Theory of the Tensile Strength experiment:

Tensile testing is one of the simplest and most widely used mechanical tests. By measuring the
force required to elongate a specimen to breaking point, material properties can be determined that will
allow designers and quality managers to predict how materials and products will behave in their intended
applications.

Uniaxial tensile test is known as a basic and universal engineering test to achieve material
parameters such as ultimate strength, yield strength, % elongation, % area of reduction and Young's
modulus. These important parameters obtained from the standard tensile testing are useful for the selection
of engineering materials for any applications required.
The tensile testing is carried out by applying longitudinal or axial load at a specific extension rate to a
standard tensile specimen with known dimensions (gauge length and cross-sectional area perpendicular to
the load direction) till failure. The applied tensile load and extension are recorded during the test for the
calculation of stress and strain. A range of universal standards provided by Professional societies such as
American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM), British standard, JIS standard and DIN standard
provides testing are selected based on preferential uses. Each standard may contain a variety of test
standards suitable for different materials, dimensions and fabrication history. For instance, ASTM E8: is a
standard test method for tension testing of metallic materials and ASTM B557 is standard test methods of
tension testing wrought and cast aluminum and magnesium alloy products.

A standard specimen is prepared in a round or a square section along the gauge length, depending
on the standard used. Both ends of the specimens should have sufficient length and a surface condition
such that they are firmly gripped during testing. The initial gauge length Lo is standardized (in several
countries) and varies with the diameter (Do) or the cross-sectional area (Ao) of the specimen. This is
because if the gauge length is too long, the % elongation might be underestimated in this case. Any heat
treatments should be applied on to the specimen prior to machining to produce the final specimen readily
for testing. This has been done to prevent surface oxide scales that might act as stress concentration which
might subsequently affect the final tensile properties due to premature failure. There might be some
exceptions, for examples, surface hardening or surface coating on the materials. These processes should
be employed after specimen machining in order to obtain the tensile properties results which include the
actual specimen surface conditions.
For safe design of structural
components in bridges, railway lines,
marines ships, aircrafts, pressure
vessels
etc, the tensile properties of materials
used should be analyzed. Hence the
tensile strength of the materials should
meet the strength requirements of the
structural applications. The
mechanical properties of the metals
determine the
kind of engineering application to be
used for. Experiments on tensile tests
can be used to predict the tensile
properties and they are conducted by
application of axial or longitudinal
forces to a specimen with known
dimensions. [ CITATION Dav04 \l
1033 ]. These forces are applied on the
specimen until deformation causes
failure. The tensile load and
corresponding extensions are then
recorded for calculations and
determination of stress-
strain relationship of the material
specimen. The tensile test experiment
can be used to determine other
mechanical
characteristics of the specimen like
yield strength, percentage elongation,
and ultimate strength among others.
For safe design of structural
components in bridges, railway lines,
marines ships, aircrafts, pressure
vessels
etc, the tensile properties of materials
used should be analyzed. Hence the
tensile strength of the materials should
meet the strength requirements of the
structural applications. The
mechanical properties of the metals
determine the
kind of engineering application to be
used for. Experiments on tensile tests
can be used to predict the tensile
properties and they are conducted by
application of axial or longitudinal
forces to a specimen with known
dimensions. [ CITATION Dav04 \l
1033 ]. These forces are applied on the
specimen until deformation causes
failure. The tensile load and
corresponding extensions are then
recorded for calculations and
determination of stress-
strain relationship of the material
specimen. The tensile test experiment
can be used to determine other
mechanical
characteristics of the specimen like
yield strength, percentage elongation,
and ultimate strength among others.
PART I
Input data:
Results:
Ultimate Stress
The ultimate stress (also called the ultimate strength) of the material is the largest stress on the stress-
strain curve. From the test data given, the ultimate stress for this material is 3,822.154 MPa.

Proportional Limit
The stress-strain curve for most materials has an initial region in which the material stress is linearly related
to the material strain. The proportional limit marks the uppermost stress on this linear portion of the stress-
strain curve. The proportional limit is a stress. For stresses above the proportional limit, the stress-strain
relationship is non-linear. The proportional limit is determined by inspection of the stress-strain curve.
Using data point 15, the proportional limit for this material is 2,730.110 MPa.

