Daf Ditty Yoma 34: Quenching and Tempering

1
2
3
§ The mishna continues: If the High Priest was old or delicate, they would heat hot water for
him on Yom Kippur eve and place it into the cold water of the ritual bath in order to temper its
chill. It was taught in a baraita that Rabbi Yehuda said: They would heat blocks of iron on
Yom Kippur eve and cast them into the cold water of the ritual bath to temper its chill.

The Gemara asks: But by doing so, doesn’t he harden the iron, which is a labor prohibited on
Yom Kippur? Rav Beivai said: The temperature of the blocks of iron did not reach the hardening
point.

Abaye said: Even if you say that the temperature of the iron reached the hardening point, the
fact that the iron hardened when he placed it in the water is an unintentional act, which is
permitted. His intention was to temper the chill of the water, not to harden the iron.

And did Abaye actually say that an unintentional act is permitted? But wasn’t it taught in a
baraita that it is written:

‫ ְבַּשׂר‬,‫ ִימּוֹל‬,‫ ַהְשִּׁמי ִני‬,‫ג וַּביּוֹם‬ 3 And in the eighth day the flesh of his foreskin shall be
.‫ָﬠ ְרָלתוֹ‬ circumcised.
Lev 12:3

“And on the eighth day the flesh of his foreskin shall be circumcised” from which it is derived
that one may cut the foreskin and circumcise the baby even if there is a white spot of leprosy
there?

He may do so even though the Torah prohibits excising a white spot of leprosy. This is the
statement of Rabbi Yoshiya. And we discussed this matter: Why do I need a verse to permit it?
His intention is not to excise the leprosy but to fulfill the mitzva of circumcision.

And Abaye said: The statement of Rabbi Yoshiya is in accordance with the opinion of Rabbi
Yehuda, who said that performing an unintentional act is prohibited.

Therefore, a special verse is necessary to permit circumcision in that case. Apparently, Abaye
holds that Rabbi Yehuda prohibits even unintentional acts.

Why, then, does he explain that Rabbi Yehuda permits placing blocks of iron into the water if his
intention is not to harden the iron?

4
The Gemara answers: When Abaye said that Rabbi Yehuda prohibits unintentional acts, that
applies only to actions prohibited by Torah law that appear in the whole Torah in its entirety.
However, here, hardening the blocks of iron is not a labor prohibited by Torah law but is
prohibited by rabbinic law, as a decree intended to enhance the character of Shabbat as a day of
rest. Rabbi Yehuda concedes that unintentional performance of prohibitions by rabbinic law is
permitted.

Steinzaltz

5
RAMBAM: Avodat Yom haKippurim - Chapter 2:2

4
If the High Priest was elderly or sick, iron slabs should be made white-hot in fire from the previous
day, and on the next day they would be cast into the water to remove their chill.

This is permitted because prohibitions defined as shvut need not be observed in the Temple.
Alternatively, hot water is mixed with the mikveh water to remove its chill.

6
Summary

Warming the water for the Kohen Gadol

A Baraisa explains how they heated water for the Kohen Gadol on Yom Kippur.

The Gemara questions the permissibility of throwing a piece of heated iron into cold water.

Rav Avrohom Adler writes:1

The Mishna stated: If the Kohen Gadol was either old or of delicate nature, warm water would be
prepared for him and poured into the cold (water of the mikvah), to mitigate its coldness.

The Gemora cites a braisa: They would heat iron bars on Erev Yom Kippur, and they would place
it into the cold (water of the mikvah), to mitigate its coldness. The Gemora asks: But (by placing
the hot iron into the water) was one not thereby hardening them (which is forbidden to do on
Shabbos or Yom Kippur, for by strengthening the utensil, he is in essence fixing it)?

Rav Bibi said: The iron did not reach the hardening point (the degree of heat necessary to
strengthen it). Abaye said: Even if we assume it did reach the hardening point, a forbidden act
which was produced unintentionally, is permitted.

The Gemora asks: But did Abaye say that? Has it not been taught in a braisa: From the extra word
flesh in the verse that states: on the eighth day the flesh of his foreskin shall be removed, we learn
that one can remove tzaraas from the circumcision area; these are the words of Rabbi Yoshiyah.
And the Gemora asked: What is the necessity for the verse? Removal of the tzaraas is an
unintentional act, and that is normally permitted?

And Abaye answered: Nonetheless, we need the verse to teach us that even according to Rabbi
Yehudah, who forbids one to perform an unintentional act on Shabbos, one is permitted to remove
the tzaraas while in the process of circumcision.

The Gemora answers: That applies only to forbidden Things on a Biblical level, but here,
hardening is forbidden only by Rabbinic ordination.

WHERE DOES THE KOHEN GADOL WASH HIS HANDS AND FEET?

Rav Mordechai Kornfeld writes:2

1
http://dafnotes.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Yoma_34.pdf
2
https://www.dafyomi.co.il/yoma/insites/yo-dt-034.htm

7
The Mishnah describes the procedure of the Kohen Gadol's changing of the garments. First, he is
brought to the Beis ha'Parvah, a sanctified area. Second, a linen sheet is raised between him and
the people. Third, he washes his hands and feet (Kidush Yadayim v'Raglayim). Fourth, he removes
his garments.

