Theology of Mission Vol.

54 (2019): 308339‫־‬
https://doi.0rg/10.14493/ksoms.2019.2.308

Past, Present, and Future of Evangelical

Theology of Religions as Mission Theology

Hoon Jung
Fuller Theological Seminary

-------------------------- Abstract --------------------------

As globalization and industrialization cause this world to shrink,

a topographical map of religions including Christianity, is also

transforming. This change enables people in the world to meet religious

others more frequently in everyday life. Today, the study of religions

is not just a realm of Christian experts such as pastors or missionaries,

but also the area of lay people. As the foundation of religious studies,

the Evangelical theology of religions has been focused mainly on

soteriological and Christological aspects. However, contemporary

scholars are trying to broaden the topics of theology of religions,

especially through a pneumatological approach as a new methodology.

Although being creative and honorable, this approach still needs ilirther

in-depth studies as a future task.

N_____________________________ F
 Hoon Jung, Past, Present, and Future of Evangelical Theology of Religions
as Mission Theology 309

I. Introduction

There were significant shifts in the twentieth century that

changed Christianity： globalization, migration, and the
explosive growth of world religions·1) First, as many missio-
logists point out, the development of transportation and
communications has promoted globalization and made for a
shrinking world Migration is also increasing, which means
that people can encounter others across the globe more easily
than in the past·2) Second, people in the world are growing
more religious. While some had anticipated that the world
would become secularized, as Ryan Bolger rightly points out,
world religions have not declined but have actually increased
because “interest in spirituality has not gone away·”3)

1) Andrew F. Walls, The Missionary Movement in Christian History- Studies

in the Transmission of Faith. (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1996)，xiii-xix.
Jehu Handles, Beyond Christendom: Globalization, African Migration,
and the Transformation of the West (Maryknoll： Orbis Books, 2008)，
1337‫ ־‬Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, An Introduction to the Theology of
Religions· Biblical, Historical，and Contemporary Perspectives (Downers
Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2013), 1718‫־‬. Charles Edward Van Engen,
“Innovating Mission: Retrospect and Prospect in the Field of Missiology,‫״‬
in The State of Missiology Today· Global Innovations in Christian
Witness, edited by Charles Edward Van Engen (Downers Grove: I VP
Academic, 2016)，118‫־‬. Jonathan Y. Tan, Christian Mission among the
Peoples of Asia (Maryknoll： Orbis Books, 2014)，1-10.
2) 채수일, ““지구화 시대의 신학교육: 다종교 상황과 아시아 신학교육 一타이완과
한국을중심으로，Die Theologische Ausbildung in der Zeit der Globalisierung
am Beispiel von Korea und Taiwan,‫「 ״‬선교신학」제14집 (2007): 164. Jehu
Handles, Beyond Christendom. Jonathan Y. Tan, Christian Mission
among the Peoples of Asia, 1-10.
310 선교신학 제54집

As the world changes, Christianity and Christian mission

are also transforming. First, Western Christianity is in decline,
while Christianity is exploding in Latin America, Africa, and
Asia·34) Also, the increase in migration is bringing about a
religiously pluralistic world.5) As a result, it has become
“difficult to distinguish ‘the East’ from ‘the West.’”6)
These transforming influences in the world and in
Christianity are greatly affecting Christian mission.
Specifically, Christians meet religious others in everyday life
more routinely than ever before, in the workplace, school,
market, etc. Also, especially in Asia where Christians are in
the minority, they suffer from conflict with religious others,
even having violence inflicted on them·7) Again, the diversity

3) Ryan K. Bolger, “Introduction,” in The Gospel after Christendom: New

Voices, New Cultures, New Expressions, edited by Ryan K. Bolger (Grand
Rapids: Baker Academic, 2012), xxxv.
4) Jehu Handles, Beyond Christendom. Andrew F. Walls, The Missionary
Movement in Christian History，1-10. William A. Dyrness and Oscar
Garcia-Johnson eds., Theology without Borders: An Introduction to
Global Conversations (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2015), vii‫־‬x.
5) Harold A. Netland, Encountering Religious Pluralism - The Challenge
to Christian Faith & Mission (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2001)，
9-22. Pui-lan Kwok, Postcolonial Imagination and Feminist Theology
(Louisville： Westminster John Knox Press, 2005)，197.
6) Harold A. Netland, Encountering Religious Pluralism, 106.
7) Jonathan Y. Tan, Christian Mission among the Peoples of Asia, 110‫־‬.
송영석, “한국의 종교갈등 이해와 선교적 교회의 대응을 위한 고찰: 정체성의
신학을 중심으로，Study for Missional Church’s Response to the Issue of
Korean： Religious Conflict in the Perspective of the Theology of Identity,‫״‬
「선교신학」제37집 (2014): 217. 김칠성, “Mission Strategy for Islam,‫「״‬선교신
학」 제47집 (2017): 208.
 Hoon Jung, Past, Present, and Future of Evangelical Theology of Religions
as Mission Theology 311

of religions triggers crisis of missiology·8) These phenomena

make people come to think that as the world becomes more
diverse religiously, not only Christian missionaries, but also
pastors and even lay people have to understand other religion
s.9) Actually, as a basis for understanding other religions,
many theologians have already developed ways to study world
religions, e. g. interreligious dialogue, comparative theology,
and theology of religions. Also, many contemporary missio-
logists acknowledge that the studies concerning the relation-
ship between Christianity and other religions are the most
important subjects in contemporary missiology·10)
Although all areas of study of Christianity and world
religions are important, a sound theology of religions must
be the basis of sound comparative theology and interreligious

