200 -4.286 -4.273 -4.259 -4.246 -4.232 -4.218 -4.205 -4.191 -4.177 -4.163 -4.149 -200 440 10.725 10.755 10.786 10.816 10.847 10.877 10.907 10.938 10.968 10.999 11.029 440

-190 -4.149 -4.136 -4.122 -4.108 -4.094 -4.080 -4.066 -4.052 -4.037 -4.023 -4.009 -190 450 11.029 11.060 11.090 11.121 11.151 11.182 11.213 11.243 11.274 11.304 11.335 450
-180 -4.009 -3.995 -3.980 -3.966 -3.952 -3.937 -3.923 -3.908 -3.894 -3.879 -3.865 -180 460 11.335 11.366 11.396 11.427 11.458 11.489 11.519 11.550 11.581 11.612 11.643 460
-170 -3.865 -3.850 -3.836 -3.821 -3.806 -3.791 -3.777 -3.762 -3.747 -3.732 -3.717 -170 470 11.643 11.673 11.704 11.735 11.766 11.797 11.828 11.859 11.890 11.920 11.951 470
-160 -3.717 -3.702 -3.687 -3.672 -3.657 -3.642 -3.626 -3.611 -3.596 -3.581 -3.565 -160 480 11.951 11.982 12.013 12.044 12.075 12.106 12.138 12.169 12.200 12.231 12.262 480
-150 -3.565 -3.550 -3.535 -3.519 -3.504 -3.488 -3.473 -3.457 -3.441 -3.426 -3.410 -150 490 12.262 12.293 12.324 12.355 12.386 12.418 12.449 12.480 12.511 12.543 12.574 490

-140 -3.410 -3.394 -3.379 -3.363 -3.347 -3.331 -3.315 -3.299 -3.283 -3.267 -3.251 -140 500 12.574 12.605 12.636 12.668 12.699 12.730 12.762 12.793 12.824 12.856 12.887 500
-130 -3.251 -3.235 -3.219 -3.203 -3.187 -3.171 -3.154 -3.138 -3.122 -3.105 -3.089 -130 510 12.887 12.919 12.950 12.982 13.013 13.045 13.076 13.108 13.139 13.171 13.202 510
-120 -3.089 -3.072 -3.056 -3.040 -3.023 -3.006 -2.990 -2.973 -2.956 -2.940 -2.923 -120 520 13.202 13.234 13.265 13.297 13.328 13.360 13.392 13.423 13.455 13.487 13.518 520
-110 -2.923 -2.906 -2.889 -2.873 -2.856 -2.839 -2.822 -2.805 -2.788 -2.771 -2.754 -110 530 13.518 13.550 13.582 13.614 13.645 13.677 13.709 13.741 13.772 13.804 13.836 530
-100 -2.754 -2.737 -2.719 -2.702 -2.685 -2.668 -2.651 -2.633 -2.616 -2.598 -2.581 -100 540 13.836 13.868 13.900 13.932 13.964 13.995 14.027 14.059 14.091 14.123 14.155 540

-90 -2.581 -2.564 -2.546 -2.529 -2.511 -2.493 -2.476 -2.458 -2.440 -2.423 -2.405 -90 550 14.155 14.187 14.219 14.251 14.283 14.315 14.347 14.379 14.411 14.444 14.476 550
-80 -2.405 -2.387 -2.369 -2.351 -2.334 -2.316 -2.298 -2.280 -2.262 -2.244 -2.225 -80 560 14.476 14.508 14.540 14.572 14.604 14.636 14.669 14.701 14.733 14.765 14.797 560
-70 -2.225 -2.207 -2.189 -2.171 -2.153 -2.134 -2.116 -2.098 -2.079 -2.061 -2.043 -70 570 14.797 14.830 14.862 14.894 14.926 14.959 14.991 15.023 15.056 15.088 15.121 570
-60 -2.043 -2.024 -2.006 -1.987 -1.969 -1.950 -1.931 -1.913 -1.894 -1.875 -1.857 -60 580 15.121 15.153 15.185 15.218 15.250 15.283 15.315 15.347 15.380 15.412 15.445 580
-50 -1.857 -1.838 -1.819 -1.800 -1.781 -1.762 -1.743 -1.724 -1.705 -1.686 -1.667 -50 590 15.445 15.477 15.510 15.543 15.575 15.608 15.640 15.673 15.705 15.738 15.771 590

-40 -1.667 -1.648 -1.629 -1.610 -1.591 -1.572 -1.552 -1.533 -1.514 -1.494 -1.475 -40 600 15.771 15.803 15.836 15.869 15.901 15.934 15.967 15.999 16.032 16.065 16.098 600
-30 -1.475 -1.456 -1.436 -1.417 -1.397 -1.378 -1.358 -1.338 -1.319 -1.299 -1.279 -30 610 16.098 16.130 16.163 16.196 16.229 16.262 16.295 16.327 16.360 16.393 16.426 610
-20 -1.279 -1.260 -1.240 -1.220 -1.200 -1.181 -1.161 -1.141 -1.121 -1.101 -1.081 -20 620 16.426 16.459 16.492 16.525 16.558 16.591 16.624 16.657 16.690 16.723 16.756 620
-10 -1.081 -1.061 -1.041 -1.021 -1.001 -0.980 -0.960 -0.940 -0.920 -0.900 -0.879 -10 630 16.756 16.789 16.822 16.855 16.888 16.921 16.954 16.987 17.020 17.053 17.086 630
0 -0.879 -0.859 -0.839 -0.818 -0.798 -0.777 -0.757 -0.736 -0.716 -0.695 -0.675 0 640 17.086 17.120 17.153 17.186 17.219 17.252 17.286 17.319 17.352 17.385 17.418 640

0 -0.675 -0.654 -0.633 -0.613 -0.592 -0.571 -0.550 -0.530 -0.509 -0.488 -0.467 0 650 17.418 17.452 17.485 17.518 17.552 17.585 17.618 17.652 17.685 17.718 17.752 650
10 -0.467 -0.446 -0.425 -0.404 -0.383 -0.362 -0.341 -0.320 -0.299 -0.278 -0.256 10 660 17.752 17.785 17.819 17.852 17.886 17.919 17.952 17.986 18.019 18.053 18.086 660
20 -0.256 -0.235 -0.214 -0.193 -0.171 -0.150 -0.129 -0.107 -0.086 -0.064 -0.043 20 670 18.086 18.120 18.153 18.187 18.221 18.254 18.288 18.321 18.355 18.389 18.422 670
30 -0.043 -0.022 0.000 0.022 0.043 0.065 0.086 0.108 0.130 0.151 0.173 30 680 18.422 18.456 18.490 18.523 18.557 18.591 18.624 18.658 18.692 18.725 18.759 680
40 0.173 0.195 0.216 0.238 0.260 0.282 0.303 0.325 0.347 0.369 0.391 40 690 18.759 18.793 18.827 18.861 18.894 18.928 18.962 18.996 19.030 19.064 19.097 690

50 0.391 0.413 0.435 0.457 0.479 0.501 0.523 0.545 0.567 0.589 0.611 50 700 19.097 19.131 19.165 19.199 19.233 19.267 19.301 19.335 19.369 19.403 19.437 700
60 0.611 0.634 0.656 0.678 0.700 0.723 0.745 0.767 0.790 0.812 0.834 60 710 19.437 19.471 19.505 19.539 19.573 19.607 19.641 19.675 19.709 19.743 19.777 710
70 0.834 0.857 0.879 0.902 0.924 0.947 0.969 0.992 1.015 1.037 1.060 70 720 19.777 19.811 19.845 19.879 19.913 19.947 19.982 20.016 20.050 20.084 20.118 720
80 1.060 1.083 1.105 1.128 1.151 1.174 1.196 1.219 1.242 1.265 1.288 80 730 20.118 20.152 20.187 20.221 20.255 20.289 20.323 20.358 20.392 20.426 20.460 730
90 1.288 1.311 1.334 1.357 1.380 1.403 1.426 1.449 1.472 1.496 1.519 90 740 20.460 20.495 20.529 20.563 20.597 20.632 20.666 20.700 20.735 20.769 20.803 740

100 1.519 1.542 1.565 1.588 1.612 1.635 1.658 1.682 1.705 1.729 1.752 100 750 20.803 20.838 20.872 750
110 1.752 1.776 1.799 1.823 1.846 1.870 1.893 1.917 1.941 1.964 1.988 110
120 1.988 2.012 2.036 2.060 2.083 2.107 2.131 2.155 2.179 2.203 2.227 120
130 2.227 2.251 2.275 2.299 2.323 2.347 2.371 2.395 2.420 2.444 2.468 130
140 2.468 2.492 2.517 2.541 2.565 2.590 2.614 2.639 2.663 2.687 2.712 140

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

Z-223
 MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE + Thermocouple
Revised Thermocouple
Thermocouple Grade Grade
–
32 to 2642°F
0 to 1450°C NONE Reference Tables
Extension Grade ESTABLISHED
32 to 300°F
0 to 150°C

S
LIMITS OF ERROR
(whichever is greater)
Standard: 1.5°C or 0.25%
Platinum-10% Rhodium
vs. TYPE
Reference
Special: 0.6°C or 0.1% Platinum Tables
COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT: +
Oxidizing or Inert; Do Not Insert in Metal Tubes; N.I.S.T.
Beware of Contamination; High Temperature –
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °F Monograph 175
FREFERENCE JUNCTION AT 32°F Extension Revised to
Grade ITS-90
Z
Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts
°F -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
400 1.478 1.483 1.488 1.493 1.497 1.502 1.507 1.512 1.516 1.521 1.526 400
410 1.526 1.531 1.535 1.540 1.545 1.550 1.554 1.559 1.564 1.569 1.573 410
420 1.573 1.578 1.583 1.588 1.592 1.597 1.602 1.607 1.612 1.616 1.621 420
430 1.621 1.626 1.631 1.636 1.640 1.645 1.650 1.655 1.660 1.664 1.669 430
-50 -0.236 -0.233 -0.231 -0.229 -0.227 -0.224 -0.222 -0.220 -0.218 -50 440 1.669 1.674 1.679 1.684 1.689 1.693 1.698 1.703 1.708 1.713 1.718 440

-40 -0.218 -0.215 -0.213 -0.211 -0.208 -0.206 -0.204 -0.201 -0.199 -0.197 -0.194 -40 450 1.718 1.722 1.727 1.732 1.737 1.742 1.747 1.752 1.756 1.761 1.766 450
-30 -0.194 -0.192 -0.190 -0.187 -0.185 -0.182 -0.180 -0.178 -0.175 -0.173 -0.170 -30 460 1.766 1.771 1.776 1.781 1.786 1.790 1.795 1.800 1.805 1.810 1.815 460
-20 -0.170 -0.168 -0.165 -0.163 -0.160 -0.158 -0.155 -0.153 -0.150 -0.148 -0.145 -20 470 1.815 1.820 1.825 1.829 1.834 1.839 1.844 1.849 1.854 1.859 1.864 470
-10 -0.145 -0.142 -0.140 -0.137 -0.135 -0.132 -0.129 -0.127 -0.124 -0.122 -0.119 -10 480 1.864 1.869 1.874 1.878 1.883 1.888 1.893 1.898 1.903 1.908 1.913 480
0 -0.119 -0.116 -0.114 -0.111 -0.108 -0.106 -0.103 -0.100 -0.097 -0.095 -0.092 0 490 1.913 1.918 1.923 1.928 1.933 1.938 1.942 1.947 1.952 1.957 1.962 490

0 -0.092 -0.089 -0.086 -0.084 -0.081 -0.078 -0.075 -0.073 -0.070 -0.067 -0.064 0 500 1.962 1.967 1.972 1.977 1.982 1.987 1.992 1.997 2.002 2.007 2.012 500
10 -0.064 -0.061 -0.058 -0.056 -0.053 -0.050 -0.047 -0.044 -0.041 -0.038 -0.035 10 510 2.012 2.017 2.022 2.027 2.032 2.037 2.042 2.047 2.052 2.057 2.062 510
20 -0.035 -0.033 -0.030 -0.027 -0.024 -0.021 -0.018 -0.015 -0.012 -0.009 -0.006 20 520 2.062 2.067 2.072 2.076 2.081 2.086 2.091 2.096 2.101 2.106 2.111 520
30 -0.006 -0.003 0.000 0.003 0.006 0.009 0.012 0.015 0.018 0.021 0.024 30 530 2.111 2.116 2.121 2.126 2.131 2.136 2.141 2.147 2.152 2.157 2.162 530
40 0.024 0.027 0.030 0.033 0.037 0.040 0.043 0.046 0.049 0.052 0.055 40 540 2.162 2.167 2.172 2.177 2.182 2.187 2.192 2.197 2.202 2.207 2.212 540

50 0.055 0.058 0.062 0.065 0.068 0.071 0.074 0.077 0.081 0.084 0.087 50 550 2.212 2.217 2.222 2.227 2.232 2.237 2.242 2.247 2.252 2.257 2.262 550
60 0.087 0.090 0.093 0.097 0.100 0.103 0.106 0.110 0.113 0.116 0.119 60 560 2.262 2.267 2.272 2.277 2.283 2.288 2.293 2.298 2.303 2.308 2.313 560
70 0.119 0.123 0.126 0.129 0.133 0.136 0.139 0.143 0.146 0.149 0.153 70 570 2.313 2.318 2.323 2.328 2.333 2.338 2.343 2.348 2.354 2.359 2.364 570
80 0.153 0.156 0.159 0.163 0.166 0.169 0.173 0.176 0.180 0.183 0.186 80 580 2.364 2.369 2.374 2.379 2.384 2.389 2.394 2.399 2.404 2.410 2.415 580
90 0.186 0.190 0.193 0.197 0.200 0.204 0.207 0.210 0.214 0.217 0.221 90 590 2.415 2.420 2.425 2.430 2.435 2.440 2.445 2.450 2.455 2.461 2.466 590

100 0.221 0.224 0.228 0.231 0.235 0.238 0.242 0.245 0.249 0.252 0.256 100 600 2.466 2.471 2.476 2.481 2.486 2.491 2.496 2.502 2.507 2.512 2.517 600
110 0.256 0.260 0.263 0.267 0.270 0.274 0.277 0.281 0.285 0.288 0.292 110 610 2.517 2.522 2.527 2.532 2.537 2.543 2.548 2.553 2.558 2.563 2.568 610
120 0.292 0.295 0.299 0.303 0.306 0.310 0.313 0.317 0.321 0.324 0.328 120 620 2.568 2.574 2.579 2.584 2.589 2.594 2.599 2.604 2.610 2.615 2.620 620
130 0.328 0.332 0.335 0.339 0.343 0.346 0.350 0.354 0.357 0.361 0.365 130 630 2.620 2.625 2.630 2.635 2.641 2.646 2.651 2.656 2.661 2.666 2.672 630
140 0.365 0.369 0.372 0.376 0.380 0.384 0.387 0.391 0.395 0.399 0.402 140 640 2.672 2.677 2.682 2.687 2.692 2.697 2.703 2.708 2.713 2.718 2.723 640

150 0.402 0.406 0.410 0.414 0.417 0.421 0.425 0.429 0.433 0.436 0.440 150 650 2.723 2.729 2.734 2.739 2.744 2.749 2.755 2.760 2.765 2.770 2.775 650
160 0.440 0.444 0.448 0.452 0.456 0.459 0.463 0.467 0.471 0.475 0.479 160 660 2.775 2.781 2.786 2.791 2.796 2.801 2.807 2.812 2.817 2.822 2.827 660
170 0.479 0.483 0.487 0.490 0.494 0.498 0.502 0.506 0.510 0.514 0.518 170 670 2.827 2.833 2.838 2.843 2.848 2.854 2.859 2.864 2.869 2.874 2.880 670
180 0.518 0.522 0.526 0.530 0.534 0.538 0.541 0.545 0.549 0.553 0.557 180 680 2.880 2.885 2.890 2.895 2.901 2.906 2.911 2.916 2.922 2.927 2.932 680
190 0.557 0.561 0.565 0.569 0.573 0.577 0.581 0.585 0.589 0.593 0.597 190 690 2.932 2.937 2.943 2.948 2.953 2.958 2.964 2.969 2.974 2.979 2.985 690

200 0.597 0.601 0.605 0.609 0.613 0.617 0.622 0.626 0.630 0.634 0.638 200 700 2.985 2.990 2.995 3.000 3.006 3.011 3.016 3.021 3.027 3.032 3.037 700
210 0.638 0.642 0.646 0.650 0.654 0.658 0.662 0.666 0.670 0.675 0.679 210 710 3.037 3.042 3.048 3.053 3.058 3.063 3.069 3.074 3.079 3.085 3.090 710
220 0.679 0.683 0.687 0.691 0.695 0.699 0.703 0.708 0.712 0.716 0.720 220 720 3.090 3.095 3.100 3.106 3.111 3.116 3.122 3.127 3.132 3.137 3.143 720
230 0.720 0.724 0.728 0.732 0.737 0.741 0.745 0.749 0.753 0.758 0.762 230 730 3.143 3.148 3.153 3.159 3.164 3.169 3.174 3.180 3.185 3.190 3.196 730
240 0.762 0.766 0.770 0.774 0.779 0.783 0.787 0.791 0.795 0.800 0.804 240 740 3.196 3.201 3.206 3.212 3.217 3.222 3.227 3.233 3.238 3.243 3.249 740

250 0.804 0.808 0.812 0.817 0.821 0.825 0.829 0.834 0.838 0.842 0.847 250 750 3.249 3.254 3.259 3.265 3.270 3.275 3.281 3.286 3.291 3.297 3.302 750
260 0.847 0.851 0.855 0.859 0.864 0.868 0.872 0.877 0.881 0.885 0.889 260 760 3.302 3.307 3.313 3.318 3.323 3.329 3.334 3.339 3.345 3.350 3.355 760
270 0.889 0.894 0.898 0.902 0.907 0.911 0.915 0.920 0.924 0.928 0.933 270 770 3.355 3.361 3.366 3.371 3.377 3.382 3.387 3.393 3.398 3.403 3.409 770
280 0.933 0.937 0.942 0.946 0.950 0.955 0.959 0.963 0.968 0.972 0.977 280 780 3.409 3.414 3.419 3.425 3.430 3.435 3.441 3.446 3.451 3.457 3.462 780
290 0.977 0.981 0.985 0.990 0.994 0.998 1.003 1.007 1.012 1.016 1.021 290 790 3.462 3.468 3.473 3.478 3.484 3.489 3.494 3.500 3.505 3.510 3.516 790

300 1.021 1.025 1.029 1.034 1.038 1.043 1.047 1.052 1.056 1.061 1.065 300 800 3.516 3.521 3.527 3.532 3.537 3.543 3.548 3.553 3.559 3.564 3.570 800
310 1.065 1.069 1.074 1.078 1.083 1.087 1.092 1.096 1.101 1.105 1.110 310 810 3.570 3.575 3.580 3.586 3.591 3.596 3.602 3.607 3.613 3.618 3.623 810
320 1.110 1.114 1.119 1.123 1.128 1.132 1.137 1.141 1.146 1.150 1.155 320 820 3.623 3.629 3.634 3.640 3.645 3.650 3.656 3.661 3.667 3.672 3.677 820
330 1.155 1.159 1.164 1.168 1.173 1.177 1.182 1.186 1.191 1.196 1.200 330 830 3.677 3.683 3.688 3.694 3.699 3.704 3.710 3.715 3.721 3.726 3.731 830
340 1.200 1.205 1.209 1.214 1.218 1.223 1.227 1.232 1.237 1.241 1.246 340 840 3.731 3.737 3.742 3.748 3.753 3.758 3.764 3.769 3.775 3.780 3.786 840

350 1.246 1.250 1.255 1.260 1.264 1.269 1.273 1.278 1.283 1.287 1.292 350 850 3.786 3.791 3.796 3.802 3.807 3.813 3.818 3.823 3.829 3.834 3.840 850
360 1.292 1.296 1.301 1.306 1.310 1.315 1.319 1.324 1.329 1.333 1.338 360 860 3.840 3.845 3.851 3.856 3.862 3.867 3.872 3.878 3.883 3.889 3.894 860
370 1.338 1.343 1.347 1.352 1.357 1.361 1.366 1.371 1.375 1.380 1.385 370 870 3.894 3.900 3.905 3.910 3.916 3.921 3.927 3.932 3.938 3.943 3.949 870
380 1.385 1.389 1.394 1.399 1.403 1.408 1.413 1.417 1.422 1.427 1.431 380 880 3.949 3.954 3.959 3.965 3.970 3.976 3.981 3.987 3.992 3.998 4.003 880
390 1.431 1.436 1.441 1.445 1.450 1.455 1.460 1.464 1.469 1.474 1.478 390 890 4.003 4.009 4.014 4.020 4.025 4.030 4.036 4.041 4.047 4.052 4.058 890

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

Z-224
Revised Thermocouple + Thermocouple
Grade
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE
Thermocouple Grade
–
Reference Tables NONE
32 to 2642°F
0 to 1450°C
ESTABLISHED Extension Grade
32 to 300°F
0 to 150°C

S
TYPE
Reference
Platinum-10% Rhodium
vs.
LIMITS OF ERROR
(whichever is greater)
Standard: 1.5°C or 0.25%

Tables
Platinum Special: 0.6°C or 0.1%
+ COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT:
N.I.S.T. Oxidizing or Inert; Do Not Insert in Metal Tubes;
Monograph 175 – Beware of Contamination; High Temperature
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °F
Revised to Extension FREFERENCE JUNCTION AT 32°F
ITS-90 Grade

Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts

°F -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
900 4.058 4.063 4.069 4.074 4.080 4.085 4.091 4.096 4.102 4.107 4.113 900 1400 6.913 6.919 6.925 6.931 6.937 6.943 6.949 6.955 6.961 6.967 6.973 1400
910 4.113 4.118 4.123 4.129 4.134 4.140 4.145 4.151 4.156 4.162 4.167 910 1410 6.973 6.979 6.985 6.991 6.997 7.003 7.008 7.014 7.020 7.026 7.032 1410
920 4.167 4.173 4.178 4.184 4.189 4.195 4.200 4.206 4.211 4.217 4.222 920 1420 7.032 7.038 7.044 7.050 7.056 7.062 7.068 7.074 7.080 7.086 7.092 1420
930 4.222 4.228 4.233 4.239 4.244 4.250 4.255 4.261 4.266 4.272 4.277 930 1430 7.092 7.098 7.104 7.110 7.116 7.122 7.128 7.134 7.140 7.146 7.152 1430
940 4.277 4.283 4.288 4.294 4.299 4.305 4.310 4.316 4.321 4.327 4.332 940 1440 7.152 7.158 7.164 7.170 7.176 7.182 7.188 7.194 7.200 7.206 7.212 1440

950 4.332 4.338 4.343 4.349 4.355 4.360 4.366 4.371 4.377 4.382 4.388 950 1450 7.212 7.218 7.224 7.230 7.236 7.242 7.249 7.255 7.261 7.267 7.273 1450
960 4.388 4.393 4.399 4.404 4.410 4.415 4.421 4.426 4.432 4.437 4.443 960 1460 7.273 7.279 7.285 7.291 7.297 7.303 7.309 7.315 7.321 7.327 7.333 1460
970 4.443 4.449 4.454 4.460 4.465 4.471 4.476 4.482 4.487 4.493 4.498 970 1470 7.333 7.339 7.345 7.351 7.357 7.363 7.369 7.375 7.381 7.387 7.393 1470
980 4.498 4.504 4.510 4.515 4.521 4.526 4.532 4.537 4.543 4.548 4.554 980 1480 7.393 7.399 7.405 7.411 7.418 7.424 7.430 7.436 7.442 7.448 7.454 1480
990 4.554 4.559 4.565 4.571 4.576 4.582 4.587 4.593 4.598 4.604 4.610 990 1490 7.454 7.460 7.466 7.472 7.478 7.484 7.490 7.496 7.502 7.508 7.514 1490

1000 4.610 4.615 4.621 4.626 4.632 4.637 4.643 4.648 4.654 4.660 4.665 1000 1500 7.514 7.521 7.527 7.533 7.539 7.545 7.551 7.557 7.563 7.569 7.575 1500
1010 4.665 4.671 4.676 4.682 4.688 4.693 4.699 4.704 4.710 4.715 4.721 1010 1510 7.575 7.581 7.587 7.593 7.600 7.606 7.612 7.618 7.624 7.630 7.636 1510
1020 4.721 4.727 4.732 4.738 4.743 4.749 4.755 4.760 4.766 4.771 4.777 1020 1520 7.636 7.642 7.648 7.654 7.660 7.667 7.673 7.679 7.685 7.691 7.697 1520
1030 4.777 4.782 4.788 4.794 4.799 4.805 4.810 4.816 4.822 4.827 4.833 1030 1530 7.697 7.703 7.709 7.715 7.721 7.728 7.734 7.740 7.746 7.752 7.758 1530
1040 4.833 4.838 4.844 4.850 4.855 4.861 4.866 4.872 4.878 4.883 4.889 1040 1540 7.758 7.764 7.770 7.776 7.783 7.789 7.795 7.801 7.807 7.813 7.819 1540

1050 4.889 4.895 4.900 4.906 4.911 4.917 4.923 4.928 4.934 4.939 4.945 1050 1550 7.819 7.825 7.832 7.838 7.844 7.850 7.856 7.862 7.868 7.874 7.881 1550
1060 4.945 4.951 4.956 4.962 4.968 4.973 4.979 4.984 4.990 4.996 5.001 1060 1560 7.881 7.887 7.893 7.899 7.905 7.911 7.917 7.923 7.930 7.936 7.942 1560
1070 5.001 5.007 5.013 5.018 5.024 5.030 5.035 5.041 5.046 5.052 5.058 1070 1570 7.942 7.948 7.954 7.960 7.966 7.973 7.979 7.985 7.991 7.997 8.003 1570
1080 5.058 5.063 5.069 5.075 5.080 5.086 5.092 5.097 5.103 5.109 5.114 1080 1580 8.003 8.010 8.016 8.022 8.028 8.034 8.040 8.047 8.053 8.059 8.065 1580
1090 5.114 5.120 5.125 5.131 5.137 5.142 5.148 5.154 5.159 5.165 5.171 1090 1590 8.065 8.071 8.077 8.083 8.090 8.096 8.102 8.108 8.114 8.121 8.127 1590

1100 5.171 5.176 5.182 5.188 5.193 5.199 5.205 5.210 5.216 5.222 5.227 1100 1600 8.127 8.133 8.139 8.145 8.151 8.158 8.164 8.170 8.176 8.182 8.189 1600
1110 5.227 5.233 5.239 5.244 5.250 5.256 5.261 5.267 5.273 5.278 5.284 1110 1610 8.189 8.195 8.201 8.207 8.213 8.219 8.226 8.232 8.238 8.244 8.250 1610
1120 5.284 5.290 5.295 5.301 5.307 5.312 5.318 5.324 5.330 5.335 5.341 1120 1620 8.250 8.257 8.263 8.269 8.275 8.281 8.288 8.294 8.300 8.306 8.312 1620
1130 5.341 5.347 5.352 5.358 5.364 5.369 5.375 5.381 5.386 5.392 5.398 1130 1630 8.312 8.319 8.325 8.331 8.337 8.343 8.350 8.356 8.362 8.368 8.375 1630
1140 5.398 5.404 5.409 5.415 5.421 5.426 5.432 5.438 5.443 5.449 5.455 1140 1640 8.375 8.381 8.387 8.393 8.399 8.406 8.412 8.418 8.424 8.431 8.437 1640

1150 5.455 5.461 5.466 5.472 5.478 5.483 5.489 5.495 5.501 5.506 5.512 1150 1650 8.437 8.443 8.449 8.455 8.462 8.468 8.474 8.480 8.487 8.493 8.499 1650
1160 5.512 5.518 5.523 5.529 5.535 5.541 5.546 5.552 5.558 5.563 5.569 1160 1660 8.499 8.505 8.512 8.518 8.524 8.530 8.537 8.543 8.549 8.555 8.562 1660
1170 5.569 5.575 5.581 5.586 5.592 5.598 5.604 5.609 5.615 5.621 5.627 1170 1670 8.562 8.568 8.574 8.580 8.587 8.593 8.599 8.605 8.612 8.618 8.624 1670
1180 5.627 5.632 5.638 5.644 5.649 5.655 5.661 5.667 5.672 5.678 5.684 1180 1680 8.624 8.630 8.637 8.643 8.649 8.655 8.662 8.668 8.674 8.680 8.687 1680
1190 5.684 5.690 5.695 5.701 5.707 5.713 5.718 5.724 5.730 5.736 5.741 1190 1690 8.687 8.693 8.699 8.706 8.712 8.718 8.724 8.731 8.737 8.743 8.749 1690

1200 5.741 5.747 5.753 5.759 5.764 5.770 5.776 5.782 5.788 5.793 5.799 1200 1700 8.749 8.756 8.762 8.768 8.775 8.781 8.787 8.793 8.800 8.806 8.812 1700
1210 5.799 5.805 5.811 5.816 5.822 5.828 5.834 5.839 5.845 5.851 5.857 1210 1710 8.812 8.819 8.825 8.831 8.837 8.844 8.850 8.856 8.863 8.869 8.875 1710
1220 5.857 5.863 5.868 5.874 5.880 5.886 5.891 5.897 5.903 5.909 5.915 1220 1720 8.875 8.882 8.888 8.894 8.900 8.907 8.913 8.919 8.926 8.932 8.938 1720
1230 5.915 5.920 5.926 5.932 5.938 5.944 5.949 5.955 5.961 5.967 5.972 1230 1730 8.938 8.945 8.951 8.957 8.964 8.970 8.976 8.983 8.989 8.995 9.001 1730
1240 5.972 5.978 5.984 5.990 5.996 6.001 6.007 6.013 6.019 6.025 6.030 1240 1740 9.001 9.008 9.014 9.020 9.027 9.033 9.039 9.046 9.052 9.058 9.065 1740

1250 6.030 6.036 6.042 6.048 6.054 6.060 6.065 6.071 6.077 6.083 6.089 1250 1750 9.065 9.071 9.077 9.084 9.090 9.096 9.103 9.109 9.115 9.122 9.128 1750
1260 6.089 6.094 6.100 6.106 6.112 6.118 6.124 6.129 6.135 6.141 6.147 1260 1760 9.128 9.134 9.141 9.147 9.153 9.160 9.166 9.172 9.179 9.185 9.192 1760
1270 6.147 6.153 6.158 6.164 6.170 6.176 6.182 6.188 6.193 6.199 6.205 1270 1770 9.192 9.198 9.204 9.211 9.217 9.223 9.230 9.236 9.242 9.249 9.255 1770
1280 6.205 6.211 6.217 6.223 6.228 6.234 6.240 6.246 6.252 6.258 6.264 1280 1780 9.255 9.261 9.268 9.274 9.281 9.287 9.293 9.300 9.306 9.312 9.319 1780
1290 6.264 6.269 6.275 6.281 6.287 6.293 6.299 6.305 6.310 6.316 6.322 1290 1790 9.319 9.325 9.331 9.338 9.344 9.351 9.357 9.363 9.370 9.376 9.382 1790

1300 6.322 6.328 6.334 6.340 6.346 6.351 6.357 6.363 6.369 6.375 6.381 1300 1800 9.382 9.389 9.395 9.402 9.408 9.414 9.421 9.427 9.434 9.440 9.446 1800
1310 6.381 6.387 6.392 6.398 6.404 6.410 6.416 6.422 6.428 6.434 6.439 1310 1810 9.446 9.453 9.459 9.465 9.472 9.478 9.485 9.491 9.497 9.504 9.510 1810
1320 6.439 6.445 6.451 6.457 6.463 6.469 6.475 6.481 6.486 6.492 6.498 1320 1820 9.510 9.517 9.523 9.529 9.536 9.542 9.549 9.555 9.561 9.568 9.574 1820
1330 6.498 6.504 6.510 6.516 6.522 6.528 6.534 6.539 6.545 6.551 6.557 1330 1830 9.574 9.581 9.587 9.594 9.600 9.606 9.613 9.619 9.626 9.632 9.638 1830
1340 6.557 6.563 6.569 6.575 6.581 6.587 6.593 6.598 6.604 6.610 6.616 1340 1840 9.638 9.645 9.651 9.658 9.664 9.671 9.677 9.683 9.690 9.696 9.703 1840

1350 6.616 6.622 6.628 6.634 6.640 6.646 6.652 6.658 6.664 6.669 6.675 1350 1850 9.703 9.709 9.716 9.722 9.728 9.735 9.741 9.748 9.754 9.761 9.767 1850
1360 6.675 6.681 6.687 6.693 6.699 6.705 6.711 6.717 6.723 6.729 6.735 1360 1860 9.767 9.773 9.780 9.786 9.793 9.799 9.806 9.812 9.819 9.825 9.831 1860
1370 6.735 6.741 6.746 6.752 6.758 6.764 6.770 6.776 6.782 6.788 6.794 1370 1870 9.831 9.838 9.844 9.851 9.857 9.864 9.870 9.877 9.883 9.889 9.896 1870
1380 6.794 6.800 6.806 6.812 6.818 6.824 6.830 6.836 6.842 6.847 6.853 1380 1880 9.896 9.902 9.909 9.915 9.922 9.928 9.935 9.941 9.948 9.954 9.961 1880
1390 6.853 6.859 6.865 6.871 6.877 6.883 6.889 6.895 6.901 6.907 6.913 1390 1890 9.961 9.967 9.973 9.980 9.986 9.993 9.999 10.006 10.012 10.019 10.025 1890

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

Z-225
 MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE + Thermocouple
Revised Thermocouple
Thermocouple Grade Grade
–
32 to 2642°F
0 to 1450°C NONE Reference Tables
Extension Grade ESTABLISHED
32 to 300°F
0 to 150°C

S
LIMITS OF ERROR
(whichever is greater)
Standard: 1.5°C or 0.25%
Platinum-10% Rhodium
vs. TYPE
Reference
Special: 0.6°C or 0.1% Platinum Tables
COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT: +
Oxidizing or Inert; Do Not Insert in Metal Tubes; N.I.S.T.
Beware of Contamination; High Temperature –
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °F Monograph 175
FREFERENCE JUNCTION AT 32°F Extension Revised to
Grade ITS-90
Z
Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts
°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
1900 10.025 10.032 10.038 10.045 10.051 10.058 10.064 10.071 10.077 10.084 10.090 1900 2400 13.348 13.354 13.361 13.368 13.375 13.381 13.388 13.395 13.402 13.408 13.415 2400
1910 10.090 10.097 10.103 10.110 10.116 10.123 10.129 10.136 10.142 10.149 10.155 1910 2410 13.415 13.422 13.429 13.435 13.442 13.449 13.456 13.462 13.469 13.476 13.483 2410
1920 10.155 10.162 10.168 10.175 10.181 10.188 10.194 10.201 10.207 10.214 10.220 1920 2420 13.483 13.489 13.496 13.503 13.510 13.516 13.523 13.530 13.537 13.543 13.550 2420
1930 10.220 10.227 10.233 10.240 10.246 10.253 10.259 10.266 10.272 10.279 10.285 1930 2430 13.550 13.557 13.563 13.570 13.577 13.584 13.590 13.597 13.604 13.611 13.617 2430
1940 10.285 10.292 10.298 10.305 10.311 10.318 10.324 10.331 10.337 10.344 10.350 1940 2440 13.617 13.624 13.631 13.638 13.644 13.651 13.658 13.665 13.671 13.678 13.685 2440

1950 10.350 10.357 10.363 10.370 10.376 10.383 10.390 10.396 10.403 10.409 10.416 1950 2450 13.685 13.692 13.698 13.705 13.712 13.719 13.725 13.732 13.739 13.746 13.752 2450
1960 10.416 10.422 10.429 10.435 10.442 10.448 10.455 10.461 10.468 10.475 10.481 1960 2460 13.752 13.759 13.766 13.773 13.779 13.786 13.793 13.800 13.806 13.813 13.820 2460
1970 10.481 10.488 10.494 10.501 10.507 10.514 10.520 10.527 10.533 10.540 10.547 1970 2470 13.820 13.826 13.833 13.840 13.847 13.853 13.860 13.867 13.874 13.880 13.887 2470
1980 10.547 10.553 10.560 10.566 10.573 10.579 10.586 10.592 10.599 10.606 10.612 1980 2480 13.887 13.894 13.901 13.907 13.914 13.921 13.928 13.934 13.941 13.948 13.955 2480
1990 10.612 10.619 10.625 10.632 10.638 10.645 10.651 10.658 10.665 10.671 10.678 1990 2490 13.955 13.961 13.968 13.975 13.982 13.988 13.995 14.002 14.009 14.015 14.022 2490

2000 10.678 10.684 10.691 10.697 10.704 10.711 10.717 10.724 10.730 10.737 10.743 2000 2500 14.022 14.029 14.036 14.042 14.049 14.056 14.063 14.069 14.076 14.083 14.089 2500
2010 10.743 10.750 10.757 10.763 10.770 10.776 10.783 10.789 10.796 10.803 10.809 2010 2510 14.089 14.096 14.103 14.110 14.116 14.123 14.130 14.137 14.143 14.150 14.157 2510
2020 10.809 10.816 10.822 10.829 10.836 10.842 10.849 10.855 10.862 10.868 10.875 2020 2520 14.157 14.164 14.170 14.177 14.184 14.191 14.197 14.204 14.211 14.218 14.224 2520
2030 10.875 10.882 10.888 10.895 10.901 10.908 10.915 10.921 10.928 10.934 10.941 2030 2530 14.224 14.231 14.238 14.245 14.251 14.258 14.265 14.272 14.278 14.285 14.292 2530
2040 10.941 10.948 10.954 10.961 10.967 10.974 10.981 10.987 10.994 11.000 11.007 2040 2540 14.292 14.298 14.305 14.312 14.319 14.325 14.332 14.339 14.346 14.352 14.359 2540

2050 11.007 11.014 11.020 11.027 11.033 11.040 11.047 11.053 11.060 11.066 11.073 2050 2550 14.359 14.366 14.373 14.379 14.386 14.393 14.400 14.406 14.413 14.420 14.426 2550
2060 11.073 11.080 11.086 11.093 11.099 11.106 11.113 11.119 11.126 11.132 11.139 2060 2560 14.426 14.433 14.440 14.447 14.453 14.460 14.467 14.474 14.480 14.487 14.494 2560
2070 11.139 11.146 11.152 11.159 11.166 11.172 11.179 11.185 11.192 11.199 11.205 2070 2570 14.494 14.501 14.507 14.514 14.521 14.528 14.534 14.541 14.548 14.554 14.561 2570
2080 11.205 11.212 11.219 11.225 11.232 11.238 11.245 11.252 11.258 11.265 11.272 2080 2580 14.561 14.568 14.575 14.581 14.588 14.595 14.602 14.608 14.615 14.622 14.629 2580
2090 11.272 11.278 11.285 11.291 11.298 11.305 11.311 11.318 11.325 11.331 11.338 2090 2590 14.629 14.635 14.642 14.649 14.655 14.662 14.669 14.676 14.682 14.689 14.696 2590

2100 11.338 11.345 11.351 11.358 11.364 11.371 11.378 11.384 11.391 11.398 11.404 2100 2600 14.696 14.703 14.709 14.716 14.723 14.729 14.736 14.743 14.750 14.756 14.763 2600
2110 11.404 11.411 11.418 11.424 11.431 11.437 11.444 11.451 11.457 11.464 11.471 2110 2610 14.763 14.770 14.777 14.783 14.790 14.797 14.803 14.810 14.817 14.824 14.830 2610
2120 11.471 11.477 11.484 11.491 11.497 11.504 11.511 11.517 11.524 11.531 11.537 2120 2620 14.830 14.837 14.844 14.851 14.857 14.864 14.871 14.877 14.884 14.891 14.898 2620
2130 11.537 11.544 11.550 11.557 11.564 11.570 11.577 11.584 11.590 11.597 11.604 2130 2630 14.898 14.904 14.911 14.918 14.925 14.931 14.938 14.945 14.951 14.958 14.965 2630
2140 11.604 11.610 11.617 11.624 11.630 11.637 11.644 11.650 11.657 11.664 11.670 2140 2640 14.965 14.972 14.978 14.985 14.992 14.998 15.005 15.012 15.019 15.025 15.032 2640

2150 11.670 11.677 11.684 11.690 11.697 11.704 11.710 11.717 11.724 11.730 11.737 2150 2650 15.032 15.039 15.045 15.052 15.059 15.066 15.072 15.079 15.086 15.092 15.099 2650
2160 11.737 11.744 11.750 11.757 11.764 11.770 11.777 11.784 11.790 11.797 11.804 2160 2660 15.099 15.106 15.113 15.119 15.126 15.133 15.139 15.146 15.153 15.160 15.166 2660
2170 11.804 11.810 11.817 11.824 11.830 11.837 11.844 11.850 11.857 11.864 11.870 2170 2670 15.166 15.173 15.180 15.186 15.193 15.200 15.207 15.213 15.220 15.227 15.233 2670
2180 11.870 11.877 11.884 11.890 11.897 11.904 11.910 11.917 11.924 11.931 11.937 2180 2680 15.233 15.240 15.247 15.254 15.260 15.267 15.274 15.280 15.287 15.294 15.300 2680
2190 11.937 11.944 11.951 11.957 11.964 11.971 11.977 11.984 11.991 11.997 12.004 2190 2690 15.300 15.307 15.314 15.321 15.327 15.334 15.341 15.347 15.354 15.361 15.367 2690

2200 12.004 12.011 12.017 12.024 12.031 12.037 12.044 12.051 12.058 12.064 12.071 2200 2700 15.367 15.374 15.381 15.388 15.394 15.401 15.408 15.414 15.421 15.428 15.434 2700
2210 12.071 12.078 12.084 12.091 12.098 12.104 12.111 12.118 12.124 12.131 12.138 2210 2710 15.434 15.441 15.448 15.455 15.461 15.468 15.475 15.481 15.488 15.495 15.501 2710
2220 12.138 12.145 12.151 12.158 12.165 12.171 12.178 12.185 12.191 12.198 12.205 2220 2720 15.501 15.508 15.515 15.521 15.528 15.535 15.542 15.548 15.555 15.562 15.568 2720
2230 12.205 12.211 12.218 12.225 12.232 12.238 12.245 12.252 12.258 12.265 12.272 2230 2730 15.568 15.575 15.582 15.588 15.595 15.602 15.608 15.615 15.622 15.628 15.635 2730
2240 12.272 12.278 12.285 12.292 12.299 12.305 12.312 12.319 12.325 12.332 12.339 2240 2740 15.635 15.642 15.649 15.655 15.662 15.669 15.675 15.682 15.689 15.695 15.702 2740

2250 12.339 12.346 12.352 12.359 12.366 12.372 12.379 12.386 12.392 12.399 12.406 2250 2750 15.702 15.709 15.715 15.722 15.729 15.735 15.742 15.749 15.755 15.762 15.769 2750
2260 12.406 12.413 12.419 12.426 12.433 12.439 12.446 12.453 12.460 12.466 12.473 2260 2760 15.769 15.775 15.782 15.789 15.795 15.802 15.809 15.815 15.822 15.829 15.835 2760
2270 12.473 12.480 12.486 12.493 12.500 12.507 12.513 12.520 12.527 12.533 12.540 2270 2770 15.835 15.842 15.849 15.855 15.862 15.869 15.875 15.882 15.889 15.895 15.902 2770
2280 12.540 12.547 12.554 12.560 12.567 12.574 12.580 12.587 12.594 12.601 12.607 2280 2780 15.902 15.909 15.915 15.922 15.929 15.935 15.942 15.949 15.955 15.962 15.969 2780
2290 12.607 12.614 12.621 12.627 12.634 12.641 12.648 12.654 12.661 12.668 12.675 2290 2790 15.969 15.975 15.982 15.989 15.995 16.002 16.009 16.015 16.022 16.029 16.035 2790

2300 12.675 12.681 12.688 12.695 12.701 12.708 12.715 12.722 12.728 12.735 12.742 2300 2800 16.035 16.042 16.049 16.055 16.062 16.069 16.075 16.082 16.089 16.095 16.102 2800
2310 12.742 12.748 12.755 12.762 12.769 12.775 12.782 12.789 12.796 12.802 12.809 2310 2810 16.102 16.108 16.115 16.122 16.128 16.135 16.142 16.148 16.155 16.162 16.168 2810
2320 12.809 12.816 12.822 12.829 12.836 12.843 12.849 12.856 12.863 12.870 12.876 2320 2820 16.168 16.175 16.182 16.188 16.195 16.202 16.208 16.215 16.221 16.228 16.235 2820
2330 12.876 12.883 12.890 12.896 12.903 12.910 12.917 12.923 12.930 12.937 12.944 2330 2830 16.235 16.241 16.248 16.255 16.261 16.268 16.275 16.281 16.288 16.294 16.301 2830
2340 12.944 12.950 12.957 12.964 12.971 12.977 12.984 12.991 12.997 13.004 13.011 2340 2840 16.301 16.308 16.314 16.321 16.328 16.334 16.341 16.347 16.354 16.361 16.367 2840