Kidush Yadayim v'Raglayim (the third step in the procedure) is normally done in the Azarah next
to the Kiyor. Why, then, is the Kohen Gadol first brought to the Beis ha'Parvah? He should do
Kidush Yadayim v'Raglayim in the Azarah first, and then be brought to the Beis ha'Parvah.

The Mishnah later (43b) answers this question. The Mishnah says that although during the rest of
the year the Kidush Yadayim v'Raglayim is done at the Kiyor (not near the Beis ha'Parvah), on
Yom Kippur the Kohen Gadol does the Kidush Yadayim v'Raglayim "from the Kiton Shel Zahav,"
a golden vessel which is filled with water from the Kiyor and brought to the Beis ha'Parvah.

However, when the Mishnah earlier discusses the Kohen Gadol's first Tevilah, RASHI (31b, DH
v'Kidesh) says that the Kohen Gadol washes his hands and feet "from the Kiyor." Why does Rashi
say that, if the Mishnah later (43b) says that he washes from the "Kiton Shel Zahav"?
(The TOSFOS YOM TOV points out that the ROSH here writes explicitly that the Kohen
washes "from the Kiton.")

(a) Apparently, Rashi does not mean that the Kohen Gadol washes his hands and feet directly
from the Kiyor, but rather that he washes from the water of the Kiyor. Rashi is teaching
that the "Kiton Shel Zahav" is filled with water "from the Kiyor" and not with other water
that is not sanctified.

(b) The RASHASH suggests that perhaps there is a difference between the Kidush Yadayim
v'Raglayim done at the time of the first Tevilah and that which is done at the time of the other
Tevilos. Indeed, there is an explicit opinion in the Yerushalmi (4:5) that the Kidush done after the
first Tevilah is done with water from the Kiyor and not with water from the Kiton.

Hardening metal on Yom Kippur

Steinzaltz (OBM) writes:3

The Mishna (31b) describes the tevilah (ritual bath immersion) that is done by the kohen
gadol on Yom Kippur, and closes with the comment that if the kohen gadol was elderly or
particularly sensitive, they would add heated water to the water in the mikveh so that he could
immerse himself more comfortably.

It was taught in a baraita that Rabbi Yehuda said: They would heat blocks of iron on Yom
Kippur eve and cast them into the cold water of the ritual bath to temper its
chill. The Gemara asks: But by doing so, doesn’t he harden the iron, which is a labor prohibited

3
https://steinsaltz.org/daf/yoma34/

8
on Yom Kippur? Rav Beivai said: The temperature of the blocks of iron did not
reach the hardening point. Abaye said: Even if you say that the temperature of the
iron reached the hardening point, the fact that the iron hardened when he placed it in the water
is an unintentional act [davar she-ein mitkaven], which is permitted. His intention was to temper
the chill of the water, not to harden the iron.

The concept of davar she-ein mitkaven – in which a forbidden act takes place, but the intent of the
activity was for a different, and permissible, outcome – is discussed with regard to
several halakhot. Specifically with regard to the halakhot of Shabbat there is a concept
of melekhet mahashevet asrah Torah – that the Torah only forbade activities on Shabbat where
there is intent for the final, forbidden outcome. It should be noted that, even with regard to the case
of Shabbat, in a situation where a given activity will, without question, lead to a forbidden outcome
taking place, we do not say that it is davar she-ein mitkaven, which would be permitted, but a pesik
reisha, which would be forbidden.

Thus, in our case, Abaye’s explanation that we are dealing with a davar she-ein mitkaven will only
solve the Gemara’s problem if it is coupled with other reasons to permit it. In our case – as Abaye
points out – tzoref (hardening metal) is only a Rabbinic decree. Since we have a principle that ein
shevut ba-mikdash – that Rabbinic decrees do not apply in the Temple – it would be permitted.

Rabbi Johnny Solomon writes:4

‘if the Kohen Gadol was old or was physically sensitive, they heated water for him and poured the
hot water into the cold mikveh water so that it would lose some of its chill’, while our daf (Yoma
34b) quotes a Beraita which suggests that the water was heated in a different manner: ‘Rabbi
Yehuda said: “They would heat iron bars on Erev Yom Kippur and cast them into the cold water
[on Yom Kippur] so that it would lose some of its chill.”’

Reflecting on this process, the Gemara then raises a halachic query, because by casting hot iron
bars into cold water on Yom Kippur, the iron is strengthened and hardened which falls under the
melacha of ‘makeh b’patish’ (literally, ‘striking the final blow’ but effectively any action that
improves or completes an article). Given this, how could such an action be sanctioned?

To this, Rav Bibi answered that since the iron was not so hot, it was not strengthened and hardened,
while Abaye disagrees and answers that in this instance, the consequence of the strengthening and
the hardening of the iron was unintentional (‘davar sh’eino mitkaven’) and that the level of ‘makeh
b’patish’ in such a case is rabbinic rather than biblical.

I mention this because there have been times when those who have sought to attack us and do us
harm have been described in terms of ‘coldness’ (see Devarim 25:18). However, what such people
seem to forget is that by attacking us, our resolve as a people is strengthened and hardened (nb. a
similar idea is also expressed by the egg eaten by a mourner which, as Rabbi Maurice Lamm
explains, ‘is one of the only foods that harden the longer it is cooked’).