8) 이찬석, “종교신학과 선교, Theology of Religion and Mission,‫״‬ 「선교신학」

제20집 (2009): 42.
9) Harold A. Netland, Encountering Religious Pluralism, x.
10) Stephen B. Bevans and Roger P. Schroeder, Constants in Context·
A Theology of Mission for Today (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 2004)，
37884‫־‬. David J. Bosch, Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shifts in
Theology of Mission, (Maryknoll： Orbis Books, 1994)，474-88. Jonathan
Y. Tan, Christian Mission among the Peoples of Asia, 5594‫־‬. Francis
Anekwe Oborji, Concepts of Mission: The Evolution of Contemporary
Missiology (Maryknoll： Orbis Books, 2006)，11833‫־‬. Stanley H. Skreslet,
Comprehending Mission: The Questions Methods，Themes，Problems，
and Prospects of Mission (Maryknoll： Orbis Books, 2012)，104-22.
Amos Yong, The Missiological Spirit: Christian Mission Theology in
the Third Millennium Global Context (Eugene: Cascade Books, 2014)，
96119‫־‬. Lesslie Newbigin, The Gospel in a Pluralist Society (Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 1989)，17183‫־‬.
312 선교신학 제54집

dialogue as mission theology because theology of religions seeks

to explain the value and meaning of other religions and research
the relations between Christianity and other religions·11)
Specifically, one can compare more easily Christianity to other
religions after first determining their nature and essence. Also,
theology of religions plays a significant role in determining
how to carry on meaningful interreligious dialogue, e. g., what
to focus on in the conversation. Thus this paper focuses on
theology of religions, especially expecting the future assign-
ment of theology of religions. However, the future is a product
of the past and the present·12) So, the first chapter gives an
overview of the past of theology of religions. The next chapter
deals with criticism of contemporary theologians of religions
against the past of theology of religions. The final chapter
expects the issues that need to be dealt with in the future,
especially in relation to pneumatology because pneumatology
is one of the biggest issues in contemporary Christianity. This
paper focuses mainly on a pneumatological approach of Amos
Yong who is one of the prominent theologians of pneumatology
in contemporary academia.

11) 송영석，“한국의 종교갈등 이해와 선교적 교회의 대웅을 위한 고찰: 정체성의

신학을 중심으로, Understanding and Missiological Implication of Karl
Barth’s Theology of Religions,‫「 ״‬선교신학」제33집 (2013): 137.
12) Theology of religions has been researched in the evangelical circle so
far. However, the research in order of time has been little done. In
this regard, this paper has a significance.
 Hoon Jung, Past, Present, and Future of Evangelical Theology of Religions
as Mission Theology 313

II. The Past of Theology of Religions·

Focus on Soteriology and Christology

This chapter traces the trajectory of theology of religions.

When doing theology of religions, theologians have focused
mainly on soteriology and Christology, especially the salvation
of those who have never heard the gospel, or who hold to other
religions. In relation to this topic, there have been three ideas.
There are various classifications of theology of religions such
as ‫״‬ecclesiocentrism,‫״ ״‬Christocentrism,‫ ״‬and “theocentrism”
or “exclusivism,” “inclusivism,” and “pluralism·” This paper will
use the terms “exclusivism,” “inclusivism,” and “pluralism”
because they are most accepted as the classifications. Also,
although there are various subcategories and diversity within
these three classes,13) this paper will simplify into the three
categories, and address the details of these three. Because the
goal of this section is neither to criticize nor support one view,
but to show how the issue of theology of religions in the past
has been concentrated to soteriology and Christology, this
section will focus mainly on sketching the three aspects.