2350 13.011 13.018 13.024 13.031 13.038 13.045 13.051 13.058 13.065 13.072 13.078 2350 2850 16.367 16.374 16.381 16.387 16.394 16.400 16.407 16.414 16.420 16.427 16.434 2850
2360 13.078 13.085 13.092 13.098 13.105 13.112 13.119 13.125 13.132 13.139 13.146 2360 2860 16.434 16.440 16.447 16.453 16.460 16.467 16.473 16.480 16.486 16.493 16.500 2860
2370 13.146 13.152 13.159 13.166 13.173 13.179 13.186 13.193 13.199 13.206 13.213 2370 2870 16.500 16.506 16.513 16.520 16.526 16.533 16.539 16.546 16.553 16.559 16.566 2870
2380 13.213 13.220 13.226 13.233 13.240 13.247 13.253 13.260 13.267 13.274 13.280 2380 2880 16.566 16.572 16.579 16.586 16.592 16.599 16.605 16.612 16.619 16.625 16.632 2880
2390 13.280 13.287 13.294 13.301 13.307 13.314 13.321 13.328 13.334 13.341 13.348 2390 2890 16.632 16.638 16.645 16.652 16.658 16.665 16.671 16.678 16.685 16.691 16.698 2890

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

Z-226
Revised Thermocouple + Thermocouple
Grade
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE
Thermocouple Grade
–
Reference Tables NONE
32 to 2642°F
0 to 1450°C
ESTABLISHED Extension Grade
32 to 300°F
0 to 150°C

S
TYPE
Reference
Platinum-10% Rhodium
vs.
LIMITS OF ERROR
(whichever is greater)
Standard: 1.5°C or 0.25%

Tables
Platinum Special: 0.6°C or 0.1%
+ COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT:
N.I.S.T. Oxidizing or Inert; Do Not Insert in Metal Tubes;
Monograph 175 – Beware of Contamination; High Temperature
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °F
Revised to Extension FREFERENCE JUNCTION AT 32°F
ITS-90 Grade

Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
2900 16.698 16.704 16.711 16.718 16.724 16.731 16.737 16.744 16.751 16.757 16.764 2900 3100 17.998 18.004 18.011 18.017 18.023 18.030 18.036 18.042 18.049 18.055 18.061 3100
2910 16.764 16.770 16.777 16.783 16.790 16.797 16.803 16.810 16.816 16.823 16.829 2910 3110 18.061 18.068 18.074 18.080 18.086 18.093 18.099 18.105 18.112 18.118 18.124 3110
2920 16.829 16.836 16.843 16.849 16.856 16.862 16.869 16.876 16.882 16.889 16.895 2920 3120 18.124 18.130 18.137 18.143 18.149 18.155 18.162 18.168 18.174 18.180 18.187 3120
2930 16.895 16.902 16.908 16.915 16.922 16.928 16.935 16.941 16.948 16.954 16.961 2930 3130 18.187 18.193 18.199 18.205 18.211 18.218 18.224 18.230 18.236 18.242 18.248 3130
2940 16.961 16.967 16.974 16.981 16.987 16.994 17.000 17.007 17.013 17.020 17.026 2940 3140 18.248 18.255 18.261 18.267 18.273 18.279 18.285 18.292 18.298 18.304 18.310 3140

2950 17.026 17.033 17.040 17.046 17.053 17.059 17.066 17.072 17.079 17.085 17.092 2950 3150 18.310 18.316 18.322 18.328 18.334 18.341 18.347 18.353 18.359 18.365 18.371 3150
2960 17.092 17.099 17.105 17.112 17.118 17.125 17.131 17.138 17.144 17.151 17.157 2960 3160 18.371 18.377 18.383 18.389 18.395 18.401 18.407 18.413 18.419 18.425 18.431 3160
2970 17.157 17.164 17.171 17.177 17.184 17.190 17.197 17.203 17.210 17.216 17.223 2970 3170 18.431 18.437 18.443 18.449 18.455 18.461 18.467 18.473 18.479 18.485 18.491 3170
2980 17.223 17.229 17.236 17.242 17.249 17.255 17.262 17.268 17.275 17.282 17.288 2980 3180 18.491 18.497 18.503 18.509 18.515 18.521 18.527 18.533 18.539 18.545 18.551 3180
2990 17.288 17.295 17.301 17.308 17.314 17.321 17.327 17.334 17.340 17.347 17.353 2990 3190 18.551 18.557 18.562 18.568 18.574 18.580 18.586 18.592 18.598 18.603 18.609 3190

3000 17.353 17.360 17.366 17.373 17.379 17.386 17.392 17.399 17.405 17.412 17.418 3000 3200 18.609 18.615 18.621 18.627 18.633 18.638 18.644 18.650 18.656 18.661 18.667 3200
3010 17.418 17.425 17.431 17.438 17.444 17.451 17.457 17.464 17.470 17.477 17.483 3010 3210 18.667 18.673 18.679 18.684 18.690 3210
3020 17.483 17.490 17.496 17.503 17.509 17.516 17.522 17.529 17.535 17.542 17.548 3020
3030 17.548 17.555 17.561 17.568 17.574 17.581 17.587 17.594 17.600 17.607 17.613 3030
3040 17.613 17.620 17.626 17.633 17.639 17.645 17.652 17.658 17.665 17.671 17.678 3040

3050 17.678 17.684 17.691 17.697 17.704 17.710 17.717 17.723 17.729 17.736 17.742 3050
3060 17.742 17.749 17.755 17.762 17.768 17.775 17.781 17.787 17.794 17.800 17.807 3060
3070 17.807 17.813 17.819 17.826 17.832 17.839 17.845 17.852 17.858 17.864 17.871 3070
3080 17.871 17.877 17.884 17.890 17.896 17.903 17.909 17.915 17.922 17.928 17.935 3080
3090 17.935 17.941 17.947 17.954 17.960 17.966 17.973 17.979 17.985 17.992 17.998 3090
°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

Z-227
 MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE + Thermocouple
Revised Thermocouple
Thermocouple Grade Grade
–
32 to 2642°F
0 to 1450°C NONE Reference Tables
Extension Grade ESTABLISHED
32 to 300°F
0 to 150°C

R
LIMITS OF ERROR
(whichever is greater)
Standard: 1.5°C or 0.25%
Platinum-13% Rhodium
vs. TYPE
Reference
Special: 0.6°C or 0.1% Platinum Tables
COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT: +
Oxidizing or Inert; Do Not Insert in Metal Tubes; N.I.S.T.
Beware of Contamination; High Temperature – Monograph 175
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °F
REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 32°F Extension Revised to
Grade ITS-90
Z
Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts
°F -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
400 1.508 1.513 1.518 1.523 1.528 1.533 1.538 1.543 1.548 1.553 1.558 400
410 1.558 1.563 1.568 1.572 1.577 1.582 1.587 1.592 1.597 1.602 1.607 410
420 1.607 1.612 1.617 1.622 1.627 1.632 1.638 1.643 1.648 1.653 1.658 420
430 1.658 1.663 1.668 1.673 1.678 1.683 1.688 1.693 1.698 1.703 1.708 430
-50 -0.226 -0.224 -0.222 -0.220 -0.218 -0.216 -0.214 -0.212 -0.210 -50 440 1.708 1.713 1.718 1.723 1.728 1.733 1.739 1.744 1.749 1.754 1.759 440

-40 -0.210 -0.208 -0.205 -0.203 -0.201 -0.199 -0.197 -0.194 -0.192 -0.190 -0.188 -40 450 1.759 1.764 1.769 1.774 1.779 1.784 1.790 1.795 1.800 1.805 1.810 450
-30 -0.188 -0.185 -0.183 -0.181 -0.179 -0.176 -0.174 -0.172 -0.169 -0.167 -0.165 -30 460 1.810 1.815 1.820 1.825 1.831 1.836 1.841 1.846 1.851 1.856 1.861 460
-20 -0.165 -0.162 -0.160 -0.158 -0.155 -0.153 -0.150 -0.148 -0.145 -0.143 -0.141 -20 470 1.861 1.867 1.872 1.877 1.882 1.887 1.892 1.898 1.903 1.908 1.913 470
-10 -0.141 -0.138 -0.136 -0.133 -0.131 -0.128 -0.126 -0.123 -0.121 -0.118 -0.116 -10 480 1.913 1.918 1.923 1.929 1.934 1.939 1.944 1.949 1.955 1.960 1.965 480
0 -0.116 -0.113 -0.110 -0.108 -0.105 -0.103 -0.100 -0.097 -0.095 -0.092 -0.090 0 490 1.965 1.970 1.975 1.981 1.986 1.991 1.996 2.002 2.007 2.012 2.017 490

0 -0.090 -0.087 -0.084 -0.082 -0.079 -0.076 -0.073 -0.071 -0.068 -0.065 -0.063 0 500 2.017 2.022 2.028 2.033 2.038 2.043 2.049 2.054 2.059 2.064 2.070 500
10 -0.063 -0.060 -0.057 -0.054 -0.051 -0.049 -0.046 -0.043 -0.040 -0.037 -0.035 10 510 2.070 2.075 2.080 2.085 2.091 2.096 2.101 2.107 2.112 2.117 2.122 510
20 -0.035 -0.032 -0.029 -0.026 -0.023 -0.020 -0.017 -0.015 -0.012 -0.009 -0.006 20 520 2.122 2.128 2.133 2.138 2.144 2.149 2.154 2.159 2.165 2.170 2.175 520
30 -0.006 -0.003 0.000 0.003 0.006 0.009 0.012 0.015 0.018 0.021 0.024 30 530 2.175 2.181 2.186 2.191 2.197 2.202 2.207 2.213 2.218 2.223 2.229 530
40 0.024 0.027 0.030 0.033 0.036 0.039 0.042 0.045 0.048 0.051 0.054 40 540 2.229 2.234 2.239 2.245 2.250 2.255 2.261 2.266 2.271 2.277 2.282 540

50 0.054 0.057 0.060 0.064 0.067 0.070 0.073 0.076 0.079 0.082 0.086 50 550 2.282 2.287 2.293 2.298 2.304 2.309 2.314 2.320 2.325 2.330 2.336 550
60 0.086 0.089 0.092 0.095 0.098 0.102 0.105 0.108 0.111 0.114 0.118 60 560 2.336 2.341 2.347 2.352 2.357 2.363 2.368 2.374 2.379 2.384 2.390 560
70 0.118 0.121 0.124 0.127 0.131 0.134 0.137 0.141 0.144 0.147 0.151 70 570 2.390 2.395 2.401 2.406 2.411 2.417 2.422 2.428 2.433 2.438 2.444 570
80 0.151 0.154 0.157 0.161 0.164 0.167 0.171 0.174 0.177 0.181 0.184 80 580 2.444 2.449 2.455 2.460 2.466 2.471 2.477 2.482 2.487 2.493 2.498 580
90 0.184 0.188 0.191 0.194 0.198 0.201 0.205 0.208 0.212 0.215 0.218 90 590 2.498 2.504 2.509 2.515 2.520 2.526 2.531 2.537 2.542 2.547 2.553 590

100 0.218 0.222 0.225 0.229 0.232 0.236 0.239 0.243 0.246 0.250 0.254 100 600 2.553 2.558 2.564 2.569 2.575 2.580 2.586 2.591 2.597 2.602 2.608 600
110 0.254 0.257 0.261 0.264 0.268 0.271 0.275 0.278 0.282 0.286 0.289 110 610 2.608 2.613 2.619 2.624 2.630 2.635 2.641 2.646 2.652 2.657 2.663 610
120 0.289 0.293 0.296 0.300 0.304 0.307 0.311 0.315 0.318 0.322 0.326 120 620 2.663 2.668 2.674 2.679 2.685 2.690 2.696 2.701 2.707 2.713 2.718 620
130 0.326 0.329 0.333 0.337 0.340 0.344 0.348 0.352 0.355 0.359 0.363 130 630 2.718 2.724 2.729 2.735 2.740 2.746 2.751 2.757 2.762 2.768 2.773 630
140 0.363 0.366 0.370 0.374 0.378 0.382 0.385 0.389 0.393 0.397 0.400 140 640 2.773 2.779 2.785 2.790 2.796 2.801 2.807 2.812 2.818 2.824 2.829 640

150 0.400 0.404 0.408 0.412 0.416 0.420 0.423 0.427 0.431 0.435 0.439 150 650 2.829 2.835 2.840 2.846 2.851 2.857 2.863 2.868 2.874 2.879 2.885 650
160 0.439 0.443 0.447 0.450 0.454 0.458 0.462 0.466 0.470 0.474 0.478 160 660 2.885 2.891 2.896 2.902 2.907 2.913 2.919 2.924 2.930 2.935 2.941 660
170 0.478 0.482 0.486 0.489 0.493 0.497 0.501 0.505 0.509 0.513 0.517 170 670 2.941 2.947 2.952 2.958 2.964 2.969 2.975 2.980 2.986 2.992 2.997 670
180 0.517 0.521 0.525 0.529 0.533 0.537 0.541 0.545 0.549 0.553 0.557 180 680 2.997 3.003 3.009 3.014 3.020 3.026 3.031 3.037 3.042 3.048 3.054 680
190 0.557 0.561 0.565 0.569 0.573 0.578 0.582 0.586 0.590 0.594 0.598 190 690 3.054 3.059 3.065 3.071 3.076 3.082 3.088 3.093 3.099 3.105 3.110 690

200 0.598 0.602 0.606 0.610 0.614 0.618 0.623 0.627 0.631 0.635 0.639 200 700 3.110 3.116 3.122 3.127 3.133 3.139 3.144 3.150 3.156 3.161 3.167 700
210 0.639 0.643 0.647 0.652 0.656 0.660 0.664 0.668 0.672 0.677 0.681 210 710 3.167 3.173 3.179 3.184 3.190 3.196 3.201 3.207 3.213 3.218 3.224 710
220 0.681 0.685 0.689 0.693 0.698 0.702 0.706 0.710 0.715 0.719 0.723 220 720 3.224 3.230 3.236 3.241 3.247 3.253 3.258 3.264 3.270 3.276 3.281 720
230 0.723 0.727 0.732 0.736 0.740 0.744 0.749 0.753 0.757 0.761 0.766 230 730 3.281 3.287 3.293 3.298 3.304 3.310 3.316 3.321 3.327 3.333 3.339 730
240 0.766 0.770 0.774 0.779 0.783 0.787 0.792 0.796 0.800 0.805 0.809 240 740 3.339 3.344 3.350 3.356 3.362 3.367 3.373 3.379 3.385 3.390 3.396 740

250 0.809 0.813 0.818 0.822 0.826 0.831 0.835 0.839 0.844 0.848 0.853 250 750 3.396 3.402 3.408 3.413 3.419 3.425 3.431 3.437 3.442 3.448 3.454 750
260 0.853 0.857 0.861 0.866 0.870 0.875 0.879 0.883 0.888 0.892 0.897 260 760 3.454 3.460 3.465 3.471 3.477 3.483 3.489 3.494 3.500 3.506 3.512 760
270 0.897 0.901 0.906 0.910 0.915 0.919 0.923 0.928 0.932 0.937 0.941 270 770 3.512 3.517 3.523 3.529 3.535 3.541 3.546 3.552 3.558 3.564 3.570 770
280 0.941 0.946 0.950 0.955 0.959 0.964 0.968 0.973 0.977 0.982 0.986 280 780 3.570 3.576 3.581 3.587 3.593 3.599 3.605 3.610 3.616 3.622 3.628 780
290 0.986 0.991 0.995 1.000 1.005 1.009 1.014 1.018 1.023 1.027 1.032 290 790 3.628 3.634 3.640 3.645 3.651 3.657 3.663 3.669 3.675 3.680 3.686 790

300 1.032 1.036 1.041 1.046 1.050 1.055 1.059 1.064 1.069 1.073 1.078 300 800 3.686 3.692 3.698 3.704 3.710 3.716 3.721 3.727 3.733 3.739 3.745 800
310 1.078 1.082 1.087 1.092 1.096 1.101 1.105 1.110 1.115 1.119 1.124 310 810 3.745 3.751 3.757 3.762 3.768 3.774 3.780 3.786 3.792 3.798 3.803 810
320 1.124 1.129 1.133 1.138 1.143 1.147 1.152 1.157 1.161 1.166 1.171 320 820 3.803 3.809 3.815 3.821 3.827 3.833 3.839 3.845 3.851 3.856 3.862 820
330 1.171 1.175 1.180 1.185 1.190 1.194 1.199 1.204 1.208 1.213 1.218 330 830 3.862 3.868 3.874 3.880 3.886 3.892 3.898 3.904 3.909 3.915 3.921 830
340 1.218 1.223 1.227 1.232 1.237 1.242 1.246 1.251 1.256 1.261 1.265 340 840 3.921 3.927 3.933 3.939 3.945 3.951 3.957 3.963 3.969 3.975 3.980 840

350 1.265 1.270 1.275 1.280 1.284 1.289 1.294 1.299 1.304 1.308 1.313 350 850 3.980 3.986 3.992 3.998 4.004 4.010 4.016 4.022 4.028 4.034 4.040 850
360 1.313 1.318 1.323 1.328 1.332 1.337 1.342 1.347 1.352 1.356 1.361 360 860 4.040 4.046 4.052 4.058 4.064 4.069 4.075 4.081 4.087 4.093 4.099 860
370 1.361 1.366 1.371 1.376 1.381 1.386 1.390 1.395 1.400 1.405 1.410 370 870 4.099 4.105 4.111 4.117 4.123 4.129 4.135 4.141 4.147 4.153 4.159 870
380 1.410 1.415 1.420 1.425 1.429 1.434 1.439 1.444 1.449 1.454 1.459 380 880 4.159 4.165 4.171 4.177 4.183 4.189 4.195 4.201 4.207 4.213 4.219 880
390 1.459 1.464 1.469 1.473 1.478 1.483 1.488 1.493 1.498 1.503 1.508 390 890 4.219 4.225 4.231 4.237 4.243 4.249 4.255 4.261 4.267 4.273 4.279 890

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

Z-228
Revised Thermocouple + Thermocouple MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE
Grade Thermocouple Grade
–
Reference Tables NONE
32 to 2642°F
0 to 1450°C
ESTABLISHED Extension Grade
32 to 300°F
0 to 150°C

R
TYPE
Reference
Platinum-13% Rhodium
vs.
LIMITS OF ERROR
(whichever is greater)
Standard: 1.5°C or 0.25%

Tables
Platinum Special: 0.6°C or 0.1%
+ COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT:
N.I.S.T. Oxidizing or Inert; Do Not Insert in Metal Tubes;
Monograph 175 – Beware of Contamination; High Temperature
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °F
Revised to Extension REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 32°F
ITS-90 Grade

Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
900 4.279 4.285 4.291 4.297 4.303 4.309 4.315 4.321 4.327 4.333 4.339 900 1400 7.461 7.468 7.475 7.481 7.488 7.495 7.502 7.508 7.515 7.522 7.529 1400
910 4.339 4.345 4.351 4.357 4.363 4.369 4.375 4.381 4.387 4.393 4.399 910 1410 7.529 7.535 7.542 7.549 7.556 7.562 7.569 7.576 7.583 7.589 7.596 1410
920 4.399 4.405 4.411 4.417 4.423 4.429 4.435 4.441 4.447 4.453 4.459 920 1420 7.596 7.603 7.610 7.616 7.623 7.630 7.637 7.644 7.650 7.657 7.664 1420
930 4.459 4.465 4.471 4.477 4.483 4.489 4.495 4.502 4.508 4.514 4.520 930 1430 7.664 7.671 7.677 7.684 7.691 7.698 7.705 7.711 7.718 7.725 7.732 1430
940 4.520 4.526 4.532 4.538 4.544 4.550 4.556 4.562 4.568 4.574 4.580 940 1440 7.732 7.739 7.745 7.752 7.759 7.766 7.772 7.779 7.786 7.793 7.800 1440

950 4.580 4.586 4.593 4.599 4.605 4.611 4.617 4.623 4.629 4.635 4.641 950 1450 7.800 7.807 7.813 7.820 7.827 7.834 7.841 7.847 7.854 7.861 7.868 1450
960 4.641 4.647 4.653 4.659 4.666 4.672 4.678 4.684 4.690 4.696 4.702 960 1460 7.868 7.875 7.882 7.888 7.895 7.902 7.909 7.916 7.922 7.929 7.936 1460
970 4.702 4.708 4.714 4.720 4.727 4.733 4.739 4.745 4.751 4.757 4.763 970 1470 7.936 7.943 7.950 7.957 7.964 7.970 7.977 7.984 7.991 7.998 8.005 1470
980 4.763 4.769 4.775 4.782 4.788 4.794 4.800 4.806 4.812 4.818 4.824 980 1480 8.005 8.011 8.018 8.025 8.032 8.039 8.046 8.053 8.059 8.066 8.073 1480
990 4.824 4.831 4.837 4.843 4.849 4.855 4.861 4.867 4.874 4.880 4.886 990 1490 8.073 8.080 8.087 8.094 8.101 8.108 8.114 8.121 8.128 8.135 8.142 1490

1000 4.886 4.892 4.898 4.904 4.910 4.917 4.923 4.929 4.935 4.941 4.947 1000 1500 8.142 8.149 8.156 8.163 8.169 8.176 8.183 8.190 8.197 8.204 8.211 1500
1010 4.947 4.954 4.960 4.966 4.972 4.978 4.984 4.991 4.997 5.003 5.009 1010 1510 8.211 8.218 8.225 8.232 8.238 8.245 8.252 8.259 8.266 8.273 8.280 1510
1020 5.009 5.015 5.021 5.028 5.034 5.040 5.046 5.052 5.059 5.065 5.071 1020 1520 8.280 8.287 8.294 8.301 8.308 8.314 8.321 8.328 8.335 8.342 8.349 1520
1030 5.071 5.077 5.083 5.090 5.096 5.102 5.108 5.114 5.121 5.127 5.133 1030 1530 8.349 8.356 8.363 8.370 8.377 8.384 8.391 8.398 8.405 8.411 8.418 1530
1040 5.133 5.139 5.145 5.152 5.158 5.164 5.170 5.176 5.183 5.189 5.195 1040 1540 8.418 8.425 8.432 8.439 8.446 8.453 8.460 8.467 8.474 8.481 8.488 1540

1050 5.195 5.201 5.207 5.214 5.220 5.226 5.232 5.239 5.245 5.251 5.257 1050 1550 8.488 8.495 8.502 8.509 8.516 8.523 8.530 8.537 8.544 8.551 8.557 1550
1060 5.257 5.264 5.270 5.276 5.282 5.289 5.295 5.301 5.307 5.313 5.320 1060 1560 8.557 8.564 8.571 8.578 8.585 8.592 8.599 8.606 8.613 8.620 8.627 1560
1070 5.320 5.326 5.332 5.338 5.345 5.351 5.357 5.364 5.370 5.376 5.382 1070 1570 8.627 8.634 8.641 8.648 8.655 8.662 8.669 8.676 8.683 8.690 8.697 1570
1080 5.382 5.389 5.395 5.401 5.407 5.414 5.420 5.426 5.432 5.439 5.445 1080 1580 8.697 8.704 8.711 8.718 8.725 8.732 8.739 8.746 8.753 8.760 8.767 1580
1090 5.445 5.451 5.458 5.464 5.470 5.476 5.483 5.489 5.495 5.502 5.508 1090 1590 8.767 8.774 8.781 8.788 8.795 8.802 8.809 8.816 8.823 8.830 8.837 1590

1100 5.508 5.514 5.520 5.527 5.533 5.539 5.546 5.552 5.558 5.565 5.571 1100 1600 8.837 8.844 8.852 8.859 8.866 8.873 8.880 8.887 8.894 8.901 8.908 1600
1110 5.571 5.577 5.583 5.590 5.596 5.602 5.609 5.615 5.621 5.628 5.634 1110 1610 8.908 8.915 8.922 8.929 8.936 8.943 8.950 8.957 8.964 8.971 8.978 1610
1120 5.634 5.640 5.647 5.653 5.659 5.666 5.672 5.678 5.685 5.691 5.697 1120 1620 8.978 8.985 8.992 8.999 9.007 9.014 9.021 9.028 9.035 9.042 9.049 1620
1130 5.697 5.704 5.710 5.716 5.723 5.729 5.735 5.742 5.748 5.754 5.761 1130 1630 9.049 9.056 9.063 9.070 9.077 9.084 9.091 9.098 9.106 9.113 9.120 1630
1140 5.761 5.767 5.773 5.780 5.786 5.792 5.799 5.805 5.812 5.818 5.824 1140 1640 9.120 9.127 9.134 9.141 9.148 9.155 9.162 9.169 9.176 9.184 9.191 1640

1150 5.824 5.831 5.837 5.843 5.850 5.856 5.862 5.869 5.875 5.882 5.888 1150 1650 9.191 9.198 9.205 9.212 9.219 9.226 9.233 9.240 9.248 9.255 9.262 1650
1160 5.888 5.894 5.901 5.907 5.913 5.920 5.926 5.933 5.939 5.945 5.952 1160 1660 9.262 9.269 9.276 9.283 9.290 9.297 9.304 9.312 9.319 9.326 9.333 1660
1170 5.952 5.958 5.965 5.971 5.977 5.984 5.990 5.997 6.003 6.009 6.016 1170 1670 9.333 9.340 9.347 9.354 9.361 9.369 9.376 9.383 9.390 9.397 9.404 1670
1180 6.016 6.022 6.029 6.035 6.041 6.048 6.054 6.061 6.067 6.074 6.080 1180 1680 9.404 9.411 9.419 9.426 9.433 9.440 9.447 9.454 9.461 9.469 9.476 1680
1190 6.080 6.086 6.093 6.099 6.106 6.112 6.119 6.125 6.131 6.138 6.144 1190 1690 9.476 9.483 9.490 9.497 9.504 9.512 9.519 9.526 9.533 9.540 9.547 1690

1200 6.144 6.151 6.157 6.164 6.170 6.176 6.183 6.189 6.196 6.202 6.209 1200 1700 9.547 9.555 9.562 9.569 9.576 9.583 9.590 9.598 9.605 9.612 9.619 1700
1210 6.209 6.215 6.222 6.228 6.235 6.241 6.247 6.254 6.260 6.267 6.273 1210 1710 9.619 9.626 9.634 9.641 9.648 9.655 9.662 9.670 9.677 9.684 9.691 1710
1220 6.273 6.280 6.286 6.293 6.299 6.306 6.312 6.319 6.325 6.332 6.338 1220 1720 9.691 9.698 9.706 9.713 9.720 9.727 9.734 9.742 9.749 9.756 9.763 1720
1230 6.338 6.345 6.351 6.358 6.364 6.370 6.377 6.383 6.390 6.396 6.403 1230 1730 9.763 9.770 9.778 9.785 9.792 9.799 9.806 9.814 9.821 9.828 9.835 1730
1240 6.403 6.409 6.416 6.422 6.429 6.435 6.442 6.448 6.455 6.461 6.468 1240 1740 9.835 9.843 9.850 9.857 9.864 9.872 9.879 9.886 9.893 9.900 9.908 1740

1250 6.468 6.474 6.481 6.488 6.494 6.501 6.507 6.514 6.520 6.527 6.533 1250 1750 9.908 9.915 9.922 9.929 9.937 9.944 9.951 9.958 9.966 9.973 9.980 1750
1260 6.533 6.540 6.546 6.553 6.559 6.566 6.572 6.579 6.585 6.592 6.598 1260 1760 9.980 9.987 9.995 10.002 10.009 10.016 10.024 10.031 10.038 10.046 10.053 1760
1270 6.598 6.605 6.612 6.618 6.625 6.631 6.638 6.644 6.651 6.657 6.664 1270 1770 10.053 10.060 10.067 10.075 10.082 10.089 10.096 10.104 10.111 10.118 10.126 1770
1280 6.664 6.671 6.677 6.684 6.690 6.697 6.703 6.710 6.716 6.723 6.730 1280 1780 10.126 10.133 10.140 10.147 10.155 10.162 10.169 10.177 10.184 10.191 10.198 1780
1290 6.730 6.736 6.743 6.749 6.756 6.762 6.769 6.776 6.782 6.789 6.795 1290 1790 10.198 10.206 10.213 10.220 10.228 10.235 10.242 10.250 10.257 10.264 10.271 1790

1300 6.795 6.802 6.809 6.815 6.822 6.828 6.835 6.841 6.848 6.855 6.861 1300 1800 10.271 10.279 10.286 10.293 10.301 10.308 10.315 10.323 10.330 10.337 10.345 1800
1310 6.861 6.868 6.874 6.881 6.888 6.894 6.901 6.907 6.914 6.921 6.927 1310 1810 10.345 10.352 10.359 10.367 10.374 10.381 10.389 10.396 10.403 10.411 10.418 1810
1320 6.927 6.934 6.941 6.947 6.954 6.960 6.967 6.974 6.980 6.987 6.994 1320 1820 10.418 10.425 10.433 10.440 10.447 10.455 10.462 10.469 10.477 10.484 10.491 1820
1330 6.994 7.000 7.007 7.013 7.020 7.027 7.033 7.040 7.047 7.053 7.060 1330 1830 10.491 10.499 10.506 10.513 10.521 10.528 10.535 10.543 10.550 10.557 10.565 1830
1340 7.060 7.067 7.073 7.080 7.086 7.093 7.100 7.106 7.113 7.120 7.126 1340 1840 10.565 10.572 10.580 10.587 10.594 10.602 10.609 10.616 10.624 10.631 10.638 1840

1350 7.126 7.133 7.140 7.146 7.153 7.160 7.166 7.173 7.180 7.186 7.193 1350 1850 10.638 10.646 10.653 10.661 10.668 10.675 10.683 10.690 10.698 10.705 10.712 1850
1360 7.193 7.200 7.206 7.213 7.220 7.226 7.233 7.240 7.247 7.253 7.260 1360 1860 10.712 10.720 10.727 10.734 10.742 10.749 10.757 10.764 10.771 10.779 10.786 1860
1370 7.260 7.267 7.273 7.280 7.287 7.293 7.300 7.307 7.313 7.320 7.327 1370 1870 10.786 10.794 10.801 10.808 10.816 10.823 10.831 10.838 10.845 10.853 10.860 1870
1380 7.327 7.334 7.340 7.347 7.354 7.360 7.367 7.374 7.381 7.387 7.394 1380 1880 10.860 10.868 10.875 10.883 10.890 10.897 10.905 10.912 10.920 10.927 10.934 1880
1390 7.394 7.401 7.407 7.414 7.421 7.428 7.434 7.441 7.448 7.454 7.461 1390 1890 10.934 10.942 10.949 10.957 10.964 10.972 10.979 10.986 10.994 11.001 11.009 1890

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

Z-229
 MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE + Thermocouple
Revised Thermocouple
Thermocouple Grade Grade
–
32 to 2642°F
0 to 1450°C NONE Reference Tables
Extension Grade ESTABLISHED
32 to 300°F
0 to 150°C

R
LIMITS OF ERROR
(whichever is greater)
Standard: 1.5°C or 0.25%
Platinum-13% Rhodium
vs. TYPE
Reference
Special: 0.6°C or 0.1% Platinum Tables
COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT: +
Oxidizing or Inert; Do Not Insert in Metal Tubes; N.I.S.T.
Beware of Contamination; High Temperature – Monograph 175
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °F
REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 32°F Extension Revised to
Grade ITS-90
Z
Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts
°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
1900 11.009 11.016 11.024 11.031 11.039 11.046 11.053 11.061 11.068 11.076 11.083 1900 2400 14.848 14.856 14.864 14.871 14.879 14.887 14.895 14.903 14.911 14.918 14.926 2400
1910 11.083 11.091 11.098 11.106 11.113 11.121 11.128 11.135 11.143 11.150 11.158 1910 2410 14.926 14.934 14.942 14.950 14.958 14.965 14.973 14.981 14.989 14.997 15.005 2410
1920 11.158 11.165 11.173 11.180 11.188 11.195 11.203 11.210 11.218 11.225 11.233 1920 2420 15.005 15.012 15.020 15.028 15.036 15.044 15.052 15.059 15.067 15.075 15.083 2420
1930 11.233 11.240 11.247 11.255 11.262 11.270 11.277 11.285 11.292 11.300 11.307 1930 2430 15.083 15.091 15.099 15.106 15.114 15.122 15.130 15.138 15.146 15.153 15.161 2430
1940 11.307 11.315 11.322 11.330 11.337 11.345 11.352 11.360 11.367 11.375 11.382 1940 2440 15.161 15.169 15.177 15.185 15.193 15.200 15.208 15.216 15.224 15.232 15.240 2440

1950 11.382 11.390 11.397 11.405 11.412 11.420 11.427 11.435 11.442 11.450 11.457 1950 2450 15.240 15.248 15.255 15.263 15.271 15.279 15.287 15.295 15.302 15.310 15.318 2450
1960 11.457 11.465 11.472 11.480 11.487 11.495 11.502 11.510 11.518 11.525 11.533 1960 2460 15.318 15.326 15.334 15.342 15.349 15.357 15.365 15.373 15.381 15.389 15.397 2460
1970 11.533 11.540 11.548 11.555 11.563 11.570 11.578 11.585 11.593 11.600 11.608 1970 2470 15.397 15.404 15.412 15.420 15.428 15.436 15.444 15.451 15.459 15.467 15.475 2470
1980 11.608 11.615 11.623 11.631 11.638 11.646 11.653 11.661 11.668 11.676 11.683 1980 2480 15.475 15.483 15.491 15.499 15.506 15.514 15.522 15.530 15.538 15.546 15.553 2480
1990 11.683 11.691 11.698 11.706 11.714 11.721 11.729 11.736 11.744 11.751 11.759 1990 2490 15.553 15.561 15.569 15.577 15.585 15.593 15.601 15.608 15.616 15.624 15.632 2490

2000 11.759 11.766 11.774 11.782 11.789 11.797 11.804 11.812 11.819 11.827 11.834 2000 2500 15.632 15.640 15.648 15.655 15.663 15.671 15.679 15.687 15.695 15.703 15.710 2500
2010 11.834 11.842 11.850 11.857 11.865 11.872 11.880 11.888 11.895 11.903 11.910 2010 2510 15.710 15.718 15.726 15.734 15.742 15.750 15.758 15.765 15.773 15.781 15.789 2510
2020 11.910 11.918 11.925 11.933 11.941 11.948 11.956 11.963 11.971 11.979 11.986 2020 2520 15.789 15.797 15.805 15.812 15.820 15.828 15.836 15.844 15.852 15.860 15.867 2520
2030 11.986 11.994 12.001 12.009 12.016 12.024 12.032 12.039 12.047 12.054 12.062 2030 2530 15.867 15.875 15.883 15.891 15.899 15.907 15.915 15.922 15.930 15.938 15.946 2530
2040 12.062 12.070 12.077 12.085 12.092 12.100 12.108 12.115 12.123 12.131 12.138 2040 2540 15.946 15.954 15.962 15.969 15.977 15.985 15.993 16.001 16.009 16.017 16.024 2540

2050 12.138 12.146 12.153 12.161 12.169 12.176 12.184 12.191 12.199 12.207 12.214 2050 2550 16.024 16.032 16.040 16.048 16.056 16.064 16.071 16.079 16.087 16.095 16.103 2550
2060 12.214 12.222 12.230 12.237 12.245 12.252 12.260 12.268 12.275 12.283 12.291 2060 2560 16.103 16.111 16.119 16.126 16.134 16.142 16.150 16.158 16.166 16.174 16.181 2560
2070 12.291 12.298 12.306 12.313 12.321 12.329 12.336 12.344 12.352 12.359 12.367 2070 2570 16.181 16.189 16.197 16.205 16.213 16.221 16.228 16.236 16.244 16.252 16.260 2570
2080 12.367 12.375 12.382 12.390 12.397 12.405 12.413 12.420 12.428 12.436 12.443 2080 2580 16.260 16.268 16.276 16.283 16.291 16.299 16.307 16.315 16.323 16.330 16.338 2580
2090 12.443 12.451 12.459 12.466 12.474 12.482 12.489 12.497 12.505 12.512 12.520 2090 2590 16.338 16.346 16.354 16.362 16.370 16.378 16.385 16.393 16.401 16.409 16.417 2590

2100 12.520 12.528 12.535 12.543 12.551 12.558 12.566 12.574 12.581 12.589 12.597 2100 2600 16.417 16.425 16.432 16.440 16.448 16.456 16.464 16.472 16.480 16.487 16.495 2600
2110 12.597 12.604 12.612 12.620 12.627 12.635 12.643 12.650 12.658 12.666 12.673 2110 2610 16.495 16.503 16.511 16.519 16.527 16.534 16.542 16.550 16.558 16.566 16.574 2610
2120 12.673 12.681 12.689 12.696 12.704 12.712 12.719 12.727 12.735 12.742 12.750 2120 2620 16.574 16.582 16.589 16.597 16.605 16.613 16.621 16.629 16.636 16.644 16.652 2620
2130 12.750 12.758 12.765 12.773 12.781 12.788 12.796 12.804 12.812 12.819 12.827 2130 2630 16.652 16.660 16.668 16.676 16.683 16.691 16.699 16.707 16.715 16.723 16.731 2630
2140 12.827 12.835 12.842 12.850 12.858 12.865 12.873 12.881 12.889 12.896 12.904 2140 2640 16.731 16.738 16.746 16.754 16.762 16.770 16.778 16.785 16.793 16.801 16.809 2640

2150 12.904 12.912 12.919 12.927 12.935 12.942 12.950 12.958 12.966 12.973 12.981 2150 2650 16.809 16.817 16.825 16.832 16.840 16.848 16.856 16.864 16.872 16.879 16.887 2650
2160 12.981 12.989 12.996 13.004 13.012 13.019 13.027 13.035 13.043 13.050 13.058 2160 2660 16.887 16.895 16.903 16.911 16.919 16.926 16.934 16.942 16.950 16.958 16.966 2660
2170 13.058 13.066 13.073 13.081 13.089 13.097 13.104 13.112 13.120 13.128 13.135 2170 2670 16.966 16.973 16.981 16.989 16.997 17.005 17.013 17.020 17.028 17.036 17.044 2670
2180 13.135 13.143 13.151 13.158 13.166 13.174 13.182 13.189 13.197 13.205 13.213 2180 2680 17.044 17.052 17.060 17.067 17.075 17.083 17.091 17.099 17.107 17.114 17.122 2680
2190 13.213 13.220 13.228 13.236 13.243 13.251 13.259 13.267 13.274 13.282 13.290 2190 2690 17.122 17.130 17.138 17.146 17.154 17.161 17.169 17.177 17.185 17.193 17.200 2690

2200 13.290 13.298 13.305 13.313 13.321 13.329 13.336 13.344 13.352 13.359 13.367 2200 2700 17.200 17.208 17.216 17.224 17.232 17.240 17.247 17.255 17.263 17.271 17.279 2700
2210 13.367 13.375 13.383 13.390 13.398 13.406 13.414 13.421 13.429 13.437 13.445 2210 2710 17.279 17.286 17.294 17.302 17.310 17.318 17.326 17.333 17.341 17.349 17.357 2710
2220 13.445 13.452 13.460 13.468 13.476 13.483 13.491 13.499 13.507 13.514 13.522 2220 2720 17.357 17.365 17.373 17.380 17.388 17.396 17.404 17.412 17.419 17.427 17.435 2720
2230 13.522 13.530 13.538 13.545 13.553 13.561 13.569 13.577 13.584 13.592 13.600 2230 2730 17.435 17.443 17.451 17.458 17.466 17.474 17.482 17.490 17.498 17.505 17.513 2730
2240 13.600 13.608 13.615 13.623 13.631 13.639 13.646 13.654 13.662 13.670 13.677 2240 2740 17.513 17.521 17.529 17.537 17.544 17.552 17.560 17.568 17.576 17.583 17.591 2740

2250 13.677 13.685 13.693 13.701 13.709 13.716 13.724 13.732 13.740 13.747 13.755 2250 2750 17.591 17.599 17.607 17.615 17.622 17.630 17.638 17.646 17.654 17.661 17.669 2750
2260 13.755 13.763 13.771 13.778 13.786 13.794 13.802 13.810 13.817 13.825 13.833 2260 2760 17.669 17.677 17.685 17.693 17.700 17.708 17.716 17.724 17.732 17.739 17.747 2760
2270 13.833 13.841 13.848 13.856 13.864 13.872 13.880 13.887 13.895 13.903 13.911 2270 2770 17.747 17.755 17.763 17.771 17.778 17.786 17.794 17.802 17.810 17.817 17.825 2770
2280 13.911 13.919 13.926 13.934 13.942 13.950 13.957 13.965 13.973 13.981 13.989 2280 2780 17.825 17.833 17.841 17.849 17.856 17.864 17.872 17.880 17.888 17.895 17.903 2780
2290 13.989 13.996 14.004 14.012 14.020 14.028 14.035 14.043 14.051 14.059 14.066 2290 2790 17.903 17.911 17.919 17.926 17.934 17.942 17.950 17.958 17.965 17.973 17.981 2790

2300 14.066 14.074 14.082 14.090 14.098 14.105 14.113 14.121 14.129 14.137 14.144 2300 2800 17.981 17.989 17.997 18.004 18.012 18.020 18.028 18.035 18.043 18.051 18.059 2800
2310 14.144 14.152 14.160 14.168 14.176 14.183 14.191 14.199 14.207 14.215 14.222 2310 2810 18.059 18.067 18.074 18.082 18.090 18.098 18.105 18.113 18.121 18.129 18.137 2810
2320 14.222 14.230 14.238 14.246 14.254 14.261 14.269 14.277 14.285 14.293 14.300 2320 2820 18.137 18.144 18.152 18.160 18.168 18.175 18.183 18.191 18.199 18.206 18.214 2820
2330 14.300 14.308 14.316 14.324 14.332 14.340 14.347 14.355 14.363 14.371 14.379 2330 2830 18.214 18.222 18.230 18.238 18.245 18.253 18.261 18.269 18.276 18.284 18.292 2830
2340 14.379 14.386 14.394 14.402 14.410 14.418 14.425 14.433 14.441 14.449 14.457 2340 2840 18.292 18.300 18.307 18.315 18.323 18.331 18.338 18.346 18.354 18.362 18.369 2840

2350 14.457 14.465 14.472 14.480 14.488 14.496 14.504 14.511 14.519 14.527 14.535 2350 2850 18.369 18.377 18.385 18.393 18.400 18.408 18.416 18.424 18.431 18.439 18.447 2850
2360 14.535 14.543 14.551 14.558 14.566 14.574 14.582 14.590 14.597 14.605 14.613 2360 2860 18.447 18.455 18.462 18.470 18.478 18.486 18.493 18.501 18.509 18.517 18.524 2860
2370 14.613 14.621 14.629 14.637 14.644 14.652 14.660 14.668 14.676 14.683 14.691 2370 2870 18.524 18.532 18.540 18.548 18.555 18.563 18.571 18.579 18.586 18.594 18.602 2870
2380 14.691 14.699 14.707 14.715 14.723 14.730 14.738 14.746 14.754 14.762 14.770 2380 2880 18.602 18.610 18.617 18.625 18.633 18.640 18.648 18.656 18.664 18.671 18.679 2880
2390 14.770 14.777 14.785 14.793 14.801 14.809 14.817 14.824 14.832 14.840 14.848 2390 2890 18.679 18.687 18.695 18.702 18.710 18.718 18.725 18.733 18.741 18.749 18.756 2890

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

Z-230
Revised Thermocouple + Thermocouple MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE
Grade Thermocouple Grade
–
Reference Tables NONE
32 to 2642°F
0 to 1450°C
ESTABLISHED Extension Grade
32 to 300°F
0 to 150°C

R
TYPE
Reference
Platinum-13% Rhodium
vs.
LIMITS OF ERROR
(whichever is greater)
Standard: 1.5°C or 0.25%

Tables
Platinum Special: 0.6°C or 0.1%
+ COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT:
N.I.S.T. Oxidizing or Inert; Do Not Insert in Metal Tubes;
Monograph 175 – Beware of Contamination; High Temperature
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °F
Revised to Extension REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 32°F
ITS-90 Grade

Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
2900 18.756 18.764 18.772 18.779 18.787 18.795 18.803 18.810 18.818 18.826 18.834 2900 3100 20.281 20.289 20.296 20.304 20.311 20.319 20.326 20.333 20.341 20.348 20.356 3100
2910 18.834 18.841 18.849 18.857 18.864 18.872 18.880 18.887 18.895 18.903 18.911 2910 3110 20.356 20.363 20.371 20.378 20.385 20.393 20.400 20.407 20.415 20.422 20.430 3110
2920 18.911 18.918 18.926 18.934 18.941 18.949 18.957 18.965 18.972 18.980 18.988 2920 3120 20.430 20.437 20.444 20.452 20.459 20.466 20.474 20.481 20.488 20.496 20.503 3120
2930 18.988 18.995 19.003 19.011 19.018 19.026 19.034 19.042 19.049 19.057 19.065 2930 3130 20.503 20.510 20.518 20.525 20.532 20.540 20.547 20.554 20.562 20.569 20.576 3130
2940 19.065 19.072 19.080 19.088 19.095 19.103 19.111 19.118 19.126 19.134 19.141 2940 3140 20.576 20.583 20.591 20.598 20.605 20.612 20.620 20.627 20.634 20.641 20.649 3140