4
www.rabbijohnnysolomon.com

9
Simply put, while the intention of those who wish to do us harm is to break our spirit, their
despicable actions unintentionally strengthen our spirit and resolve as a nation.
Together we hope and pray for better times when the good people in this region can live together
in peace. But until then we as a nation will, with a strengthened and hardened spirit, actively defend
our lives and our right to life, while praying for the welfare of all those in the IDF who are working
so hard to provide us with that protection.

Rabbanit Leah Sarna writes:5

“How many showers a day is too many showers a day?” We all know the type of person who asks
themselves that question. Rabbinic literature has a name for people like that, and that name
is istenis, sometimes translated as “fastidious” or, alternatively, “delicate.” The word derives from
Greek asthenos meaning “not strong.”

The mishnah makes accommodations for the istenis. A mishnah on Berakhot 16b tells of Rabban
Gamliel, a self-described istenis, bathing during his mourning period (which is normally a no-no):

He bathed on the first night after his wife died. His students said to him: Have you not taught
us, our teacher, that a mourner is prohibited to bathe? He answered them: I am not like
other people, I am delicate (istenis).

The term appeared also in a mishnah on Yoma 31b:

If the high priest was old and found it difficult to immerse in cold water, or if he was delicate
(istenis), they would heat hot water for him on Yom Kippur eve and place it into the cold
water of the ritual bath in order to temper its chill.

Here we have an istenis whose delicate health would make the many immersions in cold water
required of the high priest on Yom Kippur difficult. The mishnah puts forward an accommodation
that all mikvah-users today appreciate: a heated pool. Today’s page describes how this worked in
the Temple (nowadays we use electricity):

It was taught in a beraita that Rabbi Yehuda said: They would heat blocks of iron on Yom
Kippur eve and cast them into the cold water of the ritual bath to temper its chill.

You’ll notice that these two mishnahs describe somewhat different versions of an istenis: one who
needs to bathe, the other who finds bathing in cold water difficult. For both, bathing — and bathing
comfortably — is critical to feeling good.

With all the enormously weighty tasks that take place in the Temple, and the uniquely significant
role of the high priest on Yom Kippur, perhaps there’s something definitionally istenis about the

5
Myjewishlearning.com

10
high priest on that day. A day of fasting, heavy labor, concentration and intense pressure is enough
to make anyone delicate.

It is no wonder then that the mishnah on 30a that has animated so much of the discussion for the
last few days describes a day chock-full of washing, five immersions and ten sanctifications of the
hands and feet. The immersions in the high priest’s day mark transitional moments between labors.
What if we all built in rituals of transition, washing and self-care into our heaviest workdays? What
if we all recognized that intense labor could make each of us istenis, and that to do the work right,
we need to prepare for that weakness and allow appropriate moments for it, ritualizing those
moments to make sure they do not get skipped in the rush of the day.

The high priest's immersions on Yom Kippur might seem excessive, but what if it’s exactly the
model that we need?

The ruling [of R’ Yehudah that an unintended act is prohibited] applies only for Biblical law but
here, concerning strengthening metal, the prohibition is only Rabbinic [and therefore permitted.]

Tosafos discusses at length the positions of R’ Yehudah and R’ Shimon concerning this issue.6

The final outcome, according to Mishnah Berurah is that an unintentional act ‫ (דבר‬is) ‫אינו פסיק‬
‫ )רישא‬inevitable not is that ‫ )שאינו מתכוין‬permitted in accordance with the opinion of R’ Shimon (1)
. If the unintentional act is inevitable (‫( רישא פסיק‬and it is beneficial (2) to the one who performs
the act (‫( ליה דניחא‬it is prohibited even if the prohibition is only Rabbinic (3).

If the outcome is inevitable but it does not provide a beneficial outcome (‫ליה ניחא דלא רישא פסיק‬
(the action is prohibited unless it involves the performance of a mitzvah, the alleviation of pain, a
need (4) or involves a combination of two Rabbinic enactments (5). Based on the above, it is
prohibited on Shabbos to brush (6) or rub one’s hair (7) in a way that will inevitably cause hair to
become detached.

Similarly, it is prohibited to scratch a scab if it is inevitable that blood will emerge (8). Even though
there is no benefit for the person if his hair becomes detached or if blood comes out of the wound,
nevertheless, even if such an act is not beneficial it is prohibited if it is inevitable ‫ליה ניחא ( (פסיק‬
‫ דלא רישא‬On the other hand a person who suffers from hemorrhoids is permitted to clean himself
with toilet paper (9) even though it will cause blood to come out.

6
https://www.dafdigest.org/masechtos/Yoma%20034.pdf

11
The reason it is permitted is because: a) it involves a need, b) it is need for a mitzvah, e.g. to be
clean to recite brachos and c) it involves a combination of two (10) Rabbinic enactments.

Rabbi Johnny Solomon writes:7

Mishna (Yoma 3:5) in today’s daf (Yoma 31b) informs us with respect to the Kohen Gadol’s five
mikveh immersions on Yom Kippur that: ‘if the Kohen Gadol was old or was physically sensitive,
they heated water for him and poured the hot water into the cold mikveh water so that it would
lose some of its chill’. Practically speaking what this teaches us is that we must do what we can to
ensure that religious experiences, and especially the experience of immersing in a mikveh, is a
physically pleasant experience so that all people - and especially those who are physically sensitive
- do not find it discomforting.