1. Exclusivism

Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen defines exclusivism as “salvation

13) Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, An Introduction to the Theology of Religion,

171-173.
314 선교신학 제54집

[that] is available only in Jesus Christ to the extent that those

who have never heard the gospel are eternally lost·”14) By
this definition, “non-Christian religions play no role in the
history of salvation·”15) For example, Hendrik Kraemer writes
that “the revelation of God in Christ transcends and contradicts
all human wisdom by its divine folly, and all human aspiration
and expectation by its entirely unexpected way of fulfilling
them； it is wrong to use the term fulfillment.”16) Kraemer
rejects a fulfillment theory based on inclusivism. That is, no
human effort to seek God is successful, so other religions are
merely idolatry and there can be no salvation in other religions.
Also, in his book Is Jesus the Only Savior? Ronald H.
Nash criticizes that pluralism, especially John Hick’s view,
is established on the “unstable foundation,”17) arguing that
“the adoption of inclusivism is not theologically harmless·”18)
Also, he contends that there are “a host of reasons to embrace
Christian exclusivism·”19) Again, when dealing with the issue
of those who never hear of Christ, R. C. Sproul argues that
“[t]he problem of the pagan who has never hear the gospel

14) Ibid., 24.

15) Ibid., 24.
16) H. Kraemer, The Christian Message in a Non -Christian World (Grand
Rapids: Kregel, 1963), 124.
17) Ronald H. Nash, Is Jesus the Only Savior? (Grand Rapids： Zondervan,
1994)，100.
18) Ibid., 175.
19) Ibid., 25.
 Hoon Jung, Past, Present, and Future of Evangelical Theology of Religions
as Mission Theology 315

is the problem of our universal fallness. We must emphasize

that God has revealed Himself to all men. All men know there
is a God. Thus, no one can plead ignorance as an excuse for
denying God·”20) That is, according to Sproul, although one
does not hear the gospel, God already gave him or her general
revelation written in Roman 1:18, he or she cannot be saved.
Then, he concludes that “[r]eligion does not redeem people
but may add to guilt·”21)
However, although supporting exclusivism, James I.
Packer is slightly different from Nash’s exclusivism that those
who never heard of Christ cannot be saved. When answering
Sir Norman Anderson’s opinion about the possibility of salvation
of those who have never heard Jesus Christ, Packer agrees
that they can be saved theoretically, even though they have
never heard the gospel·22) This is somehow different from the
idea of an “extreme” exclusivist such as Sproul that there is
no potential of salvation of the unevangelized and pagans.
Harold Netland affirms that Jesus is the only way of
salvation, thus he rejects religious pluralism. With this Netland
reveals his opposition even to his own mentor, the influential

20) R. C. Sproul, Reason to Believe (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1982),

58-59.
21) Ibid., 59.
22) James I. Packer, “Evangelicals and the Way of Salvation： New Challenges
to the Gospel-Universalism, and Justification by Faith,‫ ״‬in Evangelical
Affirmations, edited by Kenneth S Kantzer and Carl F. H Henry (Grand
Rapids: Academie Books, 1990), 123.
316 선교신학 제54집

pluralist John Hick·23) Netland goes so far as to see religious

pluralism as “a form of unbelief” arising from “humankind’s
sinful tendencies·”24) Even Netland believes that religious
pluralists cannot be regenerated Christians, stating that
salvation requires the subjective dimension： faith in God. As
for salvation of the unevangelized, he writes, “[w]e must be
careful not to misunderstand this position, for it is not saying
that one can be saved by being a sincere follower of another
religion or by being sufficiently good·”25)
However, Netland also acknowledges that “we cannot rule
out the possibility” of those being saved who have never heard
the gospel because the unevangelized may respond to general
revelation·26) At the same time, Netland concedes that Millard
Erickson may be correct in saying that “‫־‬there are no unambiguous
instances in Scripture of persons who became true believers
through responding to general revelation alone·”27)

2. Inclusivism

According to Kärkkäinen, inclusivists argue that “while

salvation is ontologically founded on the person of Christ, its

23) Harold A. Netland, Encountering Religious Pluralism, 20.

24) Ibid., 18.
25) Ibid., 321.
26) Ibid., 323.
27 ) Millard J. Erickson, How Shall They Be Saved?: The Destiny of Those
Who Do Not Hear of Jesus (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1996), 158.
 Hoon Jung, Past, Present, and Future of Evangelical Theology of Religions
as Mission Theology 317

benefits have been made universally available by the revelation

of God.”28) The main point of inclusivism is that although it
is true that Jesus Christ is the only way for salvation, it is
not necessary to know Him epistemologically.
For example, after emphasizing God’s boundless generosity
and a large outcome of salvation,29) Clark Pinnock argues,
“[i]f God really loves the world and desires everyone to be
saved, it follows logically that everyone must have access to
salvation ··· God’s universal salvific will implies the equally
universal accessibility of salvation for all people·”30) According
to Pinnock, although people can be saved only through Jesus
Christ, because He died for all including the unevangelized,
they are not excluded from access to salvation. They can receive
equal opportunity to be saved.
In the similar vein, Amos Yong says unequivocally,
“perhaps I am close to the inclusivist position that affirms
the ontological normativity of Christ for salvation without
insisting that persons who have never heard the gospel or
verbally confess Christ have absolutely no hope of this great
salvation·”31) What is noticeable is that Yong bases his

28) Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, 747? Introduction to the Theology of Religion,