2950 19.141 19.149 19.157 19.165 19.172 19.180 19.188 19.195 19.203 19.211 19.218 2950 3150 20.649 20.656 20.663 20.670 20.678 20.685 20.692 20.699 20.706 20.714 20.721 3150
2960 19.218 19.226 19.234 19.241 19.249 19.257 19.264 19.272 19.280 19.287 19.295 2960 3160 20.721 20.728 20.735 20.742 20.749 20.756 20.764 20.771 20.778 20.785 20.792 3160
2970 19.295 19.303 19.310 19.318 19.326 19.333 19.341 19.349 19.356 19.364 19.372 2970 3170 20.792 20.799 20.806 20.813 20.821 20.828 20.835 20.842 20.849 20.856 20.863 3170
2980 19.372 19.379 19.387 19.395 19.402 19.410 19.418 19.425 19.433 19.440 19.448 2980 3180 20.863 20.870 20.877 20.884 20.891 20.898 20.905 20.912 20.919 20.926 20.933 3180
2990 19.448 19.456 19.463 19.471 19.479 19.486 19.494 19.502 19.509 19.517 19.525 2990 3190 20.933 20.940 20.947 20.954 20.961 20.968 20.975 20.982 20.989 20.996 21.003 3190

3000 19.525 19.532 19.540 19.547 19.555 19.563 19.570 19.578 19.586 19.593 19.601 3000 3200 21.003 21.010 21.016 21.023 21.030 21.037 21.044 21.051 21.058 21.065 21.071 3200
3010 19.601 19.609 19.616 19.624 19.631 19.639 19.647 19.654 19.662 19.670 19.677 3010 3210 21.071 21.078 21.085 21.092 21.099 3210
3020 19.677 19.685 19.692 19.700 19.708 19.715 19.723 19.730 19.738 19.746 19.753 3020
3030 19.753 19.761 19.769 19.776 19.784 19.791 19.799 19.807 19.814 19.822 19.829 3030
3040 19.829 19.837 19.845 19.852 19.860 19.867 19.875 19.882 19.890 19.898 19.905 3040

3050 19.905 19.913 19.920 19.928 19.936 19.943 19.951 19.958 19.966 19.973 19.981 3050
3060 19.981 19.989 19.996 20.004 20.011 20.019 20.026 20.034 20.041 20.049 20.056 3060
3070 20.056 20.064 20.072 20.079 20.087 20.094 20.102 20.109 20.117 20.124 20.132 3070
3080 20.132 20.139 20.147 20.154 20.162 20.169 20.177 20.184 20.192 20.199 20.207 3080
3090 20.207 20.214 20.222 20.229 20.237 20.244 20.252 20.259 20.266 20.274 20.281 3090
°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

Z-231
 MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE + Thermocouple
Revised Thermocouple
Thermocouple Grade Grade
–
32 to 3092°F
0 to 1700°C NONE Reference Tables
Extension Grade ESTABLISHED
32 to 212°F
0 to 100°C

B
LIMITS OF ERROR
(whichever is greater)
Standard: 0.5°C over 800°C
Platinum-30% Rhodium
vs. TYPE
Reference
Special: NOT ESTABLISHED Platinum-6% Rhodium Tables
COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT: +
Oxidizing or Inert; Do Not Insert in Metal Tubes; N.I.S.T.
Beware of Contamination; High Temperature; – Monograph 175
Common Use in Glass Industry
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °F Extension Revised to
REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 32°F Grade ITS-90
Z
Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts
°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
600 0.479 0.481 0.483 0.485 0.486 0.488 0.490 0.492 0.494 0.495 0.497 600
610 0.497 0.499 0.501 0.503 0.505 0.506 0.508 0.510 0.512 0.514 0.516 610
620 0.516 0.517 0.519 0.521 0.523 0.525 0.527 0.529 0.530 0.532 0.534 620
30 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 30 630 0.534 0.536 0.538 0.540 0.542 0.544 0.546 0.547 0.549 0.551 0.553 630
40 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 40 640 0.553 0.555 0.557 0.559 0.561 0.563 0.565 0.567 0.569 0.570 0.572 640

50 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 50 650 0.572 0.574 0.576 0.578 0.580 0.582 0.584 0.586 0.588 0.590 0.592 650
60 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 60 660 0.592 0.594 0.596 0.598 0.600 0.602 0.604 0.606 0.608 0.610 0.612 660
70 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 70 670 0.612 0.614 0.616 0.618 0.620 0.622 0.624 0.626 0.628 0.630 0.632 670
80 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 80 680 0.632 0.634 0.636 0.638 0.640 0.642 0.644 0.646 0.648 0.650 0.653 680
90 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 90 690 0.653 0.655 0.657 0.659 0.661 0.663 0.665 0.667 0.669 0.671 0.673 690

100 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 100 700 0.673 0.675 0.678 0.680 0.682 0.684 0.686 0.688 0.690 0.692 0.694 700
110 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 110 710 0.694 0.697 0.699 0.701 0.703 0.705 0.707 0.709 0.712 0.714 0.716 710
120 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.004 120 720 0.716 0.718 0.720 0.722 0.725 0.727 0.729 0.731 0.733 0.735 0.738 720
130 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.006 0.006 0.006 130 730 0.738 0.740 0.742 0.744 0.746 0.749 0.751 0.753 0.755 0.757 0.760 730
140 0.006 0.006 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.009 0.009 140 740 0.760 0.762 0.764 0.766 0.769 0.771 0.773 0.775 0.778 0.780 0.782 740

150 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.011 0.011 0.011 0.012 0.012 150 750 0.782 0.784 0.787 0.789 0.791 0.793 0.796 0.798 0.800 0.802 0.805 750
160 0.012 0.012 0.013 0.013 0.013 0.014 0.014 0.014 0.015 0.015 0.015 160 760 0.805 0.807 0.809 0.812 0.814 0.816 0.818 0.821 0.823 0.825 0.828 760
170 0.015 0.016 0.016 0.016 0.017 0.017 0.017 0.018 0.018 0.019 0.019 170 770 0.828 0.830 0.832 0.835 0.837 0.839 0.842 0.844 0.846 0.849 0.851 770
180 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.020 0.021 0.021 0.021 0.022 0.022 0.023 0.023 180 780 0.851 0.853 0.856 0.858 0.860 0.863 0.865 0.867 0.870 0.872 0.875 780
190 0.023 0.023 0.024 0.024 0.025 0.025 0.026 0.026 0.027 0.027 0.027 190 790 0.875 0.877 0.879 0.882 0.884 0.886 0.889 0.891 0.894 0.896 0.898 790

200 0.027 0.028 0.028 0.029 0.029 0.030 0.030 0.031 0.031 0.032 0.032 200 800 0.898 0.901 0.903 0.906 0.908 0.910 0.913 0.915 0.918 0.920 0.923 800
210 0.032 0.033 0.033 0.034 0.034 0.035 0.035 0.036 0.036 0.037 0.037 210 810 0.923 0.925 0.927 0.930 0.932 0.935 0.937 0.940 0.942 0.945 0.947 810
220 0.037 0.038 0.038 0.039 0.039 0.040 0.041 0.041 0.042 0.042 0.043 220 820 0.947 0.950 0.952 0.955 0.957 0.959 0.962 0.964 0.967 0.969 0.972 820
230 0.043 0.043 0.044 0.044 0.045 0.046 0.046 0.047 0.047 0.048 0.049 230 830 0.972 0.974 0.977 0.979 0.982 0.984 0.987 0.989 0.992 0.994 0.997 830
240 0.049 0.049 0.050 0.050 0.051 0.052 0.052 0.053 0.053 0.054 0.055 240 840 0.997 1.000 1.002 1.005 1.007 1.010 1.012 1.015 1.017 1.020 1.022 840

250 0.055 0.055 0.056 0.057 0.057 0.058 0.059 0.059 0.060 0.060 0.061 250 850 1.022 1.025 1.027 1.030 1.033 1.035 1.038 1.040 1.043 1.045 1.048 850
260 0.061 0.062 0.062 0.063 0.064 0.065 0.065 0.066 0.067 0.067 0.068 260 860 1.048 1.051 1.053 1.056 1.058 1.061 1.064 1.066 1.069 1.071 1.074 860
270 0.068 0.069 0.069 0.070 0.071 0.072 0.072 0.073 0.074 0.074 0.075 270 870 1.074 1.077 1.079 1.082 1.085 1.087 1.090 1.092 1.095 1.098 1.100 870
280 0.075 0.076 0.077 0.077 0.078 0.079 0.080 0.080 0.081 0.082 0.083 280 880 1.100 1.103 1.106 1.108 1.111 1.114 1.116 1.119 1.122 1.124 1.127 880
290 0.083 0.083 0.084 0.085 0.086 0.086 0.087 0.088 0.089 0.090 0.090 290 890 1.127 1.130 1.132 1.135 1.138 1.140 1.143 1.146 1.148 1.151 1.154 890

300 0.090 0.091 0.092 0.093 0.094 0.094 0.095 0.096 0.097 0.098 0.099 300 900 1.154 1.157 1.159 1.162 1.165 1.167 1.170 1.173 1.176 1.178 1.181 900
310 0.099 0.099 0.100 0.101 0.102 0.103 0.104 0.105 0.105 0.106 0.107 310 910 1.181 1.184 1.186 1.189 1.192 1.195 1.197 1.200 1.203 1.206 1.208 910
320 0.107 0.108 0.109 0.110 0.111 0.112 0.112 0.113 0.114 0.115 0.116 320 920 1.208 1.211 1.214 1.217 1.220 1.222 1.225 1.228 1.231 1.233 1.236 920
330 0.116 0.117 0.118 0.119 0.120 0.121 0.121 0.122 0.123 0.124 0.125 330 930 1.236 1.239 1.242 1.245 1.247 1.250 1.253 1.256 1.259 1.262 1.264 930
340 0.125 0.126 0.127 0.128 0.129 0.130 0.131 0.132 0.133 0.134 0.135 340 940 1.264 1.267 1.270 1.273 1.276 1.278 1.281 1.284 1.287 1.290 1.293 940

350 0.135 0.136 0.137 0.138 0.139 0.140 0.141 0.142 0.143 0.144 0.145 350 950 1.293 1.296 1.298 1.301 1.304 1.307 1.310 1.313 1.316 1.318 1.321 950
360 0.145 0.146 0.147 0.148 0.149 0.150 0.151 0.152 0.153 0.154 0.155 360 960 1.321 1.324 1.327 1.330 1.333 1.336 1.339 1.342 1.344 1.347 1.350 960
370 0.155 0.156 0.157 0.158 0.159 0.160 0.161 0.162 0.163 0.164 0.165 370 970 1.350 1.353 1.356 1.359 1.362 1.365 1.368 1.371 1.374 1.377 1.379 970
380 0.165 0.166 0.167 0.168 0.170 0.171 0.172 0.173 0.174 0.175 0.176 380 980 1.379 1.382 1.385 1.388 1.391 1.394 1.397 1.400 1.403 1.406 1.409 980
390 0.176 0.177 0.178 0.179 0.180 0.182 0.183 0.184 0.185 0.186 0.187 390 990 1.409 1.412 1.415 1.418 1.421 1.424 1.427 1.430 1.433 1.436 1.439 990

400 0.187 0.188 0.190 0.191 0.192 0.193 0.194 0.195 0.196 0.198 0.199 400 1000 1.439 1.442 1.445 1.448 1.451 1.454 1.457 1.460 1.463 1.466 1.469 1000
410 0.199 0.200 0.201 0.202 0.203 0.205 0.206 0.207 0.208 0.209 0.211 410 1010 1.469 1.472 1.475 1.478 1.481 1.484 1.487 1.490 1.493 1.496 1.499 1010
420 0.211 0.212 0.213 0.214 0.215 0.217 0.218 0.219 0.220 0.222 0.223 420 1020 1.499 1.502 1.505 1.508 1.511 1.515 1.518 1.521 1.524 1.527 1.530 1020
430 0.223 0.224 0.225 0.226 0.228 0.229 0.230 0.231 0.233 0.234 0.235 430 1030 1.530 1.533 1.536 1.539 1.542 1.545 1.548 1.552 1.555 1.558 1.561 1030
440 0.235 0.236 0.238 0.239 0.240 0.242 0.243 0.244 0.245 0.247 0.248 440 1040 1.561 1.564 1.567 1.570 1.573 1.576 1.580 1.583 1.586 1.589 1.592 1040

450 0.248 0.249 0.251 0.252 0.253 0.255 0.256 0.257 0.259 0.260 0.261 450 1050 1.592 1.595 1.598 1.601 1.605 1.608 1.611 1.614 1.617 1.620 1.624 1050
460 0.261 0.263 0.264 0.265 0.267 0.268 0.269 0.271 0.272 0.273 0.275 460 1060 1.624 1.627 1.630 1.633 1.636 1.639 1.643 1.646 1.649 1.652 1.655 1060
470 0.275 0.276 0.277 0.279 0.280 0.282 0.283 0.284 0.286 0.287 0.288 470 1070 1.655 1.659 1.662 1.665 1.668 1.671 1.675 1.678 1.681 1.684 1.687 1070
480 0.288 0.290 0.291 0.293 0.294 0.296 0.297 0.298 0.300 0.301 0.303 480 1080 1.687 1.691 1.694 1.697 1.700 1.704 1.707 1.710 1.713 1.716 1.720 1080
490 0.303 0.304 0.305 0.307 0.308 0.310 0.311 0.313 0.314 0.316 0.317 490 1090 1.720 1.723 1.726 1.729 1.733 1.736 1.739 1.743 1.746 1.749 1.752 1090

500 0.317 0.319 0.320 0.321 0.323 0.324 0.326 0.327 0.329 0.330 0.332 500 1100 1.752 1.756 1.759 1.762 1.765 1.769 1.772 1.775 1.779 1.782 1.785 1100
510 0.332 0.333 0.335 0.336 0.338 0.339 0.341 0.342 0.344 0.345 0.347 510 1110 1.785 1.789 1.792 1.795 1.798 1.802 1.805 1.808 1.812 1.815 1.818 1110
520 0.347 0.348 0.350 0.352 0.353 0.355 0.356 0.358 0.359 0.361 0.362 520 1120 1.818 1.822 1.825 1.828 1.832 1.835 1.838 1.842 1.845 1.849 1.852 1120
530 0.362 0.364 0.365 0.367 0.369 0.370 0.372 0.373 0.375 0.377 0.378 530 1130 1.852 1.855 1.859 1.862 1.865 1.869 1.872 1.875 1.879 1.882 1.886 1130
540 0.378 0.380 0.381 0.383 0.384 0.386 0.388 0.389 0.391 0.393 0.394 540 1140 1.886 1.889 1.892 1.896 1.899 1.903 1.906 1.909 1.913 1.916 1.920 1140

550 0.394 0.396 0.397 0.399 0.401 0.402 0.404 0.406 0.407 0.409 0.411 550 1150 1.920 1.923 1.926 1.930 1.933 1.937 1.940 1.944 1.947 1.950 1.954 1150
560 0.411 0.412 0.414 0.416 0.417 0.419 0.421 0.422 0.424 0.426 0.427 560 1160 1.954 1.957 1.961 1.964 1.968 1.971 1.975 1.978 1.981 1.985 1.988 1160
570 0.427 0.429 0.431 0.432 0.434 0.436 0.437 0.439 0.441 0.443 0.444 570 1170 1.988 1.992 1.995 1.999 2.002 2.006 2.009 2.013 2.016 2.020 2.023 1170
580 0.444 0.446 0.448 0.449 0.451 0.453 0.455 0.456 0.458 0.460 0.462 580 1180 2.023 2.027 2.030 2.034 2.037 2.041 2.044 2.048 2.051 2.055 2.058 1180
590 0.462 0.463 0.465 0.467 0.469 0.470 0.472 0.474 0.476 0.478 0.479 590 1190 2.058 2.062 2.065 2.069 2.072 2.076 2.079 2.083 2.086 2.090 2.094 1190

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

Z-232
Revised Thermocouple + Thermocouple
Grade
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE
Thermocouple Grade
–
Reference Tables NONE
32 to 3092°F
0 to 1700°C
ESTABLISHED Extension Grade
32 to 212°F
0 to 100°C

B
TYPE
Reference
Platinum-30% Rhodium
vs.
LIMITS OF ERROR
(whichever is greater)
Standard: 0.5°C over 800°C

Tables
Platinum-6% Rhodium Special: NOT ESTABLISHED
+ COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT:
N.I.S.T. Oxidizing or Inert; Do Not Insert in Metal Tubes;
Monograph 175 – Beware of Contamination; High Temperature;
Common Use in Glass Industry
Revised to Extension TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °F
Grade REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 32°F
ITS-90

Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
1200 2.094 2.097 2.101 2.104 2.108 2.111 2.115 2.118 2.122 2.126 2.129 1200 1800 4.673 4.678 4.683 4.688 4.693 4.698 4.703 4.708 4.713 4.718 4.723 1800
1210 2.129 2.133 2.136 2.140 2.143 2.147 2.151 2.154 2.158 2.161 2.165 1210 1810 4.723 4.728 4.733 4.738 4.743 4.748 4.754 4.759 4.764 4.769 4.774 1810
1220 2.165 2.169 2.172 2.176 2.179 2.183 2.187 2.190 2.194 2.197 2.201 1220 1820 4.774 4.779 4.784 4.789 4.794 4.799 4.804 4.809 4.814 4.819 4.824 1820
1230 2.201 2.205 2.208 2.212 2.216 2.219 2.223 2.226 2.230 2.234 2.237 1230 1830 4.824 4.829 4.834 4.839 4.844 4.850 4.855 4.860 4.865 4.870 4.875 1830
1240 2.237 2.241 2.245 2.248 2.252 2.256 2.259 2.263 2.267 2.270 2.274 1240 1840 4.875 4.880 4.885 4.890 4.895 4.900 4.905 4.911 4.916 4.921 4.926 1840

1250 2.274 2.278 2.281 2.285 2.289 2.292 2.296 2.300 2.303 2.307 2.311 1250 1850 4.926 4.931 4.936 4.941 4.946 4.951 4.957 4.962 4.967 4.972 4.977 1850
1260 2.311 2.315 2.318 2.322 2.326 2.329 2.333 2.337 2.341 2.344 2.348 1260 1860 4.977 4.982 4.987 4.992 4.998 5.003 5.008 5.013 5.018 5.023 5.028 1860
1270 2.348 2.352 2.355 2.359 2.363 2.367 2.370 2.374 2.378 2.382 2.385 1270 1870 5.028 5.034 5.039 5.044 5.049 5.054 5.059 5.065 5.070 5.075 5.080 1870
1280 2.385 2.389 2.393 2.397 2.400 2.404 2.408 2.412 2.416 2.419 2.423 1280 1880 5.080 5.085 5.090 5.096 5.101 5.106 5.111 5.116 5.121 5.127 5.132 1880
1290 2.423 2.427 2.431 2.434 2.438 2.442 2.446 2.450 2.453 2.457 2.461 1290 1890 5.132 5.137 5.142 5.147 5.153 5.158 5.163 5.168 5.173 5.179 5.184 1890

1300 2.461 2.465 2.469 2.472 2.476 2.480 2.484 2.488 2.492 2.495 2.499 1300 1900 5.184 5.189 5.194 5.199 5.205 5.210 5.215 5.220 5.225 5.231 5.236 1900
1310 2.499 2.503 2.507 2.511 2.515 2.518 2.522 2.526 2.530 2.534 2.538 1310 1910 5.236 5.241 5.246 5.252 5.257 5.262 5.267 5.273 5.278 5.283 5.288 1910
1320 2.538 2.541 2.545 2.549 2.553 2.557 2.561 2.565 2.569 2.572 2.576 1320 1920 5.288 5.294 5.299 5.304 5.309 5.315 5.320 5.325 5.330 5.336 5.341 1920
1330 2.576 2.580 2.584 2.588 2.592 2.596 2.600 2.604 2.607 2.611 2.615 1330 1930 5.341 5.346 5.351 5.357 5.362 5.367 5.373 5.378 5.383 5.388 5.394 1930
1340 2.615 2.619 2.623 2.627 2.631 2.635 2.639 2.643 2.647 2.651 2.654 1340 1940 5.394 5.399 5.404 5.410 5.415 5.420 5.425 5.431 5.436 5.441 5.447 1940

1350 2.654 2.658 2.662 2.666 2.670 2.674 2.678 2.682 2.686 2.690 2.694 1350 1950 5.447 5.452 5.457 5.463 5.468 5.473 5.479 5.484 5.489 5.495 5.500 1950
1360 2.694 2.698 2.702 2.706 2.710 2.714 2.718 2.722 2.726 2.730 2.734 1360 1960 5.500 5.505 5.511 5.516 5.521 5.527 5.532 5.537 5.543 5.548 5.553 1960
1370 2.734 2.738 2.742 2.746 2.750 2.754 2.758 2.762 2.766 2.770 2.774 1370 1970 5.553 5.559 5.564 5.569 5.575 5.580 5.585 5.591 5.596 5.601 5.607 1970
1380 2.774 2.778 2.782 2.786 2.790 2.794 2.798 2.802 2.806 2.810 2.814 1380 1980 5.607 5.612 5.618 5.623 5.628 5.634 5.639 5.644 5.650 5.655 5.661 1980
1390 2.814 2.818 2.822 2.826 2.830 2.834 2.838 2.842 2.846 2.850 2.854 1390 1990 5.661 5.666 5.671 5.677 5.682 5.688 5.693 5.698 5.704 5.709 5.715 1990

1400 2.854 2.859 2.863 2.867 2.871 2.875 2.879 2.883 2.887 2.891 2.895 1400 2000 5.715 5.720 5.725 5.731 5.736 5.742 5.747 5.752 5.758 5.763 5.769 2000
1410 2.895 2.899 2.903 2.908 2.912 2.916 2.920 2.924 2.928 2.932 2.936 1410 2010 5.769 5.774 5.780 5.785 5.790 5.796 5.801 5.807 5.812 5.818 5.823 2010
1420 2.936 2.940 2.944 2.949 2.953 2.957 2.961 2.965 2.969 2.973 2.978 1420 2020 5.823 5.828 5.834 5.839 5.845 5.850 5.856 5.861 5.867 5.872 5.878 2020
1430 2.978 2.982 2.986 2.990 2.994 2.998 3.002 3.007 3.011 3.015 3.019 1430 2030 5.878 5.883 5.888 5.894 5.899 5.905 5.910 5.916 5.921 5.927 5.932 2030
1440 3.019 3.023 3.027 3.032 3.036 3.040 3.044 3.048 3.052 3.057 3.061 1440 2040 5.932 5.938 5.943 5.949 5.954 5.960 5.965 5.971 5.976 5.982 5.987 2040

1450 3.061 3.065 3.069 3.073 3.078 3.082 3.086 3.090 3.094 3.099 3.103 1450 2050 5.987 5.993 5.998 6.004 6.009 6.015 6.020 6.026 6.031 6.037 6.042 2050
1460 3.103 3.107 3.111 3.116 3.120 3.124 3.128 3.132 3.137 3.141 3.145 1460 2060 6.042 6.048 6.053 6.059 6.064 6.070 6.075 6.081 6.086 6.092 6.098 2060
1470 3.145 3.149 3.154 3.158 3.162 3.166 3.171 3.175 3.179 3.183 3.188 1470 2070 6.098 6.103 6.109 6.114 6.120 6.125 6.131 6.136 6.142 6.147 6.153 2070
1480 3.188 3.192 3.196 3.200 3.205 3.209 3.213 3.218 3.222 3.226 3.230 1480 2080 6.153 6.159 6.164 6.170 6.175 6.181 6.186 6.192 6.197 6.203 6.209 2080
1490 3.230 3.235 3.239 3.243 3.248 3.252 3.256 3.261 3.265 3.269 3.273 1490 2090 6.209 6.214 6.220 6.225 6.231 6.237 6.242 6.248 6.253 6.259 6.264 2090

1500 3.273 3.278 3.282 3.286 3.291 3.295 3.299 3.304 3.308 3.312 3.317 1500 2100 6.264 6.270 6.276 6.281 6.287 6.292 6.298 6.304 6.309 6.315 6.320 2100
1510 3.317 3.321 3.325 3.330 3.334 3.338 3.343 3.347 3.352 3.356 3.360 1510 2110 6.320 6.326 6.332 6.337 6.343 6.349 6.354 6.360 6.365 6.371 6.377 2110
1520 3.360 3.365 3.369 3.373 3.378 3.382 3.386 3.391 3.395 3.400 3.404 1520 2120 6.377 6.382 6.388 6.394 6.399 6.405 6.410 6.416 6.422 6.427 6.433 2120
1530 3.404 3.408 3.413 3.417 3.422 3.426 3.430 3.435 3.439 3.444 3.448 1530 2130 6.433 6.439 6.444 6.450 6.456 6.461 6.467 6.473 6.478 6.484 6.490 2130
1540 3.448 3.452 3.457 3.461 3.466 3.470 3.474 3.479 3.483 3.488 3.492 1540 2140 6.490 6.495 6.501 6.507 6.512 6.518 6.524 6.529 6.535 6.541 6.546 2140

1550 3.492 3.497 3.501 3.506 3.510 3.514 3.519 3.523 3.528 3.532 3.537 1550 2150 6.546 6.552 6.558 6.563 6.569 6.575 6.580 6.586 6.592 6.597 6.603 2150
1560 3.537 3.541 3.546 3.550 3.555 3.559 3.563 3.568 3.572 3.577 3.581 1560 2160 6.603 6.609 6.615 6.620 6.626 6.632 6.637 6.643 6.649 6.655 6.660 2160
1570 3.581 3.586 3.590 3.595 3.599 3.604 3.608 3.613 3.617 3.622 3.626 1570 2170 6.660 6.666 6.672 6.677 6.683 6.689 6.695 6.700 6.706 6.712 6.718 2170
1580 3.626 3.631 3.635 3.640 3.644 3.649 3.653 3.658 3.662 3.667 3.672 1580 2180 6.718 6.723 6.729 6.735 6.740 6.746 6.752 6.758 6.763 6.769 6.775 2180
1590 3.672 3.676 3.681 3.685 3.690 3.694 3.699 3.703 3.708 3.712 3.717 1590 2190 6.775 6.781 6.786 6.792 6.798 6.804 6.809 6.815 6.821 6.827 6.833 2190

1600 3.717 3.722 3.726 3.731 3.735 3.740 3.744 3.749 3.753 3.758 3.763 1600 2200 6.833 6.838 6.844 6.850 6.856 6.861 6.867 6.873 6.879 6.884 6.890 2200
1610 3.763 3.767 3.772 3.776 3.781 3.786 3.790 3.795 3.799 3.804 3.809 1610 2210 6.890 6.896 6.902 6.908 6.913 6.919 6.925 6.931 6.937 6.942 6.948 2210
1620 3.809 3.813 3.818 3.822 3.827 3.832 3.836 3.841 3.845 3.850 3.855 1620 2220 6.948 6.954 6.960 6.966 6.971 6.977 6.983 6.989 6.995 7.000 7.006 2220
1630 3.855 3.859 3.864 3.869 3.873 3.878 3.882 3.887 3.892 3.896 3.901 1630 2230 7.006 7.012 7.018 7.024 7.030 7.035 7.041 7.047 7.053 7.059 7.065 2230
1640 3.901 3.906 3.910 3.915 3.920 3.924 3.929 3.934 3.938 3.943 3.948 1640 2240 7.065 7.070 7.076 7.082 7.088 7.094 7.100 7.105 7.111 7.117 7.123 2240

1650 3.948 3.952 3.957 3.962 3.966 3.971 3.976 3.980 3.985 3.990 3.994 1650 2250 7.123 7.129 7.135 7.141 7.146 7.152 7.158 7.164 7.170 7.176 7.182 2250
1660 3.994 3.999 4.004 4.009 4.013 4.018 4.023 4.027 4.032 4.037 4.041 1660 2260 7.182 7.187 7.193 7.199 7.205 7.211 7.217 7.223 7.229 7.234 7.240 2260
1670 4.041 4.046 4.051 4.056 4.060 4.065 4.070 4.075 4.079 4.084 4.089 1670 2270 7.240 7.246 7.252 7.258 7.264 7.270 7.276 7.281 7.287 7.293 7.299 2270
1680 4.089 4.093 4.098 4.103 4.108 4.112 4.117 4.122 4.127 4.131 4.136 1680 2280 7.299 7.305 7.311 7.317 7.323 7.329 7.335 7.340 7.346 7.352 7.358 2280
1690 4.136 4.141 4.146 4.151 4.155 4.160 4.165 4.170 4.174 4.179 4.184 1690 2290 7.358 7.364 7.370 7.376 7.382 7.388 7.394 7.400 7.406 7.412 7.417 2290

1700 4.184 4.189 4.194 4.198 4.203 4.208 4.213 4.217 4.222 4.227 4.232 1700 2300 7.417 7.423 7.429 7.435 7.441 7.447 7.453 7.459 7.465 7.471 7.477 2300
1710 4.232 4.237 4.242 4.246 4.251 4.256 4.261 4.266 4.270 4.275 4.280 1710 2310 7.477 7.483 7.489 7.495 7.501 7.507 7.512 7.518 7.524 7.530 7.536 2310
1720 4.280 4.285 4.290 4.295 4.299 4.304 4.309 4.314 4.319 4.324 4.328 1720 2320 7.536 7.542 7.548 7.554 7.560 7.566 7.572 7.578 7.584 7.590 7.596 2320
1730 4.328 4.333 4.338 4.343 4.348 4.353 4.358 4.362 4.367 4.372 4.377 1730 2330 7.596 7.602 7.608 7.614 7.620 7.626 7.632 7.638 7.644 7.650 7.656 2330
1740 4.377 4.382 4.387 4.392 4.397 4.401 4.406 4.411 4.416 4.421 4.426 1740 2340 7.656 7.662 7.668 7.674 7.680 7.686 7.692 7.698 7.704 7.710 7.716 2340

1750 4.426 4.431 4.436 4.441 4.445 4.450 4.455 4.460 4.465 4.470 4.475 1750 2350 7.716 7.722 7.728 7.734 7.740 7.746 7.752 7.758 7.764 7.770 7.776 2350
1760 4.475 4.480 4.485 4.490 4.495 4.500 4.504 4.509 4.514 4.519 4.524 1760 2360 7.776 7.782 7.788 7.794 7.800 7.806 7.812 7.818 7.824 7.830 7.836 2360
1770 4.524 4.529 4.534 4.539 4.544 4.549 4.554 4.559 4.564 4.569 4.574 1770 2370 7.836 7.842 7.848 7.854 7.860 7.866 7.872 7.878 7.884 7.891 7.897 2370
1780 4.574 4.579 4.584 4.589 4.593 4.598 4.603 4.608 4.613 4.618 4.623 1780 2380 7.897 7.903 7.909 7.915 7.921 7.927 7.933 7.939 7.945 7.951 7.957 2380
1790 4.623 4.628 4.633 4.638 4.643 4.648 4.653 4.658 4.663 4.668 4.673 1790 2390 7.957 7.963 7.969 7.975 7.981 7.987 7.994 8.000 8.006 8.012 8.018 2390

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

Z-233
 MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE + Thermocouple
Revised Thermocouple
Thermocouple Grade Grade
–
32 to 3092°F
0 to 1700°C NONE Reference Tables
Extension Grade ESTABLISHED
32 to 212°F
0 to 100°C

B
LIMITS OF ERROR
(whichever is greater)
Standard: 0.5°C over 800°C
Platinum-30% Rhodium
vs. TYPE
Reference
Special: NOT ESTABLISHED Platinum-6% Rhodium Tables
COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT: +
Oxidizing or Inert; Do Not Insert in Metal Tubes; N.I.S.T.
Beware of Contamination; High Temperature; – Monograph 175
Common Use in Glass Industry
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °F Extension Revised to
REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 32°F Grade ITS-90
Z
Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts
°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
2400 8.018 8.024 8.030 8.036 8.042 8.048 8.054 8.060 8.066 8.073 8.079 2400
2410 8.079 8.085 8.091 8.097 8.103 8.109 8.115 8.121 8.127 8.134 8.140 2410 2900 11.185 11.192 11.198 11.205 11.211 11.218 11.224 11.231 11.237 11.244 11.250 2900
2420 8.140 8.146 8.152 8.158 8.164 8.170 8.176 8.182 8.188 8.195 8.201 2420 2910 11.250 11.257 11.263 11.270 11.276 11.282 11.289 11.295 11.302 11.308 11.315 2910
2430 8.201 8.207 8.213 8.219 8.225 8.231 8.237 8.244 8.250 8.256 8.262 2430 2920 11.315 11.321 11.328 11.334 11.341 11.347 11.354 11.360 11.367 11.373 11.380 2920
2440 8.262 8.268 8.274 8.280 8.286 8.293 8.299 8.305 8.311 8.317 8.323 2440 2930 11.380 11.386 11.393 11.399 11.406 11.412 11.419 11.425 11.432 11.438 11.445 2930
2940 11.445 11.451 11.458 11.464 11.471 11.477 11.484 11.490 11.497 11.503 11.510 2940
2450 8.323 8.329 8.336 8.342 8.348 8.354 8.360 8.366 8.372 8.379 8.385 2450
2460 8.385 8.391 8.397 8.403 8.409 8.416 8.422 8.428 8.434 8.440 8.446 2460 2950 11.510 11.516 11.523 11.529 11.536 11.542 11.549 11.555 11.562 11.568 11.575 2950
2470 8.446 8.453 8.459 8.465 8.471 8.477 8.483 8.490 8.496 8.502 8.508 2470 2960 11.575 11.582 11.588 11.595 11.601 11.608 11.614 11.621 11.627 11.634 11.640 2960
2480 8.508 8.514 8.521 8.527 8.533 8.539 8.545 8.551 8.558 8.564 8.570 2480 2970 11.640 11.647 11.653 11.660 11.666 11.673 11.679 11.686 11.692 11.699 11.705 2970
2490 8.570 8.576 8.582 8.589 8.595 8.601 8.607 8.613 8.620 8.626 8.632 2490 2980 11.705 11.712 11.718 11.725 11.731 11.738 11.744 11.751 11.757 11.764 11.770 2980
2990 11.770 11.777 11.783 11.790 11.796 11.803 11.809 11.816 11.822 11.829 11.835 2990
2500 8.632 8.638 8.644 8.651 8.657 8.663 8.669 8.675 8.682 8.688 8.694 2500
2510 8.694 8.700 8.707 8.713 8.719 8.725 8.731 8.738 8.744 8.750 8.756 2510 3000 11.835 11.842 11.848 11.855 11.861 11.868 11.874 11.881 11.887 11.894 11.900 3000
2520 8.756 8.763 8.769 8.775 8.781 8.787 8.794 8.800 8.806 8.812 8.819 2520 3010 11.900 11.907 11.913 11.920 11.926 11.933 11.939 11.946 11.952 11.959 11.965 3010
2530 8.819 8.825 8.831 8.837 8.844 8.850 8.856 8.862 8.869 8.875 8.881 2530 3020 11.965 11.972 11.978 11.985 11.991 11.998 12.004 12.011 12.017 12.024 12.030 3020
2540 8.881 8.887 8.894 8.900 8.906 8.912 8.919 8.925 8.931 8.937 8.944 2540 3030 12.030 12.037 12.043 12.050 12.056 12.063 12.069 12.076 12.082 12.089 12.095 3030
3040 12.095 12.102 12.108 12.115 12.121 12.128 12.134 12.141 12.147 12.154 12.160 3040
2550 8.944 8.950 8.956 8.962 8.969 8.975 8.981 8.988 8.994 9.000 9.006 2550
2560 9.006 9.013 9.019 9.025 9.031 9.038 9.044 9.050 9.057 9.063 9.069 2560 3050 12.160 12.166 12.173 12.179 12.186 12.192 12.199 12.205 12.212 12.218 12.225 3050
2570 9.069 9.075 9.082 9.088 9.094 9.101 9.107 9.113 9.119 9.126 9.132 2570 3060 12.225 12.231 12.238 12.244 12.251 12.257 12.264 12.270 12.277 12.283 12.290 3060
2580 9.132 9.138 9.145 9.151 9.157 9.164 9.170 9.176 9.182 9.189 9.195 2580 3070 12.290 12.296 12.303 12.309 12.316 12.322 12.329 12.335 12.342 12.348 12.355 3070
2590 9.195 9.201 9.208 9.214 9.220 9.227 9.233 9.239 9.245 9.252 9.258 2590 3080 12.355 12.361 12.368 12.374 12.381 12.387 12.394 12.400 12.407 12.413 12.420 3080
3090 12.420 12.426 12.433 12.439 12.446 12.452 12.458 12.465 12.471 12.478 12.484 3090
2600 9.258 9.264 9.271 9.277 9.283 9.290 9.296 9.302 9.309 9.315 9.321 2600
2610 9.321 9.328 9.334 9.340 9.347 9.353 9.359 9.366 9.372 9.378 9.385 2610 3100 12.484 12.491 12.497 12.504 12.510 12.517 12.523 12.530 12.536 12.543 12.549 3100
2620 9.385 9.391 9.397 9.404 9.410 9.416 9.423 9.429 9.435 9.442 9.448 2620 3110 12.549 12.556 12.562 12.569 12.575 12.582 12.588 12.595 12.601 12.607 12.614 3110
2630 9.448 9.454 9.461 9.467 9.473 9.480 9.486 9.492 9.499 9.505 9.511 2630 3120 12.614 12.620 12.627 12.633 12.640 12.646 12.653 12.659 12.666 12.672 12.679 3120
2640 9.511 9.518 9.524 9.530 9.537 9.543 9.550 9.556 9.562 9.569 9.575 2640 3130 12.679 12.685 12.692 12.698 12.704 12.711 12.717 12.724 12.730 12.737 12.743 3130
3140 12.743 12.750 12.756 12.763 12.769 12.776 12.782 12.789 12.795 12.801 12.808 3140
2650 9.575 9.581 9.588 9.594 9.600 9.607 9.613 9.619 9.626 9.632 9.639 2650
2660 9.639 9.645 9.651 9.658 9.664 9.670 9.677 9.683 9.690 9.696 9.702 2660 3150 12.808 12.814 12.821 12.827 12.834 12.840 12.847 12.853 12.860 12.866 12.872 3150
2670 9.702 9.709 9.715 9.721 9.728 9.734 9.741 9.747 9.753 9.760 9.766 2670 3160 12.872 12.879 12.885 12.892 12.898 12.905 12.911 12.918 12.924 12.931 12.937 3160
2680 9.766 9.772 9.779 9.785 9.792 9.798 9.804 9.811 9.817 9.824 9.830 2680 3170 12.937 12.943 12.950 12.956 12.963 12.969 12.976 12.982 12.989 12.995 13.001 3170
2690 9.830 9.836 9.843 9.849 9.856 9.862 9.868 9.875 9.881 9.888 9.894 2690 3180 13.001 13.008 13.014 13.021 13.027 13.034 13.040 13.047 13.053 13.059 13.066 3180
3190 13.066 13.072 13.079 13.085 13.092 13.098 13.104 13.111 13.117 13.124 13.130 3190
2700 9.894 9.900 9.907 9.913 9.920 9.926 9.932 9.939 9.945 9.952 9.958 2700
2710 9.958 9.964 9.971 9.977 9.984 9.990 9.996 10.003 10.009 10.016 10.022 2710 3200 13.130 13.137 13.143 13.149 13.156 13.162 13.169 13.175 13.182 13.188 13.194 3200
2720 10.022 10.028 10.035 10.041 10.048 10.054 10.061 10.067 10.073 10.080 10.086 2720 3210 13.194 13.201 13.207 13.214 13.220 13.227 13.233 13.239 13.246 13.252 13.259 3210
2730 10.086 10.093 10.099 10.105 10.112 10.118 10.125 10.131 10.138 10.144 10.150 2730 3220 13.259 13.265 13.271 13.278 13.284 13.291 13.297 13.304 13.310 13.316 13.323 3220
2740 10.150 10.157 10.163 10.170 10.176 10.183 10.189 10.195 10.202 10.208 10.215 2740 3230 13.323 13.329 13.336 13.342 13.348 13.355 13.361 13.368 13.374 13.380 13.387 3230
3240 13.387 13.393 13.400 13.406 13.412 13.419 13.425 13.432 13.438 13.444 13.451 3240
2750 10.215 10.221 10.228 10.234 10.240 10.247 10.253 10.260 10.266 10.273 10.279 2750
2760 10.279 10.286 10.292 10.298 10.305 10.311 10.318 10.324 10.331 10.337 10.344 2760 3250 13.451 13.457 13.464 13.470 13.476 13.483 13.489 13.496 13.502 13.508 13.515 3250
2770 10.344 10.350 10.356 10.363 10.369 10.376 10.382 10.389 10.395 10.402 10.408 2770 3260 13.515 13.521 13.527 13.534 13.540 13.547 13.553 13.559 13.566 13.572 13.579 3260
2780 10.408 10.414 10.421 10.427 10.434 10.440 10.447 10.453 10.460 10.466 10.473 2780 3270 13.579 13.585 13.591 13.598 13.604 13.610 13.617 13.623 13.630 13.636 13.642 3270
2790 10.473 10.479 10.485 10.492 10.498 10.505 10.511 10.518 10.524 10.531 10.537 2790 3280 13.642 13.649 13.655 13.661 13.668 13.674 13.680 13.687 13.693 13.700 13.706 3280
3290 13.706 13.712 13.719 13.725 13.731 13.738 13.744 13.750 13.757 13.763 13.769 3290
2800 10.537 10.544 10.550 10.556 10.563 10.569 10.576 10.582 10.589 10.595 10.602 2800
2810 10.602 10.608 10.615 10.621 10.628 10.634 10.641 10.647 10.653 10.660 10.666 2810 3300 13.769 13.776 13.782 13.789 13.795 13.801 13.808 13.814 13.820 3300
2820 10.666 10.673 10.679 10.686 10.692 10.699 10.705 10.712 10.718 10.725 10.731 2820
2830 10.731 10.738 10.744 10.751 10.757 10.763 10.770 10.776 10.783 10.789 10.796 2830
2840 10.796 10.802 10.809 10.815 10.822 10.828 10.835 10.841 10.848 10.854 10.861 2840

2850 10.861 10.867 10.874 10.880 10.887 10.893 10.900 10.906 10.913 10.919 10.925 2850
2860 10.925 10.932 10.938 10.945 10.951 10.958 10.964 10.971 10.977 10.984 10.990 2860
2870 10.990 10.997 11.003 11.010 11.016 11.023 11.029 11.036 11.042 11.049 11.055 2870
2880 11.055 11.062 11.068 11.075 11.081 11.088 11.094 11.101 11.107 11.114 11.120 2880
2890 11.120 11.127 11.133 11.140 11.146 11.153 11.159 11.166 11.172 11.179 11.185 2890
°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

Z-234
Revised Thermocouple + Thermocouple
Grade
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE
Thermocouple Grade
–
Reference Tables – 450 to 2372°F
– 270 to 1300°C
Extension Grade
Nickel-14.2% 32 to 392°F
0 to 200°C

N
TYPE
Reference
Chromium-1.4% Silicon
vs.
Nickel-4.4% Silicon-
LIMITS OF ERROR
(whichever is greater)
Standard: 2.2°C or 0.75% Above 0°C
2.2°C or 2.0% Below 0°C
Tables 0.1% Magnesium +
Special: 1.1°C or 0.4%
N.I.S.T. COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT:
Monograph 175 – Alternative to Type K; More Stable
at High Temperatures
Revised to Extension TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °F
REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 32°F
ITS-90 Grade

Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts

°F -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
100 1.004 1.019 1.034 1.049 1.065 1.080 1.095 1.110 1.125 1.141 1.156 100
110 1.156 1.171 1.186 1.202 1.217 1.232 1.248 1.263 1.278 1.294 1.309 110
120 1.309 1.324 1.340 1.355 1.371 1.386 1.402 1.417 1.432 1.448 1.463 120
130 1.463 1.479 1.494 1.510 1.525 1.541 1.557 1.572 1.588 1.603 1.619 130
-450 -4.345 -4.345 -4.345 -4.344 -4.344 -450 140 1.619 1.635 1.650 1.666 1.682 1.697 1.713 1.729 1.744 1.760 1.776 140

-440 -4.344 -4.344 -4.343 -4.343 -4.342 -4.342 -4.341 -4.341 -4.340 -4.340 -4.339 -440 150 1.776 1.791 1.807 1.823 1.839 1.855 1.870 1.886 1.902 1.918 1.934 150
-430 -4.339 -4.338 -4.337 -4.337 -4.336 -4.335 -4.334 -4.333 -4.332 -4.331 -4.330 -430 160 1.934 1.950 1.965 1.981 1.997 2.013 2.029 2.045 2.061 2.077 2.093 160
-420 -4.330 -4.329 -4.327 -4.326 -4.325 -4.324 -4.322 -4.321 -4.319 -4.318 -4.316 -420 170 2.093 2.109 2.125 2.141 2.157 2.173 2.189 2.205 2.221 2.237 2.253 170
-410 -4.316 -4.315 -4.313 -4.312 -4.310 -4.308 -4.306 -4.305 -4.303 -4.301 -4.299 -410 180 2.253 2.269 2.285 2.301 2.318 2.334 2.350 2.366 2.382 2.398 2.415 180
-400 -4.299 -4.297 -4.295 -4.293 -4.291 -4.288 -4.286 -4.284 -4.282 -4.279 -4.277 -400 190 2.415 2.431 2.447 2.463 2.480 2.496 2.512 2.528 2.545 2.561 2.577 190