However, beyond this, I am also reminded of the lessons we can draw from this rule – as borne
out from a story involving the Chafetz Chaim (see ‘Along the Maggid’s Journey’ p. 255):

“The Chafetz Chaim once wanted to use the mikveh in his home town of Radin. The water in the
Radin mikveh was heated by the attendant, R’ Label, who would pour scalding hot water from the
large vat into the water of the mikveh.

The Chafetz Chaim asked R’ Label “Is the mikveh hot?”

“It most definitely is” R’ Label announced to the Chafetz Chaim, “I myself just added water from
the vat”.

7
www.rabbijohnnysolomon.com

12
Relying on R’ Label’s assurance, the Chafetz Chaim stepped into the mikveh - but the water was
ice cold. The great sage returned to R’ Label & asked “Did you warm the mikveh?”

“Yes” replied R’ Label “I used the water from the vat.”

The Chafetz Chaim put his hand into the vat, and indeed, the water was merely room temperature.
“I learned from that” the great sage would often say afterwards “that when the vat is hot, the
mikveh will be lukewarm, and if the vat is lukewarm, the mikveh will be cold”.

Significantly, we are taught that the Torah was given ‘from amidst the fire’ (see Devarim 4:12),
and this led me to write, in my remarks to Pesachim 75b that, “today, there are many parents and
educators who merely wish to communicate facts and not values to their children and students,
and they also believe that the right way to do so is ‘dispassionately’ - with the hope that their
children and students will, with the cool perspective of truth, be able to connect with those facts
that interest them. However, the way of teaching Torah values has always been with warmth and
passion, reflecting the way in which the Torah was given ‘from amidst the fire’”.

On first glance, these two explanations may not seem to be connected. However, it should be clear
that if Jewish experiences are pleasant and positive, they are then likely to inspire those who have
those Jewish experiences to speak and think positively about them, whereas if they are not, the
opposite may occur.

And if we realise that this applies to the temperature of the water in the mikveh, then we should
also realise that this equally applies in the Jewish home, in our Jewish schools, and in our shuls –
and we should do whatever we can to ensure that the physical, emotional and spiritual temperature
of each of those places is warm – not just for the ‘average’ person, but for all those who are
physically or emotionally sensitive.

13
Modern steel manufacturing processes have advanced so considerably in the past few decades that
we now have cleaner, leaner, stronger and more workable steel than ever before.8

In the past, ductility and weldability came at a cost to strength and toughness. Now,
there’s quenched and tempered steel, a high strength and abrasion-resistant steel that comes with
enhanced fabrication qualities.

Before we launch into a list of benefits and applications, let’s first outline how quenched and
tempered steel plate is produced.

What is quenching and tempering?

Quenching and tempering are processes that strengthen and harden materials like steel and other
iron-based alloys. The process of quenching or quench hardening involves heating the material
and then rapidly cooling it to set the components into place as quickly as possible. The process is
tightly controlled, with the heating temperature, cooling method, cooling substance and cooling
speed all dependent upon the type of material being quenched and the desired hardness. A typical
heating range is between 815 and 900 degrees celcius, with extra care being taken to keeping the
temperature as stable as possible. Variances in the degree of heat being applied during the process
can result in distortion in the resultant metal.

Likewise, the temperature of the cooling element needs to remain constant or the edges of the
metal can wind up brittle. Different cooling elements have come into prominence over the years,
naturally starting with water and moving onto mineral oils and even inert gases like nitrogen or
helium.

After the material has been quenched to its hardest state, the process of tempering is used to achieve
greater toughness and ductility by decreasing hardness. Tempering is achieved by heating the
quenched material to below the critical point for a set period of time, then allowing it to cool in
still air. Both the temperature and heating time depend on the composition of the material and will
determine the amount of hardness removed.

Benefits of quenched & tempered plate

By tempering quenched steel, it becomes less brittle and more ductile without sacrificing too much
hardness. It is the combination of these two processes that produces a harder, tougher steel that’s
more weldable and ductile than ordinary carbon steel. While it takes longer to manufacturer, the
increased strength makes up for the delay.

If the steel becomes too hard after quenching, it can be tempered. This involves heating the element
again, but to a point far below the temperature reached in the quenching stage – usually around

8
https://www.shapecut.com.au/blog/what-is-quenched-and-tempered-

14
540 degrees Celsius. The amount of time the quenched metal is tempered is the determining factor
to how much hardness is removed.

The toughness-factor means greater resistance to wear and abrasion. That is why quenched and
tempered steel is particularly useful in machinery and structures where greater abrasion resistance
and higher yield strength are necessary, such as mining, quarrying, earth moving and construction.

Common applications

Quenched and tempered plate steel comes in several grades and thicknesses for different
applications. Some of the common grades include: 80 Grade – a high strength, low alloy structural
steel; 400 400 Grade – a high hardness, abrasion-resistant steel; and 500 Grade – a medium
carbon, high hardness and abrasion-resistant steel.