25.
29) Clark H. Pinnock, Flame of Love: A Theology of the Holy Spirit (Downers
Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1999)，153.
30) Ibid., 157.
31) Amos Yong, Beyond the Impasse: Toward a Pneumatological Theology
of Religions (Eugene: Wipf & Stock, 2003)，27.
318 선교신학 제54집

inclusivism on his pneumatology that the Holy Spirit is at

work in other religions·32) Specifically, Yong’s inclusivistic view
of other religions is somewhat like fulfillment theory in the
sense that other religions serve “divine purposes in greater
or lesser degrees at each stage of their evolution·”33) That
is, other religions merely occupy lower levels or stages on
the road to Christianity.
When dealing with exclusivism, inclusivism, and pluralism
of Hendrik Kraemer, Karl Rahner, and John Hick, Lesslie
Newbigin acknowledges that Christianity alone has “unique
truth‫ ״‬from God’s revelation, but at the same time, salvation
is open to the non-Christians·34) That is, according to
Newbigin, non-Christians, whether they are pagans or people
who never heard of the truth, can be saved regardless of
knowledge of Jesus Christ. This view is somehow confusing,
but it is obvious that Newbigin supports inclusivism in that
non-Christians can be saved without the obvious knowledge
of the Christ.
Also, Jacques Dupuis thinks that Jesus Christ is unique
but universal·35) So, the one way of salvation by Jesus Christ
is related to “many paths” to salvation. This means that other

32) Ibid., 46.

33) Ibid., 48.
34) Lesslie Newbigin, The Gospel in a Pluralist Society, 182.
35) Jacques Dupuis, Toward a Christian Theology of Religious Pluralism
(Maryknoll： Orbis Books, 1997), 305.
 Hoon Jung, Past, Present, and Future of Evangelical Theology of Religions
as Mission Theology 319

religions have the positive value in relation to the salvation

of Jesus Christ.36) In this sense, although there is a dispute
about whether he is inclusivist or pluralist, he can be considered
inclusivist.37)
While contending a Trinitarian Christology, Gavin D’Costa
says, “we can have every expectation that God’s activity in
history is ongoing and certainly not historically limited to
Christianity·”38) Like Yong, D’Costa bases his inclusivism on
his pneumatology. That is, according to DOosta, although it
is true that God is revealed in Jesus Christ, it is not all of
God. In this point, D’Costa emphasizes the work of the Holy
Spirit who is working in this universe.

3. Pluralism

According to Yong, “pluralists have suggested that

salvation should be understood as available through the various
religions in the same way as the rays of the sun hit all persons
without prejudice·”39)
For example, John Hick believes that although the move

36) Ibid., 305.

37) Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, An Introduction to the Theology of Religion,
205.
38) Gavin D’Costa, “Christ, the Trinity and Religious Plurality,‫ ״‬in Christian
Uniqueness Reconsidered： The Myth of a Pluralistic Theology of
Religions, edited by Gavin D’Costa (Maryknoll： Orbis Books, 1990), 19.
39) Amos Yong, Beyond the Impasse, 24.
320 선교신학 제54집

from exclusivism to inclusivism during the last hundred years

shows great progress in relation to theology of religions, it
is not sufficient·40) Hick argues that an even more radical
change is needed, what he terms a “Copernican revolution‫״‬
in theology of religions. It is religious pluralism which rejects
the centrality of Jesus Christ to focus on the centrality of
God. In this sense, the uniqueness of Jesus Christ as the only
savior is removed. When explaining pluralism Hick uses the
fable of the seven blind men and the elephant·41) This parable
of religion implies that because every religion is an
interpretation of the ultimate reality, the sense and
explanations of it vary among Buddhist, Christians, and
Muslims. Thus in Hick’s religious pluralism all of these are
valid to some extent.
In the same vein, Paul Knitter argues that theocentrism
(or pluralism) “both addresses the inadequacies and preserves
the values of all the other models we have studied·”42) Also,
from a practical point of view Knitter sees theocentrism as
holding “the greatest promise for the future of interreligious
dialogue and for the continued evolution of the meaning of
Jesus Christ for the world·”43)

40) John Hick, The Second Christianity (London： SCM, 1983)，82.

41) John Hick, God and the Universe of Faiths (London： Fount Paperbacks,
1977), 140.
42) Paul F. Knitter, No Other Name?■' A Critical Survey of Christian Attitudes
toward the World Religions (Maryknoll： Orbis Books, 1985), 166.
43) Ibid., 166-67.
 Hoon Jung, Past, Present, and Future of Evangelical Theology of Religions
as Mission Theology 321

As for this issue, more practically, Stanley Samartha argues

that “Brahman” and “God” are two different experience of God
in Hinduism and Christianity·44) So, they are not different
experience in essence. To put it another way, Samartha believes
that all religions are equally valid as various responses to
Mystery, so Jesus is a savior only in Christianity, and there
are other saviors in other religions because there are plural
ways of salvation. By doing so, Samartha removes the
uniqueness of Jesus Christ as the only savior as considered
in Christian exclusivism and inclusivism.

