Frameworks and Principles

Behind Our Moral

Dispositions
{
  is a perspective in ethics that focuses on the
character of individual as the most significant
element in making moral decisions.

A. Virtues Ethics
1. Aristotle (384 – 322 BCE)

Aristotle is one of the famous Greek Philosophers who

influenced fields of knowledge. Aristotle was a naturalist. In his
Philosophy, he emphasized that we must understand first nature
works before we begin to make theories.
  In moral philosophy, Aristotle used his
metaphysics as basis for his ethics. According
to him, everything in nature aims at some end.
This end is a fulfillment of each thing’s
function and anything that satisfies is
considered good. This idea that everything
aims at something that is good is known as
teleology (‘telos’). Teleology explains that the
world and everything in it has a design a
purpose.

Telos
 Aristotle further believed that happiness is the good which all
human aspire. Aristotle explained that human fulfillment involves
the soul. The soul, according to him has three parts (Price, 2000):

 Nutritive: this part of the soul is described as the experience of

life and involves the act of living (like how plants exist).

 Sensitive: this is described as experiencing both living and

sensing (like how animals exist).

 Rational: this includes both the nutritive and sensitive parts of

soul together with the mental processes of thinking, analyzing
and reflecting.
  Moral choices entail action thus, human
happiness is dependent upon our rational
choice and virtuous activities. A virtue is a
character-trait that makes a good human being.
Aristotle explained that nothing that exists by
nature can form habits that conflict with its
nature.

Virtue as Habit
Having moral virtue involves developing the ff. habits:

1. Right 2. Right 3. Right

Thinking Choice Behavior

To be moral, entails learning to be. According to Aristotle,

a happy person is not one who does something good only
when he feels like it, but a person whose whole life is
dedicated to the practice of goodness. This task is not an easy
one, so Aristotle suggested that we take the “middle way” or
the mean between two extremes.

Since people vary, the mean or the point of moderation

will also vary. We differ in character and in the circumstance
we find our selves in.
 Excess (Vice) Mean (Virtue) Defect (Vice)
Foolhardy Courage Cowardice
Gluttony Moderation Starvation
Wasteful Generosity Stingy
Overly submissive Friendly Aloof
Too shy Modesty Showoff

Some Examples of Virtue of the Golden Mean

In addition, Aristotle enumerated two kinds of reasoning:

 Theoretical Reasoning- this is about knowledge universal

principles. It answer the question, “what is good?” Simply
knowing the facts, however, will not make us moral.

 Practical Reasoning- this is what guides our everyday

actions and morals. It answer the questions, “how can I be
good?” Practical reasoning actualizes the good that is
potentially within us.
  These two types of reasoning are not always
congruent. There are many times wherein we
know what is good (theoretical reasoning) but
instead do the bad. Aristotle believes that
sensuous desires can oftentimes overpower
responsible choices. Moreover, Aristotle stated
that virtues are the expression of a balanced
life. Happiness is described as the soul working
by way of excellence and virtue.

Happiness as Telos
2. St. Thomas Aquinas (1225 – 1274)

St. Thomas Aquinas was an Italian Dominican priest

who is considered as one of the most influential thinkers of
the Medieval Era. St. Thomas’ philosophy is an integration
of knowledge obtained through Biblical Revelation and
information gathered through human reason. He believed
that the Revelation could guide reason and reason could
clarify faith (“St. Thomas Aquinas,” n.d)
Although the purpose of this discussion is centered on Natural Law, it
is deemed necessary to have an overview of the other laws to see the
interrelationships that exist among them. St. Thomas distinguishes four
kinds of law (“Four Types of Law According to Thomas Aquinas,”):

 Eternal Law- refers to laws that govern the nature of the eternal
universe.

 Natural Law- refers to laws that flow from eternal law and govern
the behavior of human beings for them to achieve eternal salvation.

 Human Law- refers to laws based on customs which tend to vary

from place to place relative to the society which developed them.

 Divine Law- refers to laws concerned with the standards that must
be satisfied by man to achieve eternal salvation and is only made
known through the revelations in the Holy Scriptures.
  Natural Law aims to govern human action
through reason and freewill. In the Natural
Law Theory of Morality, the precept is to do
good and avoid evil. Since Natural law is
derived from Eternal Law, then according to St.
Thomas, good and evil are both objective and
universal.

The Natural Law

  There can be no legally valid standard that can conflict
with the Natural Law- Natural law is based on how
nature works.

 All valid laws derive the force and authority they have
from the Natural Law- Laws that are just are always
based on the Natural Laws.

Two Theoretical bases for Natural Law:

 Natural Law recognizes the connection between the
law and human morality. Humans are tasked to know the
laws and be guided by it so that behavior will be in
conformity with these laws. Any law that is good is moral,
and any moral law is good (Mckenna, n.d).