Here are several examples of applications where quench and tempered plate steel is ideal:

• Storage tanks (80 Grade)

• Bridges and high-rise buildings (80 Grade)
• Excavator and loader buckets (80 Grade)
• Deflector plates (400 Grade)
• Gear wheels (400 Grade)
• Cutting edges (500 Grade)
• Earthmoving buckets (400 & 500 Grade)
• Dump truck wear liners (500 Grade)
• Chutes (80 Grade, 400 and 500)
• Low Loader Trailers (80 Grade)
Having a thorough understanding of how quenched and tempered steel is produced and its material
properties helps define how best to cut, bend and work the steel. At ShapeCUT, we have 5,000+
tonnes of steel in stock, including quench and tempered plate, and the technical know-how and
experience to craft it into any form imaginable.

15
Steel is strong to begin with, but sometimes it’s necessary to make it even stronger. One of the
common treatments to achieve this is quenching and tempering. This is a process that strengthens
and hardens iron-based alloys by heating, rapidly cooling, and reheating. When steel is heated
above a certain point, the grain (molecular) structures are changed. The steel is then quenched at
varying speeds to create the desired grain structure. It’s like steaming green beans, then sticking
them in cold water to stop them from cooking further. After quenching in water, the material is the
hardest it can get given the chemistry. Although hard, the material is extremely brittle and subject
to cracking. To remedy this, we temper the metal by heating the steel to a point where it becomes
ductile.9
TTT Diagram

The time, temperature, transformation diagram (TTT) is the key guide for heat treating of steel.
By using the diagram, a heat treat cycle can be developed that will provide the desired grain
structure and properties required. The diagram is a function of temperature and time, showing the
grain structure that will be formed based on how quickly the material is cooled or quenched. The
slower the cooling process, the more austenitic grain structure will remain, providing a soft
material with good ductility but lower strength. A very fast cool produces a total martensite grain
structure, making a product high in strength but not ductile. The tempering process is an essential
stage in heat treatment, especially in very fast cooling, as it brings back ductility.
Before we can start the quenching process we need to heat the steel to a high heat. We’re talking
extreme here- over 1,600° F. Heating to this temperature causes a grain structure called austenite
to form. An austenitic grain structure produces a very soft metal.

9
https://www.cliftonsteel.com/knowledge-center/quenching-tempering

16
Quenching

After the metal is heated, we need to rapidly cool the steel. As material is quenched, the austenitic
grain structure created during the heating stage transforms to different grain structures such as
martensite, ferrite, pearlite, and cementite. The type of grain structure developed depends on how
quickly the material is cooled.
There are a few different methods for cooling. Using a salt water solution is fastest and most
severe, followed by fresh water, polymer, oil, and forced air is slowest. Fastest isn’t always best
in this instance; sometimes quenching too quickly can cause cracking. Here at Clifton Steel, we
use a fresh water quenching process.
Fresh Water Quenching

• Uniform cooling requires water maintained at a consistent temperature and evenly

applied
• If the water gets too hot, desired grain structure won’t be obtained
• At Clifton, we have 2 heat-treat machines utilizing fresh water quenching

Polymer Quenching

• Water-based process
• Concentration of solution, operating temperature, and agitation need to be controlled to
produce desired results
• Less severe than water or salt water quench

17
 • Can accommodate interrupted quenching, meaning parts can be taken out before they
are fully cooled. This can minimize the distortion without fire risk.

Oil Quenching

• Provides a slower cooling rate

• Used for alloyed steels, which could crack if a more severe method is used
• Reduces the amount of distortion created
• Selection of oil depends on geometry, thickness, and degree of distortion tolerance
allowed
• Process can be much safer than it used to be by totally enclosing the operations
• Ability to recover and reuse about 80% of oil provides what some see as an advantage
• Largest obstacle for this technique is availability

Brining
• Not talking about a technique often used for a Thanksgiving turkey
• Also known as a salt quench, as is known to be a more severe quench
• Greatly reduces the steam jacket that usually forms with plain water quench. The steam
blanket slows the quenching rate and hardness obtained in the steel
• Two types of salt: nitrate-based (most common) and chloride-based
• Gives you the ability to control quench severity through temperature, agitation, and
water content.

Tempering

After being quenched, the metal is in a very hard state, but it’s brittle. The steel is tempered to
reduce some of the hardness and increase ductility. It’s heated for a set period of time at a
temperature that falls between 400° F and 1,105° F. Sometimes, if further ductility is needed, a
higher temperature is used- around 1,300° F. Finally, the steel cools in still air rather than being
quenched again.

The combination of these processes produces a steel with properties needed for the particular
application. It’s ideal for use in military, machinery, mining, quarrying, earthmoving and
construction industries. Often it is used for products that are exposed to high impact such as gear
wheels, cutting edges, earthmoving buckets, dump truck wear liners, chutes, and more.

IRON (Heb. barzel)

Job was acquainted with the technical process of extracting iron from iron ore: "iron is taken out
of the earth" (Job. 28:2). Isaiah described the smith's technique of working iron with the help of

18
charcoal to produce steel suitable for making vessels (Isa. 54:16). The Bible speaks of Tubal-Cain
as the first metalsmith (Gen. 4:22; see above discussion of copper). Some scholars identify the
family of Japheth, to whom Tubal-Cain was related, with peoples who inhabited the coast of the
Black Sea. Iron was first exploited by the Hittites in Asia Minor and it was brought to Syria and
Ereẓ Israel by Phoenician merchants. Another source of iron was Tarshish, and "massive iron" was
brought from Vedan and Javan (Ezek. 27:12–13, 19).