III. The Present of Theology of Religions·

Criticism against Theology of
Religions in the Past

As noted above, theologians of the past have dealt with

theology of religions mainly from the perspective of soteriology
and Christology. However, recently some scholars have begun
to argue that theology of religions needs to be transformed.
Building on this idea, this section will attend to such
contemporary voices.
Kärkkäinen defines theology of religions as the “discipline

44) S. J. Samartha, One Christ, Many Religions: Toward a Revised

Christology (Maryknoll： Orbis Books, 1991)，83-85.
322 선교신학 제54집

of theological studies which attempts to account theologically

for the meaning and value of other religions·”45) Amos Yong
further states that theology of religions serves to help us “to
understand how the phenomenon of human religiousness in
all its complexity related to God.”46) Alan Race says that
theology of religions serves to “give some definition and shape
to Christian reflection on the theological implications of living
in a religiously plural world·”47) All of the various definitions
of theology of religions offered by diverse theologians share
a common theme： it is the view of Christians toward other
religions. This means that as Kärkkäinen rightly points out,
theology of religions covers a broad spectrum with regard to
other religions such as their values, meaning, origin, etc.48)
In this vein, Yong criticizes the theology of religions in
the past·49) To be specific, for Yong neither exclusivism nor
inclusivism should be the centerpiece of theology of religions.
Yong believes that it is not appropriate for theology of religions
to be overly focused on the topic of soteriology and Christology.
True, soteriology is an important aspect of theology of religions；

45) Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, An Introduction to the Theology of Religion,

20.
46) Amos Yong, Beyond the Impasse, 17.
47 ) Alan Race. Christians and Religious Pluralism： Patterns in the Christian
Theology of Religions (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1983). ix.
48) Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, An Introduction to the Theology of Religion,
33.
49) Amos Yong, Beyond the Impasse, 26-27.
 Hoon Jung, Past, Present, and Future of Evangelical Theology of Religions
as Mission Theology 323

however, soteriology, even the salvation of those who never

heard the gospel, should not be the only or even the primary
focus. Yong’s criticism of theology of religions of the past
is valid since he extends the scope of theology of religions
beyond the issue of salvation. It is important to remember
that as stated above, most theologians think that theology
of religions is the discipline to understand the relationship
between Christianity and other religions as a whole. There
are many issues that theology of religions needs to explore
beyond soteriology and Christology.
Among many potential issues within the purview of
theology of religions, the relationship between the Holy Spirit
and other religions will be a critical issue, because as James
R. A. Merrick rightly points out, pneumatology is one of liveliest
issues in the contemporary Christian theology·50) For example,
unlike the former theology of religions, Yong does not start
his theology of religions from the viewpoint of Christology
or soteriolgy, but from pneumatology. That is, he attempts
to broaden theology of religions from the narrow subject of
salvation to include the relationship between the Holy Spirit
and other religions. Specifically, in his projects, Yong tries
to show that the Holy Spirit is at work in other religions by
distinguishing the economy of the Holy Spirit from the economy

50) James R. A. Merrick, “The Spirit of Truth as Agent in False Religions?:

A Critique of Amos Yong’s Pneumatological Theology of Religions with
Reference to Current Trends,‫ ״‬Trinity Journal vol. 29 (2008): 108.
324 선교신학 제54집

of Jesus Christ.51) This new method for researching the

relationships between Christianity and other religions seeks
to investigate the role of the Holy Spirit in those religions.

IV. The Future of Theology of Religions·

Potential Research Problems concerning

The foregoing section touches on the criticism of the

contemporary theologians of religions. On the basis of the
discussion, this section expects the future of theology of
religions, especially in relation to a pneumatological approach
of Yong who is a forerunner of it. However, due to the limits
of time and space and the overall goal, this section only surveys
a couple of subjects and does not delve too deeply into them
at this time.
As stated above, Yong criticizes theology of religions in
the past, which has focused mainly on soteriology and
Christology, proposing a pneumatological approach as a new
methodology. But, although Yong’s criticism of theology of
religions in the past is reasonable and appropriate, there are

51) Amos Yong, Discerning the Spirit(s): A Pentecostal—Charismatic

Contribution to Christian Theology of Religions (Sheffield： Sheffield
Academic Press, 2000), 2359‫־‬. Amos Yong, Beyond the Impasse, Amos
Yong, Pneumatology and the Christian -Buddhist Dialogue： Does the
Spirit Blow through the Middle Way? (Leiden； Boston： Brill, 2012),
1-27.
 Hoon Jung, Past, Present, and Future of Evangelical Theology of Religions
as Mission Theology 325

some points that one can raise a question about his

pneumatological theology of religions. This section anticipates
the future of theology of religions mainly by describing some
potential research problems.