-390 -4.277 -4.275 -4.272 -4.270 -4.267 -4.264 -4.262 -4.259 -4.256 -4.254 -4.251 -390 200 2.577 2.594 2.610 2.626 2.643 2.659 2.676 2.692 2.708 2.725 2.741 200
-380 -4.251 -4.248 -4.245 -4.242 -4.239 -4.236 -4.233 -4.230 -4.226 -4.223 -4.220 -380 210 2.741 2.758 2.774 2.791 2.807 2.824 2.840 2.857 2.873 2.890 2.906 210
-370 -4.220 -4.217 -4.213 -4.210 -4.206 -4.203 -4.199 -4.196 -4.192 -4.189 -4.185 -370 220 2.906 2.923 2.939 2.956 2.973 2.989 3.006 3.022 3.039 3.056 3.072 220
-360 -4.185 -4.181 -4.177 -4.174 -4.170 -4.166 -4.162 -4.158 -4.154 -4.150 -4.145 -360 230 3.072 3.089 3.106 3.123 3.139 3.156 3.173 3.189 3.206 3.223 3.240 230
-350 -4.145 -4.141 -4.137 -4.133 -4.128 -4.124 -4.120 -4.115 -4.111 -4.106 -4.102 -350 240 3.240 3.257 3.273 3.290 3.307 3.324 3.341 3.358 3.374 3.391 3.408 240

-340 -4.102 -4.097 -4.092 -4.088 -4.083 -4.078 -4.073 -4.068 -4.064 -4.059 -4.054 -340 250 3.408 3.425 3.442 3.459 3.476 3.493 3.510 3.527 3.544 3.561 3.578 250
-330 -4.054 -4.049 -4.043 -4.038 -4.033 -4.028 -4.023 -4.017 -4.012 -4.007 -4.001 -330 260 3.578 3.595 3.612 3.629 3.646 3.663 3.680 3.697 3.714 3.731 3.748 260
-320 -4.001 -3.996 -3.990 -3.985 -3.979 -3.974 -3.968 -3.962 -3.957 -3.951 -3.945 -320 270 3.748 3.766 3.783 3.800 3.817 3.834 3.851 3.869 3.886 3.903 3.920 270
-310 -3.945 -3.939 -3.933 -3.927 -3.921 -3.915 -3.909 -3.903 -3.897 -3.891 -3.884 -310 280 3.920 3.937 3.955 3.972 3.989 4.007 4.024 4.041 4.058 4.076 4.093 280
-300 -3.884 -3.878 -3.872 -3.866 -3.859 -3.853 -3.846 -3.840 -3.833 -3.827 -3.820 -300 290 4.093 4.110 4.128 4.145 4.162 4.180 4.197 4.215 4.232 4.250 4.267 290

-290 -3.820 -3.813 -3.807 -3.800 -3.793 -3.786 -3.779 -3.773 -3.766 -3.759 -3.752 -290 300 4.267 4.284 4.302 4.319 4.337 4.354 4.372 4.389 4.407 4.424 4.442 300
-280 -3.752 -3.745 -3.738 -3.730 -3.723 -3.716 -3.709 -3.702 -3.694 -3.687 -3.679 -280 310 4.442 4.459 4.477 4.495 4.512 4.530 4.547 4.565 4.583 4.600 4.618 310
-270 -3.679 -3.672 -3.665 -3.657 -3.650 -3.642 -3.634 -3.627 -3.619 -3.611 -3.604 -270 320 4.618 4.635 4.653 4.671 4.688 4.706 4.724 4.742 4.759 4.777 4.795 320
-260 -3.604 -3.596 -3.588 -3.580 -3.572 -3.564 -3.556 -3.548 -3.540 -3.532 -3.524 -260 330 4.795 4.813 4.830 4.848 4.866 4.884 4.901 4.919 4.937 4.955 4.973 330
-250 -3.524 -3.516 -3.508 -3.499 -3.491 -3.483 -3.474 -3.466 -3.458 -3.449 -3.441 -250 340 4.973 4.991 5.008 5.026 5.044 5.062 5.080 5.098 5.116 5.134 5.152 340

-240 -3.441 -3.432 -3.424 -3.415 -3.407 -3.398 -3.389 -3.380 -3.372 -3.363 -3.354 -240 350 5.152 5.170 5.188 5.206 5.224 5.241 5.259 5.277 5.295 5.314 5.332 350
-230 -3.354 -3.345 -3.336 -3.327 -3.318 -3.309 -3.300 -3.291 -3.282 -3.273 -3.264 -230 360 5.332 5.350 5.368 5.386 5.404 5.422 5.440 5.458 5.476 5.494 5.512 360
-220 -3.264 -3.255 -3.246 -3.236 -3.227 -3.218 -3.208 -3.199 -3.189 -3.180 -3.171 -220 370 5.512 5.531 5.549 5.567 5.585 5.603 5.621 5.639 5.658 5.676 5.694 370
-210 -3.171 -3.161 -3.151 -3.142 -3.132 -3.123 -3.113 -3.103 -3.093 -3.084 -3.074 -210 380 5.694 5.712 5.731 5.749 5.767 5.785 5.804 5.822 5.840 5.858 5.877 380
-200 -3.074 -3.064 -3.054 -3.044 -3.034 -3.024 -3.014 -3.004 -2.994 -2.984 -2.974 -200 390 5.877 5.895 5.913 5.932 5.950 5.968 5.987 6.005 6.024 6.042 6.060 390

-190 -2.974 -2.964 -2.954 -2.943 -2.933 -2.923 -2.912 -2.902 -2.892 -2.881 -2.871 -190 400 6.060 6.079 6.097 6.116 6.134 6.152 6.171 6.189 6.208 6.226 6.245 400
-180 -2.871 -2.860 -2.850 -2.839 -2.829 -2.818 -2.808 -2.797 -2.786 -2.776 -2.765 -180 410 6.245 6.263 6.282 6.300 6.319 6.337 6.356 6.374 6.393 6.411 6.430 410
-170 -2.765 -2.754 -2.743 -2.733 -2.722 -2.711 -2.700 -2.689 -2.678 -2.667 -2.656 -170 420 6.430 6.449 6.467 6.486 6.504 6.523 6.542 6.560 6.579 6.597 6.616 420
-160 -2.656 -2.645 -2.634 -2.623 -2.612 -2.601 -2.589 -2.578 -2.567 -2.556 -2.544 -160 430 6.616 6.635 6.653 6.672 6.691 6.710 6.728 6.747 6.766 6.784 6.803 430
-150 -2.544 -2.533 -2.522 -2.510 -2.499 -2.488 -2.476 -2.465 -2.453 -2.442 -2.430 -150 440 6.803 6.822 6.841 6.859 6.878 6.897 6.916 6.934 6.953 6.972 6.991 440

-140 -2.430 -2.418 -2.407 -2.395 -2.384 -2.372 -2.360 -2.348 -2.337 -2.325 -2.313 -140 450 6.991 7.010 7.029 7.047 7.066 7.085 7.104 7.123 7.142 7.161 7.179 450
-130 -2.313 -2.301 -2.289 -2.277 -2.265 -2.254 -2.242 -2.230 -2.218 -2.206 -2.193 -130 460 7.179 7.198 7.217 7.236 7.255 7.274 7.293 7.312 7.331 7.350 7.369 460
-120 -2.193 -2.181 -2.169 -2.157 -2.145 -2.133 -2.121 -2.108 -2.096 -2.084 -2.072 -120 470 7.369 7.388 7.407 7.426 7.445 7.464 7.483 7.502 7.521 7.540 7.559 470
-110 -2.072 -2.059 -2.047 -2.035 -2.022 -2.010 -1.997 -1.985 -1.972 -1.960 -1.947 -110 480 7.559 7.578 7.597 7.616 7.635 7.654 7.673 7.692 7.711 7.731 7.750 480
-100 -1.947 -1.935 -1.922 -1.910 -1.897 -1.884 -1.872 -1.859 -1.846 -1.834 -1.821 -100 490 7.750 7.769 7.788 7.807 7.826 7.845 7.865 7.884 7.903 7.922 7.941 490

-90 -1.821 -1.808 -1.795 -1.783 -1.770 -1.757 -1.744 -1.731 -1.718 -1.705 -1.692 -90 500 7.941 7.960 7.980 7.999 8.018 8.037 8.057 8.076 8.095 8.114 8.134 500
-80 -1.692 -1.679 -1.666 -1.653 -1.640 -1.627 -1.614 -1.601 -1.588 -1.575 -1.562 -80 510 8.134 8.153 8.172 8.191 8.211 8.230 8.249 8.269 8.288 8.307 8.327 510
-70 -1.562 -1.549 -1.536 -1.522 -1.509 -1.496 -1.483 -1.470 -1.456 -1.443 -1.430 -70 520 8.327 8.346 8.365 8.385 8.404 8.423 8.443 8.462 8.482 8.501 8.520 520
-60 -1.430 -1.416 -1.403 -1.390 -1.376 -1.363 -1.349 -1.336 -1.323 -1.309 -1.296 -60 530 8.520 8.540 8.559 8.579 8.598 8.617 8.637 8.656 8.676 8.695 8.715 530
-50 -1.296 -1.282 -1.269 -1.255 -1.242 -1.228 -1.214 -1.201 -1.187 -1.174 -1.160 -50 540 8.715 8.734 8.754 8.773 8.793 8.812 8.832 8.851 8.871 8.890 8.910 540

-40 -1.160 -1.146 -1.133 -1.119 -1.105 -1.092 -1.078 -1.064 -1.050 -1.037 -1.023 -40 550 8.910 8.929 8.949 8.968 8.988 9.008 9.027 9.047 9.066 9.086 9.105 550
-30 -1.023 -1.009 -0.995 -0.981 -0.967 -0.954 -0.940 -0.926 -0.912 -0.898 -0.884 -30 560 9.105 9.125 9.145 9.164 9.184 9.204 9.223 9.243 9.262 9.282 9.302 560
-20 -0.884 -0.870 -0.856 -0.842 -0.828 -0.814 -0.800 -0.786 -0.772 -0.758 -0.744 -20 570 9.302 9.321 9.341 9.361 9.381 9.400 9.420 9.440 9.459 9.479 9.499 570
-10 -0.744 -0.730 -0.716 -0.702 -0.688 -0.674 -0.660 -0.646 -0.632 -0.617 -0.603 -10 580 9.499 9.519 9.538 9.558 9.578 9.598 9.617 9.637 9.657 9.677 9.696 580
0 -0.603 -0.589 -0.575 -0.561 -0.546 -0.532 -0.518 -0.504 -0.490 -0.475 -0.461 0 590 9.696 9.716 9.736 9.756 9.776 9.795 9.815 9.835 9.855 9.875 9.895 590

0 -0.461 -0.447 -0.433 -0.418 -0.404 -0.390 -0.375 -0.361 -0.347 -0.332 -0.318 0 600 9.895 9.914 9.934 9.954 9.974 9.994 10.014 10.034 10.054 10.073 10.093 600
10 -0.318 -0.304 -0.289 -0.275 -0.260 -0.246 -0.232 -0.217 -0.203 -0.188 -0.174 10 610 10.093 10.113 10.133 10.153 10.173 10.193 10.213 10.233 10.253 10.273 10.293 610
20 -0.174 -0.159 -0.145 -0.131 -0.116 -0.102 -0.087 -0.073 -0.058 -0.044 -0.029 20 620 10.293 10.313 10.333 10.353 10.373 10.393 10.413 10.433 10.453 10.473 10.493 620
30 -0.029 -0.015 0.000 0.014 0.029 0.043 0.058 0.072 0.087 0.101 0.116 30 630 10.493 10.513 10.533 10.553 10.573 10.593 10.613 10.633 10.653 10.673 10.693 630
40 0.116 0.130 0.145 0.159 0.174 0.188 0.203 0.217 0.232 0.246 0.261 40 640 10.693 10.713 10.733 10.753 10.774 10.794 10.814 10.834 10.854 10.874 10.894 640

50 0.261 0.275 0.290 0.305 0.319 0.334 0.349 0.363 0.378 0.393 0.407 50 650 10.894 10.914 10.934 10.955 10.975 10.995 11.015 11.035 11.055 11.076 11.096 650
60 0.407 0.422 0.437 0.451 0.466 0.481 0.496 0.510 0.525 0.540 0.555 60 660 11.096 11.116 11.136 11.156 11.177 11.197 11.217 11.237 11.257 11.278 11.298 660
70 0.555 0.570 0.584 0.599 0.614 0.629 0.644 0.659 0.674 0.688 0.703 70 670 11.298 11.318 11.338 11.359 11.379 11.399 11.419 11.440 11.460 11.480 11.501 670
80 0.703 0.718 0.733 0.748 0.763 0.778 0.793 0.808 0.823 0.838 0.853 80 680 11.501 11.521 11.541 11.561 11.582 11.602 11.622 11.643 11.663 11.683 11.704 680
90 0.853 0.868 0.883 0.898 0.913 0.928 0.943 0.958 0.974 0.989 1.004 90 690 11.704 11.724 11.744 11.765 11.785 11.805 11.826 11.846 11.867 11.887 11.907 690

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

Z-235
 MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE + Thermocouple
Revised Thermocouple
Thermocouple Grade Grade
–
– 450 to 2372°F
– 270 to 1300°C Reference Tables
Extension Grade
32 to 392°F
0 to 200°C Nickel-14.2%

N
LIMITS OF ERROR
(whichever is greater)
Standard: 2.2°C or 0.75% Above 0°C
2.2°C or 2.0% Below 0°C
Chromium-1.4% Silicon
vs.
Nickel-4.4% Silicon-
TYPE
Reference
Special: 1.1°C or 0.4%
0.1% Magnesium + Tables
COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT: N.I.S.T.
Alternative to Type K; More Stable – Monograph 175
at High Temperatures
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °F Extension Revised to
REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 32°F Grade ITS-90
Z
Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts
°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
700 11.907 11.928 11.948 11.968 11.989 12.009 12.030 12.050 12.071 12.091 12.111 700 1300 24.701 24.723 24.745 24.767 24.788 24.810 24.832 24.854 24.876 24.897 24.919 1300
710 12.111 12.132 12.152 12.173 12.193 12.214 12.234 12.255 12.275 12.295 12.316 710 1310 24.919 24.941 24.963 24.985 25.007 25.028 25.050 25.072 25.094 25.116 25.137 1310
720 12.316 12.336 12.357 12.377 12.398 12.418 12.439 12.459 12.480 12.500 12.521 720 1320 25.137 25.159 25.181 25.203 25.225 25.247 25.268 25.290 25.312 25.334 25.356 1320
730 12.521 12.542 12.562 12.583 12.603 12.624 12.644 12.665 12.685 12.706 12.726 730 1330 25.356 25.377 25.399 25.421 25.443 25.465 25.487 25.508 25.530 25.552 25.574 1330
740 12.726 12.747 12.768 12.788 12.809 12.829 12.850 12.871 12.891 12.912 12.932 740 1340 25.574 25.596 25.618 25.639 25.661 25.683 25.705 25.727 25.748 25.770 25.792 1340

750 12.932 12.953 12.974 12.994 13.015 13.036 13.056 13.077 13.098 13.118 13.139 750 1350 25.792 25.814 25.836 25.858 25.879 25.901 25.923 25.945 25.967 25.989 26.010 1350
760 13.139 13.159 13.180 13.201 13.221 13.242 13.263 13.284 13.304 13.325 13.346 760 1360 26.010 26.032 26.054 26.076 26.098 26.119 26.141 26.163 26.185 26.207 26.229 1360
770 13.346 13.366 13.387 13.408 13.428 13.449 13.470 13.491 13.511 13.532 13.553 770 1370 26.229 26.250 26.272 26.294 26.316 26.338 26.360 26.381 26.403 26.425 26.447 1370
780 13.553 13.574 13.594 13.615 13.636 13.657 13.677 13.698 13.719 13.740 13.760 780 1380 26.447 26.469 26.491 26.512 26.534 26.556 26.578 26.600 26.622 26.643 26.665 1380
790 13.760 13.781 13.802 13.823 13.844 13.864 13.885 13.906 13.927 13.948 13.969 790 1390 26.665 26.687 26.709 26.731 26.752 26.774 26.796 26.818 26.840 26.862 26.883 1390

800 13.969 13.989 14.010 14.031 14.052 14.073 14.094 14.114 14.135 14.156 14.177 800 1400 26.883 26.905 26.927 26.949 26.971 26.993 27.014 27.036 27.058 27.080 27.102 1400
810 14.177 14.198 14.219 14.240 14.260 14.281 14.302 14.323 14.344 14.365 14.386 810 1410 27.102 27.124 27.145 27.167 27.189 27.211 27.233 27.254 27.276 27.298 27.320 1410
820 14.386 14.407 14.428 14.448 14.469 14.490 14.511 14.532 14.553 14.574 14.595 820 1420 27.320 27.342 27.364 27.385 27.407 27.429 27.451 27.473 27.495 27.516 27.538 1420
830 14.595 14.616 14.637 14.658 14.679 14.700 14.721 14.742 14.763 14.784 14.804 830 1430 27.538 27.560 27.582 27.604 27.625 27.647 27.669 27.691 27.713 27.735 27.756 1430
840 14.804 14.825 14.846 14.867 14.888 14.909 14.930 14.951 14.972 14.993 15.014 840 1440 27.756 27.778 27.800 27.822 27.844 27.866 27.887 27.909 27.931 27.953 27.975 1440

850 15.014 15.035 15.056 15.077 15.098 15.119 15.140 15.162 15.183 15.204 15.225 850 1450 27.975 27.996 28.018 28.040 28.062 28.084 28.105 28.127 28.149 28.171 28.193 1450
860 15.225 15.246 15.267 15.288 15.309 15.330 15.351 15.372 15.393 15.414 15.435 860 1460 28.193 28.215 28.236 28.258 28.280 28.302 28.324 28.345 28.367 28.389 28.411 1460
870 15.435 15.456 15.477 15.498 15.520 15.541 15.562 15.583 15.604 15.625 15.646 870 1470 28.411 28.433 28.455 28.476 28.498 28.520 28.542 28.564 28.585 28.607 28.629 1470
880 15.646 15.667 15.688 15.709 15.731 15.752 15.773 15.794 15.815 15.836 15.857 880 1480 28.629 28.651 28.673 28.694 28.716 28.738 28.760 28.782 28.803 28.825 28.847 1480
890 15.857 15.878 15.900 15.921 15.942 15.963 15.984 16.005 16.027 16.048 16.069 890 1490 28.847 28.869 28.891 28.912 28.934 28.956 28.978 29.000 29.021 29.043 29.065 1490

900 16.069 16.090 16.111 16.132 16.154 16.175 16.196 16.217 16.238 16.260 16.281 900 1500 29.085 29.087 29.109 29.130 29.152 29.174 29.196 29.218 29.239 29.261 29.283 1500
910 16.281 16.302 16.323 16.344 16.366 16.387 16.408 16.429 16.450 16.472 16.493 910 1510 29.283 29.305 29.327 29.348 29.370 29.392 29.414 29.436 29.457 29.479 29.501 1510
920 16.493 16.514 16.535 16.557 16.578 16.599 16.620 16.642 16.663 16.684 16.705 920 1520 29.501 29.523 29.545 29.566 29.588 29.610 29.632 29.653 29.675 29.697 29.719 I520
930 16.705 16.727 16.748 16.769 16.790 16.812 16.833 16.854 16.875 16.897 16.918 930 1530 29.719 29.741 29.762 29.784 29.806 29.828 29.850 29.871 29.893 29.915 29.937 I530
940 16.918 16.939 16.961 16.982 17.003 17.025 17.046 17.067 17.088 17.110 17.131 940 1540 29.937 29.958 29.980 30.002 30.024 30.046 30.067 30.089 30.111 30.133 30.154 IS40

950 17.131 17.152 17.174 17.195 17.216 17.238 17.259 17.280 17.302 17.323 17.344 950 1550 30.154 30.176 30.198 30.220 30.242 30.263 30.285 30.307 30.329 30.350 30.372 1550
960 17.344 17.366 17.387 17.408 17.430 17.451 17.472 17.494 17.515 17.536 17.558 960 1560 30.372 30.304 30.416 30.437 30.459 30.481 30.503 30.524 30.546 30.568 30.590 1560
970 17.558 17.579 17.601 17.622 17.643 17.665 17.686 17.707 17.729 17.750 17.772 970 1570 30.590 30.611 30.633 30.655 30.677 30.699 30.720 30.742 30.764 30.786 30.807 1570
980 17.772 17.793 17.814 17.836 17.857 17.879 17.900 17.921 17.943 17.964 17.986 980 1580 30.807 30.829 30.851 30.873 30.894 30.916 30.938 30.960 30.981 31.003 31.025 1580
990 17.986 18.007 18.028 18.050 18.071 18.093 18.114 18.136 18.157 18.178 18.200 990 1590 31.025 31.047 31.068 31.090 31.112 31.133 31.155 31.177 31.199 31.220 31.242 1590

1000 18.200 18.221 18.243 18.264 18.286 18.307 18.328 18.350 18.371 18.393 18.414 1000 1600 31.242 31.264 31.286 31.307 31.329 31.351 31.373 31.394 31.416 31.438 31.459 1600
1010 18.414 18.436 18.457 18.479 18.500 18.522 18.543 18.565 18.586 18.608 18.629 1010 1610 31.450 31.481 31.503 31.525 31.546 31.568 31.590 31.612 31.633 31.655 31.677 1610
1020 18.629 18.650 18.672 18.693 18.715 18.736 18.758 18.779 18.801 18.822 18.844 1020 1620 31.677 31.698 31.720 31.742 31.764 31.785 31.807 31.829 31.850 31.872 31.894 1620
1030 18.844 18.865 18.887 18.908 18.930 18.951 18.973 18.994 19.016 19.037 19.059 1030 1630 31.894 31.916 31.937 31.959 31.981 32.002 32.024 32.046 32.068 32.089 32.111 1630
1040 19.059 19.081 19.102 19.124 19.145 19.167 19.188 19.210 19.231 19.253 19.274 1040 1640 32.111 32.133 32.154 32.176 32.198 32.219 32.241 32.263 32.284 32.306 32.328 1640

1050 19.274 19.296 19.317 19.339 19.360 19.382 19.404 19.425 19.447 19.468 19.490 1060 1650 32.328 32.350 32.371 32.393 32.415 32.436 32.458 32.480 32.501 32.523 32.545 1650
1060 19.490 19.511 19.533 19.554 19.576 19.598 19.619 19.641 19.662 19.684 19.705 1060 1660 32.545 32.566 32.588 32.610 32.631 32.653 32.675 32.696 32.718 32.740 32.761 1660
1070 19.705 19.727 19.749 19.770 19.792 19.813 19.835 19.857 19.878 19.900 19.921 1070 1670 32.716 32.783 32.805 32.826 32.848 32.870 32.891 32.913 32.935 32.956 32.978 1670
1080 19.921 19.943 19.964 19.986 20.008 20.029 20.051 20.072 20.094 20.116 20.137 1060 1680 32.978 32.000 32.021 32.043 33.065 35.086 33.108 33.130 33.151 33.173 33.195 1680
1090 20.137 20.159 20.181 20.202 20.224 20.245 20.267 20.289 20.310 20.332 20.353 1090 1690 33.195 33.216 33.238 33.260 33.281 33.303 33.325 33.346 33.368 33.389 33.411 1690

1100 20.353 20.375 20.397 20.418 20.440 20.462 20.483 20.505 20.527 20.548 20.570 1100 1700 33.411 33.433 33.454 33.476 33.498 33.519 33.541 33.563 33.584 33.606 33.627 1700
1110 20.570 20.591 20.613 20.635 20.656 20.678 20.700 20.721 20.743 20.765 20.786 1110 1710 33.627 33.649 33.671 33.692 33.714 33.736 33.757 33.779 33.800 33.822 33.844 1710
1120 20.786 20.808 20.830 20.851 20.873 20.895 20.916 20.938 20.960 20.981 21.003 1120 1720 33.844 33.865 33.887 33.908 33.930 33.952 33.973 33.995 34.016 34.038 34.060 1720
1130 21.003 21.025 21.046 21.068 21.090 21.111 21.133 21.155 21.176 21.198 21.220 1130 1730 34.060 34.081 34.103 34.124 34.146 34.168 34.189 34.211 34.232 34.254 34.276 1730
1140 21.220 21.241 21.263 21.285 21.306 21.328 21.350 21.371 21.393 21.415 21.437 1140 1740 34.276 34.297 34.319 34.340 34.362 34.384 34.405 34.427 34.448 34.470 34.491 1740

1150 21.437 21.458 21.480 21.502 21.523 21.545 21.567 21.588 21.610 21.632 21.654 1150 1750 34.491 34.513 34.535 34.556 34.578 34.599 34.621 34.642 34.664 34.686 34.707 1750
1160 21.654 21.675 21.697 21.719 21.740 21.762 21.784 21.806 21.827 21.849 21.871 1160 1760 34.707 34.729 34.750 34.772 34.793 34.815 34.836 34.858 34.879 34.901 34.923 1760
1170 21.871 21.892 21.914 21.936 21.958 21.979 22.001 22.023 22.044 22.066 22.088 1170 1770 34.923 34.944 34.966 34.987 35.009 35.030 35.052 35.073 35.095 35.116 35.138 1770
1180 22.088 22.110 22.131 22.153 22.175 22.197 22.218 22.240 22.262 22.284 22.305 1180 1790 35.138 35.160 35.181 35.203 35.224 35.246 35.267 35.289 35.310 35.332 35.353 1780
1190 22.305 22.327 22.349 22.370 22.392 22.414 22.436 22.457 22.479 22.501 22.523 1190 1790 35.353 35.375 35.396 35.418 35.439 35.461 35.482 35.504 35.525 35.547 35.568 1790

1200 22.523 22.544 22.566 22.588 22.610 22.631 22.653 22.675 22.697 22.718 22.740 1200 1800 35.568 35.590 35.611 35.633 35.654 35.676 35.697 35.719 35.740 35.762 35.783 1800
1210 22.740 22.762 22.784 22.805 22.827 22.849 22.871 22.893 22.914 22.936 22.958 1210 1810 35.783 35.805 35.826 35.848 35.869 35.891 35.912 35.934 35.955 35.977 35.998 1810
1220 22.958 22.980 23.001 23.023 23.045 23.067 23.088 23.110 23.132 23.154 23.178 1220 1820 35.998 35.019 36.041 36.062 36.084 36.105 36.127 36.148 36.170 36.191 36.213 1820
1230 23.176 23.197 23.219 23.241 23.263 23.284 23.306 23.328 23.350 23.372 23.393 1230 1830 35.213 35.234 36.256 36.277 36.298 36.320 36.341 36.363 36.384 36.406 36.427 1830
1240 23.393 23.415 23.437 23.459 23.480 23.502 23.524 23.546 23.568 23.589 23.611 1240 1840 36.427 36.449 36.470 36.491 36.513 36.534 36.556 36.577 36.599 36.620 36.641 1840

1250 23.611 23.633 23.655 23.676 23.698 23.720 23.742 23.764 23.785 23.807 23.829 1250 1850 36.841 36.663 36.684 36.706 36.727 36.748 36.770 36.791 38.813 36.834 36.855 1850
1260 23.829 23.851 23.873 23.894 23.916 23.938 23.960 23.982 24.003 24.025 24.047 1260 1860 36.855 36.877 36.898 36.920 36.941 36.962 36.984 37.005 37.027 37.048 37.069 1860
1270 24.047 24.069 24.091 24.112 24.134 24.156 24.178 24.200 24.221 24.243 24.265 1270 1870 37.069 37.091 37.112 37.134 37.155 37.176 37.198 37.219 37.240 37.262 37.283 1870
1280 24.265 24.287 24.309 24.330 24.352 24.374 24.396 24.418 24.439 24.461 24.483 1280 1880 37.283 37.305 37.326 37.347 37.369 37.390 37.411 37.433 37.454 37.475 37.497 1880
1290 24.483 24.505 24.527 24.548 24.570 24.592 24.614 24.636 24.658 24.679 24.701 1290 18901 37.497 37.518 37.539 37.561 37.582 37.603 37.625 37.646 37.667 37.689 37.710 1890

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

Z-236
Revised Thermocouple + Thermocouple
Grade
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE
Thermocouple Grade
–
Reference Tables – 450 to 2372°F
– 270 to 1300°C
Extension Grade
Nickel-14.2% 32 to 392°F
0 to 200°C

N
TYPE
Reference
Chromium-1.4% Silicon
vs.
Nickel-4.4% Silicon-
LIMITS OF ERROR
(whichever is greater)
Standard: 2.2°C or 0.75% Above 0°C
2.2°C or 2.0% Below 0°C
Tables 0.1% Magnesium +
Special: 1.1°C or 0.4%
N.I.S.T. COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT:
Monograph 175 – Alternative to Type K; More Stable
at High Temperatures
Revised to Extension TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °F
REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 32°F
ITS-90 Grade

Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
1900 37.710 37.731 37.753 37.774 37.795 37.817 37.838 37.859 37.881 37.902 37.923 1900 2150 42.976 42.997 43.018 43.039 43.059 43.080 43.101 43.122 43.142 43.163 43.184 2150
1910 37.923 37.945 37.966 37.987 38.009 38.030 38.051 38.073 38.094 38.115 38.136 1910 2160 43.184 43.205 43.225 43.246 43.267 43.288 43.308 43.329 43.350 43.370 43.391 2160
1920 38.136 38.158 38.179 38.200 38.222 38.243 38.264 38.285 38.307 38.328 38.349 1920 2170 43.391 43.412 43.433 43.453 43.474 43.495 43.515 43.536 43.557 43.578 43.598 2170
1930 38.349 38.370 38.392 38.413 38.434 38.456 38.477 38.498 38.519 38.541 38.562 1930 2180 43.598 43.619 43.640 43.660 43.681 43.702 43.722 43.743 43.764 43.784 43.805 2180
1940 38.562 38.583 38.604 38.626 38.647 38.668 38.689 38.711 38.732 38.753 38.774 1940 2190 43.805 43.826 43.846 43.867 43.888 43.908 43.929 43.950 43.970 43.991 43.012 2190

1950 38.774 38.795 38.817 38.838 38.859 38.880 38.902 38.923 38.944 38.965 38.986 1950 2200 44.012 44.032 44.053 44.073 44.094 44.115 44.135 44.156 44.177 44.197 44.218 2200
1960 38.986 39.008 38.029 39.050 39.071 39.093 39.114 39.135 39.156 39.177 39.198 1960 2210 44.218 44.238 44.259 44.280 44.300 44.321 44.341 44.362 44.383 44.403 44.424 2210
1970 39.198 39.220 39.241 39.262 39.283 39.304 39.326 39.347 39.368 39.389 39.410 1970 2220 44.424 44.444 44.465 44.485 44.506 44.527 44.547 44.568 44.588 44.609 44.629 2220
1980 39.410 39.431 39.453 39.474 39.495 39.516 39.537 39.558 39.580 39.601 39.622 1980 2230 44.629 44.650 44.671 44.691 44.712 44.732 44.753 44.773 44.794 44.814 44.835 2230
1990 39.622 39.643 39.664 39.685 39.706 39.728 39.749 39.770 39.791 39.812 39.833 1990 2240 44.835 44.855 44.876 44.896 44.917 44.937 44.958 44.978 44.999 45.019 45.040 2240

2000 39.833 39.854 39.875 39.897 39.918 39.939 39.960 39.981 40.002 40.023 40.044 2000 2250 45.040 45.060 45.081 45.101 45.122 45.142 45.163 45.183 45.204 45.224 45.245 2250
2010 40.044 40.066 40.087 40.108 40.129 40.150 40.171 40.192 40.213 40.234 40.255 2010 2260 45.245 45.265 45.286 45.306 45.326 45.347 45.367 45.388 45.408 45.429 45.449 2260
2020 40.255 40.276 40.297 40.319 40.340 40.361 40.382 40.403 40.424 40.445 40.466 2020 2270 45.449 45.469 45.490 45.510 45.531 45.551 45.572 45.592 45.612 45.633 45.653 2270
2030 40.466 40.487 40.508 40.529 40.550 40.571 40.592 40.613 40.634 40.655 40.677 2030 2280 45.653 45.674 45.694 45.714 45.735 45.755 45.775 45.796 45.816 45.837 45.857 2280
2040 40.677 40.698 40.719 40.740 40.761 40.782 40.803 40.824 40.845 40.866 40.887 2040 2290 45.857 45.877 45.898 45.918 45.938 45.959 45.979 45.999 46.020 46.040 46.060 2290

2050 40.887 40.908 40.929 40.95O 40.971 40.992 41.013 41.034 41.055 41.076 41.097 2050 2300 46.060 46.081 46.101 46.121 46.142 46.162 46.182 46.202 46.223 46.243 46.263 2300
2060 41.097 41.118 41.139 41.160 41.181 41.202 41.223 41.244 41.265 41.286 41.307 2060 2310 46.263 46.284 46.304 46.324 46.344 46.365 46.385 46.405 46.425 46.446 46.466 2310
2070 41.307 41.328 41.349 41.370 41.390 41.411 41.432 41.453 41.474 41.495 41.516 2070 2320 46.466 46.486 46.506 46.527 46.547 46.567 48.587 46.608 46.628 46.648 46.668 2320
2080 41.516 41.537 41.558 41.579 41.600 41.621 41.642 41.663 41.684 41.705 41.725 2080 2330 46.668 46.688 46.709 46.729 46.749 46.769 48.789 46.810 48.830 46.850 46.870 2330
2090 41.725 41.746 41.767 41.788 41.809 41.830 41.851 41.872 41.893 41.914 41.935 2090 2340 48.870 46.890 46.910 48.931 46.951 46.971 48.991 47.011 47-031 47.051 47.071 2340

2100 41.935 41.955 41.976 41.997 42.018 42.039 42.060 42.081 42.102 42.123 42.143 2100 2350 47.071 47.092 47.112 47.132 47.152 47.172 47.192 47.212 47.232 47.252 47.272 2350
2110 42.143 42.164 42.185 42.206 42.227 42.248 42.269 42.289 42.310 42.331 42.352 2110 2360 47.272 47.292 47.312 47.333 47.353 47.373 47.393 47.413 47.433 47.453 47.473 2360
2120 42.352 42.373 42.394 42.415 42.435 42.456 42.477 42.498 42.519 42.540 42.560 2120 2370 47.473 47.493 47.513 2370
2130 42.560 42.581 42.602 42.623 42.644 42.664 42.685 42.706 42.727 42.748 42.768 2130
2140 42.768 42.789 42.810 42.831 42.852 42.872 42.893 42.914 42.935 42.956 42.976 2140
°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

Z-237
 MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE + Thermocouple
Revised Thermocouple
Thermocouple Grade Grade
–
-32 to 4208°F
-0 to 2320°C
NONE
ESTABLISHED
Reference Tables
Extension Grade
32 to 1600°F
0 to 870°C Tungsten-

C
LIMITS OF ERROR
(whichever is greater)
Standard: 4.5°C to 425°C
5% Rhenium
vs. TYPE
Reference
1.0% to 2320°C
Special: Not Established Tungsten-
Tables
COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT: 26% Rhenium +
N.I.S.T.
Vacuum, Inert; Hydrogen; Beware of
Embrittlement; Not Practical Below 750°F; – Monograph 175
Not for Oxidizing Atmosphere
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °C Extension Revised to
REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 0°C Grade ITS-90
Z
Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts
°C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C
0 0.000 0.013 0.026 0.040 0.053 0.067 0.080 0.094 0.107 0.121 0.135 0 500 8.655 8.674 8.694 8.713 8.733 8.752 8.772 8.791 8.810 8.830 8.849 500
10 0.135 0.148 0.162 0.176 0.189 0.203 0.217 0.231 0.244 0.258 0.272 10 510 8.849 8.869 8.888 8.908 8.927 8.947 8.966 8.986 9.005 9.024 9.044 510
20 0.272 0.286 0.300 0.314 0.328 0.342 0.356 0.370 0.384 0.398 0.412 20 520 9.044 9.063 9.083 9.102 9.122 9.141 9.161 9.180 9.200 9.219 9.239 520
30 0.412 0.426 0.440 0.454 0.469 0.483 0.497 0.511 0.525 0.540 0.554 0 530 9.239 9.258 9.278 9.297 9.317 9.336 9.356 9.375 9.395 9.414 9.434 530
40 0.554 0.568 0.583 0.597 0.612 0.626 0.640 0.655 0.669 0.684 0.698 40 540 9.434 9.453 9.473 9.492 9.512 9.531 9.551 9.570 9.590 9.609 9.629 540

50 0.698 0.713 0.727 0.742 0.757 0.771 0.786 0.801 0.815 0.830 0.845 50 550 9.629 9.648 9.668 9.687 9.707 9.726 9.746 9.765 9.785 9.804 9.824 550
60 0.845 0.860 0.874 0.889 0.904 0.919 0.934 0.948 0.963 0.978 0.993 60 560 9.824 9.843 9.863 9.883 9.902 9.922 9.941 9.961 9.980 10.000 10.019 560
70 0.993 1.008 1.023 1.038 1.053 1.068 1.083 1.098 1.114 1.129 1.144 70 570 10.019 10.039 10.058 10.078 10.097 10.117 10.137 10.156 10.176 10.195 10.215 570
80 1.144 1.159 1.174 1.189 1.205 1.220 1.235 1.250 1.266 1.281 1.296 80 580 10.215 10.234 10.254 10.273 10.293 10.312 10.332 10.352 10.371 10.391 10.410 580
90 1.296 1.312 1.327 1.342 1.358 1.373 1.389 1.404 1.420 1.435 1.451 90 590 10.410 10.430 10.449 10.469 10.488 10.508 10.528 10.547 10.567 10.586 10.606 590

100 1.451 1.466 1.482 1.497 1.513 1.529 1.544 1.560 1.576 1.591 1.607 100 600 10.606 10-625 10.645 10.664 10.684 10.703 10.723 10.743 10.762 10.782 10.801 600
110 1.607 1.623 1.639 1.654 1.670 1.686 1.702 1.718 1.733 1.749 1.765 110 610 10.801 10.821 10.840 10.860 10.879 10.899 10.919 10.938 10.958 10.977 10.997 610
120 1.765 1.781 1.797 1.813 1.829 1.845 1.861 1.877 1.893 1.909 1.925 120 620 10.997 11.016 11.036 11.055 11.075 11.095 11.114 11.134 11.153 11.173 11.192 620
130 1.925 1.941 1.957 1.973 1.989 2.006 2.022 2.038 2.054 2.070 2.087 130 630 11.192 11.212 11.231 11.251 11.270 11.290 11.310 11.329 11.349 11.368 11.388 630
140 2.087 2.103 2.119 2.135 2.152 2.168 2.184 2.201 2.217 2.233 2.250 140 640 11.388 11.407 11.427 11.446 11.466 11.485 11.505 11.525 11.544 11.564 11.583 640

150 2.250 2.266 2.283 2.299 2.316 2.332 2.349 2.365 2.382 2.398 2.415 150 650 11.583 11.603 11.622 11.642 11.661 11.681 11.700 11.720 11.739 11.759 11.778 650
160 2.415 2.431 2.448 2.464 2.481 2.498 2.514 2.531 2.548 2.564 2.581 160 660 11.778 11.798 11.817 11.837 11.857 11.876 11.896 11.915 11.935 11.954 11.974 660
170 2.581 2.598 2.614 2.631 2.648 2.665 2.682 2.698 2.715 2.732 2.749 170 670 11.974 11.993 12.013 12.032 12.052 12.071 12.091 12.110 12.130 12.149 12.169 670
180 2.749 2.766 2.783 2.800 2.816 2.833 2.850 2.867 2.884 2.901 2.918 180 680 12.169 12.188 12.208 12.227 12.247 12.266 12.286 12.305 12.325 12.344 12.364 680
190 2.918 2.935 2.952 2.969 2.986 3.003 3.020 3.038 3.055 3.072 3.089 190 690 12.364 12.383 12.403 12.422 12.442 12.461 12.481 12.500 12-519 12.539 12.558 690

200 3.089 3.106 3.123 3.140 3.158 3.175 3.192 3.209 3.227 3.244 3.26 200 700 12.558 12.578 12.597 12.617 12.636 12.656 12.675 12.695 12.714 12.734 12.753 700
210 3.261 3.278 3.296 3.313 3.330 3.348 3.365 3.382 3.400 3.417 3.434 210 710 12.753 12.772 12.792 12.811 12.831 12.850 12.870 12.889 12.909 12.928 12.947 710
220 3.434 3.452 3.469 3.487 3.504 3.522 3.539 3.557 3.574 3.592 3.609 220 720 12.947 12.967 12.986 13.006 13.025 13.045 13.064 13.083 13.103 13.122 13.142 720
230 3.609 3.627 3.644 3.662 3.679 3.697 3.714 3.732 3.750 3.767 3.785 230 730 13.142 13.161 13.180 13.200 13.219 13.239 13.258 13.277 13.297 13.316 13.336 730
240 3.785 3.803 3.820 3.838 3.856 3.873 3.891 3.909 3.927 3.944 3.962 240 740 13.336 13.355 13.374 13.394 13.413 13.432 13.452 13.471 13.491 13.510 13.529 740

250 3.962 3.980 3.998 4.015 4.033 4.051 4.069 4.087 4.104 4.122 4.140 250 750 13.529 13.549 13.568 13.587 13.607 13.626 13.645 13.665 13.684 13.703 13.723 750
260 4.140 4.158 4.176 4.194 4.212 4.230 4.248 4.266 4.284 4.301 4.319 260 760 13.723 13.742 13.761 13.781 13.800 13.819 13.839 13.858 13.877 13.897 13.916 760
270 4.319 4.337 4.355 4.373 4.391 4.410 4.428 4.446 4.464 4.482 4.500 270 770 13.916 13.935 13.955 13.974 13.993 14.012 14.032 14.051 14 .070 14.090 14.109 770
280 4.500 4.518 4.536 4.554 4.572 4.590 4.608 4.627 4.645 4.663 4.681 280 780 14.109 14.128 14.147 14.167 14.186 14.205 14.224 14.244 14.263 14.282 14.302 780
290 4.681 4.699 4.717 4.736 4.754 4.772 4.790 4.809 4.827 4.845 4.863 290 790 14.302 14.321 14.340 14.359 14.378 14.398 14.417 14.436 14.455 14.475 14.494 790

300 4.863 4.882 4.900 4.918 4.937 4.955 4.973 4.992 5.010 5.028 5.047 300 800 14.494 14.513 14.532 14-551 14.571 14.590 14.609 14.628 14.647 14.667 14.686 800
310 5.047 5.065 5.083 5.102 5.120 5.139 5.157 5.175 5.194 5.212 5.231 310 810 14.686 14.705 14.724 14.743 14.762 14.782 14.801 14.820 14.839 14.858 14.877 810
320 5.231 5.249 5.268 5.286 5.305 5.323 5.342 5.360 5.379 5.397 5.416 320 820 14.877 14.897 14.916 14.935 14.954 14.973 14.992 15.011 15.030 15.050 15.069 820
330 5.416 5.434 5.453 5.471 5.490 5.508 5.527 5.546 5.564 5.583 5.601 330 830 15.069 15.088 15.107 15.126 15.145 15.164 15.183 15.202 15.221 15.241 15.260 830
340 5.601 5.620 5.639 5.657 5.676 5.695 5.713 5.732 5.751 5.769 5.788 340 840 15.260 15.279 15.298 15.317 15.336 15.355 15.374 15.393 15.412 15.431 15.450 840

350 5.788 5.807 5.825 5.844 5.863 5.882 5.900 5.919 5.938 5.956 5.975 350 850 15.450 15.469 15.488 15.507 15.526 15.545 15.564 15.583 15.602 15.621 15.640 850
360 5.975 5.994 6.013 6.032 6.050 6.069 6.088 6.107 6.126 6.144 6.163 360 860 15.640 15.659 15.678 15.697 15.716 15.735 15.754 15.773 15.792 15.811 15.830 860
370 6.163 6.182 6.201 6.220 6.239 6.257 6.276 6.295 6.314 6.333 6.352 370 870 15.830 15.849 15.868 15.887 15.906 15.925 15.944 15.963 15.982 16.001 16.020 870
380 6.352 6.371 6.390 6.409 6.427 6.446 6.465 6.484 6.503 6.522 6.541 380 880 16.020 16.038 16.057 16.076 16.095 16.114 16.133 16.152 16.171 19.190 16.208 880
390 6.541 6.560 6.579 6.598 6.617 6:636 6.655 6.674 6.693 6.712 6.731 390 890 16.208 16.227 16.246 16.265 16.284 16.303 16.322 16.340 16.359 16.378 16.397 890

400 6.731 6.750 6. 69 6.788 6.807 6.826 6.845 6.864 6.883 6.902 6.921 400 900 16.397 16.416 16.435 16.453 16.472 16.491 16.510 16.529 16.547 16.566 16.585 900
410 6.921 6.940 6.959 6.979 6.998 7.017 7.036 7.055 7.074 7.093 7.112 410 910 16.585 16.604 16.623 16.641 16.660 16.679 16.698 16.716 16.735 16.754 16.773 910
420 7.112 7.131 7.151 7.170 7.189 7.208 7.227 7.246 7.265 7.285 7.304 420 920 16.773 16.791 16.810 16.829 16.848 16.866 16.885 16.904 16.923 16.941 16.960 920
430 7.304 7.323 7.342 7.361 7.380 7.400 7.419 7.438 7.457 7.476 7.496 430 930 16.960 16.979 16.997 17.016 17.035 17.053 17.072 17.091 17.109 17.128 17.147 930
440 7.496 7.515 7.534 7.553 7.572 7.592 7.611 7.630 7.649 7.669 7.688 440 940 17.147 17.165 17.184 17.203 17.221 17.240 17.258 17.277 17.296 17.314 17.333 940