St. Thomas explained that Natural Law serves as man’s

participation in the Eternal Law. St. Thomas believes that
man’s pursuit of happiness depends on him being a
virtuous human being.
  The cardinal virtues are the four principal
virtues of morality. It was first discussed by
Plato and adopted by Aristotle and through St.
Thomas was integrated into the Christian
teachings.

The Cardinal Virtues

 Prudence- this virtue is observed when a person exhibits careful, good
judgements to guide his action.

 Temperance- this is the virtue of moderation. It is middle path

between extreme forms of behavior. Just like Aristotle, St. Thomas also
emphasized the significance of the Golden Mean in the pursuit of
happiness.

 Fortitude- this virtue manifests itself as having the strength and ability
to face and conquer fear.

 Justice- this virtue determines how we relate to others. Having a good

sense of justice entails a sustained and constant willingness to give to
each person what he/she deserves (be it reward or punishmenr).

These Four Cardinal Virtues can be practiced by any

body and are considered as the bases of natural
morality (Richert, 2017).
 In addition, St. Thomas explained that happiness which
is what all human beings want to achieve is of two kinds:
incomplete happiness and complete happiness.
Incomplete happiness which can achieved by means of
human actions and grounded on the cultivation of the four
cardinal virtues and Complete happiness which is only
possible through the theological virtues received from a
higher power.

These virtues were stated in the second letter of St. Paul

to the Corinthians: the virtues of faith, hope and charity
(Richert, 2017)
 1. Immanuel Kant and The Ethics of Duty
Immanuel Kant was the founder of German Idealism. He
wrote three of the most important works in Philosophy
namely: The Critique of Pure Reason in 1781, the Critique of
Practical Reason in 1788 and the Critique of Judgement in 1790.

In Kant’s Critique of Practical Reason, practical means that

when we act, we think about our actions. Thus, when
practical reason brings “ought” to a moral situation, it tells us
the principle of what our behavior should be. Moral laws,
according to Kant is universally and necessarily true.

B. Kant and The Right Theories

  Kant emphasized that moral rules are the same
for everyone. In acting morally, we should be
aware that the action is good, and we must do
it with will. Morality according to him is not
simple obedience to rules, but is duty that is
based on good will.
 As written in Price (2000), for Kant, human
actions are directed by three kinds of motives:
inclination, self-interest and duty.

Goodwill
  An imperative is a command that tells us what to
do and what not to do. There are two kinds of
imperatives: hypothetical imperatives- which are
conditional, and moral imperatives- which are
unconditional or categorical.
 A categorical imperative is universal and
impartial. Its universality means that all rational
individuals, would act in a similar fashion, and
its impartiality means that actions are not biased.

Categorical Imperatives
  Formula of the Universal Law: “Act as if the
maxim of your action were to become through
your will a universal law of nature”
 The Formula of the End itself: “Act in such a
way that you always treat humanity, whether
in your own person or in the person of any
other, never as a means, but always as an end.”
 The Formula of Autonomy: “Always act that
the will could regard itself at the same time as
making universal law through its own maxim.”

Kant’s Categorical imperative is

composed of three formulations:
 According to Price (2000), Kant’s categorical imperative
includes the universality of:

1. the moral law which is based on our duty,

2. the intrinsic worth of all the rational persons (as ends in
themselves), and
3. the autonomy of the will (or the freedom to make
choice).
2. Right Theories

A right may be defined as something to which a person

has a just claim. According to the Merriam & Webster
Dictionary, a right may take the form of power or privilege to
which a person is justly entitled to.

Right theories maintain that there are things that we

cannot do against individuals because they have rights. Some
example of rights are: the right to life, the right of education,
the right to vote, and the right to the pursuit of happiness to
name a few
 Legal Rights
Legal rights are the freedom or protection
we, as individual, have because of laws that say
we do. This means that legal rights refer to all
rights written and found within the existing legal
codes. Legal rights enjoy the recognition and
protection of the law.

Difference Between Legal and Moral Rights

 Moral Rights
Moral rights, on the other hand, are claims
that exist before any law is made and does not
require any form of legislation. Moral rights are
not made by any human being nor can humans
unmake them.

Difference Between Legal and Moral Rights

Characteristics of Moral Rights

 Relevance of Right to Duties- an essential part of existence is

for us to know and perform our duties. Some of these duties
are so important that they carry right with them.
 Moral Status- as a person with moral rights, we are accorded
with a moral status. This moral status that we have forms a
moral shield around us.
 Moral Weight- morality emphasizes that what is most
important is for us is to respect the rights of others.
 Moral Rights and Moral Equality- moral rights are the same
for everybody. It is for this reason that nobody can be denied
his/her moral right for reasons that are arbitrary, prejudicial
and irrelevant.
 Invoking Rights- when we invoke our right, it means that we
are making use of or applying our right.
 Violation of Rights and the Duty of Assistance- many
people have rights that are often violated. The sad
thing is, they are not even aware of the injustice done
to them. Vulnerable for injustice are the weak:
children, women, old people, people with intellectual
and physical disabilities and the mentally ill.
Thank You!!!   