1. The Nature and Origin of Religions

The first potential problem is about the nature and origin

of religions. For example, J. H. Bavinck raised the question
of the origin of other religions in his book Religieus besef
en christelijk geloof. Are other religions a product of human
sin or God’s providence? In relation to this issue, Yong says,
“it is fair to conclude that religion and the religions are presented
as being divinely providential on the one hand and yet
demonically inspired to deceive and turn human beings away
from the truth on the other·”52) Here Yong seems to be saying
that other religions have the nature of both God’s providence
and demonic inspiration at once. Yong believes that the Holy
Spirit infuses general truth into other religions. Merrick says
that Yong’s concept echoes “common grace,”53) but to compare
the concept of Yong’s “divine providence” in other religions
to the concept of “common grace,” one first needs to examine
whether other religions are idolatry, or simply a cultural

52) Amos Yong, Beyond the Impasse, 36.

53) James R. A. Merrick, “The Spirit of Truth as Agent in False Religions?,‫״‬
113.
326 선교신학 제54집

phenomenon such as art, music, economics, politics, sports,

etc. The core issue here is continuity and discontinuity between
the natures of religion and culture. Specifically, if the nature
of religion is regarded as the same as or at least similar to
the nature of culture, one may acknowledge that religions
are part of God’s providence (i.e., a kind of common grace).
As for this issue, when discussing the universalism of the
Holy Spirit Yong says, “If human culture includes the arts
and the religions, what are the purposes of the Spirit in those
domains of human experience? How does the Spirit sustain
these dimensions of human life, and how do these reflect the
presence and activity of the Triune God?”54) That is, Yong
thinks that other religions are included in culture like politics,
economics and so on·55) The Spirit is at work in culture that
includes religions.
On the contrary, if the discontinuity in the nature of religion
and culture is emphasized, one would have to conclude that
the basic nature of religions is not cultural but idolatry, thus
repudiating the idea that religions are involved in God’s
providence. Some of traditional reformed theologians take this
position. For example, when contrasting Christian faith with
religion, Karl Barth argues that the nature of religion is
“idolatry,” “self-righteousness,” and a Unglaube‫ ״‬which is
translated “unbelief” or “unfaith·”56) Barth deals specifically

54) Amos Yong, Beyond the Impasse, 45-46.

55) Ibid.
 Hoon Jung, Past, Present, and Future of Evangelical Theology of Religions
as Mission Theology 327

with Christian faith and religions. Thus God’s revelation results

in the repudiation of other religions. This demonstrates that
Barth sees the nature of religion as a matter of truth or untruth,
rather than culture which is relative. Also, given that “idolatry,”
“self-righteousness,” and “unbelief” are considered sin in the
Bible, it can be said that Barth emphasizes even more that
religions originate from human sin rather than from some
cultural nature that is part of God’s common grace.
Influenced by Kraemer who sees other religions only as
a human rebellion against God, when analyzing other religions,
Paul Visser points out that J. H. Bavinck maintained that
religious feeling originates from self-deification, i.e., human
beings place themselves at the center of everything·56
57)
Accordingly, Bavinck “took on more negative overtones” about
other religions·58) In the same vein, Abraham Kuyper is negative
toward other religions, saying that other religions are “not
as the result of his creation but as the outcome of his Fall·”59)
That is, Kuyper’s concept of religions repudiates a theory of

56) Paul F. Knitter, “Christomonism in Karl Barth’s Evaluation of the

Non-Christian Religions,‫ ״‬Neue Zeitschrift fur Systematische
Theologie und Religionsphilophie 13，no. 1 (1971): 114.
57) Paul J. Visser, Heart for the Gospel, Heart for the World: The Life
and Thought of a Reformed Pioneer Missiologist, Johan Herman
Bavinck, 1895-1964 (Eugene： Wipf & Stock Pub, 2003)，105106‫־‬.
58) Ibid., 113.
59) Abraham Kuyper, “Sphere Sovereignty,‫ ״‬in Abraham Kuyper: A
Centennial Reader, edited by James D. Bratt, 461-90 (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1998), 54-55.
328 선교신학 제54집

fulfillment because he does not think that religions become

the perfect form by Christianity, but they are only
“degeneration·” Kuyper agrees that paganism originates from
human sinfulness as the result of the Fall.

2. The Origin and Cause of Similarities between

Christianity and Other Religions

The second problem is about the origin or cause of

similarities between Christianity and other religions. Some
people can question whether the similarities of Christianity
to other religions can be attributed to the universalism of the
Holy Spirit or to general revelation. To this question, Yong
says, “God’s presence and activity in creation speak to the
universalism of the Holy Spirit.”60) The Bible says that the
Holy Spirit created the universe together with God the Father
and God the Son (Gen. 1:2; Ps. 104:2930‫ ；־‬Ps. 33:6). Yong
links this participation of the Holy Spirit in creation to a
universality of the Holy Spirit·61) This is reminiscent of the
ideas of theologians such as Jürgen Moltmann, Michael Welker,
and Clark Pinnock·62) Also, it is similar to Abraham Kuyper’s

60) Amos Yong, Beyond the Impasse, 36.