Elastic Modulus (based on proportional limit)

The elastic modulus is defined as the slope of the stress-strain curve in the linear region between the origin
and the proportional limit. Note that the elastic modulus has stress units. The slope of the line connecting
the origin with data point 15 is 238,264.136 MPa, and this value could be used as the material's elastic
modulus. However, test data always contain some amount of experimental error, and using only one data
point is not the best method to compute the elastic modulus since the effect of experimental error is not
addressed. A better approach is to fit a line through the data points between the origin and the proportional
limit and to then determine the slope of this best-fit line. This can be accomplished by using a linear
regression analysis for the data up to and including the proportional limit.

Elastic Modulus (based on linear regression)

Using data points 1 through 15 and forcing the line to pass through the origin, the best-fit line has a slope of
213,232.452 MPa. This value is the elastic modulus for the material.

Validity of best-fit line

The validity of this best-fit line is indicated by the regression coefficient R. A perfect fit of the line to the
data points is indicated by a regression coefficient of R = 1.0, but normally, the regression coefficient will be
something less than 1. In reducing the stress-strain data, the analyst wants to find the line that has the
largest value of R. The regression coefficient for the best-fit line through data points 1 - 15 is R = 0.9529.
This value of R indicates that the data are reasonably well described by the line.

Yield Stress
If the transition from a straight line to a curve on the stress-strain diagram is gradual, it may be difficult to
specify a precise value for the proportional limit. Furthermore, it may be overly conservative to use the
material's proportional limit as a practical elastic limit for design purposes. For these reasons, a yield stress
(also called yield strength) can be established for use in design. The yield stress marks the point at which
a significant increase in strain occurs without a significant increase in stress. The yield stress is often
determined from stress-strain data by means of an offset method. These offset methods define the yield
stress (or strength) according to the amount of permanent set that results in the material due to the applied
stress.

0.20 Percent Offset Method

To find the yield stress by the 0.20% offset method, construct a line having the same slope as the linear
portion of the stress-strain curve (i.e., slope equal to the elastic modulus of 213,232.452 MPa) that passes
through the horizontal axis at a strain of 0.20%. (Note that 0.20% strain is another way of writing a strain of
0.002 mm/mm.) The point where this line intersects the stress-strain data curve defines the yield stress.
For these data, the yield stress defined by the 0.20% offset method is 333.689 MPa.

0.05 Percent Offset Method

To find the yield stress by the 0.05% offset method, construct a line having the same slope as the linear
portion of the stress-strain curve (i.e., slope equal to the elastic modulus of 213,232.452 MPa) that passes
through the horizontal axis at a strain of 0.05%. (Note that 0.05% strain is another way of writing a strain of
0.0005 mm/mm.) The point where this line intersects the stress-strain data curve defines the yield stress.
For these data, the yield stress defined by the 0.05% offset method is 83.422 MPa.

Percent Elongation
Percent elongation is a measure of the material's ductility. It is defined as the strain of the material at
failure, expressed as a percentage. Assuming data point 30 corresponds to fracture, the percent
elongation for this material is 17.1875 percent.

Summary

Ultimate Stress 3,822.154 MPa

Proportional Limit 2,730.110 MPa
Elastic Modulus 213,232.452 MPa
0.20% Yield Stress 333.689 MPa
0.05% Yield Stress 83.422 MPa
Percent Elongation 17.1875 percent

PART II
Input Data:

Results:
Ultimate Stress
The ultimate stress (also called the ultimate strength) of the material is the largest stress on the stress-
strain curve. From the test data given, the ultimate stress for this material is 3,453.334 MPa.

Proportional Limit
The stress-strain curve for most materials has an initial region in which the material stress is linearly related
to the material strain. The proportional limit marks the uppermost stress on this linear portion of the stress-
strain curve. The proportional limit is a stress. For stresses above the proportional limit, the stress-strain
relationship is non-linear. The proportional limit is determined by inspection of the stress-strain curve.
Using data point 7, the proportional limit for this material is 2,170.001 MPa.
Elastic Modulus (based on proportional limit)
The elastic modulus is defined as the slope of the stress-strain curve in the linear region between the origin
and the proportional limit. Note that the elastic modulus has stress units. The slope of the line connecting
the origin with data point 7 is 904,166.895 MPa, and this value could be used as the material's elastic
modulus. However, test data always contain some amount of experimental error, and using only one data
point is not the best method to compute the elastic modulus since the effect of experimental error is not
addressed. A better approach is to fit a line through the data points between the origin and the proportional
limit and to then determine the slope of this best-fit line. This can be accomplished by using a linear
regression analysis for the data up to and including the proportional limit.