450 7.688 7.707 7.726 7.746 7.765 7.784 7.804 7.823 7.842 7.861 7.881 450 950 17.333 17.352 17.370 17.389 17.407 17.426 17.444 17.463 17.482 17.500 17.519 950
460 7.881 7.900 7.919 7.939 7.958 7.977 7.996 8.016 8.035 8.054 8.074 460 960 17.519 17.537 17.556 17.574 17.593 17.611 17.630 17.648 17.667 17.686 17.704 960
470 8.074 8.093 8.112 8.132 8.151 8.170 8.190 8.209 8.229 8.248 8.267 470 970 17.704 17.723 17.741 17.760 17.778 17.796 17.815 17.833 17.852 17.870 17.889 970
480 8.267 8.287 8.306 8.325 8.345 8.364 8.383 8.403 8.422 8.422 8.461 480 980 17.889 17.907 17.926 17.944 17.963 17.981 17.999 18.018 18.036 18.055 18.073 980
490 8.461 8.480 8.500 8.519 8.539 8.558 8.577 8.597 8.616 8.636 8.655 490 990 18.073 18.092 18.110 18.128 18.147 18.165 18.184 18.202 18.220 18.239 18.257 990

°C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C

Z-238
Revised Thermocouple + Thermocouple
Grade
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE
Thermocouple Grade
–
Reference Tables NONE
ESTABLISHED
-32 to 4208°F
-0 to 2320°C
Extension Grade
32 to 1600°F
Tungsten- 0 to 870°C

C
TYPE
Reference
5% Rhenium
vs.
LIMITS OF ERROR
(whichever is greater)
Standard: 4.5°C to 425°C
Tungsten- 1.0% to 2320°C
Special: Not Established
Tables
N.I.S.T.
26% Rhenium + COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT:
Vacuum, Inert; Hydrogen; Beware of
Monograph 175 – Embrittlement; Not Practical Below 750°F;
Not for Oxidizing Atmosphere
Revised to Extension TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °C
ITS-90 Grade REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 0°C

Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts

°C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C
1000 18.257 18.275 18.294 18.312 18.330 18.349 18.367 18.385 18.404 18.422 18.440 1000 1500 26.722 26.738 26.753 26.768 26.784 26.799 26.815 26.830 26.845 26.861 26.876 1500
1010 18.440 18.459 18.477 18.495 18.513 18.532 18.550 18.568 18.587 18.605 18.623 1010 1510 26.876 26.892 26.907 26.922 26.938 26.953 26.968 26.984 26.999 27.014 27.030 1510
1020 18.623 18.641 18.660 18.678 18.696 18.714 18.732 18.751 18.769 18.787 18.805 1020 1520 27.030 27.045 27.060 27.076 27.091 27.106 27.121 27.137 27.152 27.167 27.183 1520
1030 18.805 18.824 18.842 18.860 18.878 18.896 18.914 18.933 18.951 18.969 18.987 1030 1530 27.183 27.198 27.213 27.228 27.244 27.259 27.274 27.289 27.304 27.320 27.335 1530
1040 18.987 19.005 19.023 19.041 19.060 19.078 19.096 19.114 19.132 19.150 19.168 1040 1540 27.335 27.350 27.365 27.380 27.396 27.411 27.426 27.441 27.456 27.471 27.486 1540

1050 19.168 19.186 19.204 19.223 19.241 19.259 19.277 19.295 19.313 19.331 19.349 1050 1550 27.486 27.502 27.517 27.532 27.547 27.562 27.577 27.592 27.607 27.622 27.637 1550
1060 19.349 19.367 19.385 19.403 19.421 19.439 19.457 19.475 19.493 19.511 19.529 1060 1560 27.637 27.653 27.668 27.683 27.698 27.713 27.728 27.743 27.758 27.773 27.788 1560
1070 19.529 19.547 19.565 19.583 19.601 19.619 19.637 19.655 19.673 19.691 19.709 1070 1570 27.788 27.803 27.818 27.833 27.848 27.863 27.878 27.893 27.908 27.923 27.938 1570
1080 19.709 19.727 19.744 19.762 19.780 19.798 19.816 19.834 19.852 19.870 19.888 1080 1580 27.938 27.953 27.968 27.983 27.997 28.012 28.027 28.042 28.057 28.072 28.087 1580
1090 19.888 19.905 19.923 19.941 19.959 19.977 19.995 20.013 20.030 20.048 20.066 1090 1590 28.087 28.102 28.117 28.132 28.146 28.161 28.176 28.191 28.206 28.221 28.236 1590

1100 20.066 20.084 20.102 20.120 20.137 20.155 20.173 20.191 20.208 20.226 20.066 1100 1600 28.236 28.250 28.265 28.280 28.295 28.310 28.324 28.339 28.354 28.369 28.531 1600
1110 20.244 20.262 20.279 20.297 20.315 20.333 20.350 20.368 20.386 20.404 20.421 1110 1610 28.531 28.398 28.413 28.428 28.443 28.457 28.472 28.487 28.502 28.516 28.531 1610
1120 20.421 20.439 20.457 20.474 20.492 20.510 20.527 20.545 20.563 20.580 20.598 1120 1620 28.531 28.546 28.560 28.575 28.590 28.604 28.619 28.634 28.648 28.663 28.678 1620
1130 20.598 20.616 20.633 20.651 20.669 20.686 20.704 20.721 20.739 20.757 20.774 1130 1630 28.678 28.692 28.707 28.722 28.736 28.751 28.765 28.780 28.795 28.809 28.824 1630
1140 20.774 20.792 20.809 20.827 20.845 20.862 20.880 20.897 20.915 20.932 20.950 1140 1640 28.824 28.838 28.853 28.868 28.882 28.897 28.911 28.926 28.940 28.955 28.969 1640

1150 20.950 20.967 20.985 21.002 21.020 21.037 21.055 21.072 21.090 21.107 21.125 1150 1650 28.969 28.984 28.998 29.013 29.027 29.042 29.056 29.071 29.085 29.100 29.114 1650
1160 21.125 21.142 21.160 21.177 21.195 21.212 21.230 21.247 21.265 21.282 21.299 1160 1660 29.114 29.129 29.143 29.158 29.172 29.187 29.201 29.215 29.230 29.244 29.259 1660
1170 21.299 21.317 21.334 21.352 21.369 21.386 21.404 21.421 21.439 21.456 21.473 1170 1670 29.259 29.273 29.287 29.302 29.316 29.331 29.345 29.359 29.374 29.388 29.402 1670
1180 21.473 21.491 21.508 21.525 21.543 21.560 21.577 21.595 21.612 21.629 21.647 1180 1680 29.402 29.417 29.431 29.445 29.460 29.474 29.488 29.503 29.517 29.531 29.546 1680
1190 21.647 21.664 21.681 21.698 21.716 21.733 21.750 21.768 21.785 21.802 21.819 1190 1690 29.546 29.560 29.574 29.588 29.603 29.617 29.631 29.645 29.660 29.674 29.688 1690

1200 21.819 21.837 21.854 21.871 21.888 21.905 21.923 21.940 21.957 21.974 21.991 1200 1700 29.688 29.702 29.716 29.731 29.745 29.759 29.773 29.787 29.802 29.816 29.830 1700
1210 21.991 22.009 22.026 22.043 22.060 22.077 22.094 22.112 22.129 22.146 22.163 1210 1710 29.830 29.844 29.858 29.872 29.886 29.901 29.915 29.929 29.943 29.957 29.971 1710
1220 22.163 22.180 22.197 22.214 22.231 22.249 22.266 22.283 22.300 22.317 22.334 1220 1720 29.971 29.985 29.999 30.013 30.027 30.041 30.056 30.070 30.084 30.098 30.112 1720
1230 22.334 22.35 22.368 22.385 22.402 22.419 22.436 22.453 22.470 22.487 22.504 1230 1730 30.112 30.126 30.140 30.154 30.168 30.182 30.196 30.210 30.224 30.238 30.252 1730
1240 22.504 22.521 22.538 22.555 22.572 22.589 22.606 22.623 22.640 22.657 22.674 1240 1740 30.252 30.266 30.280 30.294 30.308 30.321 30.335 30.349 30.363 30.377 30.391 1740

1250 22.674 22.691 22.708 22.725 22.742 22.759 22.776 22.792 22.809 22.826 22.843 1250 1750 30.391 30.405 30.419 30.433 30.447 30.460 30.474 30.488 30.502 30.516 30.530 1750
1260 22.843 22.860 22.877 22.894 22.911 22.928 22.944 22.961 22.978 22.995 23.012 1260 1760 30.530 30.544 30.557 30.571 30.585 30.599 30.613 30.627 20.640 30.654 30.668 1760
1270 23.012 23.029 23.045 23.062 23.079 23.096 23.113 23.129 23.146 23.163 23.180 1270 1770 30.668 30.682 30.695 30.709 30.723 30.737 30.750 30.764 30.778 30.792 30.805 1770
1280 23.180 23.196 23.213 23.230 23.247 23.263 23.280 23.297 23.314 23.330 23.347 1280 1780 30.805 30.819 30.833 30.846 30.860 30.874 30.887 30.901 30.915 20.928 30.942 1780
1290 23.347 23.364 23.380 23.397 23.414 23.431 23.447 23.464 23.481 23.497 23.514 1290 1790 30.942 30.956 30.969 30.983 30.997 31.010 31.024 31.038 31.051 31.065 31.078 1790

1300 23.514 23.530 23.547 23.564 23.580 23.597 23.614 23.630 23.647 23.663 23.680 1300 1800 31.078 31.092 31.105 31.119 31.133 31.146 31.160 31.173 31.187 31.200 31.214 1800
1310 23.680 23.697 23.713 23.730 23.746 23.763 23.779 23.796 23.812 23.829 23.846 1310 1810 31.214 31.227 31.241 31.254 31.268 31.281 31.295 31.308 31.322 31.335 31.349 1810
1320 23.846 23.862 23.879 23.895 23.912 23.928 23.945 23.961 23.978 23.994 24.010 1320 1820 31.349 31.362 31.376 31.389 31.403 31.416 31.429 31.443 31.456 31.470 31.483 1820
1330 24.010 24.027 24.043 24.060 24.076 24.093 24.109 24.126 24.142 24.158 24.175 1330 1830 31.483 31.496 31.510 31.523 31.536 31.550 31.563 31.577 31.590 31.603 31.617 1830
1340 24.175 24.191 24.208 24.224 24.240 24.257 24.273 24.290 24.306 24.322 24.339 1340 1840 31.617 31.630 31.643 31.656 31.670 31.683 31.696 31.710 31.723 31.736 31.749 1840

1350 24.339 24.355 24.371 24.388 24.404 24.420 24.437 24.453 24.46 24.485 24.502 1350 1850 31.749 31.763 31.776 31.789 31.802 31.816 31.829 31.842 31.855 31.869 31.882 1850
1360 24.502 24.518 24.534 24.551 24.567 24.583 24.599 24.616 24.632 24.648 24.664 1360 1860 31.882 31.895 31.908 31.921 31.934 31.948 31.961 31.974 31.987 32.000 32.013 1860
1370 24.664 24.680 24.697 24.713 24.729 24.745 24.762 24.778 24.794 24.810 24.826 1370 1870 32.013 32.026 32.040 32.053 32.066 32.079 32.092 32.105 32.118 32.131 32.144 1870
1380 24.826 24.842 24.859 24.875 24.891 24.907 24.923 24.939 24.955 24.971 24.988 1380 1880 32.144 32.157 32.170 31.183 32.196 32.209 32.222 32.235 32.248 32.261 32.274 1880
1390 24.988 25.004 25.020 25.036 25.052 25.068 25.084 25.100 25.116 24.132 25.148 1390 1890 32.274 32.287 32.300 31.313 32.326 32.339 32.352 32.365 32.378 32.391 32.404 1890

1400 25.148 25.164 25.180 25.196 25.212 25.228 25.244 25.260 25.276 25.292 25.308 1400 1900 32.404 32.417 32.430 32.443 32.456 32.468 32.481 32.494 32.507 32.520 32.533 1900
1410 25.308 25.324 25.340 25.356 25.372 25.388 25.404 25.420 25.436 25.452 25.468 1410 1910 32.533 32.546 32.558 32.571 32.584 32.597 32.610 32.623 32.635 32.648 32.661 1910
1420 25.468 25.484 25.500 25.516 25.532 25.547 25.563 25.579 25.595 25.611 25.627 1420 1920 32.661 32.674 32.686 32.699 32.712 32.725 32.737 32.750 32.763 32.776 32.788 1920
1430 25.627 25.643 25.658 25.674 25.690 25.706 25.722 25.738 25.753 25.769 25.785 1430 1930 32.788 32.801 32.814 32.826 32.839 32.852 32.864 32.877 32.890 32.902 32.915 1930
1440 25.785 25.801 25.817 25.832 25.848 25.864 25.880 25.896 25.911 25.927 25.943 1440 1940 32.915 32.928 32.940 32.953 32.966 32.978 32.991 33.003 33.016 33.028 33.041 1940

1450 25.943 25.959 25.974 25.990 26.006 26.021 26.037 26.053 26.069 26.084 26.100 1450 1950 33.041 33.054 33.066 33.079 33.091 33.104 33.116 33.129 33.141 33.154 33.166 1950
1460 26.100 26.116 26.131 26.147 26.163 26.178 26.194 26.209 26.225 26.241 26.256 1460 1960 33.166 33.179 33.191 33.204 33.216 33.229 33.241 33.254 33.266 33.278 33.291 1960
1470 26.256 26.272 26.288 26.303 26.319 26.334 26.350 26.366 26.381 26.397 26.412 1470 1970 33.291 33.303 33.316 33.328 33.341 33.353 33.365 33.378 33.390 33.402 33.415 1970
1480 26.412 26.428 26.443 26.459 26.474 26.490 26.505 26.521 26.537 26.552 26.568 1480 1980 33.415 33.427 33.439 33.452 33.464 33.476 33.489 33.501 33.513 33.525 33.538 1980
1490 26.568 26.583 26.599 26.614 26.629 26.645 26.660 26.676 26.691 26.707 26.722 1490 1990 33.538 33.550 33.562 33.575 33.587 33.599 33.611 33.623 33.636 33.648 33.660 1990

°C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C

Z-239
 MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE + Thermocouple
Revised Thermocouple
Thermocouple Grade Grade
–
-32 to 4208°F
-0 to 2320°C NONE
ESTABLISHED
Reference Tables
Extension Grade
32 to 1600°F
0 to 870°C Tungsten-

C
LIMITS OF ERROR
(whichever is greater)
Standard: 4.5°C to 425°C
5% Rhenium
vs. TYPE
Reference
1.0% to 2320°C
Special: Not Established Tungsten-
Tables
COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT: 26% Rhenium +
N.I.S.T.
Vacuum, Inert; Hydrogen; Beware of
Embrittlement; Not Practical Below 750°F; – Monograph 175
Not for Oxidizing Atmosphere
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °C Extension Revised to
REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 0°C Grade ITS-90
Z
Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts
°C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C
2000 33.660 33.672 33.684 33.697 33.709 33.721 33.733 33.745 33.757 33.769 33.782 2000 2200 35.932 35.942 35.953 35.963 35.973 35.984 35.994 36.004 36.015 36.025 36.036 2200
2010 33.782 33.794 33.806 33.818 33.830 33.842 33.854 33.866 33.878 33.890 33.902 2010 2210 36.036 36.046 36-056 36.067 36.077 36.087 36.097 36.108 36.118 36.128 36.138 2210
2020 33.902 33.914 33.926 33.938 33.950 33.962 33.974 33.986 33.998 34.010 34.022 2020 2220 36.138 36.149 36.159 36.169 36.179 36.189 36.200 36.210 36.220 36.230 36.240 2220
2030 34.022 34.034 34.046 34.058 34.070 34.082 34.094 34.106 34.118 34.130 34.142 2030 2230 36.240 36.250 36.260 36.271 36.281 36.291 36.301 36.311 36.321 36.331 36.341 2230
2040 34.142 34.153 34.165 34.177 34.189 34.201 34.213 34.225 34.236 34.248 34.260 2040 2240 36.341 36.351 36.361 36.371 36.381 36.391 36.401 36.411 36.421 36.431 36.441 2240

2050 34.260 34.272 34.284 34.295 34.307 34.319 34.331 34.342 34.354 34.366 34.378 2050 2250 36.441 36.451 36.460 36.470 36.480 36.490 36-500 36.510 36.520 36.529 36.539 2250
2060 34.378 34.389 34.401 34.413 34.424 34.436 34.448 34.459 34.471 34.483 34.494 2060 2260 36.539 36.549 36.559 36.569 36.578 36.588 36.598 36.608 36.617 36.627 36.637 2260
2070 34.494 34.506 34.518 34.529 34.541 34.552 34.564 34.576 34.587 34.599 34.610 2070 2270 36.637 36.646 36.656 36.666 36.675 36.685 36.695 36.704 36.714 36.723 36.733 2270
2080 34.610 34.622 34.633 34.645 34.656 34.668 34.679 34.691 34.702 34.714 34.725 2080 2280 36.733 36.743 36.752 36.762 36.771 36.781 36.790 36.800 36.809 36.819 36.828 2280
2090 34.725 34.737 34.748 34.760 34.771 34.782 34.794 34.805 34.817 34.828 34.839 2090 2290 36.828 36.838 36.847 36.857 36.866 36.875 36.885 36.894 36.903 36.913 36.922 2290

2100 34.839 34.851 34.862 34.874 34.885 34.896 34.908 34.919 34.930 34.942 34.953 2100 2300 36.922 36.932 36.941 36.950 36.959 36.969 36.978 36.987 36.997 37.006 37.015 2300
2110 34.953 34.964 34.975 34.987 34.998 35.009 35.020 35.032 35.043 35.054 35.065 2110 2310 37.015 37.024 37.033 37.043 37.052 37.061 37.070 37.079 37.088 37.097 37.107 2310
2120 35.065 35.077 35.088 35.099 35.110 35.121 35.132 34.144 35.155 35.166 35.177 2120
2130 35.177 35.188 35.199 35.210 35.221 35.232 35.243 35.254 35.265 35.277 35.288 2130
2140 35.288 35.299 35.310 35.321 35.332 35.343 35.353 35.364 35.375 35.386 35.397 2140

2150 35.397 35.408 35.419 35.430 35.441 35.452 35.463 35.474 35.484 35.495 35.506 2150
2160 35.506 35.517 35.528 35.539 35.549 35.560 35.571 35.582 35.592 35.603 35.614 2160
2170 35.614 35.625 35.635 35.646 35.657 35.668 35.678 35.689 35.700 35.710 35.721 2170
2180 35.721 35.731 35.742 35.753 35.763 35.774 35.784 35.795 35.806 35.816 35.827 2180
2190 35.827 35.837 35.848 35.858 35.869 35.879 35.890 35.900 35.911 35.921 35.932 2190
°C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C

Z-240
Revised Thermocouple + Thermocouple
Grade
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE
Thermocouple Grade
–
Reference Tables -32 to 4208°F
-0 to 2320°C
Extension Grade
32 to 1600°F
Tungsten- 0 to 870°C

C
TYPE
Reference
5% Rhenium
vs.
LIMITS OF ERROR
(whichever is greater)
Standard: 4.5°C to 425°C
Tungsten- 1.0% to 2320°C
Special: Not Established
Tables
N.I.S.T.
26% Rhenium + COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT:
Vacuum, Inert; Hydrogen; Beware of
Monograph 175 – Embrittlement; Not Practical Below 750°F;
Not for Oxidizing Atmosphere
Revised to Extension TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °F
ITS-90 Grade REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 32°F

Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
0 -0.234 -0.227 -0.220 -0.213 -0.206 -0.198 -0.191 -0.184 -0.177 -0.169 -0.162 0 500 4.140 4.150 4.160 4.170 4.180 4.190 4.200 4.210 4.220 4.230 4.240 500
10 -0.162 -0.155 -0.148 -0.140 -0.133 -0.126 -0.118 -0.111 -0.104 -0.096 -0.089 10 510 4.240 4.250 4.260 4.270 4.280 4.290 4.299 4.309 4.319 4.329 4.339 510
20 -0.089 -0.082 -0.074 -0.067 -0.060 -0.052 -0.045 -0.037 -0.030 -0.023 -0.015 20 520 4.339 4.349 4.359 4.369 4.379 4.389 4.399 4.410 4.420 4.430 4.440 520
30 -0.015 -0.008 0.000 0.007 0.014 0.022 0.029 0.037 0.044 0.052 0.059 30 530 4.440 4.450 4.460 4.470 4.480 4.490 4.500 4.510 4.520 4.530 4.540 530
40 0.059 0.067 0.074 0.082 0.089 0.097 0.104 0.112 0.120 0.127 0.135 40 540 4.540 4.550 4.560 4.570 4.580 4.590 4.600 4.610 4.621 4.631 4.641 540

50 0.135 0.142 0.150 0.157 0.165 0.173 0.180 0.188 0.196 0.203 0.211 50 550 4.641 4.651 4.661 4.671 4.681 4.691 4.701 4.711 4.722 4.732 4.742 550
60 0.211 0.218 0.226 0.234 0.241 0.249 0.257 0.264 0.272 0.280 0.288 60 560 4.742 4.752 4.762 4.772 4.782 4.792 4.803 4.813 4.823 4.833 4.843 560
70 0.288 0.295 0.303 0.311 0.319 0.326 0.334 0.342 0.350 0.357 0.365 70 570 4.843 4.853 4.863 4.874 4.884 4.894 4.904 4.914 4.924 4.935 4.945 570
80 0.365 0.373 0.381 0.389 0.396 0.404 0.412 0.420 0.428 0.436 0.443 80 580 4.945 4.955 4.965 4.975 4.985 4.996 5.006 5.016 5.026 5.036 5.047 580
90 0.443 0.451 0.459 0.467 0.475 0.483 0.491 0.499 0.506 0.514 0.522 90 590 5.047 5.057 5.067 5.077 5.087 5.098 5.108 5.118 5.128 5.139 5.149 590

100 0.522 0.530 0.538 0.546 0.554 0.562 0.570 0.578 0.586 0.594 0.522 100 600 5.149 5.159 5.169 5.180 5.190 5.200 5.210 5.220 5.231 5.241 5.251 600
110 0.602 0.610 0.618 0.626 0.634 0.642 0.650 0.658 0.666 0.674 0.682 10 610 5.251 5.261 5.272 5.282 5.292 5.303 5.313 5.323 5.333 5.344 5.354 610
120 0.682 0.690 0.698 0.706 0.714 0.723 0.731 0.739 0.747 0.755 0.763 120 620 5.354 5.364 5.375 5.385 5.395 5.405 5.416 5.426 5.436 5.447 5.457 620
130 0.763 0.771 0.779 0.788 0.796 0.804 0.812 0.820 0.828 0.837 0.845 130 630 5.457 5.467 5.478 5.488 5.498 5.508 5.519 5.529 5.539 5.550 5.560 630
140 0.845 0.853 0.861 0.869 0.878 0.886 0.894 0.902 0.911 0.919 0.927 140 640 5.560 5.570 5.581 5.591 5.601 5.612 5.622 5.632 5.643 5.653 5.664 640

150 0.927 0.935 0.944 0.952 0.960 0.968 0.977 0.985 0.993 1.002 1.010 150 650 5.664 5.674 5.684 5.695 5.705 5.715 5.726 5.736 5.746 5.757 5.767 650
160 1.010 1.018 1.027 1.035 1.043 1.052 1.060 1.068 1.077 1.085 1.093 160 660 5.767 5.778 5.788 5.798 5.809 5.819 5.830 5.840 5.850 5.861 5.871 660
170 1.093 1.102 1.110 1.119 1.127 1.135 1.144 1.152 1.161 1.169 1.178 170 670 5.871 5.882 5.892 5.902 5.913 5.923 5.934 5.944 5.954 5.965 5.975 670
180 1.178 1.186 1.194 1.203 1.211 1.220 1.228 1.237 1.245 1.254 1.262 180 680 5.975 5.986 5.996 6.007 6.017 6.027 6.038 6.048 6.059 6.069 6.080 680
190 1.262 1.271 1.279 1.288 1.296 1.305 1.313 1.322 1.330 1.339 1.348 190 690 6.080 6.090 6.100 6.111 6.121 6.132 6.142 6.153 6.163 6.174 6.184 690

200 1.348 1.356 1.365 1.373 1.382 1.390 1.399 1.408 1.416 1.425 1.434 200 700 6.184 6.195 6.205 6.216 6.226 6.236 6.247 6.257 6.268 6.278 6.289 700
210 1.434 1.442 1.451 1.459 1.468 1.477 1.485 1.494 1.503 1.511 1.520 210 710 6.289 6.299 6.310 6.320 6.331 6.341 6.352 6.362 6.373 6.383 6.394 710
220 1.520 1.529 1.537 1.546 1.555 1.563 1.572 1.581 1.590 1.598 1.607 220 720 6.394 6.404 6.415 6.425 6.436 6.446 6.457 6.467 6.478 6.488 6.499 720
230 1.607 1.616 1.625 1.633 1.642 1.651 1.660 1.668 1.677 1.686 1.695 230 730 6.499 6.509 6.520 6.531 6.541 6.552 6.562 6.573 6.583 6.594 6.604 730
240 1.695 1.703 1.712 1.721 1.730 1.739 1.748 1.756 1.765 1.774 1.783 240 740 6.604 6.615 6.625 6.636 6.646 6.657 6.668 6.678 6.689 6.699 6.710 740

250 1.783 1.792 1.801 1.809 1.818 1.827 1.836 1.845 1.854 1.863 1.872 250 750 6.710 6.720 6.731 6.741 6.752 6.763 6.773 6.784 6.794 6.805 6.815 750
260 1.872 1.880 1.889 1.898 1.907 1.916 1.925 1.934 1.943 1.952 1.961 260 760 6.815 6.826 6.837 6.847 6.858 6.868 6.879 6.890 6.900 6.911 6.921 760
270 1.961 1.970 1.979 1.988 1.997 2.006 2.015 2.024 2.033 2.042 2.051 270 770 6.921 6.932 6.943 6.953 6.964 6.974 6.985 6.996 7.006 7.017 7.027 770
280 2.051 2.060 2.069 2.078 2.087 2.096 2.105 2.114 2.123 2.132 2.141 280 780 7.027 7.038 7.049 7.059 7.070 7.080 7.091 7.102 7.112 7.123 7.134 780
290 2.141 2.150 2.159 2.168 2.177 2.186 2.195 2.204 2.213 2.223 2.232 290 790 7.134 7.144 7.155 7.165 7.176 7.187 7.197 7.208 7.219 7.229 7.240 790

300 2.232 2.241 2.250 2.259 2.268 2.277 2.286 2.295 2.305 2.314 2.323 300 800 7.240 7.250 7.261 7.272 7.282 7.293 7.304 7.314 7.325 7.336 7.346 800
310 2.323 2.332 2.341 2.350 2.360 2.369 2.378 2.387 2.396 2.405 2.415 310 810 7.346 7.357 7.368 7.378 7.389 7.400 7.410 7.421 7.432 7.442 7.453 810
320 2.415 2.424 2.433 2.442 2.451 2.461 2.470 2.479 2.488 2.498 2.507 320 820 7.453 7.464 7.474 7.485 7.496 7.506 7.517 7.528 7.538 7.549 7.560 820
330 2.507 2.516 2.525 2.535 2.544 2.553 2.562 2.572 2.581 2.590 2.600 330 830 7.560 7.570 7.581 7.592 7.602 7.613 7.624 7.634 7.645 7.656 7.667 830
340 2.600 2.609 2.618 2.628 2.637 2.646 2.655 2.665 2.674 2.683 2.693 340 840 7.667 7.677 7.688 7.699 7.709 7.720 7.731 7.741 7.752 7.763 7.774 840

350 2.693 2.702 2.711 2.721 2.730 2.740 2.749 2.758 2.768 2.777 2.786 350 850 7.774 7.784 7.795 7.806 7.816 7.827 7.838 7.849 7.859 7.870 7.881 850
360 2.786 2.796 2.805 2.815 2.824 2.833 2.843 2.852 2.862 2.871 2.880 360 860 7.881 7.891 7.902 7.913 7.924 7.934 7.945 7.956 7.966 7.977 7.988 860
370 2.880 2.890 2.899 2.909 2.918 2.928 2.937 2.947 2.956 2.965 2.975 370 870 7.988 7.999 8.009 8.020 8.031 8.042 8.052 8.063 8.074 8.085 8.095 870
380 2.975 2.984 2.994 3.003 3.013 3.022 3.032 3.041 3.051 3.060 3.070 380 880 8.095 8.106 8.117 8.127 8.138 8.149 8.160 8.170 8.181 8.192 8.203 880
390 3.070 3.079 3.089 3.098 3.108 3.118 3.127 3.137 3.146 3.156 3.165 390 890 8.203 8.213 8.224 8.235 8.246 8.256 8.267 8.278 8.289 8.300 8.310 890

400 3.165 3.175 3.184 3.194 3.204 3.213 3.223 3.232 3.242 3.251 3.261 400 900 8.310 8.321 8.332 8.343 8.353 8.364 8.375 8.386 8.396 8.407 8.418 900
410 3.261 3.271 3.280 3.290 3.299 3.309 3.319 3.328 3.338 3.348 3.357 410 910 8.418 8.429 8.439 8.450 8.461 8.472 8.483 8.493 8.504 8.515 8.526 910
420 3.357 3.367 3.376 3.386 3.396 3.405 3.415 3.425 3.434 3.444 3.454 420 920 8.526 8.536 8.547 8.558 8.569 8.580 8.590 8.601 8.612 8.623 8.633 920
430 3.454 3.463 3.473 3.483 3.492 3.502 3.512 3.522 3.531 3.541 3.551 430 930 8.633 8.644 8.655 8.666 8.677 8.687 8.698 8.709 8.720 8.731 8.741 930
440 3.551 3.560 3.570 3.580 3.590 3.599 3.609 3.619 3.629 3.638 3.648 440 940 8.741 8.752 8.763 8.774 8.785 8.795 8.806 8.817 8.828 8.839 8.849 940

450 3.648 3.658 3.668 3.677 3.687 3.697 3.707 3.716 3.726 3.736 3.746 450 950 8.849 8.860 8.871 8.882 8.893 8.903 8.914 8.925 8.936 8.947 8.957 950
460 3.746 3.756 3.765 3.775 3.785 3.795 3.805 3.814 3.824 3.834 3.844 460 960 8.957 8.968 8.979 8.990 9.001 9.011 9.022 9.033 9.044 9.055 9.066 960
470 3.844 3.854 3.864 3.873 3.883 3.893 3.903 3.913 3.923 3.932 3.942 470 970 9.066 9.076 9.087 9.098 9.109 9.120 9.130 9.141 9.152 9.163 9.174 970
480 3.942 3.952 3.962 3.972 3.982 3.992 4.002 4.011 4.021 4.031 4.041 480 980 9.174 9.185 9.195 9.206 9.217 9.228 9.239 9.250 9.260 9.271 9.282 980
490 4.041 4.051 4.061 4.071 4.081 4.091 4.101 4.110 4.120 4.130 4.140 490 990 9.282 9.293 9.304 9.314 9.325 9.336 9.347 9.358 9.369 9.379 9.390 990

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

Z-241
 MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE + Thermocouple
Revised Thermocouple
Thermocouple Grade Grade
–
-32 to 4208°F
-0 to 2320°C NONE
ESTABLISHED
Reference Tables
Extension Grade
32 to 1600°F
0 to 870°C Tungsten-

C
LIMITS OF ERROR
(whichever is greater)
Standard: 4.5°C to 425°C
5% Rhenium
vs. TYPE
Reference
1.0% to 2320°C
Special: Not Established Tungsten-
Tables
COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT: 26% Rhenium +
N.I.S.T.
Vacuum, Inert; Hydrogen; Beware of
Embrittlement; Not Practical Below 750°F; – Monograph 175
Not for Oxidizing Atmosphere
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °F Extension Revised to
REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 32°F Grade ITS-90
Z
Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts
°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
1000 9.390 9.401 9.412 9.423 9.434 9.444 9.455 9.466 9.477 9.488 9.499 1000 1500 14.792 14.803 14.814 14.824 14.835 14.846 14.856 14.867 14.877 14.888 14.899 1500
1010 9.499 9.509 9.520 9.531 9.542 9.553 9.564 9.575 9.585 9.596 9.607 1010 1510 14.899 14.909 14.920 14.931 14.941 14.952 14.962 14.973 14.984 14.994 15.005 1510
1020 9.607 9.618 9.629 9.640 9.650 9.661 9.672 9.683 9.694 9.705 9.715 1020 1520 15.005 15.016 15.026 15.037 15.047 15.058 15.069 15.079 15.090 15.101 15.111 1520
1030 9.715 9.726 9.737 9.748 9.759 9.770 9.781 9.791 9.802 9.813 9.824 1030 1530 15.111 15.122 15.132 15.143 15.154 15.164 15.175 15.185 15.196 15.207 15.217 1530
1040 9.824 9.835 9.846 9.857 9.867 9.878 9.889 9.900 9.911 9.922 9.932 1040 1540 15.217 15.228 15.238 15.249 15.260 15.270 15.281 15.291 15.302 15.313 15.323 1540

1050 9.932 9.943 9.954 9.965 9.976 9.987 9.998 10.008 10.019 10.030 9.932 1050 1550 15.323 15.334 15.344 15.355 15.366 15.376 15.387 15.397 15.408 15.418 15.429 1550
1060 10.041 10.052 10.063 10.074 10.084 10.095 10.106 10.117 10.128 10.139 10.150 1060 1560 15.429 15.440 15.450 15.461 15.471 15.482 15.492 15.503 15.514 15.524 15.535 1560
1070 10.150 10.160 10.171 10.182 10.193 10.204 10.215 10.226 10.236 10.247 10.258 1070 1570 15.535 15.545 15.556 15.566 15.577 15.588 15.598 15.609 15.619 15.630 15.640 1570
1080 10.258 10.269 10.280 10.291 10.302 10.312 10.323 10.334 10.345 10.356 10.367 1080 1580 15.640 15.651 15.661 15.672 15.683 15.693 15.704 15.714 15.725 15.735 15.746 1580
1090 10.367 10.378 10.388 10.399 10.410 10.421 10.432 10.443 10.454 10.464 10.475 1090 1590 15.746 15.756 15.767 15.777 15.788 15.799 15.809 15.820 15.830 15.841 15.851 1590

1100 10.475 10.486 10.497 10.508 10.519 10.530 10.541 10.551 10.562 10.573 10.584 1100 1600 15.851 15.862 15.872 15.883 15.893 15.904 15.914 15.925 15.935 15.946 15.956 1600
1110 10.584 10.595 10.606 10.617 10.627 10.638 10.649 10.660 10.671 10.682 10.693 1110 1610 15.956 15.967 15.977 15.988 15.998 16.009 16.020 16.030 16.041 16.051 16.062 1610
1120 10.693 10.703 10.714 10.725 10.736 10.747 10.758 10.769 10.780 10.790 10.801 1120 1620 16.062 16.072 16.083 16.093 16.104 16.114 16.125 16.135 16.146 16.156 16.167 1620
1130 10.801 10.812 10.823 10.834 10.845 10.856 10.866 10.877 10.888 10.899 10.910 1130 1630 16.167 16.177 16.187 16.198 16.208 16.219 16.229 16.240 16.250 16.261 16.271 1630
1140 10.910 10.921 10.932 10.942 10.953 10.964 10.975 10.986 10.997 11.008 11.019 1140 1640 16.271 16.282 16.292 16.303 16.313 16.324 16.334 16.345 16.355 16.366 16.376 1640

1150 11.019 11.029 11.040 11.051 11.062 11.073 11.084 11.095 11.105 11.116 11.127 1150 1650 16.376 16.387 16.397 16.407 16.418 16.428 16.439 16.449 16.460 16.470 16.481 1650
1160 11.127 11.138 11.149 11.160 11.171 11.181 11.192 11.203 11.214 11.225 11.236 1160 1660 16.481 16.491 16.502 16.512 16.522 16.533 16.543 16.554 16.564 16.575 16.585 1660
1170 11.236 11.247 11.257 11.268 11.279 11.290 11.301 11.312 11.323 11.333 11.344 1170 1670 16.585 16.596 16.606 16.616 16.627 16.637 16.648 16.658 16.669 16.679 16.689 1670
1180 11.344 11.355 11.366 11.377 11.388 11.399 11.409 11.420 11.431 11.442 11.453 1180 1680 16.689 16.700 16.710 16.721 16.731 16.741 16.752 16.762 16.773 16.783 16.794 1680
1190 11.453 11.464 11.475 11.485 11.496 11.507 11.518 11.529 11.540 11.551 11.561 1190 1690 16.794 16.804 16.814 16.825 16.835 16.846 16.856 16.866 16.877 16.887 16.898 1690

1200 11.561 11.572 11.583 11.594 11.605 11.616 11.627 11.637 11.648 11.659 11.670 1200 1700 16.898 16.908 16.918 16.929 16.939 16.950 16.960 16.970 16.981 16.991 17.001 1700
1210 11.670 11.681 11.692 11.702 11.713 11.724 11.735 11.746 11.757 11.768 11.778 1210 1710 17.001 17.012 17.022 17.033 17.043 17.053 17.064 17.074 17.084 17.095 17.105 1710
1220 11.778 11.789 11.800 11.811 11.822 11.833 11.844 11.854 11.865 11.876 11.887 1220 1720 17.105 17.116 17.126 17.136 17.147 17.157 17.167 17.178 17.188 17.198 17.209 1720
1230 11.887 11.898 11.909 11.919 11.930 11.941 11.952 11.963 11.974 11.984 11.995 1230 1730 17.209 17.219 17.230 17.240 17.250 17.261 17.271 17.281 17.292 17.302 17.312 1730
1240 11.995 12.006 12.017 12.028 12.039 12.050 12.060 12.071 12.082 12.093 12.104 1240 1740 17.312 17.323 17.333 17.343 17.35 17.364 17.374 17.385 17.395 17.405 17.416 1740

1250 12.104 12.115 12.125 12.136 12.147 12.158 12.169 12.180 12.190 12.201 12.212 1250 1750 17.416 17.426 17.436 17.447 17.457 17.467 17.477 17.488 17.498 17.508 17.519 1750
1260 12.212 12.223 12.234 12.245 12.255 12.266 12.277 12.288 12.299 12.310 12.320 1260 1760 17.519 17.529 17.539 17.550 17.560 17.570 17.581 17.591 17.601 17.611 17.622 1760
1270 12.320 12.331 12.342 12.353 12.364 12.374 12.385 12.396 12.407 12.418 12.429 1270 1770 17.622 17.632 17.642 17.653 17.663 17.673 17.683 17.694 17.704 17.714 17.725 1770
1280 12.429 12.439 12.450 12.461 12.472 12.483 12.494 12.504 12.515 12.526 12.537 1280 1780 17.725 17.735 17.745 17.755 17.766 17.776 17.786 17.796 17.807 17.817 17.827 1780
1290 12.537 12.548 12.558 12.569 12.580 12.591 12.602 12.612 12.623 12.634 12.645 1290 1790 17.827 17.838 17.848 17.858 17.868 17.879 17.889 17.899 17.909 17.920 17.930 1790

1300 12.645 12.656 12.667 12.677 12.688 12.699 12.710 12.721 12.731 12.742 12.753 1300 1800 17.930 17.940 17.950 17.961 17.971 17.981 17.991 18.002 18.012 18.022 18.032 1800
1310 12.753 12.764 12.775 12.785 12.796 12.807 12.818 12.829 12.839 12.850 12.861 1310 1810 18.032 18.042 18.053 18.063 18.073 18.083 18.094 18.104 18.114 18.124 18.134 1810
1320 12.861 12.872 12.883 12.893 12.904 12.915 12.926 12.937 12.947 12.958 12.969 1320 1820 18.134 18.145 18.155 18.165 18.175 18.186 18.196 18.206 18.216 18.226 18.237 1820
1330 12.969 12.980 12.991 13.001 13.012 13.023 13.034 13.045 13.055 13.066 13.077 1330 1830 18.237 18.247 18.257 18.267 18.277 18.288 18.298 18.308 18.318 18.328 18.339 1830
1340 13.077 13.088 13.098 13.109 13.120 13.131 13.142 13.152 13.163 13.174 13.185 1340 1840 18.339 18.349 18.359 18.369 18.379 18.389 18.400 18.410 18.420 18.430 18.440 1840

1350 13.185 13.196 13.206 13.217 13.228 13.239 13.249 13.260 13.271 13.282 13.292 1350 1850 18.440 18.450 18.461 18.471 18.481 18.491 18.501 18.511 18.522 18.532 18.542 1850
1360 13.292 13.303 13.314 13.325 13.336 13.346 13.357 13.368 13.379 13.389 13.400 1360 1860 18.542 18.552 18.562 18.572 18.582 18.593 18.603 18.613 18.623 18.633 18.643 1860
1370 13.400 13.411 13.422 13.432 13.443 13.454 13.465 13.476 13.486 13.497 13.508 1370 1870 18.643 18.653 18.664 18.674 18.684 18.694 18.704 18.714 18.724 18.735 18.745 1870
1380 13.508 13.519 13.529 13.540 13.551 13.562 13.572 13.583 13.594 13.605 13.615 1380 1880 18.745 18.755 18.765 18.775 18.785 18.795 18.805 18.815 18.826 18.836 18.846 1880
1390 13.615 13.626 13.637 13.648 13.658 13.669 13.680 13.691 13.701 13.712 13.723 1390 1890 18.846 18.856 18.866 18.876 18.886 18.896 18.906 18.916 18.927 18.937 18.947 1890

1400 13.723 13.734 13.744 13.755 13.766 13.776 13.787 13.798 13.809 13.819 13.830 1400 1900 18.947 18.957 18.967 18.977 18.987 18.997 19.007 19.017 19.027 19.037 19.048 1990
1410 13.830 13.841 13.852 13.862 13.873 13.884 13.895 13.905 13.916 13.927 13.937 1410 1910 19.048 19.058 19.068 19.078 19.088 19.098 19.108 19.118 19.128 19.138 19.148 1910
1420 13.937 13.948 13.959 13.970 13.980 13.991 14.002 14.012 14.023 14.034 14.045 1420 1920 19.148 19.158 19.168 19.178 19.188 19.198 19.208 19.218 19.229 19.239 19.249 1920
1430 14.045 14.055 14.066 14.077 14.087 14.098 14.109 14.120 14.130 14.141 14.152 1430 1930 19.249 19.259 19.269 19.279 19.289 19.299 19.309 19.319 19.329 19.339 19.349 1930
1440 14.152 14.162 14.173 14.184 14.195 14.205 14.216 14.227 14.237 14.248 14.259 1440 1940 19.349 19.359 19.369 19.379 19.389 19.399 19.409 19.419 19.429 19.439 19.449 1940

1450 14.259 14.269 14.280 14.291 14.302 14.312 14.323 14.334 14.344 14.355 14.366 1450 1950 19.449 19.459 19.469 19.479 19.489 19.499 19.509 19.519 19.529 19.539 19.549 1950
1460 14.366 14.376 14.387 14.398 14.408 14.419 14.430 14.440 14.451 14.462 14.472 1460 1960 19.549 19.559 19.569 19.579 19.589 19.599 19.609 19.619 19.629 19.639 19.649 1960
1470 14.472 14.483 14.494 14.504 14.515 14.526 14.536 14.547 14.558 14.569 14.579 1470 1970 19.649 19.659 19.669 19.679 19.689 19.699 19.709 19.719 19.729 19.738 19.748 1970
1480 14.579 14.590 14.601 14.611 14.622 14.632 14.643 14.654 14.664 14.675 14.686 1480 1980 19.748 19.758 19.768 19.778 19.788 19.798 19.808 19.818 19.828 19.838 19.848 1980
1490 14.686 14.696 14.707 14.718 14.728 14.739 14.750 14.760 14.771 14.782 14.792 1490 1990 19.848 19.858 19.868 19.878 19.888 19.898 19.907 19.917 19.927 19.937 19.947 1990

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

Z-242
Revised Thermocouple + Thermocouple
Grade
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE
Thermocouple Grade
–
Reference Tables NONE
ESTABLISHED
-32 to 4208°F
-0 to 2320°C
Extension Grade
32 to 1600°F
Tungsten- 0 to 870°C

C
TYPE
Reference
5% Rhenium
vs.
LIMITS OF ERROR
(whichever is greater)
Standard: 4.5°C to 425°C
Tungsten- 1.0% to 2320°C
Special: Not Established
Tables
N.I.S.T.
26% Rhenium + COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT:
Vacuum, Inert; Hydrogen; Beware of
Monograph 175 – Embrittlement; Not Practical Below 750°F;
Not for Oxidizing Atmosphere
Revised to Extension TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °F
ITS-90 Grade REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 32°F

Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
2000 19.947 19.957 19.967 19.977 19.987 19.997 20.007 20.017 20.026 20.036 20.046 2000 2500 24.682 24.691 24.700 24.709 24.718 24.727 24.736 24.745 24.754 24.763 24.772 2500
2010 20.046 20.056 20.066 20.076 20.086 20.096 20.106 20.116 20.125 20.135 20.145 2010 2510 24.772 24.781 24.790 24.799 24.808 24.817 24.826 24.835 24.844 24.853 24.862 2510
2020 20.145 20.155 20.165 20.175 20.185 20.195 20.204 20.214 20.224 20.234 20.244 2020 2520 24.862 24.871 24.880 24.889 24.898 24.907 24.916 24.925 24.934 24.943 24.952 2520
2030 20.244 20.254 20.264 20.274 20.283 20.293 20.303 20.313 20.323 20.333 20.343 2030 2530 24.952 24.961 24.970 24.979 24.988 24.996 25.005 25.014 25.023 25.032 25.041 2530
2040 20.343 20.352 20.362 20.372 20.382 20.392 20.402 20.411 20.421 20.431 20.441 2040 2540 25.041 25.050 25.059 25.068 25.077 25.086 25.095 25.104 25.113 25.122 25.130 2540

2050 20.441 20.451 20.461 20.470 20.480 20.490 20.500 20.510 20.520 20.529 20.539 2050 2550 25.130 25.139 25.148 25.157 25.166 25.175 25.184 25.193 25.202 25.211 25.219 2550
2060 20.539 20.549 20.559 20.569 20.578 20.588 20.598 20.608 20.618 20.627 20.637 2060 2560 25.219 25.228 25.237 25.246 25.255 25.264 25.273 25.282 25.291 25.299 25.308 2560
2070 20.637 20.647 20.657 20.667 20.676 20.686 20.696 20.706 20.716 20.725 20.735 2070 2570 25.308 25.317 25.326 25.335 25.344 25.353 25.362 25.370 25.379 25.388 25.397 2570
2080 20.735 20.745 20.755 20.765 20.774 20.784 20.794 20.804 20.813 20.823 20.833 2080 2580 25.397 25.406 25.415 25.424 25.432 25.441 25.450 25.459 25.468 25.477 25.486 2580
2090 20.833 20.843 20.852 20.862 20.872 20.882 20.891 20.901 20.911 20.921 20.930 2090 2590 25.486 25.494 25.503 25.512 25.521 25.530 25.539 25.547 25.556 25.565 25.574 2590

2100 20.930 20.940 20.950 20.960 20.969 20.979 20.989 20.999 21.008 21.018 21.028 2100 2600 25.574 25.583 25.592 25.600 25.609 25.618 25.627 25.636 25.644 25.653 25.662 2600
2110 21.028 21.037 21.047 21.057 21.067 21.076 21.086 21.096 21.106 21.115 21.125 2110 2610 25.662 25.671 25.680 25.688 25.697 25.706 25.715 25.724 25.732 25.741 25.750 2610
2120 21.125 21.135 21.144 21.154 21.164 21.173 21.183 21.193 21.203 21.212 21.222 2120 2620 25.750 25.759 25.76 25.776 25.785 25.794 25.803 25.811 25.820 25.829 25.838 2620
2130 21.222 21.232 21.241 21.251 21.261 21.270 21.280 21.290 21.299 21.309 21.319 2130 2630 25.838 25.846 25.855 25.864 25.873 25.882 25.890 25.899 25.908 25.917 25.925 2630
2140 21.319 21.328 21.338 21.348 21.357 21.367 21.377 21.386 21.396 21.406 21.415 2140 2640 25.925 25.934 25.943 25.952 25.960 25.969 25.978 25.986 25.995 26.004 26.013 2640

2150 21.415 21.425 21.435 21.444 21.454 21.464 21.473 21.483 21.493 21.502 21.512 2150 2650 26.013 26.021 26.030 26.039 26.048 26.056 26.065 26.074 26.082 26.091 26.100 2650
2160 21.512 21.521 21.531 21.541 21.550 21.560 21.570 21.579 21.589 21.599 21.608 2160 2660 26.100 26.109 26.117 26.126 26.135 26.143 26.152 26.161 26.170 26.178 26.187 2660
2170 21.608 21.618 21.627 21.637 21.647 21.656 21.666 21.675 21.685 21.695 21.704 2170 2670 26.187 26.196 26.204 26.213 26.222 26.230 26.239 26.248 26.256 26.265 26.274 2670
2180 21.704 21.714 21.723 21.733 21.743 21.752 21.762 21.771 21.781 21.791 21.800 2180 2680 26.274 26.282 26.291 26.300 26.308 26.317 26.326 26.334 26.343 26.352 26.360 2680
2190 21.800 21.810 21.819 21.829 21.838 21.848 21.858 21.867 21.877 21.886 21.896 2190 2690 26.360 26.369 26.378 26.386 26.395 26.404 26.412 26.421 26.430 26.438 26.447 2690

2200 21.896 21.905 21.915 21.925 21.934 21.944 21.953 21.963 21.972 21.982 21.991 2200 2700 26.447 26.455 26.464 26.473 26.481 26.490 26.499 26.507 26.516 26.524 26.533 2700
2210 21.991 22.001 22.011 22.020 22.030 22.039 22.049 22.058 22.068 22.077 22.087 2210 2710 26.533 26.542 26.550 26.559 26.568 26.576 26.585 26.593 26.602 26.611 26.619 2710
2220 22.087 22.096 22.106 22.115 22.125 22.134 22.144 22.153 22.163 22.172 22.182 2220 2720 26.619 26.628 26.636 26.645 26.654 26.662 26.671 26.679 26.688 26.696 26.705 2720
2230 22.182 22.192 22.201 22.211 22.220 22.230 22.239 22.249 22.258 22.268 22.277 2230 2730 26.705 26.714 26.722 26.731 26.739 26.748 26.756 26.765 26.774 26.782 26.791 2730
2240 22.277 22.286 22.296 22.305 22.315 22.324 22.334 22.343 22.353 22.362 22.372 2240 2740 26.791 26.799 26.808 26.816 26.825 26.834 26.842 26.851 26.859 26.868 26.876 2740

2250 22.372 22.381 22.391 22.400 22.410 22.419 22.429 22.438 22.448 22.457 22.466 2250 2750 26.876 26.885 26.893 26.902 26.910 26.919 26.927 26.936 26.945 26.953 26.962 2750
2260 22.466 22.476 22.485 22.495 22.504 22.514 22.523 22.533 22.542 22.551 22.561 2260 2760 26.962 26.970 26.979 26.987 26.996 27.004 27.013 27.021 27.030 27.038 27.047 2760
2270 22.561 22.570 22.580 22.589 22.599 22.608 22.618 22.627 22.636 22.646 22.655 2270 2770 27.047 27.055 27.064 27.072 27.081 27.089 27.098 27.106 27.115 27.123 27.132 2770
2280 22.655 22.665 22.674 22.683 22.693 22.702 22.712 22.721 22.730 22.740 22.749 2280 2780 27.132 27.140 27.149 27.157 27.166 27.174 27.183 27.191 27.200 27.208 27.216 2780
2290 22.749 22.759 22.768 22.777 22.787 22.796 22.806 22.815 22.824 22.834 22.843 2290 2790 27.216 27.225 27.233 27.242 27.250 27.259 27.267 27.276 27.284 27.293 27.301 2790

2300 22.843 22.853 22.862 22.871 22.881 22.890 22.899 22.909 22.918 22.928 22.937 2300 2800 27.301 27.309 27.318 27.326 27.335 27.343 27.352 27.360 27.369 27.377 27.385 2800
2310 22.937 22.946 22.956 22.965 22.974 22.984 22.993 23.002 23.012 23.021 23.030 2310 2810 27.385 27.394 27.402 27.411 27.419 27.428 27.436 27.444 27.453 27.461 27.470 2810
2320 23.030 23.040 23.049 23.058 23.068 23.077 23.086 23.096 23.105 23.114 23.124 2320 2820 27.470 27.478 27.486 27.495 27.503 27.512 27.520 27.528 27.537 27.545 27.554 2820
2330 23.124 23.133 23.142 23.152 23.161 23.170 23.180 23.189 23.198 23.208 23.217 2330 2830 27.554 27.562 27.570 27.579 27.587 27.596 27.604 27.612 27.621 27.629 27.637 2830
2340 23.217 23.226 23.236 23.245 23.254 23.263 23.273 23.282 23.291 23.301 23.310 2340 2840 27.637 27.646 27.654 27.663 27-671 27.679 27.688 27.696 27.704 27.713 27.721 2840

2350 23.310 23.319 23.328 23.338 23.347 23.356 23.366 23.375 23.384 23.393 23.403 2350 2850 27.721 27.729 27.738 27.746 27.755 27.763 27.771 27.780 27.788 27.796 27.805 2850
2360 23.403 23.412 23.421 23.431 23.440 23.449 23.458 23.468 23.477 23.486 23.495 2360 2860 27.805 27.813 27.821 27.830 27.838 27.846 27.855 27.863 27.871 27.880 27.888 2860
2370 23.495 23.505 23.514 23.523 23.532 23.542 23.551 23.560 23.569 23.579 23.588 2370 2870 27.888 27.896 27.904 27.913 27.921 27.929 27.938 27.946 27.954 27.963 27.971 2870
2380 23.588 23.597 23.606 23.615 23.625 23.634 23.643 23.652 23.662 23.671 23.680 2380 2880 27.971 27.979 27.988 27.996 28.004 28.012 28.021 28.029 28.037 28.046 28.054 2880
2390 23.680 23.689 23.698 23.708 23.717 23.726 23.735 23.744 23.754 23.763 23.772 2390 2890 28.054 28.062 28.070 28.079 28.087 28.095 28.103 28.112 28.120 28.128 28.137 2890

2400 23.772 23.781 23.790 23.800 23.809 23.818 23.827 23.836 23.846 23.855 23.864 2400 2900 28.137 28.145 28.153 28.161 28.170 28.178 28.186 28.194 28.203 28.211 28.219 2900
2410 23.864 23.873 23.882 23.891 23.901 23.910 23.919 23.928 23.937 23.946 23.956 2410 2910 28.219 28.227 28.236 28.244 28.252 28.260 28.268 28.277 28.285 28.293 28.301 2910
2420 23.956 23.965 23.974 23.983 23.992 24.001 24.010 24.020 24.029 24.038 24.047 2420 2920 28.301 28.310 28.318 28.326 28.334 28.342 28.351 28.359 28.367 28.375 28.384 2920
2430 24.047 24.056 24.065 24.074 24.084 24.093 24.102 24.111 24.120 24.129 24.138 2430 2930 28.384 28.392 28.400 28.408 28.416 28.425 28.433 28.441 28.449 28.457 28.466 2930
2440 24.138 24.147 24.157 24.166 24.175 24.184 24.193 24.202 24.211 24.220 24.229 2440 2940 28.466 28.474 28.482 28.490 28.498 28.506 28.515 28.523 28.531 28.539 28.547 2940

2450 24.229 24.239 24.248 24.257 24.266 24.275 24.284 24.293 24.302 24.311 24.320 2450 2950 28.547 28.555 28.564 28.572 28.580 28.588 28.596 28.604 28.613 28.621 28.629 2950
2460 24.320 24.330 24.339 24.348 24.357 24.366 24.375 24.384 24.393 24.402 24.411 2460 2960 28.629 28.637 28.645 28.653 28.661 28.670 28.678 28.686 28.694 28.702 28.710 2960
2470 24.411 24.420 24.429 24.438 24.447 24.456 24.466 24.475 24.484 24.493 24.502 2470 2970 28.710 28.718 28.727 28.725 28.743 28.751 28.759 28.767 28.775 28.783 28.791 2970
2480 24.502 24.511 24.520 24.529 24.538 24.547 24.556 24.565 24.574 24.583 24.592 2480 2980 28.791 28.800 28.808 28.816 28.824 28.832 28.840 28.848 28.856 28.864 28.872 2980
2490 24.592 24.601 24.610 24.619 24.628 24.637 24.646 24.655 24.664 24.673 24.682 2490 2990 28.872 28.881 28.889 28.897 28.905 28.913 28.921 28.929 28.937 28.945 28.953 2990

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

Z-243
 MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE + Thermocouple
Revised Thermocouple
Thermocouple Grade Grade
–
-32 to 4208°F
-0 to 2320°C NONE
ESTABLISHED
Reference Tables
Extension Grade
32 to 1600°F
0 to 870°C Tungsten-

C
LIMITS OF ERROR
(whichever is greater)
Standard: 4.5°C to 425°C
5% Rhenium
vs. TYPE
Reference
1.0% to 2320°C
Special: Not Established Tungsten-
Tables
COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT: 26% Rhenium +
N.I.S.T.
Vacuum, Inert; Hydrogen; Beware of
Embrittlement; Not Practical Below 750°F; – Monograph 175
Not for Oxidizing Atmosphere
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °F Extension Revised to
REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 32°F Grade ITS-90
Z
Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts
°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
3000 28.953 28.961 28.969 28.978 28.986 28.994 29.002 29.010 29.018 29.026 29.034 3000 3500 32.746 32.753 32.760 32.767 32.774 32.781 32.788 32.795 32.802 32.809 32.817 3500
3010 29.034 29.042 29-050 29.058 29.066 29.074 29.082 29.090 29.098 29.106 29.114 3010 3510 32.817 32.824 32.831 32.838 32.845 32.852 32.859 32.866 32.873 32.880 32.887 3510
3020 29.114 29.122 29.130 29.138 29.147 29.155 29.163 29.171 29.179 29.187 29.195 3020 3520 32.887 32.894 32.901 32.908 32.915 32.922 32.929 32.936 32.943 32.950 32.957 3520
3030 29.195 29.203 29.211 29.219 29.227 29.235 29.243 29.251 29.259 29.267 29.275 3030 3530 32.957 32.964 32.971 32.978 32.985 32.992 32.999 33.006 33.013 33.020 33.027 3530
3040 29.275 29.283 29.291 29.299 29.307 29.315 29.323 29.331 29.339 29.347 29.355 3040 3540 33.027 33.034 33.041 33.048 33.055 33.062 33.069 33.076 33-083 33.090 33.097 3540

3050 29.355 29.363 29.371 29.379 29.386 29.394 29.402 29.410 29.418 29.426 29.434 3050 3550 33.097 33.104 33.111 33.118 33.125 33.132 33.139 33.146 33.152 33.159 33.166 3550
3060 29.434 29.442 29.450 29.458 29.466 29.474 29.482 29.490 29.498 29.506 29.514 3060 3560 33.166 33.173 33.180 33.187 33.194 33.201 33.208 33.215 33.222 33.229 33.236 3560
3070 29.514 29.522 29.530 29.538 29.546 29.553 29.561 29.569 29.577 29.585 29.593 3070 3570 33.236 33.243 33.249 33.256 33.263 33.270 33.277 33.284 33.291 33.298 33.305 3570
3080 29.593 29.601 29.609 29.617 29.625 29.633 29.641 29.648 29.656 29.664 29.672 3080 3580 33.305 33.312 33.318 33.325 33.332 33.339 33.346 33.353 33.360 33.367 33.374 3580
3090 29.672 29.680 29.688 29.696 29.704 29.712 29.720 29.727 29.735 29.743 29.751 3090 3590 33.374 33.380 33.387 33.394 33.401 33.408 33.415 33.422 33.428 33.435 33.442 3590

3100 29.751 29.759 29.767 29.775 29.783 29.791 29.798 29.806 29.814 29.822 29.830 3100 3600 33.442 33.449 33.456 33.463 33.469 33.476 33.483 33.490 33.497 33.504 33.510 3600
3110 29.830 29.838 29.846 29.853 29.861 29.869 29.877 29.885 29.893 29.901 29.908 3110 3610 33.510 33.517 33.524 33.531 33.538 33.545 33.551 33.558 33.565 33.572 33.579 3610
3120 29.908 29.916 29.924 29.932 29.940 29.948 29.955 29.963 29.971 29.979 29.987 3120 3620 33.579 33.585 33.592 33.599 33.606 33.613 33.619 33.626 33.633 33.640 33.647 3620
3130 29.987 29.995 30.002 30.010 30.018 30.026 30.034 30.041 30.049 30.057 30.065 3130 3630 33.647 33.653 33.660 33.667 33.674 33.680 33.687 33.694 33.701 33.707 33.714 3630
3140 30.065 30.073 30.081 30.088 30.096 30.104 30.112 30.119 30.127 30.135 30.143 3140 3640 33.714 33.721 33.728 33.734 33.741 33.748 33.755 33.761 33.768 33.775 33.782 3640

3150 30.143 30.151 30.158 30.166 30.174 30.182 30.190 30.197 30.205 30.213 30.221 3150 3650 33.782 33.788 33.795 33.802 33.809 33.815 33.822 33.829 33.835 33.842 33.849 3650
3160 30.221 30.228 30.236 30.244 30.252 30.259 30.267 30.275 30.283 30.290 30.298 3160 3660 33.849 33.856 33.862 33.869 33.876 33.882 33:889 33.896 33.902 33.909 33.916 3660
3170 30.298 30.306 30.314 30.321 30.329 30.337 30.345 30.352 30.360 30.368 30.376 3170 3670 33.916 33.922 33.929 33.936 33.942 33.949 33.956 33.962 33.969 33.976 33.982 3670
3180 30.376 30.383 30.391 30.399 30.406 30.414 30.422 30.430 30.437 30.445 30.453 3180 3680 33.982 33.989 33.996 34.002 34.009 34.016 34.022 34.029 34.036 34.042 34.049 3680
3190 30.453 30.460 30.468 30.476 30.484 30.491 30.499 30.507 30.514 40.522 30.530 3190 3690 34.049 34.056 34.062 34-069 34.075 34.082 34.089 34.095 34.102 34.109 34.115 3690

3200 30.530 30.537 30.545 30.553 30.561 30.568 30.576 30.584 30.591 30.599 30.607 3200 3700 34.115 34.122 34.128 34.135 34.142 34.148 34.155 34.161 34.168 34.175 34.181 3700
3210 30.607 30.614 30.622 30.630 30.637 30.645 30.653 30.660 30.668 30.676 30.683 3210 3710 34.181 34.188 34.194 34.201 34.207 34.214 34.221 34.227 34.234 34.240 34.247 3710
3220 30.683 30.691 30.698 30.706 30.714 30.721 30.729 30.737 30.744 30.752 30.760 3220 3720 34.247 34.253 34.260 34.267 34.273 34.280 34.286 34.293 34.299 34.306 34.312 3720
3230 30.760 30.767 30.775 30.782 30.790 30.798 30.805 30.813 30.821 30.828 30.836 3230 3730 34.312 34.319 34.325 34.332 34.338 34.345 34.351 34.358 34.365 34.371 34.378 3730
3240 30.836 30.843 30.851 30.859 30.866 30.874 30.881 30.889 30.897 30.904 30.912 3240 3740 34.378 34.384 34.391 34.397 34.404 34.410 34.417 34.423 34.430 34.436 34.442 3740

3250 30.912 30.919 30.927 30.935 30.942 30.950 30.957 30.965 30.972 30.980 30.988 3250 3750 34.442 34.449 34.455 34.462 34.468 34.475 34.481 34.488 34.494 34.501 34.507 3750
3260 30.988 30.995 31.003 31.010 31.018 31.025 31.033 31.041 31.048 31.056 31.063 3260 3760 34.507 34.514 34-520 34.527 34.533 34.539 34.546 34.552 34.559 34.565 34.572 3760
3270 31.063 31.071 31.078 31.086 31.093 31.101 31.109 31.116 31.124 31.131 31.139 3270 3770 34.572 34.578 34.585 34.591 34.597 34.604 34.610 34.617 34.623 34.629 34.636 3770
3280 31.139 31.146 31.154 31.161 31.169 31.176 31.184 31.191 31.199 31.206 31.214 3280 3780 34.636 34.642 34.649 34.655 34.661 34.668 34.674 34.681 34.687 34.693 34.700 3780
3290 31.214 31.221 31.229 31.236 31.244 31.251 31.259 31.266 31.274 31.281 31.289 3290 3790 34.700 34.706 34.713 34.719 34.725 34.732 34.738 34.744 34.751 34.757 34.763 3790

3300 31.289 31.296 31.304 31.311 31.319 31.326 31.334 31.341 31.349 31.356 31.364 3300 3800 34.763 34.770 34.776 34.782 34.789 34.795 34.802 34.808 34.814 34.821 34.827 3800
3310 31.364 31.371 31.379 31.386 31.394 31.401 31.408 31.416 31.423 31.431 31.438 3310 3810 34.827 34.833 34.839 34.846 34.852 34.858 34.865 34.871 34.877 34.884 34.890 3810
3320 31.438 31.446 31.453 31.461 31.468 31.476 31.483 31.490 31.498 31.505 31.513 3320 3820 34.890 34.896 34.903 34.909 34.915 34.921 34.928 34.934 34.940 34.947 34.953 3820
3330 31.513 31.520 31.528 31.535 31.542 31.550 31.557 31.565 31.572 31.580 31.587 3330 3830 34.953 34.959 34.965 34.972 34.978 34.984 34.990 34.997 35.003 35.009 35.015 3830
3340 31.587 31.594 31.602 31.609 31.617 31.624 31.631 31.639 31.646 31.654 31.661 3340 3840 35.015 35.022 35.028 35.034 35.040 35.047 35.053 35.059 35.065 35.072 35.078 3840

3350 31.661 31.668 31.676 31.683 31.690 31.698 31.705 31.713 31.720 31.727 31.735 3350 3850 35.078 35.084 35.090 35.096 35.103 35.109 35.115 35.121 35.127 35.134 35.140 3850
3360 31.735 31.742 31.749 31.757 31.764 31.772 31.779 31.786 31.794 31.801 31.808 3360 3860 35.140 35.146 35.152 35.158 35.165 35.171 35.177 35.183 35.189 35.195 35.202 3860
3370 31.808 31.816 31.823 31.830 31.838 31.845 31.852 31.860 31.867 31.874 31.882 3370 3870 35.202 35.208 35.214 35.220 35.226 35.132 35.238 35.245 35.251 35.257 35.263 3870
3380 31.882 31.889 31.896 31.904 31.911 31.918 31.926 31.933 31.940 31.948 31.955 3380 3880 35.263 35.269 35.275 35.281 35.288 35.294 35.300 35.306 35.312 35.318 35.324 3880
3390 31.955 31.962 31.969 31.977 31.984 31.991 31.999 32.006 32.013 32.021 32.028 3390 3890 35.324 35.330 35.336 35.343 35.349 35.355 35.361 35.367 35.373 35.379 35.385 3890

3400 32.028 32.035 32.042 32.050 32.057 32.064 32.072 32.079 32.086 32.093 32.101 3400 3900 35.385 35.391 35.397 35.403 35.409 35.415 35.422 35.428 35.434 35.440 35.446 3900
3410 32.101 32.108 32.115 32.122 32.130 32.137 32.144 32.151 32.159 32.166 32.173 3410 3910 35.446 35.452 35.458 35.464 35.470 35.476 35.482 35.488 35.494 35.500 35.506 3910
3420 32.173 32.180 32.188 32.195 32.202 32.209 32.217 32.224 32.231 32.238 32.246 3420 3920 35.506 35.512 35.518 35.524 35.530 35.536 35.542 35.548 35.554 35.560 35.566 3920
3430 32.246 32.253 32.260 32.267 32.274 32.282 32.289 32.296 32.303 32.310 32.318 3430 3930 35.566 35.572 35.578 35.584 35.590 35.596 35.602 35.608 35.614 35.620 35.626 3930
3440 32.318 32.325 32.332 32.339 32.346 32.354 32.361 32.368 32.375 32.382 32.390 3440 3940 35.626 35.632 35.638 35.644 35.650 35.656 35.662 35.668 35.673 35.679 35.685 3940

3450 32.390 32.397 32.404 32.411 32.418 32.425 32.433 32.440 32.447 32.454 32.461 3450 3950 35.685 35.691 35.697 35.703 35.709 35.715 35.721 35.727 35.733 35.739 35.744 3950
3460 32.461 32.468 32.476 32.483 32.490 32.497 32.504 32.511 32.518 32.526 32.533 3460 3960 35.744 35.750 35.756 35.762 35.768 35.774 35.780 35.786 35.792 35.797 35.803 3960
3470 32.533 32.540 32.547 32.554 32.561 32.568 32.576 32.583 32.590 32.597 32.604 3470 3970 35.803 35.809 35.815 35.821 35.827 35.833 35.838 35.844 35.850 35.856 35.862 3970
3480 32.604 32.611 32.618 32.625 32.632 32.640 32.647 32.654 32.661 32.668 32.675 3480 3980 35.862 35.868 35.873 35.879 35.885 35.891 35.897 35.903 35.908 35.914 35.920 3980
3490 32.675 32.682 32.689 32.696 32.703 32.711 32.718 32.725 31.732 32.739 32.746 3490 3990 35.920 35.926 35.932 35.937 35.943 35.949 35.955 35.961 35.966 35.972 35.978 3990

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

Z-244
Revised Thermocouple + Thermocouple
Grade
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RANGE
Thermocouple Grade
–
Reference Tables NONE
ESTABLISHED
-32 to 4208°F
-0 to 2320°C
Extension Grade
32 to 1600°F
Tungsten- 0 to 870°C

C
TYPE
Reference
5% Rhenium
vs.
LIMITS OF ERROR
(whichever is greater)
Standard: 4.5°C to 425°C
Tungsten- 1.0% to 2320°C
Special: Not Established
Tables
N.I.S.T.
26% Rhenium + COMMENTS, BARE WIRE ENVIRONMENT:
Vacuum, Inert; Hydrogen; Beware of
Monograph 175 – Embrittlement; Not Practical Below 750°F;
Not for Oxidizing Atmosphere
Revised to Extension TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES °F
ITS-90 Grade REFERENCE JUNCTION AT 32°F

Thermoelectric Voltage in Millivolts

°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F
4000 35.978 35.984 35.989 35.995 36.001 36.007 36.013 36.018 36.024 36.030 36.036 4000 4100 36.539 36.545 36.550 36.556 36-561 36.566 36.572 36.577 36.583 36.588 36.594 4100
4010 36.036 36.041 36.047 36:053 36.058 36.064 36.070 36.076 36.081 36.087 36.093 4010 4110 36.594 36.599 36.604 36.610 36.615 36.621 36.626 36.631 36.637 36.642 36.647 4110
4020 36.093 36.099 36.104 36.110 36.116 36.121 36-127 36.133 36.138 36.144 36.150 4020 4120 36.647 36.653 36.658 36.664 36.669 36.674 36.680 36.685 36.690 36.696 36.701 4120
4030 36.150 36.155 36.161 36.167 36.172 36.178 36.184 36.189 36.195 36.201 36.206 4030 4130 36.701 36.706 36.712 36.717 36.722 36.728 36.733 36.738 36.744 36.749 36.754 4130
4040 36.206 36.212 36.218 36.223 36.229 36.235 36.240 36.246 36.251 36.257 36.263 4040 4140 36.754 36.760 36.765 36.770 36.775 36.781 36.786 36.791 36.797 36.802 36.807 4140

4050 36.263 36.268 36.274 36.280 36.285 36.291 36.296 36.302 36.308 36.313 36.319 4050 4150 36.807 36.812 36.818 36.823 36.828 36.833 36.839 36.844 36.849 36.854 36.860 4150
4060 36.319 36.324 36.330 36.335 36.341 36.347 36.352 36.358 36.363 36.369 36.374 4060 4160 36.860 36.865 36.870 36.875 36.881 36.886 36.891 36.896 36.901 36.907 36.912 4160
4070 36.374 36.380 36.385 36.391 36.397 36.402 36.408 36.413 36.419 36.424 36.430 4070 4170 36.912 36.917 36.922 36.927 36.933 36.938 36.943 36.948 36.953 36.958 36.964 4170
4080 36.430 36.435 36.441 36.446 36.452 36.457 36.463 36.468 36.474 36.479 36.485 4080 4180 36.964 36.969 36.974 36.979 36.984 36.989 36.994 37.000 37.005 37.010 37.015 4180
4090 36.485 36.490 36.496 36.501 36.507 36.512 36.517 36:523 36.528 36.534 36.539 4090 4190 37.015 37.020 37.025 37.030 37.035 37.041 37.046 37.051 37.056 37.061 37.066 4190
°F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F °F 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °F

Z-245
Tungsten vs. Tungsten-26% Rhenium - Type G*
Temperature in Degrees F Reference Junction at 32°F
DEGREES F 0° 20° 40° 60° 80° DEGREES F 0° 20° 40° 60° 80°
0° -.016 -.007 0.006 0.026 0.050 2200° 18.701 18.936 19.170 19.405 19.639
100° 0.079 0.113 0.153 0.197 0.246 2300° 19.873 20.106 20.340 20.573 20.806
200° 0.299 0.357 0.420 0.487 0.559 2400° 21.038 21.270 21.502 21.734 21.965
300° 0.634 0.714 0.799 0.887 0.979 2500° 22.195 22.425 22.655 22.884 23.113
400° 1.075 1.175 1.279 1.387 1.498 2600° 23.341 23.569 23.796 24.023 24.249
500° 1.613 1.731 1.853 1.978 2.106 2700° 24.474 24.699 24.923 25.146 25.369
600° 2.238 2.373 2.511 2.652 2.796 2800° 25.591 25.812 26.033 26.253 26.472
700° 2.943 3.093 3.246 3.401 3.559 2900° 26.690 26.907 27.124 27.340 27.555
800° 3.720 3.884 4.049 4.218 4.389 3000° 27.769 27.983 28.195 28.407 28.618
900° 4.562 4.737 4.915 5.095 5.277 3100° 28.827 29.036 29.244 29.451 29.657
1000° 5.461 5.647 5.836 6.026 6.218 3200° 29.862 30.066 30.269 30.471 30.672
1100° 6.412 6.607 6.805 7.004 7.205 3300° 30.871 31.070 31.268 31.464 31.660
1200° 7.407 7.611 7.816 8.023 8.232 3400° 31.854 32.047 32.240 32.430 32.620
1300° 8.441 8.652 8.865 9.078 9.293 3500° 32.809 32.996 33.182 33.367 33.551
1400°
1500°
9.509
10.606
9.726
10.828
9.945
11.051
10.164
11.275
10.384
11.500
3600°
3700°
33.733
34.626
33.914
34.801
34.094
34.974
34.273
35.146
34.450
35.317
Z
1600° 11.725 11.952 12.179 12.407 12.635 3800° 35.486 35.654 35.821 35.986 36.150
1700° 12.864 13.094 13.324 13.555 13.786 3900° 36.312 36.473 36.632 36.790 36.946
1800° 14.018 14.250 14.482 14.715 14.948 4000° 37.101 37.254 37.406 37.557 37.705
1900° 15.182 15.415 15.649 15.884 16.118 4100° 37.853 37.998 38.142 38.285 38.425
2000° 16.353 16.587 16.822 17.057 17.292 4200° 38.564
2100° 17.527 17.762 17.997 18.232 18.467
Adopted March 4, 1974

Tungsten-5% Rhenium vs. Tungsten-26% Rhenium - Type C*

Temperature in Degrees F Reference Junction at 32°F
DEGREES F 0° 20° 40° 60° 80° DEGREES F 0° 20° 40° 60° 80°
0° -.234 -.089 0.059 0.211 0.365 2200° 21.896 22.087 22.277 22.466 22.655
100° 0.522 0.682 0.845 1.010 1.178 2300° 22.843 23.030 23.217 23.403 23.588
200° 1.348 1.520 1.695 1.872 2.051 2400° 23.772 23.956 24.138 24.320 24.502
300° 2.232 2.415 2.600 2.786 2.975 2500° 24.682 24.862 25.041 25.219 25.397
400° 3.165 3.357 3.551 3.746 3.942 2600° 25.574 25.750 25.925 26.100 26.274
500° 4.140 4.339 4.540 4.742 4.945 2700° 26.447 26.619 26.791 26.962 27.132
600° 5.149 5.354 5.560 5.767 5.975 2800° 27.301 27.470 27.637 27.805 27.971
700° 6.184 6.394 6.604 6.815 7.027 2900° 28.137 28.301 28.466 28.629 28.791
800° 7.240 7.453 7.667 7.881 8.095 3000° 28.953 29.114 29.275 29.434 29.593
900° 8.310 8.526 8.741 8.957 9.174 3100° 29.751 29.908 30.065 30.221 30.376
1000° 9.390 9.607 9.824 10.041 10.258 3200° 30.530 30.683 30.836 30.988 31.139
1100° 10.475 10.693 10.910 11.127 11.344 3300° 31.289 31.438 31.587 31.735 31.882
1200° 11.561 11.778 11.995 12.212 12.429 3400° 32.028 32.173 32.318 32.461 32.604
1300° 12.645 12.861 13.077 13.292 13.508 3500° 32.746 32.887 33.027 33.166 33.305
1400° 13.723 13.937 14.152 14.366 14.579 3600° 33.442 33.579 33.714 33.849 33.982
1500° 14.792 15.005 15.217 15.429 15.640 3700° 34.115 34.247 34.378 34.507 34.636
1600° 15.851 16.062 16.271 16.481 16.689 3800° 34.763 34.890 35.015 35.140 35.263
1700° 16.898 17.105 17.312 17.519 17.725 3900° 35.385 35.506 35.626 35.744 35.862
1800° 17.930 18.134 18.339 18.542 18.745 4000° 35.978 36.093 36.206 36.319 36.430
1900° 18.947 19.148 19.349 19.549 19.748 4100° 36.539 36.647 36.754 36.860 36.964
2000° 19.947 20.145 20.343 20.539 20.735 4200° 37.066
2100° 20.930 21.125 21.319 21.512 21.704
Adopted March 4, 1974

Tungsten-3% Rhenium vs. Tungsten-25% Rhenium - Type D*

Temperature in Degrees F Reference Junction at 32°F
DEGREES F 0° 20° 40° 60° 80° DEGREES F 0° 20° 40° 60° 80°
0° -.163 -.063 0.043 0.154 0.269 2200° 22.228 22.440 22.651 22.863 23.073
100° 0.390 0.515 0.644 0.778 0.916 2300° 23.283 23.492 23.701 23.909 24.116
200° 1.058 1.204 1.354 1.507 1.664 2400° 24.323 24.529 24.735 24.940 25.145
300° 1.824 1.988 2.154 2.324 2.497 2500° 25.348 25.551 25.754 25.956 26.157
400° 2.673 2.851 3.032 3.216 3.402 2600° 26.358 26.558 26.757 26.956 27.154
500° 3.590 3.781 3.973 4.168 4.365 2700° 27.352 27.548 27.745 27.940 28.135
600° 4.564 4.765 4.967 5.171 5.377 2800° 28.329 28.523 28.715 28.908 29.099
700° 5.584 5.793 6.003 6.214 6.427 2900° 29.290 29.480 29.669 29.858 30.046
800° 6.640 6.855 7.071 7.288 7.506 3000° 30.233 30.419 30.605 30.790 30.974
900° 7.725 7.945 8.165 8.386 8.608 3100° 31.158 31.340 31.522 31.703 31.884
1000° 8.830 9.053 9.277 9.501 9.726 3200° 32.063 32.242 32.420 32.596 32.772
1100° 9.951 10.176 10.402 10.628 10.854 3300° 32.948 33.122 33.295 33.467 33.639
1200° 11.080 11.307 11.534 11.761 11.988 3400° 33.809 33.979 34.147 34.314 34.481
1300° 12.215 12.443 12.670 12.897 13.125 3500° 34.646 34.810 34.973 35.135 35.295
1400° 13.352 13.579 13.807 14.034 14.262 3600° 35.455 35.613 35.770 35.926 36.080
1500° 14.489 14.717 14.944 15.171 15.398 3700° 36.233 36.384 36.535 36.683 36.831
1600° 15.624 15.850 16.076 16.302 16.527 3800° 36.976 37.120 37.263 37.404 37.543
1700° 16.752 16.976 17.200 17.424 17.647 3900° 37.681 37.816 37.950 38.082 38.213
1800° 17.870 18.093 18.315 18.537 18.758 4000° 38.341 38.467 38.591 38.714 38.834
1900° 18.979 19.199 19.419 19.638 19.857 4100° 38.951 39.067 39.180 39.291 39.400
2000° 20.075 20.293 20.510 20.726 20.943 4200° 39.506
2100° 21.158 21.373 21.588 21.802 22.015
Adopted March 4, 1974 *Not an ANSI designation
Hoskins Manufacturing Company
Z-246
CHROMEGA® VS. GOLD-0.07
ATOMIC PERCENT IRON
THERMOCOUPLE
Table of Temperature vs.
Thermoelectric Voltage
Temperature Temperature Temperature Temperature
(KELVIN) E, µV (KELVIN) E, µV (KELVIN) E, µV (KELVIN) E, µV

35 545.40 70 1136.21 105 1776.71

36 561.86 71 1153.80 106 1795.73
37 578.31 72 1171.44 107 1814.78
3 28.02 38 594.76 73 1189.12 108 1833.86
4 39.94 39 611.22 74 1206.84 109 1852.99

5 52.84 40 627.68 75 1224.60 110 1872.14

6 66.58 41 644.16 76 1242.40 111 1891.34
7 81.01 42 660.65 77 1260.25 112 1910.57
8 96.02 43 677.16 78 1278.14 113 1929.83
9 111.51 44 693.69 79 1296.08 114 1949.13

10 127.39 45 710.24 80 1314.05 115 1968.46

11 143.58 46 726.82 81 1332.07 116 1987.82
12 160.02 47 743.43 82 1350.13 117 2007.22
13 176.65 48 760.07 83 1368.23 118 2026.65
14 193.42 49 776.74 84 1386.37 119 2046.11
15 210.29 50 793.45 85 1404.56 120 2065.61
16 227.23 51 810.20 86 1422.79 121 2085.14
17 244.21 52 826.98 87 1441.05 122 2104.70
18 261.21 53 843.80 88 1459.36 123 2124.29
19 278.20 54 860.66 89 1477.71 124 2143.91

20 295.18 55 877.56 90 1496.10 125 2163.56

21 312.14 56 894.50 91 1514.53 126 2183.24
22 329.06 57 911.49 92 1533.00 127 2202.96
23 345.94 58 928.51 93 1551.52 128 2222.70
24 362.77 59 945.58 94 1570.07 129 2242.47

25 379.56 60 962.70 95 1588.66 130 2262.27

26 396.31 61 979.85 96 1607.29 131 2282.10
27 413.01 62 997.05 97 1625.96 132 2301.96
28 429.67 63 1014.29 98 1644.67 133 2321.85
29 446.29 64 1013.58 99 1663.42 134 2341.76

30 462.87 65 1048.91 100 1682.21 135 2361.70

31 479.43 66 1066.28 101 1701.03 136 2381.68
32 495.95 67 1083.70 102 1719.90 137 2401.67
33 512.45 68 1101.16 103 1738.80 138 2421.70
34 528.93 69 1118.66 104 1757.74 139 2441.75

Z-247
 Z

Temperature Temperature Temperature Temperature

(KELVIN) E, µV (KELVIN) E, µV (KELVIN) E, µV (KELVIN) E, µV

140 2461.83 175 3180.19 210 3923.82 245 4686.39

141 2481.94 176 3201.12 211 3945.38 246 4708.38
142 2502.07 177 3222.07 212 3966.95 247 4730.37
143 2522.23 178 3243.04 213 3988.54 248 4752.38
144 2542.42 179 3264.03 214 4010.15 249 4774.39

145 2562.63 180 3285.03 215 4031.77 250 4796.41

146 2582.87 181 3306.06 216 4053.40 251 4818.45
147 2603.13 182 3327.11 217 4075.06 252 4840.49
148 2623.42 183 3348.18 218 4096.72 253 4862.54
149 2643.73 184 3369.27 219 4118.40 254 4884.60

150 2664.07 185 3390.37 220 4140.09 255 4906.68

151 2684.44 186 3411.50 221 4161.80 256 4928.76
152 2704.82 187 3432.64 222 4183.52 257 4950.85
153 2725.24 188 3453.80 223 4205.26 258 4972.96
154 2745.67 189 3474.98 224 4227.01 259 4995.07
155 2766.14 190 3496.18 225 4248.77 260 5017.20
156 2786.62 191 3517.40 226 4270.55 261 5039.34
157 2807.13 192 3538.63 227 4292.33 262 5061.49
158 2827.67 193 3559.88 228 4314.13 263 5083.65
159 2848.22 194 3581.15 229 4335.95 264 5105.83

160 2868.80 195 3602.44 230 4357.77 265 5128.01

161 2889.41 196 3623.75 231 4379.61 266 5150.21
162 2910.03 197 3645.07 232 4401.45 267 5172.42
163 2930.68 198 3666.41 233 4423.31 268 5194.64
164 2951.35 199 3687.77 234 4445.18 269 5216.87

165 2972.05 200 3709.14 235 4467.06 270 5239.11

166 2992.77 201 3730.54 236 4488.95 271 5261.36
167 3013.50 202 3751.95 237 4510.85 272 5283.62
168 3034.27 203 3773.37 238 4532.76 273 5305.88
169 3055.05 204 3794.82 239 4554.68 274 5328.16

170 3075.85 205 3816.28 240 4576.61 275 5350.44

171 3096.68 206 3837.75 241 4598.55 276 5372.73
172 3117.52 207 3859.25 242 4620.49 277 5395.02
173 3138.39 208 3880.76 243 4642.45 278 5417.31
174 3159.28 209 3902.28 244 4664.42 279 5439.61

Z-248
Space for Transmitters in
Probe Assembly Heads
HEAD TRANSMITTER SPACE PROBES
Model Number Diameter, mm Height, mm Typical
(in) (in)

NB1 47.6 19.0 NB1-ICSS-14G-12

(1 7⁄8) (3⁄4) PR-12-2-100-1/8-6-E

NB2 31.7 19.0 NB2-ICSS-14G-24

(1 1⁄4) (3⁄4) PR-14-2-100-1/8-6-E

NB3 57.1 25.4 NB1-ICSS-14G-12

(2 1⁄4) (1) PR-18-2-100-1/8-6-E

NB4 22.2 9.5 NB4-ICSS-14G-12

(7⁄8) (3⁄8) PR-19-2-100-1/8-6-E

NEPA, NEPB 69.8 38.1 NEPB-ICSS-14G-12

(2 3⁄4) (1 1⁄2) NEPB-2-100-1/8-6-E

NBS 50.8 31.7 NBS-ICSS-14G-12

(2) (1 1⁄4) NBS-2-100-1/8-6-E

NSA, NSB, NSC 50.8 31.7 NSB-ICSS-14G-12

(2) (1 1⁄4) NSB-2-100-1/8-6-E

NBB 47.6 19.0 NBB-ICSS-14G-12

(1 7⁄8) (3⁄4) NBB-2-100-1/8-6-E

NBN 50.8 19.0 NBN-ICSS-14G-12

(2) (3⁄4) NBN-2-100-1/8-6-E

NBG 44.4 19.0 NBG-ICSS-14G-12

(1 3⁄4) (3⁄4) NBG-2-100-1/8-6-E

NXT 47.6 50.8 NXT-ICSS-14G-12

(1 7⁄8) (2) NXT-2-100-1/8-6-E

HEP-TX 76.2 50.8 HEP-TX-100-J1

(3) (2) HEP-TX-110-PT1
HEP-TX70 76.2 50.8 HEP-TX71-J-50-350C
(3) (2) HEP-TX75-50-350C

Z-249
Platinum Resistance
Temperature Detectors
Detector Interchangeability Tolerance Chart
Tolerance

0.9 2.25
Z
OHMS deg C

0.8 2.0
Basic Detector
Resistance at
0°C Is 100 ohms

0.7 1.75

CLASS B
DIN 43760-1980
BS 1904
JIS
0.6 1.5 C1604-1981
0.5

0.5 1.25

JIS
C1604-1981
0.2
0.4 1.0
CLASS A
DIN 43760-1980
BS 1904

0.3 0.75 JIS

C1604-1981
0.15

0.2 0.5

0.1 0.25

-200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500

TEMPERATURE °C

Z-250
RTD Tables
According to DIN EN 60751
for Class B and Class A

Resistance vs Temperature Tables

According to DIN EN 60751 for Class B and Class A
∝ = .00385 per ITS-90
t ≥ 0°C : t < 0°C :
R(t) = R0 · (1 + A · t + B · t 2) R(t) = R0 · [1 + A · t + B · t 2 + C ·(t - 100°C) · t 3)
with with
A = 3,9083 · 10-3 °C-1 A = 3,9083 · 10-3 °C-1
B = -5,775 · 10-7 °C-2 B = -5,775 · 10-7 °C-2
R0 = 100Ω C = -4,183 · 10-13 °C
R0 = 100Ω