61) Ibid., 37.
62) Jürgen Moltmann, God in Creation (Minneapolis： Fortress Press, 1993),
98-103. Michael Welker, God the Spirit, translated by John F. Hoffmeyer
(Eugene: Wipf & Stock, 2013), 279342‫־‬. Clark H. Pinnock, Flame of
Love, 185-214.
 Hoon Jung, Past, Present, and Future of Evangelical Theology of Religions
as Mission Theology 329

concept of sphere sovereignty in the sense that God is the

Lord of everything. Kuyper says, “there is not a square inch
in the whole domain of our human existence over which Christ,
who is sovereign over all, does not cry： Mine!”63) Kuyper believes
that Jesus Christ should be the Lord not only inside church
and mission, but also outside church like art, education,
scholarship, business, politics, and economics. In this sense,
the universalism of the Holy Spirit of some Pentecostal
theologians and sphere sovereignty of Neo-Calvinism are
somewhat similar. This universality of the Holy Spirit is then
linked to the presence and activity of the Holy Spirit in other
religions·64) For Yong, there is no logical reason to reject the
idea of the presence and activity of the Holy Spirit in other
religions. Therefore, the universality of the Holy Spirit accounts
for the similarities between Christianity and other religions.
However, some people think that the similarities between
Christianity and other religions are attributed not to the
presence and activity of the Holy Spirit in other religions,
but rather to the concept of general revelation and sensus
divinitatis. For example, while laying out the position of
Reformed theology concerning other religions and general
revelation, John Bolt states two critical concepts with regard
to Reformed theology of religions·65) First, God is already

63) Abraham Kuyper, “Sphere Sovereignty,488 ‫״‬.

64) Amos Yong, Beyond the Impasse, 44-45. Amos Yong, The Missiological
Spirit, 57.
330 선교신학 제54집

present to all people, which appears to be identical to the

universality of the Holy Spirit. Indeed, they are similar in
the sense that God is universal in the world. However, Bolt
says that the “presence of God” means general revelation, not
the presence and activity of the Holy Spirit. In this sense,
Bolt’s phrase, “God is present to all people” is different from
Yong’s concept of God’s presence through the universality of
the Holy Spirit.
Second, Bolt believes that other religions should be seen
as the human response to general revelation. According to
Bolt, human beings as “God’s image bearers” can respond to
the general revelation because they have sensus divinitatis
in their own minds. For example, the ancient eastern religions,
traditions, and practices included some knowledge of God
because other religions are responses to general revelation.
This is why the Israelites have some traditions and practices
in common with the other peoples of the ancient east.
This idea is specifically based on Romans 1:1920‫ ־‬and
2:14-15 that are considered as verses supporting general
revelation. Theologians above believe that these verses
demonstrate that God’s general revelation is not revealed
through the universality of the Holy Spirit, but from the
beginning, “God’s invisible qualities” are included in the
creation. General revelation is God’s “workmanship” revealed

65) John Bolt, “Bavinck’s Reformed Dogmatics: A ‘Missional’ Theology?,‫״‬

Calvin Theological Seminary Forum vol. 23, no. 1 (Spring 2016): 10-11·
 Hoon Jung, Past, Present, and Future of Evangelical Theology of Religions
as Mission Theology 331

to the world and in human beings. In this sense, there is a

significant difference between the general revelation described
in the Bible and the work of the Holy Spirit in this universe
as conceived by theologians such as Moltmann, Yong, and
Pinnock. In sum, some theologians believe that the continuity
of Christianity with other religions originates from the
universal presence and work of the Holy Spirit, while others
believe that it must be attributed only to general revelation.

3. A Problem of the Work of the Holy Spirit in False

Religions

The third potential question is about the problem of the

work of the Holy Spirit in other religions. As stated above,
some people believe that other religions are only idolatry, that
is, false religions. Yong also acknowledges that other religions
are idolatrous·66) So, they may ask how the Holy Spirit, the
Spirit of truth, can work in false religions. For instance, as
stated above, when emphasizing the feature of religions as
culture, Yong contends that “[t]he religions of the world, like
everything else that exists, are providentially sustained by
the Spirit of God for divine purposes·”67) To put it another
way, “all human endeavors” in other religions are not strictly
demonic, but may also reflect “either God’s permissive or active

66) Amos Yong, Beyond the Impasse, 36.

67) Ibid., 46.
332 선교신학 제54집

will·”68) For Yong, other religions are more or less useful for
reaching God because the Holy Spirit is working in the religions.