Elastic Modulus (based on linear regression)

Using data points 1 through 7 and forcing the line to pass through the origin, the best-fit line has a slope of
1.033E+06 MPa. This value is the elastic modulus for the material.

Validity of best-fit line

The validity of this best-fit line is indicated by the regression coefficient R. A perfect fit of the line to the
data points is indicated by a regression coefficient of R = 1.0, but normally, the regression coefficient will be
something less than 1. In reducing the stress-strain data, the analyst wants to find the line that has the
largest value of R. The regression coefficient for the best-fit line through data points 1 - 7 is R = 0.9773.
This value of R indicates that the data are reasonably well described by the line.

Yield Stress
If the transition from a straight line to a curve on the stress-strain diagram is gradual, it may be difficult to
specify a precise value for the proportional limit. Furthermore, it may be overly conservative to use the
material's proportional limit as a practical elastic limit for design purposes. For these reasons, a yield stress
(also called yield strength) can be established for use in design. The yield stress marks the point at which
a significant increase in strain occurs without a significant increase in stress. The yield stress is often
determined from stress-strain data by means of an offset method. These offset methods define the yield
stress (or strength) according to the amount of permanent set that results in the material due to the applied
stress.

0.20 Percent Offset Method

To find the yield stress by the 0.20% offset method, construct a line having the same slope as the linear
portion of the stress-strain curve (i.e., slope equal to the elastic modulus of 1.033E+06 MPa) that passes
through the horizontal axis at a strain of 0.20%. (Note that 0.20% strain is another way of writing a strain of
0.002 mm/mm.) The point where this line intersects the stress-strain data curve defines the yield stress.
For these data, the yield stress defined by the 0.20% offset method is 2,171.342 MPa.

0.05 Percent Offset Method

To find the yield stress by the 0.05% offset method, construct a line having the same slope as the linear
portion of the stress-strain curve (i.e., slope equal to the elastic modulus of 1.033E+06 MPa) that passes
through the horizontal axis at a strain of 0.05%. (Note that 0.05% strain is another way of writing a strain of
0.0005 mm/mm.) The point where this line intersects the stress-strain data curve defines the yield stress.
For these data, the yield stress defined by the 0.05% offset method is 2,170.159 MPa.

Percent Elongation
Percent elongation is a measure of the material's ductility. It is defined as the strain of the material at
failure, expressed as a percentage. Assuming data point 25 corresponds to fracture, the percent
elongation for this material is 16.4800 percent.

Summary

Ultimate Stress 3,453.334 MPa

Proportional Limit 2,170.001 MPa
Elastic Modulus 1.033E+06 MPa
0.20% Yield Stress 2,171.342 MPa
0.05% Yield Stress 2,170.159 MPa
Percent Elongation 16.4800 percent
 SIMULATION REPORT

Based on my observation, stress-strain diagrams allow us to plot the results from the tensile test and
graphically identify important mechanical properties. Stress is force per unit area that results from an
applied load, it could be in tension, compression, shear, torsion etc. While Strain is the physical
deformation response to material to stress, example is elongation of material.

When the specimen is placed in a tension testing machine, the force is increased and the strain is
proportionally increased. If we were to release the specimen in this linear region which is from point O to A
shown at the diagram, the specimen would return to its original form, so no deformation has taken place. If
we think about the specimen to a micro-level, the bonds are stretching. This is considered the elastic region
of the stress-strain diagram.

Figure 1: Stress-Strain diagram

In tensile test, stress is calculated as load applied to the material divided by the cross-sectional area of
the material. Strain is the deformation of a material due to applied load and is calculated as change in
length divided by the original length.

In stress-strain curve that is shown above, stress is located along the y-axis and strain is located along
the x-axis. As we applied the load in the material, it begun to deforms and the stress continues to raise
linearly upwards towards point A as shown in the graph. As shown, in the graph stress and strain has a
linear relationship between point O to A and stress is directly proportional to the strain within the region.

As the material continues to deforms, after point A, stress is not in linear relationship to strain. The
slope of the line in the elastic region is the Modulus of Elasticity, also known as the material stiffness. it can
be calculated as Stress divided by the strain within proportional limits. Higher slope means stiffer and
stronger material. As we increased the load being applied to the test specimen, we will reach a point where
there is no longer a linear behavior and that’s where the Proportional limit enters. With a little more applied
loading past our proportional limit, we will have a noticeable permanent deformation that take place in our
test specimen.