Class B:
dt = ±(0.3 + 0.005 · lt l)°C

Class A
dt = ±(0.15 + 0.002 · lt l)°C

Z-251
RTD Temperature
vs. Resistance Table
For European Curve, Alpha = .00385, ITS-90 1° Celsius Increments
°C Ohms Diff. °C Ohms Diff. °C Ohms Diff. °C Ohms Diff. °C Ohms Diff. °C Ohms Diff.
-200 18.52 -140 43.88 0.42 -80 68.33 0.41 -20 92.16 0.39 ±0 100.00 0.39 +60 123.24 0.38
199 18.96 0.44 139 44.29 0.41 79 68.73 0.40 19 92.55 0.39 +1 100.39 0.39 61 123.62 0.38
198 19.39 0.43 138 44.71 0.42 78 69.13 0.40 18 92.95 0.40 2 100.78 0.39 62 124.01 0.39
197 19.82 0.43 137 45.12 0.41 77 69.53 0.40 17 93.34 0.39 3 101.17 0.39 63 124.39 0.38
196 20.25 0.43 136 45.53 0.41 76 69.93 0.40 16 93.73 0.39 4 101.56 0.39 64 124.77 0.38
195
194
20.68
21.11
0.43
0.43
135
134
45.95
46.35
0.42
0.40
75
74
70.33
70.73
0.40
0.40
15
14
94.12
94.52
0.39
0.40
5
6
101.95
102.34
0.39
0.39
65
66
125.17
125.55
0.40
0.38
Z
193 21.54 0.43 133 46.76 0.41 73 71.13 0.40 13 94.91 0.39 7 102.73 0.39 67 125.93 0.38
192 21.97 0.43 132 47.18 0.42 72 71.53 0.40 12 95.30 0.39 8 103.12 0.39 68 126.32 0.39
191 22.40 0.43 131 47.59 0.41 71 71.93 0.40 11 95.69 0.39 9 103.51 0.39 69 126.70 0.38
190 22.83 0.43 130 48.00 0.41 70 72.33 0.40 10 96.09 0.40 10 103.90 0.39 70 127.08 0.38
189 23.26 0.43 129 48.41 0.41 69 72.73 0.40 9 96.48 0.39 11 104.29 0.39 71 127.46 0.38
188 23.69 0.43 128 48.82 0.41 68 73.13 0.40 8 96.87 0.39 12 104.68 0.39 72 127.85 0.39
187 24.12 0.43 127 49.23 0.41 67 73.53 0.40 7 97.26 0.39 13 105.07 0.39 73 128.23 0.38
186 24.55 0.43 126 49.64 0.41 66 73.93 0.40 6 97.65 0.39 14 105.46 0.39 74 128.61 0.38
185 24.97 0.42 125 50.06 0.42 65 74.33 0.40 5 98.04 0.39 15 105.85 0.39 75 128.99 0.38
184 25.39 0.42 124 50.47 0.41 64 74.73 0.40 4 98.44 0.40 16 106.24 0.39 76 129.38 0.39
183 25.82 0.43 123 50.88 0.41 63 75.13 0.40 3 98.83 0.39 17 106.63 0.39 77 129.76 0.38
182 26.25 0.43 122 51.29 0.41 62 75.53 0.40 2 99.22 0.39 18 107.02 0.39 78 130.14 0.38
181 26.67 0.42 121 51.70 0.41 61 75.93 0.40 1 99.61 0.39 19 107.40 0.38 79 130.52 0.38
180 27.10 0.43 120 52.11 0.41 60 76.33 0.40 20 107.79 0.39 80 130.90 0.38
179 27.52 0.42 119 52.52 0.41 59 76.73 0.40 21 108.18 0.39 81 131.28 0.38
178 27.95 0.43 118 52.92 0.40 58 77.13 0.40 22 108.57 0.39 82 131.67 0.39
177 28.37 0.42 117 53.33 0.41 57 77.52 0.39 23 108.96 0.39 83 132.05 0.38
176 28.80 0.43 116 53.74 0.41 56 77.92 0.40 24 109.35 0.39 84 132.43 0.38
175 29.22 0.42 115 54.15 0.41 55 78.32 0.40 25 109.73 0.38 85 132.81 0.38
174 29.65 0.43 114 54.56 0.41 54 78.72 0.40 26 110.12 0.39 86 133.19 0.38
173 30.07 0.42 113 54.97 0.41 53 79.11 0.39 27 110.51 0.39 87 133.57 0.38
172 30.49 0.42 112 55.38 0.41 52 79.51 0.40 28 110.90 0.39 88 133.95 0.38
171 30.92 0.43 111 55.78 0.40 51 79.91 0.40 29 111.28 0.38 89 134.33 0.38
170 31.34 0.42 110 56.19 0.41 50 80.31 0.40 30 111.67 0.39 90 134.71 0.38
169 31.76 0.42 109 56.60 0.41 49 80.70 0.39 31 112.06 0.39 91 135.09 0.38
168 32.18 0.42 108 57.00 0.40 48 81.10 0.40 32 112.45 0.39 92 135.47 0.38
167 32.61 0.43 107 57.41 0.41 47 81.50 0.40 33 112.83 0.38 93 135.85 0.38
166 33.03 0.42 106 57.82 0.41 46 81.89 0.39 34 113.22 0.39 94 136.23 0.38
165 33.45 0.42 105 58.22 0.40 45 82.29 0.40 35 113.61 0.39 95 136.61 0.38
164 33.86 0.41 104 58.63 0.41 44 82.69 0.40 36 113.99 0.38 96 136.99 0.38
163 34.28 0.42 103 59.04 0.41 43 83.08 0.39 37 114.38 0.39 97 137.37 0.38
162 34.70 0.42 102 59.44 0.40 42 83.48 0.40 38 114.77 0.39 98 137.75 0.38
161 35.12 0.42 101 59.85 0.41 41 83.88 0.40 39 115.15 0.38 99 138.13 0.38
160 35.54 0.42 100 60.26 0.41 40 84.27 0.39 40 115.54 0.39 100 138.51 0.38
159 35.96 0.42 99 60.67 0.41 39 84.67 0.40 41 115.93 0.39 101 138.89 0.38
158 36.38 0.42 98 61.07 0.40 38 85.06 0.39 42 116.31 0.38 102 139.27 0.38
157 36.80 0.42 97 61.48 0.41 37 85.46 0.40 43 116.70 0.39 103 139.65 0.38
156 37.22 0.42 96 61.87 0.41 36 85.85 0.39 44 117.08 0.38 104 140.03 0.38
155 37.63 0.41 95 62.29 0.42 35 86.25 0.40 45 117.47 0.39 105 140.39 0.36
154 38.05 0.42 94 62.69 0.40 34 86.64 0.39 46 117.85 0.38 106 140.77 0.38
153 38.47 0.42 93 63.10 0.41 33 87.04 0.40 47 118.24 0.39 107 141.15 0.38
152 38.89 0.42 92 63.50 0.40 32 87.43 0.39 48 118.62 0.38 108 141.53 0.38
151 39.31 0.42 91 63.91 0.41 31 87.83 0.40 49 119.01 0.39 109 141.91 0.38
150 39.72 0.41 90 64.30 0.39 30 88.22 0.39 50 119.40 0.39 110 142.29 0.38
149 40.14 0.42 89 64.70 0.40 29 88.62 0.40 51 119.78 0.38 111 142.66 0.37
148 40.56 0.42 88 65.11 0.41 28 89.01 0.39 52 120.16 0.38 112 143.04 0.38
147 40.97 0.41 87 65.51 0.40 27 89.40 0.39 53 120.55 0.39 113 143.42 0.38
146 41.39 0.42 86 65.91 0.40 26 89.80 0.40 54 120.93 0.38 114 143.80 0.38
145 41.80 0.41 85 66.31 0.40 25 90.19 0.39 55 121.32 0.39 115 144.18 0.38
144 42.22 0.42 84 66.72 0.41 24 90.59 0.40 56 121.70 0.38 116 144.56 0.38
143 42.64 0.42 83 67.12 0.40 23 90.98 0.39 57 122.09 0.39 117 144.94 0.38
142 43.05 0.41 82 67.52 0.40 22 91.37 0.39 58 122.47 0.38 118 145.32 0.38
141 43.46 0.41 81 67.92 0.40 21 91.77 0.40 59 122.86 0.39 119 145.69 0.37
Note: At 100°C, resistance is 138.50 ohms. (DIN 43 760)
Z-252
RTD Temperature
vs. Resistance Table
For European Curve, Alpha = .00385, ITS-90 1° Celsius Increments
°C Ohms Diff. °C Ohms Diff. °C Ohms Diff. °C Ohms Diff. °C Ohms Diff. °C Ohms Diff.
+120 146.07 0.38 +180 168.48 0.37 +240 190.47 0.36 +300 212.05 0.36 +360 233.21 0.35 +420 253.96 0.34
121 146.45 0.38 181 168.85 0.37 241 190.83 0.36 301 212.40 0.35 361 233.56 0.35 421 254.30 0.34
122 146.82 0.37 182 169.22 0.37 242 191.20 0.37 302 212.76 0.36 362 233.91 0.35 422 254.65 0.35
123 147.20 0.38 183 169.59 0.37 243 191.56 0.36 303 213.12 0.36 363 234.26 0.35 423 254.99 0.34
124 147.58 0.38 184 169.96 0.37 244 191.92 0.36 304 213.47 0.35 364 234.60 0.36 424 255.33 0.34
125 147.95 0.37 185 170.33 0.37 245 192.28 0.36 305 213.83 0.36 365 234.95 0.35 425 255.67 0.34
126 148.33 0.38 186 170.69 0.36 246 192.66 0.38 306 214.19 0.36 366 235.30 0.35 426 256.01 0.34
127 148.71 0.38 187 171.06 0.37 247 193.02 0.36 307 214.55 0.36 367 235.65 0.35 427 256.35 0.34
128 149.08 0.37 188 171.43 0.37 248 193.38 0.36 308 214.90 0.35 368 236.00 0.35 428 256.70 0.35
129 149.46 0.38 189 171.80 0.37 249 193.74 0.36 309 215.26 0.36 369 236.35 0.35 429 257.04 0.34
130 149.83 0.37 190 172.17 0.37 250 194.10 0.36 310 215.61 0.35 370 236.70 0.35 430 257.38 0.34
131 150.21 0.38 191 172.54 0.37 251 194.47 0.37 311 215.97 0.36 371 237.05 0.35 431 257.72 0.34
132 150.58 0.37 192 172.91 0.37 252 194.83 0.36 312 216.32 0.35 372 237.40 0.35 432 258.06 0.34
133 150.96 0.38 193 173.27 0.36 253 195.19 0.36 313 216.68 0.36 373 237.75 0.35 433 258.40 0.34
134 151.34 0.38 194 173.64 0.37 254 195.55 0.36 314 217.03 0.35 374 238.09 0.34 434 258.74 0.34
135 151.71 0.37 195 174.01 0.37 255 195.90 0.35 315 217.39 0.36 375 238.44 0.35 435 259.08 0.34
136 152.09 0.38 196 174.39 0.38 256 196.26 0.36 316 217.73 0.34 376 238.79 0.35 436 259.42 0.34
137 152.46 0.37 197 174.75 0.36 257 196.62 0.36 317 218.08 0.35 377 239.14 0.35 437 259.76 0.34
138 152.84 0.38 198 175.12 0.37 258 196.98 0.36 318 218.44 0.36 378 239.48 0.34 438 260.10 0.34
139 153.21 0.37 199 175.49 0.37 259 197.35 0.37 319 218.79 0.35 379 239.83 0.35 439 260.44 0.34
140 153.58 0.37 200 175.86 0.37 260 197.71 0.36 320 219.15 0.36 380 240.18 0.35 440 260.78 0.34
141 153.95 0.37 201 176.23 0.37 261 198.07 0.36 321 219.50 0.35 381 240.52 0.34 441 261.12 0.34
142 154.32 0.37 202 176.59 0.36 262 198.43 0.36 322 219.85 0.35 382 240.87 0.35 442 261.46 0.34
143 154.71 0.39 203 176.96 0.37 263 198.79 0.36 323 220.21 0.36 383 241.22 0.35 443 261.80 0.34
144 155.08 0.37 204 177.33 0.37 264 199.15 0.36 324 220.56 0.35 384 241.56 0.34 444 262.14 0.34
145 155.46 0.38 205 177.70 0.37 265 199.51 0.36 325 220.91 0.35 385 241.91 0.35 445 262.48 0.34
146 155.83 0.37 206 178.06 0.36 266 199.87 0.36 326 221.27 0.36 386 242.25 0.34 446 262.83 0.35
147 156.21 0.38 207 178.43 0.37 267 200.23 0.36 327 221.62 0.35 387 242.60 0.35 447 263.17 0.34
148 156.58 0.37 208 178.80 0.37 268 200.59 0.36 328 221.97 0.35 388 242.95 0.35 448 263.50 0.33
149 156.96 0.38 209 179.16 0.36 269 200.95 0.36 329 222.32 0.35 389 243.29 0.34 449 263.84 0.34
150 157.33 0.37 210 179.53 0.37 270 201.31 0.36 330 222.68 0.36 390 243.64 0.35 450 264.18 0.34
151 157.71 0.38 211 179.90 0.37 271 201.67 0.36 331 223.03 0.35 391 243.98 0.34 451 264.52 0.34
152 158.08 0.37 212 180.26 0.36 272 202.03 0.36 332 223.38 0.35 392 244.33 0.35 452 264.86 0.34
153 158.45 0.37 213 180.63 0.37 273 202.38 0.35 333 223.73 0.35 393 244.67 0.34 453 265.20 0.34
154 158.83 0.38 214 180.99 0.36 274 202.74 0.36 334 224.09 0.36 394 245.02 0.35 454 265.54 0.34
155 159.20 0.37 215 181.36 0.37 275 203.10 0.36 335 224.45 0.36 395 245.36 0.34 455 265.87 0.33
156 159.56 0.36 216 181.73 0.37 276 203.46 0.36 336 224.80 0.35 396 245.71 0.35 456 266.21 0.34
157 159.94 0.38 217 182.09 0.36 277 203.82 0.36 337 225.15 0.35 397 246.05 0.34 457 266.55 0.34
158 160.31 0.37 218 182.46 0.37 278 204.18 0.36 338 225.50 0.35 398 246.40 0.35 458 266.89 0.34
159 160.68 0.37 219 182.82 0.36 279 204.54 0.36 339 225.85 0.35 399 246.74 0.34 459 267.22 0.33
160 161.05 0.37 220 183.19 0.37 280 204.90 0.36 340 226.21 0.36 400 247.09 0.35 460 267.56 0.34
161 161.43 0.38 221 183.55 0.36 281 205.25 0.35 341 226.56 0.35 401 247.43 0.34 461 267.90 0.34
162 161.80 0.37 222 183.92 0.37 282 205.61 0.36 342 226.91 0.35 402 247.78 0.35 462 268.24 0.34
163 162.17 0.37 223 184.28 0.36 283 205.97 0.36 343 227.26 0.35 403 248.12 0.34 463 268.57 0.33
164 162.54 0.37 224 184.65 0.37 284 206.33 0.36 344 227.61 0.35 404 248.46 0.34 464 268.91 0.34
165 162.91 0.37 225 185.01 0.36 285 206.70 0.37 345 227.96 0.35 405 248.81 0.35 465 269.25 0.34
166 163.28 0.37 226 185.38 0.37 286 207.05 0.35 346 228.31 0.35 406 249.15 0.34 466 269.58 0.33
167 163.66 0.38 227 185.74 0.36 287 207.41 0.36 347 228.66 0.35 407 249.50 0.35 467 269.92 0.34
168 164.03 0.37 228 186.11 0.37 288 207.77 0.36 348 229.01 0.35 408 249.84 0.34 468 270.26 0.34
169 164.40 0.37 229 186.47 0.36 289 208.13 0.36 349 229.36 0.35 409 250.18 0.34 469 270.59 0.33
170 164.77 0.37 230 186.84 0.37 290 208.48 0.35 350 229.72 0.34 410 250.53 0.35 470 270.93 0.34
171 165.14 0.37 231 187.20 0.36 291 208.84 0.36 351 230.07 0.35 411 250.89 0.34 471 271.27 0.34
172 165.51 0.37 232 187.56 0.36 292 209.20 0.36 352 230.42 0.35 412 251.21 0.34 472 271.60 0.33
173 165.88 0.37 233 187.93 0.37 293 209.55 0.35 353 230.77 0.35 413 251.55 0.34 473 271.94 0.34
174 166.25 0.37 234 188.29 0.36 294 209.91 0.36 354 231.12 0.35 414 251.90 0.35 474 272.27 0.33
175 166.62 0.37 235 188.65 0.36 295 210.27 0.36 355 231.47 0.35 415 252.24 0.34 475 272.61 0.34
176 167.00 0.38 236 189.02 0.37 296 210.62 0.35 356 231.81 0.36 416 252.59 0.35 476 272.95 0.34
177 167.37 0.37 237 189.38 0.36 297 210.98 0.36 357 232.16 0.35 417 252.94 0.35 477 273.28 0.33
178 167.74 0.37 238 189.74 0.36 298 211.34 0.36 358 232.51 0.35 418 253.28 0.34 478 273.62 0.34
179 168.11 0.37 239 190.11 0.37 299 211.69 0.35 359 232.86 0.35 419 253.62 0.34 479 273.95 0.33
Note: At 100°C, resistance is 138.50 ohms. (DIN 43 760)
Z-253
RTD Temperature
vs. Resistance Table
For European Curve, Alpha = .00385, ITS-90 1° Celsius Increments
°C Ohms Diff. °C Ohms Diff. °C Ohms Diff. °C Ohms Diff. °C Ohms Diff. °C Ohms Diff.
+480 274.29 0.34 +542 294.87 0.33 +604 315.00 0.32 +666 334.68 0.32 +728 353.91 0.30 +790 372.71 0.30
481 274.62 0.33 543 295.20 0.33 605 315.32 0.32 667 334.99 0.31 729 354.22 0.31 791 373.01 0.30
482 274.96 0.34 544 295.53 0.33 606 315.64 0.32 668 335.31 0.32 730 354.53 0.31 792 373.31 0.30
483 275.29 0.33 545 295.85 0.32 607 315.96 0.32 669 335.62 0.31 731 354.83 0.30 793 373.61 0.30
484 275.63 0.34 546 296.18 0.33 608 316.28 0.32 670 335.93 0.31 732 355.14 0.31 794 373.91 0.30
485 275.96 0.33 547 296.51 0.33 609 316.60 0.32 671 336.25 0.32 733 355.44 0.30 795 374.21 0.30
486 276.31 0.34 548 296.84 0.33 610 316.92 0.32 672 336.56 0.31 734 355.75 0.31 796 374.51 0.30 Z
487 276.64 0.33 549 297.16 0.32 611 317.24 0.32 673 336.87 0.31 735 356.06 0.31 797 374.80 0.29
488 276.97 0.33 550 297.49 0.33 612 317.56 0.32 674 337.18 0.31 736 356.37 0.31 798 374.10 0.30
489 277.31 0.34 551 297.82 0.33 613 317.88 0.32 675 337.50 0.32 737 356.68 0.31 799 375.40 0.30
490 277.64 0.33 552 298.14 0.32 614 318.20 0.32 676 337.81 0.31 738 356.98 0.30 800 375.70 0.30
491 277.98 0.34 553 298.47 0.33 615 318.52 0.32 677 338.12 0.31 739 357.29 0.31 801 376.00 0.30
492 278.31 0.33 554 298.80 0.33 616 318.85 0.33 678 338.43 0.31 740 357.59 0.30 802 376.29 0.29
493 278.64 0.33 555 299.12 0.32 617 319.17 0.32 679 338.75 0.32 741 357.90 0.31 803 376.59 0.30
494 278.98 0.34 556 299.45 0.33 618 319.49 0.32 680 339.06 0.31 742 358.20 0.30 804 376.89 0.30
495 279.31 0.33 557 299.78 0.33 619 319.81 0.32 681 339.37 0.31 743 358.51 0.31 805 377.19 0.30
496 279.64 0.33 558 300.10 0.32 620 320.12 0.31 682 339.68 0.31 744 358.81 0.30 806 377.49 0.30
497 279.98 0.34 559 300.43 0.33 621 320.44 0.32 683 339.99 0.31 745 359.12 0.31 807 377.79 0.30
498 280.31 0.33 560 300.75 0.32 622 320.76 0.32 684 340.30 0.31 746 359.42 0.30 808 378.09 0.30
499 280.64 0.33 561 301.08 0.33 623 321.08 0.32 685 340.62 0.32 747 359.72 0.30 809 378.39 0.30
500 280.98 0.34 562 301.41 0.33 624 321.40 0.32 686 340.94 0.32 748 360.03 0.31 810 378.68 0.29
501 281.31 0.33 563 301.73 0.32 625 321.72 0.32 687 341.25 0.31 749 360.33 0.30 811 378.98 0.30
502 281.64 0.33 564 302.06 0.33 626 322.03 0.31 688 341.55 0.30 750 360.64 0.31 812 379.28 0.30
503 281.97 0.33 565 302.38 0.32 627 322.34 0.31 689 341.87 0.32 751 360.94 0.30 813 379.57 0.29
504 282.31 0.34 566 302.71 0.33 628 322.66 0.32 690 342.18 0.31 752 361.24 0.30 814 379.87 0.30
505 282.64 0.33 567 303.03 0.32 629 322.98 0.32 691 342.49 0.31 753 361.55 0.31 815 380.17 0.30
506 282.97 0.33 568 303.36 0.33 630 323.30 0.32 692 342.80 0.31 754 361.85 0.30 816 380.46 0.29
507 283.30 0.33 569 303.68 0.32 631 323.61 0.31 693 343.11 0.31 755 362.15 0.30 817 380.76 0.30
508 283.63 0.33 570 304.01 0.33 632 323.93 0.32 694 343.42 0.31 756 362.46 0.31 818 381.05 0.29
509 283.97 0.34 571 304.33 0.32 633 324.25 0.32 695 343.73 0.31 757 362.76 0.30 819 381.35 0.30
510 284.30 0.33 572 304.66 0.33 634 324.57 0.32 696 344.04 0.31 758 363.06 0.30 820 381.65 0.30
511 284.63 0.33 573 304.98 0.32 635 324.88 0.31 697 344.35 0.31 759 363.36 0.30 821 381.94 0.29
512 284.96 0.33 574 305.30 0.32 636 325.21 0.33 698 344.66 0.31 760 363.67 0.31 822 382.24 0.30
513 285.29 0.33 575 305.63 0.33 637 325.53 0.32 699 344.97 0.31 761 363.97 0.30 823 382.53 0.29
514 285.62 0.33 576 305.95 0.32 638 325.85 0.32 700 345.28 0.31 762 364.27 0.30 824 382.83 0.30
515 285.95 0.33 577 306.28 0.33 639 326.16 0.31 701 345.59 0.31 763 364.57 0.30 825 383.12 0.29
516 286.30 0.35 578 306.60 0.32 640 326.48 0.32 702 345.90 0.31 764 364.88 0.31 826 383.42 0.30
517 286.63 0.33 579 306.92 0.32 641 326.79 0.31 703 346.21 0.31 765 365.18 0.30 827 383.71 0.29
518 286.96 0.33 580 307.25 0.33 642 327.11 0.32 704 346.52 0.31 766 365.49 0.31 828 384.01 0.30
519 287.29 0.33 581 307.57 0.32 643 327.43 0.32 705 346.83 0.31 767 365.79 0.30 829 384.30 0.29
520 287.62 0.33 582 307.89 0.32 644 327.74 0.31 706 346.15 0.32 768 366.09 0.30 830 384.60 0.30
521 287.95 0.33 583 308.22 0.33 645 328.06 0.32 707 347.46 0.31 769 366.40 0.31 831 384.89 0.29
522 288.28 0.33 584 308.54 0.32 646 328.38 0.32 708 347.76 0.30 770 366.70 0.30 832 385.18 0.29
523 288.61 0.33 585 308.86 0.32 647 328.69 0.31 709 348.07 0.31 771 367.00 0.30 833 385.48 0.30
524 288.94 0.33 586 309.19 0.33 648 329.01 0.32 710 348.38 0.31 772 367.30 0.30 834 385.77 0.29
525 289.27 0.33 587 309.51 0.32 649 329.32 0.31 711 348.69 0.31 773 367.60 0.30 835 386.07 0.30
526 289.60 0.33 588 309.83 0.32 650 329.64 0.32 712 349.00 0.31 774 367.90 0.30 836 386.37 0.30
527 289.93 0.33 589 310.15 0.32 651 329.95 0.31 713 349.31 0.31 775 368.20 0.30 837 386.66 0.29
528 290.26 0.33 590 310.48 0.33 652 330.27 0.32 714 349.61 0.30 776 368.50 0.30 838 386.96 0.30
529 290.59 0.33 591 310.80 0.32 653 330.58 0.31 715 349.92 0.31 777 368.81 0.31 839 387.25 0.29
530 290.92 0.33 592 311.12 0.32 654 330.90 0.32 716 350.23 0.31 778 369.11 0.30 840 387.55 0.30
531 291.25 0.33 593 311.45 0.33 655 331.21 0.31 717 350.54 0.31 779 369.41 0.30 841 387.84 0.29
532 291.58 0.33 594 311.78 0.33 656 331.53 0.32 718 350.85 0.31 780 369.71 0.30 842 388.13 0.29
533 291.90 0.32 595 312.10 0.32 657 331.84 0.31 719 351.15 0.30 781 370.01 0.30 843 388.42 0.29
534 292.23 0.33 596 312.43 0.33 658 332.16 0.32 720 351.46 0.31 782 370.31 0.30 844 388.72 0.30
535 292.56 0.33 597 312.75 0.32 659 332.47 0.31 721 351.77 0.31 783 370.61 0.30 845 389.01 0.29
536 292.90 0.34 598 313.07 0.32 660 332.79 0.32 722 352.07 0.30 784 370.91 0.30 846 389.31 0.30
537 293.23 0.33 599 313.39 0.32 661 333.10 0.31 723 352.38 0.31 785 371.21 0.30 847 389.61 0.30
538 293.56 0.33 600 313.71 0.32 662 333.41 0.31 724 352.69 0.31 786 371.52 0.31 848 389.90 0.29
539 293.89 0.33 601 314.04 0.33 663 333.73 0.32 725 352.99 0.30 787 371.82 0.30 849 390.19 0.29
540 294.21 0.32 602 314.36 0.32 664 334.04 0.31 726 353.30 0.31 788 372.12 0.30 850 390.48 0.29
541 294.54 0.33 603 314.68 0.32 665 334.36 0.32 727 353.61 0.31 789 372.41 0.29
Note: At 100°C, resistance is 138.50 ohms. Z-254 (DIN 43 760)
RTD Temperature
vs. Resistance Table
For American Curve, Alpha = .00392 1° Celsius Increments
°C Ohms °C Ohms °C Ohms °C Ohms °C Ohms °C Ohms °C Ohms °C Ohms °C Ohms
-100 59.57 -38 84.80 24 109.51 86 133.75 148 157.53 210 180.86 272 203.74 334 226.17 396 248.16
-99 59.98 -37 85.20 25 109.90 87 134.14 149 157.91 211 181.23 273 204.11 335 226.53 397 248.51
-98 60.39 -36 85.60 26 110.30 88 134.52 150 158.29 212 181.61 274 204.47 336 226.89 398 248.86
-97 60.80 -35 86.01 27 110.69 89 134.91 151 158.67 213 181.98 275 204.84 337 227.25 399 249.21
-96 61.21 -34 86.41 28 111.09 90 135.30 152 159.05 214 182.35 276 205.20 338 227.61 400 249.56
-95 61.63 -33 86.81 29 111.48 91 135.68 153 159.43 215 182.72 277 205.57 339 227.96 401 249.91
-94 62.04 -32 87.21 30 111.88 92 136.07 154 159.81 216 183.09 278 205.93 340 228.32 402 250.26
-93 62.45 -31 87.61 31 112.27 93 136.46 155 160.19 217 183.47 279 206.30 341 228.68 403 250.61
-92 62.86 -30 88.01 32 112.66 94 136.84 156 160.57 218 183.84 280 206.66 342 229.04 404 250.96
-91 63.27 -29 88.42 33 113.06 95 137.23 157 160.95 219 184.21 281 207.02 343 229.39 405 251.31
-90 63.68 -28 88.82 34 113.45 96 137.62 158 161.33 220 184.58 282 207.39 344 229.75 406 251.66
-89 64.09 -27 89.22 35 113.84 97 138.00 159 161.70 221 184.95 283 207.75 345 230.11 407 252.01
-88 64.50 -26 89.62 36 114.24 98 138.39 160 162.08 222 185.32 284 208.12 346 230.46 408 252.36
-87 64.91 -25 90.02 37 114.63 99 138.77 161 162.46 223 185.70 285 208.48 347 230.82 409 252.71
-86 65.32 -24 90.42 38 115.02 100 139.16 162 162.84 224 186.07 286 208.85 348 231.18 410 253.06
-85 65.73 -23 90.82 39 115.42 101 139.55 163 163.22 225 186.44 287 209.21 349 231.53 411 253.41
-84 66.14 -22 91.22 40 115.81 102 139.93 164 163.60 226 186.81 288 209.57 350 231.89 412 253.76
-83 66.55 -21 91.62 41 116.20 103 140.32 165 163.97 227 187.18 289 209.94 351 232.25 413 254.11
-82 66.96 -20 92.02 42 116.59 104 140.70 166 164.35 228 187.55 290 210.30 352 232.60 414 254.46
-81 67.36 -19 92.42 43 116.99 105 141.09 167 164.73 229 187.92 291 210.66 353 232.96 415 254.80
-80 67.77 -18 92.82 44 117.38 106 141.47 168 165.11 230 188.29 292 211.03 354 233.31 416 255.15
-79 68.18 -17 93.22 45 117.77 107 141.86 169 165.48 231 188.66 293 211.39 355 233.67 417 255.50
-78 68.59 -16 93.62 46 118.16 108 142.24 170 165.86 232 189.03 294 211.75 356 234.03 418 255.85
-77 69.00 -15 94.02 47 118.56 109 142.63 171 166.24 233 189.40 295 212.11 357 234.38 419 256.20
-76 69.41 -14 94.42 48 118.95 110 143.01 172 166.62 234 189.77 296 212.48 358 234.74 420 256.55
-75 69.81 -13 94.82 49 119.34 111 143.39 173 166.99 235 190.14 297 212.84 359 235.09 421 256.89
-74 70.22 -12 95.22 50 119.73 112 143.78 174 167.37 236 190.51 298 213.20 360 235.45 422 257.24
-73 70.63 -11 95.62 51 120.12 113 144.16 175 167.75 237 190.88 299 213.56 361 235.80 423 257.59
-72 71.04 -10 96.02 52 120.51 114 144.55 176 168.12 238 191.25 300 213.93 362 236.16 424 257.94
-71 71.44 -9 96.42 53 120.91 115 144.93 177 168.50 239 191.62 301 214.29 363 236.51 425 258.29
-70 71.85 -8 96.81 54 121.30 116 145.31 178 168.88 240 191.99 302 214.65 364 236.87 426 258.63
-69 72.26 -7 97.21 55 121.69 117 145.70 179 169.25 241 192.36 303 215.01 365 237.22 427 258.98
-68 72.66 -6 97.61 56 122.08 118 146.08 180 169.63 242 192.73 304 215.37 366 237.58 428 259.33
-67 73.07 -5 98.01 57 122.47 119 146.47 181 170.00 243 193.09 305 215.74 367 237.93 429 259.67
-66 73.48 -4 98.41 58 122.86 120 146.85 182 170.38 244 193.46 306 216.10 368 238.28 430 260.02
-65 73.88 -3 98.81 59 123.25 121 147.23 183 170.76 245 193.83 307 216.46 369 238.64 431 260.37
-64 74.29 -2 99.20 60 123.64 122 147.61 184 171.13 246 194.20 308 216.82 370 238.99 432 260.72
-63 74.70 -1 99.60 61 124.03 123 148.00 185 171.51 247 194.57 309 217.18 371 239.35 433 261.06
-62 75.10 0 100.00 62 124.42 124 148.38 186 171.88 248 194.94 310 217.54 372 239.70 434 261.41
-61 75.51 1 100.40 63 124.81 125 148.76 187 172.26 249 195.31 311 217.90 373 240.05 435 261.75
-60 75.91 2 100.80 64 125.20 126 149.15 188 172.63 250 195.67 312 218.26 374 240.41 436 262.10
-59 76.32 3 101.19 65 125.59 127 149.53 189 173.01 251 196.04 313 218.63 375 240.76 437 262.45
-58 76.72 4 101.59 66 125.98 128 149.91 190 173.38 252 196.41 314 218.99 376 241.11 438 262.79
-57 77.13 5 101.99 67 126.37 129 150.29 191 173.76 253 196.78 315 219.35 377 241.47 439 263.14
-56 77.53 6 102.38 68 126.76 130 150.67 192 174.13 254 197.14 316 219.71 378 241.82 440 263.49
-55 77.94 7 102.78 69 127.15 131 151.06 193 174.51 255 197.51 317 220.07 379 242.17 441 263.83
-54 78.34 8 103.18 70 127.54 132 151.44 194 174.88 256 197.88 318 220.43 380 242.53 442 264.18
-53 78.75 9 103.57 71 127.93 133 151.82 195 175.26 257 198.25 319 220.79 381 242.88 443 264.52
-52 79.15 10 103.97 72 128.32 134 152.20 196 175.63 258 198.61 320 221.15 382 243.23 444 264.87
-51 79.56 11 104.37 73 128.71 135 152.58 197 176.01 259 198.98 321 221.51 383 243.58 445 265.21
-50 79.96 12 104.76 74 129.09 136 152.96 198 176.38 260 199.35 322 221.87 384 243.94 446 265.56
-49 80.36 13 105.16 75 129.48 137 153.35 199 176.75 261 199.71 323 222.23 385 244.29 447 265.90
-48 80.77 14 105.56 76 129.87 138 153.73 200 177.13 262 200.08 324 222.59 386 244.64 448 266.25
-47 81.17 15 105.95 77 130.26 139 154.11 201 177.50 263 200.45 325 222.94 387 244.99 449 266.59
-46 81.58 16 106.35 78 130.65 140 154.49 202 177.88 264 200.81 326 223.30 388 245.35 450 266.94
-45 81.98 17 106.74 79 131.04 141 154.87 203 178.25 265 201.18 327 223.66 389 245.70 451 267.28
-44 82.38 18 107.14 80 131.42 142 155.25 204 178.62 266 201.55 328 224.02 390 246.05 452 267.63
-43 82.79 19 107.53 81 131.81 143 155.63 205 179.00 267 201.91 329 224.38 391 246.40 453 267.97
-42 83.19 20 107.93 82 132.20 144 156.01 206 179.37 268 202.28 330 224.74 392 246.75 454 268.31
-41 83.59 21 108.32 83 132.59 145 156.39 207 179.74 269 202.64 331 225.10 393 247.10 455 268.66
-40 83.99 22 108.72 84 132.98 146 156.77 208 180.12 270 203.01 332 225.46 394 247.46 456 269.00
-39 84.40 23 109.11 85 133.36 147 157.15 209 180.49 271 203.38 333 225.81 395 247.81 457 269.35

Z-255
Thermistor Resistance
vs. Temperature
Part NO. 44004 44005 44007 44006 44008 PART NO. 44004 44005 44007 44006 44008
44033 44030 44034 44031 44032 44033 44030 44034 44031 44032
Ω @25°C 2252 3000 5000 10,000 30,000 Ω @25°C 2252 3000 5000 10,000 30,000
BLACK BLACK BLACK BLACK BLACK BLACK BLACK BLACK BLACK BLACK
BODY ORANGE ORANGE ORANGE ORANGE ORANGE BODY ORANGE ORANGE ORANGE ORANGE ORANGE
YELLOW GREEN VIOLET BLUE GRAY YELLOW GREEN VIOLET BLUE GRAY
END
TEMP. °C
ORANGE BLACK
RESISTANCE Ω
YELLOW BROWN RED END
TEMP. °C
ORANGE BLACK YELLOW
RESISTANCE Ω
BROWN RED
Z
- 80 1660K 2211K 3685K 3558K -20 21.87K 29.13K 48.56K 78.91K 271.2K
79 1518K 2022K 3371K 3296K 19 20.64K 27.49K 45.83K 74.91K 256.5K
78 1390K 1851K 3086K 3055K 18 19.48K 25.95K 43.27K 71.13K 242.8K
77 1273K 1696K 2827K 2833K 17 18.40K 24.51K 40.86K 67.57K 229.8K
76 1167K 1555K 2592K 2629K 16 17.39K 23.16K 38.61K 64.20K 217.6K
75 1071K 1426K 2378K 2440K 15 16.43K 21.89K 36.49K 61.02K 206.2K
74 982.8K 1309K 2182K 2266K 14 15.54K 20.70K 34.50K 58.01K 195.4K
73 902.7K 1202K 2005K 2106K 13 14.70K 19.58K 32.63K 55.17K 185.2K
72 829.7K 1105K 1843K 1957K 12 13.91K 18.52K 30.88K 52.48K 175.6K
71 763.1K 1016K 1695K 1821K 11 13.16K 17.53K 29.23K 49.94K 166.6K

-70 702.3K 935.4K 1560K 1694K -10 12.46K 16.60K 27.67K 47.54K 158.0K
69 646.7K 861.4K 1436K 1577K 9 11.81K 15.72K 26.21K 45.27K 150.0K
68 595.9K 793.7K 1323K 1469K 8 11.19K 14.90K 24.83K 43.11K 142.4K
67 549.4K 731.8K 1220K 1369K 7 10.60K 14.12K 23.54K 41.07K 135.2K
66 506.9K 675.2K 1126K 1276K 6 10.05K 13.39K 22.32K 39.14K 128.5K
65 467.9K 623.3K 1039K 1190K 5 9534 12.70K 21.17K 37.31K 122.1K
64 432.2K 575.7K 959.9K 1111K 4 9046 12.05K 20.08K 35.57K 116.0K
63 399.5K 532.1K 887.2K 1037K 3 8586 11.44K 19.06K 33.93K 110.3K
62 369.4K 492.1K 820.5K 968.4K 2 8151 10.86K 18.10K 32.37K 104.9K
61 341.8K 455.3K 759.2K 904.9K -1 7741 10.31K 17.19K 30.89K 99.80K
-60 316.5K 421.5K 702.9K 845.9K 0 7355 9796 16.33K 29.49K 94.98K
59 293.2K 390.5K 651.1K 791.1K +1 6989 9310 15.52K 28.15K 90.41K
58 271.7K 361.9K 603.5K 740.2K 2 6644 8851 14.75K 26.89K 86.09K
57 252.0K 335.7K 559.7K 692.8K 3 6319 8417 14.03K 25.69K 81.99K
56 233.8K 311.5K 519.4K 648.8K 4 6011 8006 13.34K 24.55K 78.11K
55 217.1K 289.2K 482.2K 607.8K 5 5719 7618 12.70K 23.46K 74.44K
54 201.7K 268.6K 447.9K 569.6K 6 5444 7252 12.09K 22.43K 70.96K
53 187.4K 249.7K 416.3K 534.1K 7 5183 6905 11.51K 21.45K 67.66K
52 174.3K 232.2K 387.1K 501.0K 8 4937 6576 10.96K 20.52K 64.53K
51 162.2K 216.0K 360.2K 470.1K 9 4703 6265 10.44K 19.63K 61.56K
-50 151.0K 201.1K 335.3K 441.3K +10 4482 5971 9951 18.79K 58.75K
49 140.6K 187.3K 312.3K 414.5K 11 4273 5692 9486 17.98K 56.07K
48 131.0K 174.5K 291.0K 389.4K 12 4074 5427 9046 17.22K 53.54K
47 122.1K 162.7K 271.3K 366.0K 13 3886 5177 8628 16.49K 51.13K
46 113.9K 151.7K 253.0K 344.1K 14 3708 4939 8232 15.79K 48.84K
45 106.3K 141.6K 236.2K 323.7K 15 3539 4714 7857 15.13K 46.67K
44 99.26K 132.2K 220.5K 304.6K 16 3378 4500 7500 14.50K 44.60K
43 92.72K 123.5K 205.9K 286.7K 17 3226 4297 7162 13.90K 42.64K
42 86.65K 115.4K 192.5K 270.0K 18 3081 4105 6841 13.33K 40.77K
41 81.02K 107.9K 180.0K 254.4K 19 2944 3922 6536 12.79K 38.99K
-40 75.79K 101.0K 168.3K 239.8K 884.6K + 20 2814 3748 6247 12.26K 37.30K
39 70.93K 94.48K 157.5K 226.0K 830.9K 21 2690 3583 5972 11.77K 35.70K
38 66.41K 88.46K 147.5K 213.2K 780.8K 22 2572 3426 5710 11.29K 34.17K
37 62.21K 82.87K 138.2K 201.1K 733.9K 23 2460 3277 5462 10.84K 32.71K
36 58.30K 77.66K 129.5K 189.8K 690.2K 24 2354 3135 5225 10.41K 31.32K
35 54.66K 72.81K 121.4K 179.2K 649.3K 25 2252 3000 5000 10.00K 30.00K
34 51.27K 68.30K 113.9K 169.3K 611.0K 26 2156 2872 4787 9605 28.74K
33 48.11K 64.09K 106.9K 160.0K 575.2K 27 2064 2750 4583 9227 27.54K
32 45.17K 60.17K 100.3K 151.2K 541.7K 28 1977 2633 4389 8867 26.40K
31 42.42K 56.51K 94.22K 143.0K 510.4K 29 1894 2523 4204 8523 25.31K
-30 39.86K 53.10K 88.53K 135.2K 481.0K + 30 1815 2417 4029 8194 24.27K
29 37.47K 49.91K 83.22K 127.9K 453.5K 31 1739 2317 3861 7880 23.28K
28 35.24K 46.94K 78.26K 121.1K 427.7K 32 1667 2221 3702 7579 22.33K
27 33.15K 44.16K 73.62K 114.6K 403.5K 33 1599 2130 3549 7291 21.43K
26 31.20K 41.56K 69.29K 108.6K 380.9K 34 1533 2042 3404 7016 20.57K
25 29.38K 39.13K 65.24K 102.9K 359.6K 35 1471 1959 3266 6752 19.74K
24 27.67K 36.86K 61.45K 97.49K 339.6K 36 1412 1880 3134 6500 18.96K
23 26.07K 34.73K 57.90K 92.43K 320.9K 37 1355 1805 3008 6258 18.21K
22 24.58K 32.74K 54.58K 87.66K 303.3K 38 1301 1733 2888 6026 17.49K
21 23.18K 30.87K 51.47K 83.16K 286.7K + 39 1249 1664 2773 5805 16.80K
Note: Data in black refer to thermistors with ±0.2°C interchangeability. Data in brown refer to thermistors with ±0.1°C interchangeability. Temperature/resistance figures are the same for both types.
Note: Only thermistors with ±0.2°C interchangeability are available encased in Teflon as standard parts. For Part No. of Teflon encased thermistors add 100 to part No. of ±0-2°C
interchangeable thermistor. Example: 44005 is a standard thermistor. 44105 is a Teflon encased thermistor with the same resistance values.