4. A Problem of Economy of God the Son and God

the Spirit

Merrick criticizes Yong’s position, saying that the

separation of pneumatology and Christology is neither “biblical
pneumatology‫ ״‬nor “traditional Trinitarian convictions·”69)
Approaching the subject from a traditional Trinitarian
perspective, Merrick objects to Yong’s concept about the
distinctiveness of the economy of the Holy Spirit and Jesus
Christ. However, when defending Yong against Merrick’s
charge, Tony Richie argues that Yong does not “divorce or
put distance between Christology and pneumatology·”70)
Richie’s criticism about Merrick is acceptable because Yong
does not argue that the economy of the Spirit is separated
from that of Jesus Christ, but that the economy of the Spirit
is “related but distinctive” from that of Jesus Christ. It does

68) Ibid.
69) James R. A. Merrick, “The Spirit of Truth as Agent in False Religions?,‫״‬
116.
70) Tony Lee Richie, “The Spirit of Truth as Guide into All Truth： A Response
to R. A. James Merrick, ‘The Spirit of Truth as Agent in False Religions?
A Critique of Amos Yong’s Pneumatological Theology of Religions with
Reference to Current Trends,'‫ ״‬Cyberjournal for Pentecostal-Charismat
ic Research vol. 19 (2010). http://www.pctii.org.fuller.idm.oclc.org/cy
berj'/cyberjl9/richie.html (Accessed March 20, 2019).
 Hoon Jung, Past, Present, and Future of Evangelical Theology of Religions
as Mission Theology 333

not complete separation. But, although Yong does not separate

the Holy Spirit and Jesus Christ, it is true that Yong’s idea
with regard to the economy of the Holy Spirit and Jesus Christ
raises some questions that require deeper research.
All in all, although Yong’s pneumatological theology of
religions raises questions and objections, his argument is
worthy of consideration in that, as he points out, his
methodology is an attempt to construct a more Trinitarian
theology of religions by examining the role of the Holy Spirit
in theology of religions.

V. Conclusion

As the world and Christian mission change, the importance

of the missiological studies about Christianity and other religions
are increasing. Specifically, as the foundation of other studies
concerning world religions, theology of religions is significant.
However, theology of religions in the past has been focused
overly on the issues of soteriology and Christology, especially
salvation of pagans and those who never heard of Christ. But,
as some theologians argue, although being critical issues,
soteriology and Christology are neither all that theology of
religions should deal with, nor the center of theology of religions.
In theology of religions, there are still many topics that need
deep exploration and investigation. As dealt with, there are
334 선교신학 제54집

many potential research problems in relation to the Holy Spirit

and other religions. Because these topics are related to topics
of pneumatology and Pentecostalism that contemporary
missiologists pay attention to, exploring them will have a unique
contribution to missiology in the global context. Specifically,
these discussions reveal that Yong’s pneumatological theology
of religions is provocative, gives new insight, and makes a unique
contribution to theology of religions. At the same time, it is
true that Yong’s pneumatological theology of religions needs
further examination. This is the task of the contemporary
theology of religions.

Key Word
Theology of Religions, Mission Theology, Pneumatology,
Amos Yong, Exclusivism, Inclusivism, Pluralism
종교 신학, 선교 신학, 성령론, 아모스 용, 배타주의, 포괄주의, 다원주의
 Hoon Jung, Past, Present, and Future of Evangelical Theology of Religions
as Mission Theology 335

선교 신학으로서의 복음주의 종교신학의

과거와 현재，그리고 미래

정 문 （Fuller Theological Seminary 박사과정，선교학）

세계화와 산업화가 이 세상을 축소시킴에 따라 기독교를 포함한 종교의

지형도 역시 변하고 있다. 이 변화는 현대인들이 이제 일상생활 속에서
타종교인들을 이전보다 훨씬 더 빈번하게 만날 수 있게 만들었다. 그래서
이제 종교에 관한 연구는 단순히 목회자나 선교사와 같은 기독교 전문가만의
영역이 아닌，교회에 출석하는 일반 교인들에게도 중요한 영역이 되었다.
종교에 대한 연구의 기초 연구로서 복음주의 종교 신학은 지금까지 주로
구원론적 혹은 기독론적 관점에서 논의 되어 왔다. 그러나 일단의 현대
기독교 종교 신학자들은 이렇게 종교 신학의 과제를 구원론과 기독론에만
국한시키는 것은 종교 신학을 너무 편협한 학문 영역으로 환원시키는
것이라고 생각하게 되었고，그들은 종교 신학 연구의 범위를 넓히기 위한
시도를 하게 되었는데，특별히 성령론적 접근법이 새로운 방법론으로 등장
하게 되었다. 지금까지의 연구를 보았을 때，성령론적 종교 신학은 창의적이
고 연구의 가치가 있음은 확실하다. 하지만，이 방법론은 여전히 더 깊은
많은 연구를 필요로 한다. 이것은 미래의 복음주의 종교 신학의 과제다.
336 선교신학 제54집

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