At point B and C, there is an increase in strain without much increase in stress. This is because of the
plastic deformation and this phenomenon is called Yielding. At Point B, is called the Yield Point, the point
where the yielding begins and the corresponding stress value is called Yield stress is Yield strength of the
material. When the material is strained within the Yield point, it is called Yield Strain and the material
experiences a change in its structure, it becomes stronger and difficult to deform. In yield stress, it starts
with 0.2 % that means that if we stop our tensile test, we found out that the strain is 0.002 and it is parallel
to elastic curve. In perspective of a microscopic level, it has dislocation and deformation that occurred and
we are now at plastic region.

As the increase in strength is required, at point C to D and the corresponding stress at point D is
called Ultimate tensile strength or Ultimate stress. Beyond point D, the material is then stretched and it
leads to the decreases in the cross-sectional area of the material. With continuous force that is applied to
the specimen, the specimen will eventually decrease the thickness or diameter of the test specimen. This is
the maximum possible stress that the specimen can take in tension and additional more force eventually
leads to failure of the specimen.
Material Properties of the Specimen

In the Tensile Strength experiment, the specimen that was used is steel. The properties of steel
that plays a vital role when it comes to designing. Designers considered when specifying steel construction
products are: Strength, Toughness, Ductility, Weldability, and Durability.

Mechanical Properties of Steel

Toughness

It is in the nature of all materials to contain some imperfections. In steel these imperfections take the form
of very small cracks. If the steel is insufficiently tough, the 'crack' can propagate rapidly, without plastic
deformation and result in a 'brittle fracture'. The risk of brittle fracture increases with thickness, tensile
stress, stress raisers and at colder temperatures. The toughness of steel and its ability to resist brittle
fracture are dependent on a number of factors that should be considered at the specification stage. 

Ductility

Ductility is a measure of the degree to which a material can strain or elongate between the onset of yield
and eventual fracture under tensile loading as demonstrated in the figure below. The designer relies on
ductility for a number of aspects of design, including redistribution of stress at the ultimate limit state, bolt
group design, reduced risk of fatigue crack propagation and in the fabrication processes of welding,
bending and straightening. The various standards for the grades of steel in the above table insist on a
minimum value for ductility so the design assumptions are valid and if these are specified correctly the
designer can be assured of their adequate performance.

Weldability

All structural steels are essentially weldable. However, welding involves locally melting the steel, which
subsequently cools. The cooling can be quite fast because the surrounding material, e.g. the beam, offers a
large 'heat sink' and the weld (and the heat introduced) is usually relatively small. This can lead to
hardening of the 'heat affected zone' (HAZ) and to reduced toughness. The greater the thickness of
material, the greater the reduction of toughness.
Durability

A further important property is that of corrosion prevention. Although special corrosion resistant steels are
available these are not normally used in building construction. The exception to this is weathering steel .

The most common means of providing corrosion protection to construction steel is

by painting or galvanizing. The type and degree of coating protection required depends on the degree of
exposure, location, design life, etc. In many cases, under internal dry situations no corrosion protection
coatings are required other than appropriate fire protection. Detailed information on the corrosion protection
of structural steel is available.
Reference/s:

Steel material properties. (2021). www.Steelconstruction.Info.

https://www.steelconstruction.info/Steel_material_properties

Fan, H. R. C. S. C. (2019). Tensile Test Lab Report - CCB 231. StuDocu.

https://www.studocu.com/row/document/university-of-botswana/material-science-for-

engineers/other/tensile-test-lab-report/5698826/view

A. (2019, June 10). Understanding the Mechanical Properties of Steel . Titus Steel.

https://titussteel.com/the-language-of-strength-understanding-the-mechanical-properties-of-steel/#:

%7E:text=Steel%20has%20a%20number%20of,%2C%20plasticity%2C%20malleability%20and

%20creep.

Mecmesin Ltd. (2021, March 26). What is Tensile Testing? The Theory and Applications.

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%20testing%20is%20one%20of,behave%20in%20their%20intended%20applications.

Image reference for Stress-Strain diagram:

True Stress - True Strain Curve: Part One : Total Materia Article. (2010b, August). Total Materia.

https://www.totalmateria.com/page.aspx?ID=CheckArticle&site=kts&NM=280