The Early Iron Age in Ereẓ Israel corresponds roughly with the period of the Philistines (from c.
1200 B.C.E.). The iron in the hands of the Philistines may have been connected with their maritime
trade and with imports by merchants from the north. Iron mines were apparently located in the
mountains of iron in the hill region of Edom (Josephus mentions an "Iron Mountain" near Gerasha)
and also in southern Lebanon, but these were probably of little importance. Iron was used primarily
for weapons, and ironsmiths were thus of prime importance in the military organization. The
Philistines succeeded in securing control of all the smiths – apparently ironsmiths: "Now there was
no smith to be found throughout the land of Israel" (I Sam. 13:19). Whoever needed the services
of ironsmiths for sharpening everyday tools, such as agricultural implements, was forced to go to
the Philistines. Iron implements (a plow and a spade) have been found at Tell Jamma and also
furnaces for smelting iron; the earliest finds come from Tell al-ʿAjūl where a dagger with an iron
blade and copper handle were also discovered. As early as the biblical period, iron was employed
extensively in everyday life: war, agriculture, building, religion, trade, and household utensils. Iron
weapons included chariots (Josh. 17:16); horns (I Kings 22:11); swords and spears (I Sam.
13:19; II Sam. 23:7); "iron objects" (Num. 35:16); and fetters (Ps. 105:18); while iron agricultural
tools included sledges (Amos 1:3) and yokes (Jer. 28:14). In building, iron was used in door bars
(Isa. 45:3), nails for doors of gates (I Chron. 22:3), and hammers and axes (I Kings 6:7); in religion,
it was used for statues of gods (Dan. 5:4); and in trade, for weights (I Sam. 17:7). Household
utensils made of iron included bedsteads (Deut. 3:11) and pens (Job 19:24).

Iron often appears in figures of speech in the Bible, but it mainly symbolizes the material from
which instruments of war were made. Its use was prohibited in building an altar (Ex. 20:25): "an
altar of unhewn stones, upon which no man has lifted an iron tool" (Josh. 8:31). The Mishnah
elaborates: "for iron was created to shorten man's days, while the altar was created to lengthen
man's days; what shortens may not rightly be lifted up against what lengthens" (Mid. 3:4). Solomon
carried the ban against using stones hewn with iron in building the altar even further when he built
the Temple, "so that neither hammer nor axe nor any tool of iron was heard in the Temple," while
it was being built (I Kings 6:7). In the Talmud a discussion is held on whether the prohibition
against the use of iron tools applied only to the Temple site or to the quarry as well (Sot. 48b), for
Solomon built three rows of hewn stone in the inner court (I Kings 6:36). In the description of
David's battle with Goliath, spiritual values are contrasted with iron weapons symbolizing war, as
Goliath appears with a sword, spear, and javelin, opposite David's faith in God (I Sam. 17:45, 47).
Iron also denotes strength: "iron yoke" (Deut. 28:48), "your neck is an iron sinew" (Isa. 48:4), and
has a special meaning in Psalms 107:10.

19
 EARLY EVIDENCE FOR STEELMAKING IN THE JUDAIC
SOURCES

DAN LEVENE and BENO ROTHENBERG write:10

The discovery of steelmaking can be considered one of the important leaps in the evolution of
homo faber. Once iron smelting techniques were widely used, iron became the most common metal
available. Although iron corrodes easily and is rather soft, with relatively simple skills and materi-
als its surface can be "steeled" (carbon enriched) to produce a hard metal "case." The production
of homogeneous steel by a more complicated technique was achieved in India and China a
millennium before it was manufactured elsewhere. In those preceding years, "Indian steel" was
known only as a traded commodity in the Near East.

The present paper is the result of a working dialogue that has developed over the last few years
between an archaeo-metallurgist and a philologist. Though the textual material is not generally
concerned with conveying technological information, it inevitably reflects the realia of its own
environment in both language and simile, if not always in the portrayal of significant political and
commercial events. Our research shows that already in the Hebrew Bible, iron is portrayed as
something more than just the common metal that it is, indicating an awareness of hardening and
steeling techniques.

In postbiblical literature, descriptive evidence of the processes of case hardening (carburization

and quenching), the forge welding of steel tips, and the involvement of the Babylonian Jewish
community in the trade of the highest quality Indian steel already in the 4th century CE are
identified. The juxtaposition of descriptions of technical processes, based on up-to-date archaeo-
metallurgical scholarship, with textual references clarifies the metal-technological meaning of
terms and descriptions used in the Judaic sources. The Judaic sources are here for the first time
used as a source for secular metal-historical studies; at the same time, especially due to com-
parisons with up-to-date archaeological data, these studies contribute to a better understanding of
the often enigmatic Judaic texts.