Z-256
Thermistor Resistance
vs. Temperature
Part NO. 44004 44005 44007 44006 44008 PART NO. 44004 44005 44007 44006 44008
44033 44030 44034 44031 44032 44033 44030 44034 44031 44032
Ω @25°C 2252 3000 5000 10,000 30,000 Ω @25°C 2252 3000 5000 10,000 30,000
BLACK BLACK BLACK BLACK BLACK BLACK BLACK BLACK BLACK BLACK
BODY ORANGE ORANGE ORANGE ORANGE ORANGE BODY ORANGE ORANGE ORANGE ORANGE ORANGE
YELLOW GREEN VIOLET BLUE GRAY YELLOW GREEN VIOLET BLUE GRAY
END ORANGE BLACK YELLOW BROWN RED END ORANGE BLACK YELLOW BROWN RED
TEMP. °C RESISTANCE Ω TEMP. °C RESISTANCE Ω
+40 1200 1598 2663 5592 16.15K +100 152.8 203.8 339.6 816.8 2069
41 1152 1535 2559 5389 15.52K 101 148.4 197.9 329.8 794.6 2009
42 1107 1475 2459 5193 14.92K 102 144.2 192.2 320.4 773.1 1950
43 1064 1418 2363 5006 14.35K 103 140.1 186.8 311.3 752.3 1894
44 1023 1363 2272 4827 13.80K 104 136.1 181.5 302.5 732.1 1840
45 983.8 1310 2184 4655 13.28K 105 132.3 176.4 294.0 712.6 1788
46 946.2 1260 2101 4489 12.77K 106 128.6 171.4 285.7 693.6 1737
47 910.2 1212 2021 4331 12.29K 107 125.0 166.7 277.8 675.3 1688
48 875.8 1167 1944 4179 11.83K 108 121.6 162.0 270.1 657.5 1640
49 842.8 1123 1871 4033 11.39K 109 118.2 157.6 262.6 640.3 1594
+50 811.3 1081 1801 3893 10.97K +110 115.0 153.2 255.4 623.5 1550
51 781.1 1040 1734 3758 10.57K 111 111.8 149.0 248.4 607.3 1507
52 752.2 1002 1670 3629 10.18K 112 108.8 145.0 241.6 591.6 1465
53 724.5 965.0 1608 3504 9807 113 105.8 141.1 235.1 576.4 1425
54 697.9 929.6 1549 3385 9450 114 103.0 137.2 228.7 561.6 1386
55 672.5 895.8 1493 3270 9109 115 100.2 133.6 222.6 547.3 1348
56 648.1 863.3 1439 3160 8781 116 97.6 130.0 216.7 533.4 1311
57 624.8 832.2 1387 3054 8467 117 95.0 126.5 210.9 519.9 1276
58 602.4 802.3 1337 2952 8166 118 92.5 123.2 205.3 506.8 1241
59 580.9 773.7 1290 2854 7876 119 90.0 119.9 199.9 494.1 1208
+60 560.3 746.3 1244 2760 7599 +120 87.7 116.8 194.7 481.8 1176
61 540.5 719.9 1200 2669 7332 121 85.4 113.8 189.6 469.8 1145
62 521.5 694.7 1158 2582 7076 122 83.2 110.8 184.7 458.2 1114
63 503.3 670.4 1117 2497 6830 123 71.1 107.9 179.9 446.9 1085
64 485.8 647.1 1079 2417 6594 124 79.0 105.2 175.3 435.9 1057
65 469.0 624.7 1041 2339 6367 125 77.0 102.5 170.8 425.3 1029
66 452.9 603.3 1006 2264 6149 126 75.0 99.9 166.4 414.9 1002
67 437.4 582.6 971.1 2191 5940 127 73.1 97.3 162.2 404.9 976.3
68 422.5 562.9 938.0 2122 5738 128 71.3 94.9 158.1 395.1 951.1
69 408.2 543.7 906.3 2055 5545 129 69.5 92.5 154.1 385.6 926.7
+70 394.5 525.4 875.7 1990 5359 +130 67.8 90.2 150.3 376.4 903.0
71 381.2 507.8 846.4 1928 5180 131 66.1 87.9 146.5 367.4 880.0
72 368.5 490.9 818.3 1868 5007 132 64.4 85.7 142.9 358.7 857.7
73 356.2 474.7 791.2 1810 4842 133 62.9 83.6 139.4 350.3 836.1
74 344.5 459.0 765.1 1754 4682 134 61.3 81.6 136.0 342.0 815.0
75 333.1 444.0 740.0 1700 4529 135 59.8 79.6 132.6 334.0 794.6
76 322.3 429.5 715.9 1648 4381 136 58.4 77.6 129.4 326.3 774.8
77 311.8 415.6 692.7 1598 4239 137 57.0 75.8 126.3 318.7 755.6
78 301.7 402.2 670.3 1549 4102 138 55.6 73.9 123.2 311.3 736.9
79 292.0 389.3 648.8 1503 3970 139 54.3 72.2 120.3 304.2 718.8
+80 282.7 376.9 628.1 1458 3843 +140 53.0 70.4 117.4 297.2 701.2
81 273.7 364.9 608.2 1414 3720 141 51.7 68.8 114.6 290.4 684.1
82 265.0 353.4 588.9 1372 3602 142 50.5 67.1 111.9 283.8 667.5
83 256.7 342.2 570.4 1332 3489 143 49.3 65.5 109.2 277.4 651.3
84 248.6 331.5 552.6 1293 3379 144 48.2 64.0 106.7 271.2 635.6
85 240.9 321.2 535.4 1255 3273 145 47.0 62.5 104.2 265.1 620.3
86 233.4 311.3 518.8 1218 3172 146 45.9 61.1 101.8 259.2 605.5
87 226.2 301.7 502.8 1183 3073 147 44.9 59.6 99.40 253.4 591.1
88 219.3 292.4 487.4 1149 2979 148 43.8 58.3 97.10 247.8 577.1
89 212.6 283.5 472.6 1116 2887 149 42.8 56.9 94.87 242.3 563.5
+90 206.1 274.9 458.2 1084 2799 +150 41.9 55.6 92.70 237.0 550.2
91 199.9 266.6 444.4 1053 2714
92 193.9 258.6 431.0 1023 2632 Note: Data in black refer to thermistors with ±0.2°C interchangeability.
93 188.1 250.9 418.2 994.2 2552 Data in blue refer to thermistors with 0.1°C interchangeability.
Temperature/resistance figures are the same for both types.
94 182.5 243.4 405.7 966.3 2476
95 177.1 236.2 393.7 939.3 2402 Note: Only thermistors with ±0.2°C interchangeability are available encased
96 171.9 229.3 382.1 913.2 2331 in Teflon as standard parts. For Part No. of Teflon encased thermistors
add 100 to part No. of ±0.2°C interchangeable thermistors. Example:
97 166.9 222.6 370.9 887.9 2262 44005 is a standard thermistor. 44105 is a Teflon encased thermistor
98 162.0 216.1 360.1 863.4 2195 with the same resistance values.
99 157.3 209.8 349.7 839.7 2131

Z-257
Resistance vs Temperature for
Series “700” Linear Thermistors
T1 RESISTANCE VERSUS TEMPERATURE -30 to +100°C
TEMP°C RES TEMP°C RES TEMP°C RES TEMP°C RES TEMP°C RES
-30 106.2K 0 19.59K +30 4834 +60 1493 +90 549.8
29 99.82K +1 18.62K 31 4634 61 1440 91 533.2
28 93.88K 2 17.70K 32 4442 62 1389 92 517.2
27 88.32K 3 16.83K 33 4260 63 1341 93 501.8
26
25
83.12K
78.26K
4
5
16.01K
15.24K
34
35
4084
3918
64
65
1294
1249
94
95
486.8
472.4
Z
24 73.72K 6 14.50K 36 3760 66 1207 96 458.6
23 69.46K 7 13.81K 37 3610 67 1165 97 445.2
22 65.48K 8 13.15K 38 3466 68 1126 98 432.2
21 61.74K 9 12.53K 39 3328 69 1087 99 419.6

-20 58.26K +10 11.94K +40 3196 +70 1051 +100 407.6
19 54.98K 11 11.38K 41 3070 71 1016
18 51.90K 12 10.85K 42 2950 72 981.8
17 49.02K 13 10.35K 43 2836 73 949.4
16 46.32K 14 9878 44 2726 74 918.0
15 43.78K 15 9428 45 2620 75 888.0
14 41.40K 16 9000 46 2520 76 859.0
13 39.16K 17 8594 47 2424 77 831.2
12 37.04K 18 8210 48 2334 78 804.4
11 35.06K 19 7844 49 2246 79 773.6
-10 33.20K +20 7496 +50 2162 +80 753.8
9 31.49K 21 7166 51 2080 81 729.8
8 29.80K 22 6852 52 2004 82 706.8
7 28.24K 23 6554 53 1930 83 684.4
These tables give the resistance 6 26.78K 24 6270 54 1859 84 663.0
values for T1 and T2 as defined on 5 25.40K 25 6000 55 1792 85 642.4
Page F-10 for the 44018 Linear 4 24.10K 26 5744 56 1727 86 622.6
Response Thermistor which is used 3 22.88K 27 5500 57 1664 87 603.4
2 21.72K 28 5266 58 1605 88 584.8
in the Series 700 Linear Thermistor -1 20.62K 29 5046 59 1547 89 567.0
Probes. Resistance in ohms.
Temperature in °C. T2 RESISTANCE VERSUS TEMPERATURE -30 to +100°C
TEMP°C RES TEMP°C RES TEMP°C RES TEMP°C RES TEMP°C RES
-30 481.0K 0 94.98K +30 24.27K +60 7599 +90 2799
29 453.5K +1 90.41 K 31 23.28K 61 7332 91 2714
28 427.7K 2 86.09K 32 22.33K 62 7076 92 2632
27 403.5K 3 81.99K 33 21.43K 63 6830 93 2552
26 380.9K 4 78.11 K 34 20.57K 64 6594 94 2476
25 359.6K 5 74.44K 35 19.74K 65 6367 95 2402
24 339.6K 6 70.96K 36 18.96K 66 6149 96 2331
23 320.9K 7 67.66K 37 18.21K 67 5940 97 2262
22 303.3K 8 64.53K 38 17.49K 68 5738 98 2195
21 286.7K 9 61.56K 39 16.80K 69 5545 99 2131

-20 271.2K +10 58.75K +40 16.15K +70 5359 +100 2069
19 256.5K 11 56.07K 41 15.52K 71 5180
18 242.8K 12 53.54K 42 14.92K 72 5007
17 229.8K 13 51.13K 43 14.35K 73 4842
16 217.6K 14 48.84K 44 13.80K 74 4682
15 206.2K 15 46.67K 45 13.28K 75 4529
14 195.4K 16 44.60K 46 12.77K 76 4381
13 185.2K 17 42.64K 47 12.29K 77 4239
12 175.6K 18 40.77K 48 11.83K 78 4102
11 166.6K 19 38.99K 49 11.39K 79 3970

-10 158.0K +20 37.30K +50 10.97K +80 3843

9 150.0K 21 35.70K 51 10.57K 81 3720
8 142.4K 22 34.17K 52 10.18K 80 3602
7 135.2K 23 32.71K 53 9807 83 3489
6 128.5K 24 31.32K 54 9450 84 3379
5 122.1 K 25 30.00K 55 9109 85 3273
4 116.0K 26 28.74K 56 8781 86 3172
3 110.3K 27 27.54K 57 8467 87 3073
2 104.9K 28 26.40K 58 8166 88 2979
-1 99.80K 29 25.31 K 59 7876 89 2887

Z-258
Temperature Conversion Chart
°C = 5⁄9 (°F - 32) °F = 9⁄5°C + 32 TABLE EXAMPLE:
Kelvin = °C + 273.15 Rankine = °F + 459.67 To Convert 1000°C to °F, look up 1000 and read left
To Convert 1000°F to °C, look up 1000 and read right
to °F From to °C to °F From to °C to °F From to °C to °F From to °C to °F From to °C
- -458 -272.22 - -308 -188.89 -252.4 -158 -105.56 +17.6 -8 -22.22 287.6 142 61.11
- -456 -271.11 - -306 -187.78 -248.2 -156 -104.44 +21.2 -6 -21.11 291.2 144 62.22
- -454 -270.00 - -304 -186.67 -245.2 -154 -103.33 +24.8 -4 -20.00 294.8 146 63.33
- -452 -268.89 - -302 -185.56 -241.6 -152 -102.22 +28.4 -2 -18.89 298.4 140 64.44
- -450 -267.78 - -300 -184.44 -238.0 -150 -101.11 +32.0 0 -17.78 302.0 150 65.56
- -448 -266.67 - -298 -183.33 -234.4 -148 -100.00 +35.6 2 -16.67 305.6 152 66.67
- -446 -265.56 - -296 -182.22 -230.2 -146 -98.89 +39.2 4 -15.56 309.2 154 67.78
- -444 -264.44 - -294 -181.11 -227.2 -144 -97.78 +42.8 6 -14.44 312.8 156 68.89
- -442 -263.33 - -292 -180.00 -223.6 -142 -96.67 +46.4 8 -13.33 316.4 158 70.00
- -440 -262.22 - -290 -178.89 -220.0 -140 -95.56 +50.0 10 -12.22 320.0 160 71.11
- -438 -261.11 - -288 -177.78 -216.4 -138 -94.44 +53.6 12 -11.11 323.6 162 72.22
- -436 -260.00 - -286 -176.67 -212.8 -136 -93.33 +57.2 14 -10.00 327.2 164 73.33
- -434 -258.89 - -284 -175.56 -209.2 -134 -92.22 +60.8 16 -8.89 330.8 166 74.44
- -432 -257.78 - -282 -174.44 -205.6 -132 -91.11 +64.4 18 -7.78 334.4 168 75.56
- -430 -256.67 - -280 -173.33 -202.0 -130 -90.00 +68.0 20 -6.67 338.0 170 76.67
- -428 -255.56 - -278 -172.22 -198.4 -128 -88.89 +71.6 22 -5.56 341.6 172 77.78
- -426 -264.44 - -276 -171.11 -194.2 -126 -87.78 +75.2 24 -4.44 345.2 174 78.89
- -424 -253.33 - -274 -170.00 -191.2 -124 -86.67 +78.8 26 -3.33 348.8 176 80.00
- -422 -252.22 -457.6 -272 -168.89 -187.6 -122 -85.56 +82.4 28 -2.22 352.4 178 81.11
- -420 -251.11 -454.0 -270 -167.78 -184.0 -120 -84.44 +86.0 30 -1.11 356.0 180 82.22
- -418 -250.00 -450.4 -268 -166.67 -180.4 -118 -83.33 +89.6 32 0.00 359.6 182 83.33
- -416 -248.89 -446.8 -266 -165.56 -176.8 -116 -82.22 +93.2 34 1.11 363.2 184 84.44
- -414 -247.78 -443.2 -264 -164.44 -173.2 -114 -81.11 +96.8 36 2.22 366.8 186 85.56
- -412 -246.67 -439.6 -262 -163.33 -169.6 -112 -80.00 +100.4 38 3.33 370.4 188 86.67
- -410 -245.56 -436.0 -260 -162.22 -166.0 -110 -78.89 +104.0 40 4.44 374.0 190 87.78
- -408 -244.44 -432.4 -258 -161.11 -162.4 -108 -77.78 107.6 42 5.56 377.6 192 88.89
- -406 -243.33 -428.8 -256 -160.00 -158.8 -106 -76.67 111.2 44 6.67 381.2 194 90.00
- -404 -242.22 -425.2 -254 -158.89 -155.2 -104 -75.56 114.2 46 7.78 384.8 196 91.11
- -402 -241.11 -421.6 -252 -157.78 -151.6 -102 -74.44 118.4 48 8.89 388.4 198 92.22
-400 -240.00 -418.0 -250 -156.67 -148.0 -100 -73.33 122.0 50 10.00 392.0 200 93.33
- -398 -238.89 -414.4 -248 -155.56 -144.4 -98 -72.22 125.6 52 11.11 395.6 202 94.44
- -396 -237.78 -410.8 -246 -154.44 -140.8 -96 -71.11 129.2 54 12.22 399.2 204 95.56
- -394 -236.67 -407.2 -244 -153.33 -137.2 -94 -70.00 132.8 56 13.33 402.8 206 96.67
- -392 -235.56 -403.6 -242 -152.22 -133.6 -92 -68.89 136.4 58 14.44 406.4 208 97.78
- -390 -234.44 -400.0 -240 -151.11 -130.0 -90 -67.78 140.0 60 15.56 410.0 210 98.89
- -388 -233.33 -396.4 -238 -150.00 -126.4 -88 -66.67 143.6 62 16.67 413.6 212 100.00
- -386 -232.22 -392.8 -236 -148.89 -122.2 -86 -65.56 147.2 64 17.78 417.2 214 101.11
- -384 -231.11 -389.2 -234 -147.78 -119.2 -84 -64.44 150.8 66 18.89 420.8 216 102.22
- -382 -230.00 -385.6 -232 -146.67 -115.6 -82 -63.33 154.4 68 20.00 424.4 218 103.33
- -380 -228.89 -382.0 -230 -145.56 -112.0 -80 -62.22 158.0 70 21.11 428.0 220 104.44
- -378 -227.78 -378.4 -228 -144.44 -108.4 -78 -61.11 161.6 72 22.22 431.6 222 105.56
- -376 -226.67 -374.8 -226 -143.33 -104.8 -76 -60.00 165.2 74 23.33 435.2 224 106.67
- -374 -225.56 -371.2 -224 -142.22 -101.2 -74 -58.89 168.8 76 24.44 438.8 226 107.78
- -372 -224.44 -367.6 -222 -141.11 -97.6 -72 -57.78 172.4 78 25.56 442.4 228 108.89
- -370 -223.33 -364.0 -220 -140.00 -94.0 -70 -56.67 176.0 80 26.67 446.0 230 110.00
- -368 -222.22 -360.4 -218 -138.89 -90.4 -68 -55.56 179.6 82 27.78 449.6 232 111.11
- -366 -221.11 -356.8 -216 -137.78 -86.8 -66 -54.44 183.2 84 28.89 453.2 234 112.22
- -364 -220.00 -353.2 -214 -136.67 -83.2 -64 -53.33 186.8 86 30.00 456.8 236 113.33
- -362 -218.89 -349.6 -212 -135.56 -79.6 -62 -52.22 190.4 88 31.11 460.4 238 114.44
- -360 -217.78 -346.0 -210 -134.44 -76.0 -60 -51.11 194.0 90 32.22 464.0 240 115.56
- -358 -216.67 -342.4 -208 -133.33 -72.4 -58 -50.00 197.6 92 33.33 467.6 242 116.67
- -356 -215.56 -338.8 -206 -132.22 -68.8 -56 -48.89 201.2 94 34.44 471.2 244 117.78
- -354 -214.44 -335.2 -204 -131.11 -65.2 -54 -47.78 204.8 96 35.56 474.8 246 118.89
- -352 -213.33 -331.6 -202 -130.00 -61.6 -52 -46.67 208.4 98 36.67 478.4 248 120.00
- -350 -212.22 -328.0 -200 -128.89 -58.0 -50 -45.56 212.0 100 37.78 482.0 250 121.11
- -348 -211.11 -324.4 -198 -127.78 -54.4 -48 -44.44 215.6 102 38.89 485.6 252 122.22
- -346 -210.00 -320.8 -196 -126.67 -50.8 -46 -43.33 219.2 104 40.00 489.2 254 123.33
- -344 -208.89 -317.2 -194 -125.56 -47.2 -44 -42.22 222.8 106 41.11 492.8 256 124.44
- -342 -207.78 -313.6 -192 -124.44 -43.6 -42 -41.11 226.4 108 42.22 496.4 258 125.56
- -340 -206.67 -310.0 -190 -123.33 -40.0 -40 -40.00 230.0 110 43.33 500.0 260 126.67
- -338 -205.56 -306.4 -188 -122.22 -36.4 -38 -38.89 233.6 112 44.44 503.6 262 127.78
- -336 -204.44 -302.8 -186 -121.11 -32.8 -36 -37.78 237.2 114 45.56 507.2 264 128.89
- -334 -203.33 -299.2 -184 -120.00 -29.2 -34 -36.67 240.2 116 46.67 510.8 266 130.00
- -332 -202.22 -295.6 -182 -118.89 -25.6 -32 -35.56 244.4 118 47.78 514.4 268 131.11
- -330 -201.11 -292.0 -180 -117.78 -22.0 -30 -34.44 248.0 120 48.89 518.0 270 132.22
- -328 -200.00 -288.4 -178 -116.67 -18.4 -28 -33.33 251.6 122 50.00 521.6 272 133.33
- -326 -198.89 -284.8 -176 -115.56 -14.8 -26 -32.22 255.2 124 51.11 525.2 274 134.44
- -324 -197.78 -281.2 -174 -114.44 -11.2 -24 -31.11 258.8 126 52.22 528.8 276 135.56
- -322 -196.67 -277.6 -172 -113.33 -7.6 -22 -30.00 262.4 128 53.33 532.4 278 136.67
- -320 -195.56 -274.0 -170 -112.22 -4.0 -20 -28.89 266.0 130 54.44 536.0 280 137.78
- -318 -194.44 -270.4 -168 -111.11 -0.4 -18 -27.78 269.6 132 55.56 539.6 282 138.89
- -316 -193.33 -266.8 -166 -110.00 +3.2 -16 -26.67 273.2 134 56.67 543.2 284 140.00
- -314 -192.22 -263.2 -164 -108.89 +6.8 -14 -25.56 276.8 136 57.78 546.8 286 141.11
- -312 -191.11 -259.6 -162 -107.78 +10.4 -12 -24.44 280.4 138 58.89 550.4 288 142.22
- -310 190.00 1 -256.0 -160 106.67 +14.0 -10 - 23.33 284.0 140 60.00 594.0 290 143.33

Z-259
to °F From to °C to °F From to °C to °F From to °C to °F From to °C to °F From to °C
557.6 292 144.44 870.8 466 241.11 1832.0 1000 537.78 3398.0 1870 1021.1 4964.0 2740 1504.4
561.2 294 145.56 874.4 468 242.22 1850.0 1010 543.33 3416.0 1880 1026.7 4982.0 2750 1510.0
564.8 296 146.67 878.0 470 243.33 1868.0 1020 548.89 3434.0 1890 1032.2 5000.0 2760 1515.6
568.4 298 147.78 881.6 472 244.44 1886.0 1030 554.44 3452.0 1900 1037.8 5018.0 2770 1521.1
572.0 300 148.89 885.2 474 245.56 1904.0 1040 560.00 3470.0 1910 1043.3 5036.0 2780 1526.7
575.6 302 150.00 888.8 476 246.67 1922.0 1050 565.56 3488.0 1920 1048.9 5054.0 2790 1532.2
579.2 304 151.11 892.4 478 247.78 1940.0 1060 571.11 3506.0 1930 1054.4 5072.0 2800 1537.8
582.8 306 152.22 896.0 480 248.89 1958.0 1070 576.67 3524.0 1940 1060.0 5090.0 2810 1543.3
586.4 308 153.33 899.6 482 250.00 1976.0 1080 582.22 3542.0 1950 1065.6 5108.0 2820 1548.9
590.0 310 154.44 903.2 484 251.11 1994.0 1090 587.78 3560.0 1960 1071.1 5126.0 2830 1554.4
593.6 312 155.56 906.8 486 252.22 2012.0 1100 593.33 3578.0 1970 1076.7 5144.0 2840 1560.0
597.2 314 156.67 910.4 488 253.33 2030.0 1110 598.89 3596.0 1980 1082.2 5162.0 2850 1565.6
600.8 316 157.78 914.0 490 254.44 2048.0 1120 604.44 3614.0 1990 1087.8 5180.0 2860 1571.1
604.4 318 158.89 917.6 492 255.56 2066.0 1130 610.00 3632.0 2000 1093.3 5198.0 2870 1576.7
608.0 320 160.00 921.2 494 256.67 2084.0 1140 615.56 3650.0 2010 1098.9 5216.0 2880 1582.2
611.6
615.2
322
324
161.11
162.22
924.8
928.4
496
498
257.78
258.89
2102.0
2120.0
1150
1160
621.11
626.67
3668.0
3686.0
2020
2030
1104.4
1110.0
5234.0
5252.0
2890
2900
1597.8
1593.3 Z
618.8 326 163.33 932.0 500 260.00 2138.0 1170 632.22 3704.0 2040 1156.6 5270.0 2910 1598.9
622.4 328 164.44 935.6 502 261.11 2156.0 1180 637.78 3722.0 2050 1121.1 5288.0 2920 1604.4
626.0 330 165.56 939.2 504 262.22 2174.0 1190 643.33 3740.0 2060 1126.7 5306.0 2930 1610.0
629.6 332 166.67 942.8 506 263.33 2192.0 1200 648.89 3758.0 2070 1132.2 5324.0 2940 1615.6
633.2 334 167.78 946.4 508 264.44 2210.0 1210 654.44 3776.0 2080 1137.8 5342.0 2950 1621.1
636.8 336 168.89 950.0 510 265.56 2228.0 1220 660.00 3794.0 2090 1143.3 5360.0 2960 1626.7
640.4 338 170.00 953.6 512 266.67 2246.0 1230 665.56 3812.0 2100 1148.9 5378.0 2970 1632.2
644.0 340 171.11 957.2 514 267.78 2264.0 1240 671.11 3830.0 2110 1154.4 5396.0 2980 1637.2
647.6 342 172.22 960.8 516 268.89 2282.0 1250 676.67 3848.0 2120 1160.0 5414.0 2990 1643.3
651.2 344 173.33 964.4 518 270.00 2300.0 1260 682.22 3866.0 2130 1165.6 5432.0 3000 1648.9
654.8 346 174.44 968.0 520 271.11 2318.0 1270 687.78 3884.0 2140 1171.1 5450.0 3010 1654.4
658.4 348 175.56 971.6 522 272.22 2336.0 1280 693.33 3902.0 2150 1176.7 5468.0 3020 1660.0
662.0 350 176.67 975.2 524 273.33 2354.0 1290 698.89 3920.0 2160 1182.2 5486.0 3030 1665.6
665.6 352 177.78 978.8 526 274.44 2372.0 1300 704.44 3938.0 2170 1187.8 5504.0 3040 1671.1
669.2 354 178.89 982.4 528 276.56 2390.0 1310 710.00 3956.0 2180 1193.3 5522.0 3050 1676.7
672.8 356 180.00 986.0 530 276.67 2408.0 1320 715.56 3974.0 2190 1198.9 5540.0 3060 1682.2
676.4 358 181.11 989.6 532 277.78 2426.0 1330 721.11 3992.0 2200 1204.4 5588.0 3070 1687.8
680.0 380 182.22 993.2 534 278.89 2444.0 1340 726.67 4010.0 2210 1210.0 5576.0 3080 1693.3
683.6 362 183.33 996.8 536 280.00 2462.0 1350 732.22 4028.0 2220 1215.6 5594.0 3090 1698.9
687.2 364 184.44 1000.4 538 281.11 2480.0 1360 737.78 4046.0 2230 1221.1 5612.0 3100 1704.4
690.8 366 186.56 1004.0 540 282.22 2498.0 1370 743.33 4064.0 2240 1226.7 5702.0 3150 1732.2
694.4 368 186.67 1007.6 542 283.33 2516.0 1380 748.89 4082.0 2250 1232.2 5792.0 3200 1760.0
698.0 370 187.78 1011.2 544 284.44 2534.0 1390 754.44 4100.0 2260 1237.8 5882.0 3250 1787.8
701.6 372 188.89 1014.8 546 285.56 2552.0 1400 760.00 4118.0 2270 1243.3 5972.0 3300 1815.6
705.2 374 190.00 1018.4 548 286.67 2570.0 1410 765.56 4136.0 2280 1248.9 6062.0 3350 1843.3
708.8 376 191.11 1022.0 550 287.78 2588.0 1420 771.11 4154.0 2290 1254.4 6152.0 3400 1871.1
712.4 378 192.22 1040.0 560 293.33 2606.0 1430 776.67 4172.0 2300 1260.0 6242.0 3450 1898.9
716.0 380 193.33 1058.0 570 298.89 2624.0 1440 782.22 4190.0 2310 1265.6 6332.0 3500 1926.7
719.6 382 194.44 1076.0 580 304.44 2642.0 1450 787.78 4208.0 2320 1271.1 6422.0 3550 1954.4
723.2 384 195.56 1094.0 590 310.00 2660.0 1460 793.33 4226.0 2330 1276.7 6512.0 3600 1982.2
726.8 386 196.67 1112.0 600 315.56 2678.0 1470 798.89 4244.0 2340 1282.2 6602.0 3650 2010.0
730.4 388 197.78 1130.0 610 321.11 2696.0 1480 804.44 4262.0 2350 1287.8 6692.0 3700 2037.8
734.0 390 198.89 1148.0 620 326.67 2714.0 1490 810.00 4280.0 2360 1293.3 6782.0 3750 2065.6
737.6 392 200.00 1166.0 630 332.22 2732.0 1500 815.56 4298.0 2370 1298.9 6972.0 3800 2093.3
741.2 394 201.11 1184.0 640 337.78 2750.0 1510 821.11 4316.0 2380 1304.4 6962.0 3850 2121.1
744.8 396 202.22 1202.0 650 343.33 2768.0 1520 826.67 4334.0 2390 1310.0 7052.0 3900 2148.9
748.4 398 203.33 1220.0 660 348.89 2786.0 1530 832.22 4352.0 2400 1315.6 7142.0 3950 2176.7
752.0 400 204.44 1238.0 670 354.44 2804.0 1540 837.78 4370.0 2410 1321.1 7232.0 4000 2204.4
755.6 402 205.66 1256.0 680 360.00 2822.0 1550 843.33 4388.0 2420 1326.7 7322.0 4050 2232.2
759.2 404 206.67 1274.0 690 365.56 2840.0 1560 848.89 4406.0 2430 1332.2 7412.0 4100 2260.0
762.8 406 207.78 1292.0 700 371.11 2858.0 1570 854.44 4424.0 2440 1337.8 7502.0 4150 2287.8
766.4 408 208.89 1310.0 710 376.67 2876.0 1580 860.00 4442.0 2450 1343.3 7592.0 4200 2315.6
770.0 410 210.00 1328.0 720 382.22 2894.0 1590 865.56 4460.0 2460 1348.9 7682.0 4250 2343.3
773.6 412 211.11 1346.0 730 387.78 2912.0 1600 871.11 4478.0 2470 1354.4 7772.0 4300 2371.1
777.2 414 212.22 1364.0 740 393.33 2930.0 1610 876.67 4496.0 2480 1360.0 7862.0 4350 2398.9
780.8 416 213.33 1382.0 750 398.89 2948.0 1620 882.22 4514.0 2490 1365.6 7952.0 4400 2426.7
784.4 418 214.44 1400.0 760 404.44 2966.0 1630 887.78 4532.0 2500 1371.1 8042.0 4450 2454.4
788.0 420 215.56 1418.0 770 410.00 2984.0 1640 893.33 4550.0 2510 1376.7 8132.0 4450 2482.2
791.6 422 216.67 1436.0 780 415.56 3002.0 1650 898.89 4568.0 2520 1382.2 8222.0 4550 2510.0
795.2 424 217.78 1454.0 790 421.11 3020.0 1660 904.44 4586.0 2530 1387.2 8312.0 4600 2537.8
798.8 426 218.89 1472.0 800 426.67 3038.0 1670 910.00 4604.0 2540 1393.3 8402.0 4650 2565.6
802.4 428 220.00 1490.0 810 432.22 3056.0 1680 915.56 4622.0 2550 1398.9 8492.0 4700 2593.3
806.0 430 221.11 1508.0 820 437.78 3074.0 1690 921.11 4640.0 2560 1404.4 8582.0 4750 2621.1
809.6 432 222.22 1526.0 830 443.33 3092.0 1700 926.67 4658.0 2570 1410.0 8672.0 4800 2648.9
813.2 434 223.33 1544.0 840 448.89 3110.0 1710 932.22 4676.0 2680 1415.6 8762.0 4850 2676.7
816.8 436 224.44 1562.0 850 454.44 3128.0 1720 937.78 4694.0 2590 1421.1 8852.0 4900 2704.4
820.4 438 225.56 1580.0 860 460.00 3146.0 1730 943.33 4712.0 2600 1426.7 8942.0 4950 2732.2
824.0 440 226.67 1598.0 870 465.56 3164.0 1740 948.89 4730.0 2610 1432.2 9032.0 5000 2760.0
827.6 442 227.78 1616.0 880 471.11 3182.0 1750 954.44 4748.0 2620 1437.8 9122.0 5050 2787.8
831.2 444 228.89 1634.0 890 476.67 3200.0 1760 960.00 4766.0 2630 1443.3 9212.0 5100 2815.6
834.8 446 230.00 1652.0 900 482.22 3218.0 1770 965.56 4784.0 2640 1448.9 9302.0 5150 2843.3
838.4 448 231.11 1670.0 910 487.78 3236.0 1780 971.11 4802.0 2650 1454.4 9392.0 5200 2871.1
842.0 450 232.22 1688.0 920 493.33 3254.0 1790 976.67 4820.0 2660 1460.0 9482.0 5250 2898.9
845.6 452 233.33 1706.0 930 498.89 3272.0 1800 982.22 4838.0 2670 1465.6 9572.0 5300 2926.7
849.2 454 234.44 1724.0 940 504.44 3290.0 1810 997.78 4856.0 2680 1471.1 9662.0 5350 2954.4
852.2 456 235.56 1742.0 950 510.00 3308.0 1820 993.33 4974.0 2690 1467.7 9752.0 5400 2982.2
856.4 458 236.67 1760.0 960 515.66 3326.0 1830 998.89 4892.0 2700 1482.2 9842.0 5450 3010.0
860.0 460 237.78 1778.0 970 521.11 3344.0 1840 1004.40 4910.0 2710 1487.8 9932.0 5500 3037.8
863.6 462 238.89 1796.0 980 526.67 3362.0 1850 1010.0 4928.0 2720 1493.3 10,002.0 5550 3065.6
867.2 464 240.00 1814.0 990 532.22 3380.0 1860 1015.6 4946.0 2730 1498.9 10,112.0 5600 3093.3

Z-260
TECHNICAL DATA SECTION
Reference Section
TERMINOLOGY
ACF = Actual Cubic Feet
A/D =
ATM =
BTU =
Analog to Digital
Atmospheres
British Thermal Units
Conversion Factors
cc/min = Cubic Centimeters
per Minute
CFH = Standard Cubic Feet TO
per Hour (SCFH)
CP =
C.S. =
Specific Heat
Carbon Steel
OBTAIN MULTIPLY BY
D= Diameter
Dia. = Diameter
Diam. = Diameter Atmospheres In HG@32ºF 0.033421
D/A = Digital to Analog BTU Watt-hours 3.412
EMI = Electromagnetic Interference BTU KWh 3412
EPR = Ethylene Propylene Rubber Centimeters Inches 2.540
FDA = Food and Drug Cm of Hg @ 0 deg C Atmospheres 76.0
Administration Cm of Hg @ 0 deg C Grams/sq. cm 0.07356
FNPT = Female National Pipe Cm of Hg @ 0 deg C Lb/sq in. 5.1715
Thread Cm of Hg @ 0 deg C Lb/sq ft 0.035913
FPM = Feet Per Minute
FPS = Feet Per Second Cm/(sec)(sec) Gravity 980.665
F.S. = Full Scale Centipoises Centistokes Density
FT = Feet Centistokes Centipoises 1/density
gals = Gallons Cu cm Cu ft 28,317
gpm = Gallons Per Minute Cu cm Cu in. 16-387
gph = Gallons Per Hour Cu cm Gal (USA, liq.) 3785.43
HF = Latent Heat of Fusion Cu cm Liters 1000.03
H/L = High-Low Cu cm Quarts (USA, liq.) 946.358
HV = Latent Heat of Vaporization Cu cm/sec Cu ft/min 472.0
I.D. = Inside Diameter Cu ft Cu meters 35.314
I/0 = Input/Output Cu ft Gal (USA, liq.) 0.13368
k= Thermal Conductivity Cu ft Liters 0.03532
Ibs = Pounds Cu ft/min Cu meters/sec 2118.9
Ibs/in =
2
Pounds Per Square Inch Cu ft/min Gal (USA, liq.)/sec 8.0192
lpm = Liters Per Minute Cu ft/sec Gal (USA, liq.)/min 0.0022280
L/min = Liters Per Minute Cu ft/sec Liters/min 0.0005886
mL/min = Milliliters Per Minute
MNPT = Male National Pipe Thread Cu in. Cu centimeters 0.061023
ms = Milliseconds Cu in. Gal (USA, liq.) 231.0
m/s = Meters Per Second Cu in. Liters 61.03
MSEC = Milliseconds Cu meters Gal (USA, liq.) 0.0037854
NiCad = Nickel Cadmium Cu meters Liters 0.001000028
NO/NC = Normally Open/ Cu meters/hr Gal/min 0.22712
Normally Closed Cu meters/kg Cu ft/lb 0.062428
NPT = National Pipe Thread Cu meters/min Cu ft/min 0.02832
O.D. = Outside Diameter Cu meters/sec Gal/min 0.000063088
P-P = Peak to Peak Feet Meters 3.281
PSIA = Pounds Per Square Inch Ft/min Cm/sec 1.9685
Absolute Ft/sec Meters/sec 3.2808
PSID = Pounds Per Square Inch Ft/(sec)(sec) Gravity (sea level) 32.174
Differential Ft/(sec)(sec) Meters/(sec)(sec) 3.2808
PSIG = Pounds Per Square Inch Gal (Imperial, liq.) Gal (USA, liq.) 0.83268
Gage Gal (USA, liq.) Barrels
PVC = Polyvinyl Chloride
PVDF = Polyvinylidene (Petroleum, USA) 42
Fluoride (Kynaol) Gal (USA, liq.) Cu ft 7.4805
RF = Raised Face Gal (USA, liq.) Cu meters 264.173
RFI = Radio Frequency Interference Gal (USA, liq.) Cu yards 202.2
RMS = Root Mean Square Gal (USA, liq.) Gal (Imperial, liq.) 1.2010
SCCM = Standard Cubic Gal (USA, liq.) Liters 0.2642
Centimeters per Minute Gal (USA, liq.)/min Cu ft/sec 448.83
SCHED. NO. = Schedule Number Gal (USA, liq.)/min Cu meters/hr 4.4029
SCFH = Standard Cubic Feet per Gal (USA, liq.)/sec Liters/min 0.0044028
Hour Grams Pounds (avoir.) 453.5924
SCFM = Standard Cubic Feet per
Minute
SLM = Standard Liters per Minute
SLPM = Standard Liters per Minute
sq.ft. = Square Feet
SSU = Saybolt Seconds Universal
∆T = Temperature Rise
TTL = Transistor-Transistor Logic
W= Watts
W-hr = Watt-Hours
W/in2 2 Watt Density
WT= Weight of Material

Z-261
 METRIC PREFIXES
Conversion Factors MEGA = 1,000,000
KILO = 1,000
HECTO = 100
DECA= 10
TO DECI= .1
CENTI = .01
OBTAIN MULTIPLY BY MILLI=
MICRO =
.001
.000,001
Z
Grams/(cm)(sec) Centipoises 0.01 TEMPERATURE CONVERSION
Grams/cu cm Lb/cu ft 0.016018 FORMULAS:
Grams/cu cm Lb/cu in. 27.680 ˚F = (9/5 ˚C) + 32
Grams/cu cm Lb/gal 0.119826 ˚C = (˚F - 32) x 5/9
Inches Centimeters 0.3937
Inches of Hg @ 32˚ F Atmospheres 29.921
Inches of Hg @ 32˚ F Lb/sq in. 2.0360
Inches of Hg @ 32˚ F In. of H2O @ 4°C 0.07355
Inches/deg F Cm/deg C 0.21872
Kg Pounds (avoir.) 0.45359
Kg-cal/sq meter BTU/sq ft 2.712
Kg/cu meter Lb/cu ft 16.018
Kg/(hr)(meter) Centipoises 3.60
Kg/liter Lb/gal (USA, liq.) 0.11983
Kg/meter Lb/ft 1.488
Kg/sq cm Lb/sq in. 0.0703 National Pipe Taper
Kg/sq meter Lb/sq ft 4.8824 Thread Dimensions
KWh BTU .0002930
KWh watt-hours .001 NPT SIZE THREADS DIM “A” DIM “B”
Liters Cu ft 28.316 PER INCH (IN) (IN)
Liters Cu in. 0.01639
Liters Cu meters 999.973
1
⁄16 27 .312 .261
Liters Gal (Imperial, liq.) 4.546 1
⁄8 27 .405 .264
Liters Gal (USA, liq.) 3.785306
Liters/kg Cu ft/lb 62.42621
1
⁄4 18 .540 .402
Liters/min Cu ft/sec 1698.963 3
⁄8 18 .675 .408
Liters/min Gal (USA, liq.)/min 3.785
Liters/sec Cu ft/min 0.47193
1
⁄2 14 .840 .534
Liters/sec Gal/min 0.063088 3
⁄4 14 1.050 .546
Meters Feet 0.3048
Meters/sec Ft/sec 0.3048 1 111⁄2 1.315 .683
Mete rs/sec)(sec) Ft/(sec)(sec) 0.3048 11⁄4 111⁄2 1.660 .707
Ounces Grams 0.035274
Pounds (avoir.) Kg 2.2046
Pounds/cu ft Grams/cu cm 62.428
Pounds/cu ft Pounds/gal 7.48
Pounds/cu in. Grams/cu cm 0.036127 1°47'
Pounds/(hr)(ft) Centipoises 2.42 A
Pounds/inch Grams/cm 0.0056
Pounds/(sec)(ft) Centipoises 0.000672
Pounds/gal. (USA, liq.) Kg/liter 8.3452
Pounds/gal. (USA, liq.) Pounds/cu ft 0.1337
Pounds/gal. (USA, liq.) Pounds/cu in. 231 B
Sq centimeters Sq ft 929.0 EFECTIVE THREAD
Sq centimeters Sq in. 6.4516
Sq ft Sq meters 10.764
Sq in. Sq centimeters 0.155
Sq meters Sq ft 0.0929
W-hr BTU .2390
W-hr KWh 1000

Z-262
OHM’S LAW

VARIATIONS OF OHM’S LAW

VOLTS
AM VOLTS = œ ß ß ß ßxßOHMS
WATTS ßßß
S P
TT
E E 2 WATTS
VOLTS =

ER
AMPERES
W
WA

I2R R R E
VOLTS = AMPERES x OHMS

ES
OHMS
EI W I W/R OHMS = VOLTS
AMPERES
VOLTS2

WR E R E I
OHMS =
WATTS

OHMS = WATTS2

W W E2 AMPERES2

W
VO

AMPERES
T S I IR I2
S
M
VOLTS
L

AMPERES =
OH
OHMS

AMPERES = WATTS
VOLTS

AMPERES = WATTS
OHMS

Table 11 Currents for resistance heating loads

WATTS
Single phase Three phase balanced load
kW 120V 208V 240V 440V 480V 208V 240V 440V 480V WATTS = VOLTS2
OHMS
1 8.4 4.8 4.2 2.3 2.1 2.8 2.5 1.4 1.3
2 16.7 9.7 8.4 4.6 4.2 5.6 4.9 2.7 2.5 WATTS = AMPERES2 x OHMS
3 25 14.5 12.5 6.9 6.3 8.4 7.3 4 3.7
4 33.4 19.3 16.7 9.1 8.4 11.2 9.7 5.3 4.9 WATTS = VOLTS x AMPERES

5 41.7 24.1 20.9 11.4 10.5 13.9 12.1 6.6 6.1 Currents for resistance heating loads
6 50 28.9 25 13.7 12.5 16.7 14.5 7.9 7.3 Heating elements are frequently used at
7.5 62.5 36.1 31.3 17.1 15.7 20.9 18.1 9.9 9.1 voltages other than those shown in our
10 83.4 48.1 41.7 22.8 20.9 27.8 24.1 13.2 12.1
catalog. The percentages shown below
12 100 57.7 50 27.3 25 33.4 29 15.8 14.5 are used to determine the resulting
15 125 72.2 62.5 34.1 31.2 41.7 36.2 19.7 18.1 wattage. Should you wish to use a
20 167 96.2 83.4 45.5 41.7 55.6 48.2 26.3 24.1 heater on a voltage not shown above,
25 209 121 105 56.9 52.1 69.5 60.3 32.9 30.1 you may calculate the resultant wattage
30 250 145 125 68.2 62.5 83.4 72.3 39.4 36.2 with this formula:
50 417 241 209 114 105 139 121 65.7 60.3
75 625 361 313 171 157 209 181 98.6 90.4
100 834 481 417 228 209 278 241 132 121 Actual Wattage = Rated Wattage x Applied Voltage
2
Rated Voltage2
Percent of rated wattage for various applied voltages
Applied Rated Voltage
Voltage 110 115 120 208 220 230 240 277 380 415 440 460 480 550
110 100% 91% 84% 28% 25% 23% 21% 16% 8.4% 7% 6.2% 5.7% 5.2% 4%
115 109% 100% 92% 31% 27% 25% 23% 17% 9.0% 7.6% 6.7% 6.2% 5.7% 4.3%
120 119% 109% 100% 33% 30% 27% 25% 19% 10% 8.4% 7.4% 6.8% 6.3% 4.8%
208 300% 100% 89% 82% 75% 56% 30% 25% 22% 20% 19% 14%
220 112% 100% 91% 84% 63% 34% 28% 25% 23% 21% 16%
230 122% 109% 100% 92% 69% 37% 31% 27% 25% 23% 17%
240 133% 119% 109% 100% 75% 40% 33% 30% 27% 25% 19%
277 133% 100% 53% 45% 40% 36% 33% 25%
380 188% 100% 84% 74% 68% 63% 47%
415 119% 100% 89% 81% 75% 57%
440 112% 100% 91% 84% 64%
460 123% 109% 100% 92% 70%
480 119% 109% 100% 76%
550 156% 143% 131% 100%

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Electrical Units

Ratio of
SI unit Magnitude of
Quantity
Current
Symbol
I, i
Equation
I=E/R; I = E/Z; I = Q/t
SI unit
Ampere
symbol
A
CGS unit
Abampere
SI to cgs unit
10-1
Z
Quantity Q, q Q = it; Q = CE Coulomb C Abcoulomb 10-1
Electromotive force E, e E = IR; E = W/Q Volt V Abvolt 108
Resistance R, r R=E/I; R = rl /A Ohm Ω Abohm 109
Resistivity r r = RA / I Ohm-metre Ω•m Abohm-cm 1011
Conductance G, g G =g A / l G = A/rl Siemens S Abmho 10-9
Conductivity g g = 1/r; g = I/ RA Siemens/meter S/m Abmho/cm 10-11
Capacitance C C = Q/E Farad F Abfarad* 10-9
Permittivity e Farads/meter F/m Stat farad*/cm 8.85 X 10-12
Relative permittivity er er = e/eo Numerical Numerical I
Self-inductance L L = - N(df/dt) Henry H Abhenry 109
Mutual inductance M M = K(L1L2) 1/2 Henry H Abhenry 109
Energy J J = eit Joule J Erg 107
kwh kwh = kw/3600; 3.6 MJ Kilowatthour kWh 36 X 1012
Active power W W = J/t; W = EI cos U Watt W Abwatt 107
Reactive power jQ Q = El sin U Var var Abvar 107
Apparent power VA VA = El Volt-ampere VA
Power factor pf pf = W/VA; pf = W/(W + jQ) 1
Reactance, inductive XL XL = 2pfL Ohm Ω Abohm 109
Reactance, capacitive XC XC = 1/(2pfC) Ohm Ω Abohm 109
Impedance Z Z = E/I Z = R + j(XL - XC) Ohm Ω Abohm 109
Conductance G G = R/Z2 Siemens S Abmho 10-9
Susceptance B B = X/Z2 Siemens S Abmho 10-9
Admittance Y Y =I/E; Y = G + jB Siemens S Abmho 10-9
Frequency f f = 1/T Hertz Hz Cps Hz 1
Period T T = 1/f Second s Second 1
Time constant T L/R; RC Second s Second 1
Angular velocity ω ω = 2πf Radians/second rad/s Radians/second 1

*1 Abfarad (EMU Units) = 9 X 10-20 stat farads (ESU units).

Reproduced with Permission from McGraw-Hill, Marks’ Standard Handbook for

Mechanical Engineers, 8th ed. Authors: Baumeister, et al. Copyright 1987

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