10
The Jewish Quarterly Review , Jul. - Oct., 2001
https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/1455613.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Aa7c647bc9ab40441f43e3c13c2675f4c

20
1. IRON PRODUCTION

1.1 Iron smelting

According to the archaeological evidence available, the technique used in ancient times for the
smelting of iron ore to metallic iron was the "bloomery process," named after the major smelting
product of this process-the bloom-which was the raw material for iron and steel production.2 The
process involved is direct, one-step, solid state smelting of iron ore to metallic iron. Metallic iron,
contrary to the smelting of ores of all other metals, never passed through a liquid state. The
operation of the bloomery furnace began by charging it with ore and fuel.3 The common fuel for
iron smelting was charcoal.4 This furnace charge would then move slowly downward and gradu-
ally become hotter as it approached the combustion zone slightly above the level of the tuyere(s)
(a nozzle through which air is forced into the furnace) or the flue (in the case of a natural, induced-
draft furnace).S By the time it reached the combustion zone, the furnace charge had become a
porous aggregate of particles of iron metal, unreduced silica, slag, and charcoal.6 The reduced
metal had the shape of tiny flakes of solid iron that, together with the fluid slag, sank down towards
the bottom of the furnace. The heavy iron particles aggregated to a sponge-like, fairly heavy bloom
and the liquid slag settled onto the furnace bottom ("furnace slag"). This slag was usually tapped
out of the furnace ("tapped slag"), probably several times, in order to extend the smelting process
and increase the size of the bloom. Finally, the furnace was left to cool down, in order to allow the
removal of the bloom.

21
1.2 Consolidating the bloom to solid iron ("bloom iron," "bar iron")

The bloom from the smelting furnace was not solid enough to be forged directly into finished
iron objects. It had to be further treated to be consolidated to malleable "bloom iron."7 This
could be done in an ordinary blacksmith's forge, i.e., a pile of charcoal and goatskin bellows
protected by a tuyere, the like of which are still in use in many countries.8 Although after
reheating the bloom some of the slag became liquid and drained out of the bloom, most of the
foreign inclusions had to be expelled by hammer blows. The first hammer blows were very rapid
strokes with a slight hammer in order to weld together the separate flakes of metallic iron. This
was followed by a repeated series of heating the bloom and heavy strokes with sledge- hammers
to squeeze out most of the occluded slag.9 The scale of this consolidation is quite considerable,
reducing the volume of the bloom by at least 50%. By this treatment the flakes of iron are
welded to one another and form a unified, solid mass of iron. In some cases where the bloom
consisted of coherent iron, it could be forged in one piece. However, it was usually necessary to
break up the bloom and separate the small pieces by hammering them into flat pieces of metal.
There is some evidence that such pieces of iron were already considered to be a semi-finished
product and traded over great distances. 10 To obtain larger pieces of iron or a shaped iron bar or
plate these solid iron pieces had to be welded together by heating them in the forge, fol- lowed
by hot hammering.

Raw blooms were normally consolidated to bloom iron (with a very low content of carbon and
some slag inclusions) near the smelting site.11 Once consolidated, the iron could be shaped by
hammering into complex shapes, with repeated annealing to restore its ductility. 12 Much of
ancient iron was traded in the shape of bars, plates or flattened balls. However, according to
archaeological evidence, unworked raw blooms were also traded. 13 There is some evidence for
the trading of small pieces of consolidated iron, most probably the small lumps of bloom iron that

22
had not been welded into larger "bar iron." 14 With the consolidation of the raw bloom into bars
of bloom iron, the iron smelting process reached its conclusion and its product became the raw
material for further treatment, i.e., steelmaking and/or forging into finished iron objects. In the MT
there are two terms that clearly distinguish particular types of iron: barzel 'ashot nvv 5frn (Ezek
27:19) and barzel mi-safon (Jer 15:12). Barzel Cashot is mentioned in Ezekiel as a commodity that
was brought to the wealthy city of Tyre. The word 'ashot is an hapax legomenon for which there
is no certain etymology; the best suggestion, on the basis of archaeo-metallurgical knowledge,
would be "consolidated bloom iron." 15 The Greek, Aramaic and Syriac translations of the MT
express, in their interpretation of this unique term, material realities appropriate to their own times.
In the LXX, the translation for barzel Cashot is c;i'6,poq cipy7cctpivo0 ("worked iron"); in the
Peshita it is parzela."iron that you will work"). 16 It is possible that both read ''wt as the infinitive
of the verb ilWv "to make," rather than '?wt. The verb ilWv is commonly used in the MT to denote
any number of techniques of fabrication for a variety of materials. It is frequently associated with
metals, iron among them. 17 Barzel 'sot literally "making," "working," or "workable iron," are all
accurate descriptions of the only type of iron that would have been available. 18

23
As we shall show, developments in iron technology are well attested in postbiblical Jewish
literature. There are a number of references that testify to knowledge of the technique of case
hardening by carburization and quenching as well as one clear reference to steel. It must be noted
that none of the literature that is cited was composed with the intention of being, or indeed
incorporating, anything that resembles a technical manual. Any discussion of metallurgical issues
was preserved as a by-product of other issues, such as religious law and aggadic narrative. The
appearance of technological knowledge in these texts need not surprise us, as we know that many
of the rabbis had to earn their liv- ing by common means and that there were among them skilled
crafts- men. 36 Rabbi Johanan, a 3rd-century CE tanna, is repeatedly referred to in the Talmud as
"the son of the blacksmith" in reference to his father Isaac "the blacksmith." Another famous
second-generation tanna who was a blacksmith was R. Joshua (2nd century CE). It is said that the
walls of his house, which also served as his workshop, were blackened from the soot of the
charcoal.37

2.1 Carburization in an open furnace

Carburization in an open furnace was probably the earliest steel- making technique.4' The early
smith seemingly understood that by leaving a lump of consolidated bloom iron, or a semi-forged
bloom iron object in a pile of glowing charcoal, he could change the char- acter of the iron and
make it forgeable into a much harder and sharper tool. The chemistry of this technique of
steelmaking (called "cementation"), which was never understood as such by the ancient smith,
involved the absorption of carbon monoxide, produced in the glow- ing charcoal pile, by the iron
object heated to a temperature above 723'C.42 It may not have taken too long for the smith to
realize that much higher temperatures, such 910?C and above (recognizable by the color of the
glow), would produce a much better steel. However, it is important to mention that this
carburization process in an open forge could only carburize a thin surface layer of the object, i.e.,
its "case," while the core of the iron object was much less affected, if at all. Unless the carburization

24
process is carried on for many days and at a very high temperature (above 950?C)-extremely
difficult in an open forge-less than one millimeter of steel will be produced as an outer case of the
object. However, such a hard case would have been quite adequate for a sharp cutting edge or
piercing point-and the evidence clearly confirms the widespread use of this case hardening
technique. 43

2.2 Carburization in a closed furnace

To overcome the problem of maintaining carburizing conditions in an open furnace, to facilitate
deeper carbon penetration, and to pro- duce a steel of more even hardness, the ancient smith
realized, even in the later Iron Age, the need for a closed carburization furnace. Archaeological
evidence for this important technological advance has been found in the Assyrian citadel of the
7th-6th century BCE, at Tel esh-Shari'a, in the Northern Negev.44 The furnace excavated in the
courtyard of the citadel has an arched top and its two tuyeres were situated in such a way that much
of the furnace was not in the direct line of the air stream from the bellows. It was evident that long
iron objects had been packed in charcoal, away from the fire, and heated for a considerable time-
evidently for a protracted carburization process. Some such iron objects were indeed found next
to the furnace. This "pack carburizing" technology, also called "box hardening," was used in
different variations in many parts of the world even up to the late 19th century CE. Fundamentally,
the carburization process, both in an open and closed furnace or vessel, remained throughout only
a process of "case hardening" of varying depths, hardly ever producing a really homogeneous steel.
To achieve such homogeneous results, other technologies were required: pile welding, piling and
folding and, most important, Indian crucible steelmaking.

2.3 Heating, quenching and tempering

The technique of hardening steel by heat treatment is a three-step process: heating, quenching and
tempering. After the semi-forged steel object has been heated to a red-orange glow (723? to 850?C,

25
depending on the carbon contents), it is quenched by quick immersion in cold water. Since the
high cooling rate (400? to 600?C within two minutes) required for effective hardening occurs
solely on the sur- face of the quenched object, only a thin surface layer will be of maxi- mum
hardness. Quenching can nevertheless cause the steel object to become rather brittle and hence
unsuitable for heavy use. It is therefore necessary to temper the steel by reheating the object to a
temperature between 100? and 650?C, well below the initial forging temperature. Tempering
softens the metal and at the same time in- creases its toughness; but even so, the metal remains
hard enough to cut other metals. The advantage of heat treatment of low carbon steel is that
tempering levels can be controlled by observing the color of the heating glow. This enables the
smith to choose the degree of hardness, strength and toughness, with ductility best suited for the
job at hand. Another advantage of heat treatment is that steel objects of variable sizes and shapes
can be hardened, in contrast to cold working, which can only be applied to thin and small objects.
Furthermore, this process is repeatable in case the results of the first treatment are not satisfactory.
Archaeological evidence has shown that both carburization and quenching were used fairly early
in the Early Iron Age all over the Old World, and there were several methods to deal with the
brittle- ness of case-hardened tools, induced by quenching in cold water.45 Recent archaeo-
metallurgical investigations of iron finds from Israel, Egypt, and Cyprus provide clear evidence
that complete manipulation of iron-carburization, quenching and tempering-was already in use in
the Early Iron Age (Israel 12th- IIth century BCE, Cyprus 11th century BCE, Egypt ca. 900
BCE).46

Our daf

26
27
NOTES

See :

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/1455613.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Aa7c647bc9ab40441f43e3c13c2675f4c

28
Jastrow

29
ISA 1:25

Rashi:
And I will return My hand upon you: One blow after another, until
the transgressors have been completely destroyed.

as with lye: This is an expression meaning soap [sbon in O.F., savon

(in modern French)]. Its deviation is an expression of cleanliness,
similar to (Ps. 24:4): “and pure (‫ )ַבּר‬of heart,” since it cleanses the
garment of its stains.

your dross: mentioned above, as: “Your silver has become dross”; a
mixture of silver with copper is called dross. Here too, a mixture of the
wicked with the righteous. I will destroy the transgressors, who are all
dross.

all your tin: The tin mixed with silver, that is to say, the wicked among
you. ‫ ְבִדיל‬is called estejjn [etain] in O.F. [tin].

as with lye This is an expression meaning soap [sbon in O.F., savon (in modern French)]. Its
deviation is an expression of cleanliness, similar to (Ps. 24:4): “and pure (‫ )ַבּר‬of heart,” since it
cleanses the garment of its stains.

30
Ibn Ezra

31
 Viduy as a Refining Process

A. Scheinman writes:11

11
Jewish Observer Sep 1979 Vol 14: 2 p18

32
33