BIOLOGY UNIT 3 AOS 2 – SAC TASK 2A: CELLULAR SIGNALLING

Identify the three steps of the stimulus-response model and briefly define each step.
What is the stimulus-response model?
Stimulus-response model is a model within a
multicellular organism with the ability to detect and
respond to stimuli which relies on the cells
communicating with each other. It involves a three-
step process of reception, transduction, and
response.
What is a stimulus?
Stimulus is a thing or event that provokes or causes a response in individual cells or organs as a
result of a change in internal or external environments. Essentially, a stimulus is an event or
molecule that can initiate a response.
What are signalling molecules?
Signalling molecules are often called ligands, a general term for molecules that bind specifically to
other molecules (such as receptors). The message carried by a ligand is often relayed through a chain
of chemical messengers inside the cell.
What is the reception stage of the stimulus-response model?
Reception is the first stage of the stimulus-response model and is characterised by the detection of a
stimulus. Reception can be summarised as the detection of a signal due to a change in the internal or
external environment.
What are the receptors in this stage?
Receptors are often membrane-bound or cytoplasmic proteins that can detect a change in the
environment or the presence of a signalling molecule.
What is transduction?
Transduction is the second stage of the stimulus-response model and involves the conversion of the
signal into a form that can be relayed to reach its final destination within the cell and bring about a
cellular response.
What is transduction like in the nervous system?
In a nervous system signalling pathway, electrical signals are generated after the stimulation of
receptor neuron. This signal is carried to the central nervous system via a series of other neurons,
causing the signal to change from electrical à chemical à electrical many times. Eventually, a
response is produced, such as the movement of muscles or ‘thought’.
What is transduction like in the endocrine system?
In an endocrine signalling pathway, signalling molecules are produced in a cell and usually released
into the blood. These signalling molecules can travel throughout the body.
What is transduction like in the lac operon?
In the lac operon signalling pathway, high lactose presence leads to a cascade of signal transduction
(conversion into allolactose, binding to the repressor which releases the operator, RNA polymerase
can bind and transcription can proceed) so that the enzymes that enable lactose digestion are
produced.
What is the ‘response’ stage?
The response is the third and final stage of the stimulus-response model. The response is any change
in the function of a target cell, organ, or organism after stimulation from an initial signal.
What is the effector?
Effector is a molecule or organ that responds to a signal and produces a response.
Define what is meant by endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine signalling.
Summary of the process cells use to communicate.
A cell can release chemical signalling molecules, which bind to specific receptors complementary in
shape to the molecule and initiate a response within a target cell. When binding to a cell receptor,
chemical signalling molecules are the stimulus in the stimulus-response model of a cell. If a cell does
not have the specialised receptor for the signalling molecule, it will not respond.

Is there a specific distance of the transmission of signalling molecules?

The transmission of signalling molecules from one cell to another can occur over short or long
distances in the body.
What are the types of chemical signalling?
Chemical signalling can be broken up into three different modes of transmission:
• Autocrine signalling – when signalling molecules act on and initiate a response in the same
cell that released them.
• Paracrine signalling – when signalling molecules act on cells neighbouring the source cell.
• Endocrine signalling – when signalling molecules are transported in the blood to act on cells
far away from the source cell.

Identify the five groups of signalling molecules that are focused on during this area of study. For
each group (except cytokines) make sure you can:
 Identify how and where they travel in the body.
 Identify significant types or examples (e.g. animal hormones have three types; plant
hormones have five types).
 Give the main characteristics/functions of each type.

Hormones function to regulate the growth and activity of

many bodily functions, including growth, metabolism and
reproduction.
PHEROMONES
What are pheromones?
Pheromones are signalling molecules that are released by an organism into the external
environment and can be detected by another organism.
How does pheromones differ to other signalling molecules?
This differs from hormones and other signalling molecules as they are responsible for
communication between cells within an organism.
What are pheromones detected by?
Pheromone chemical signals are typically detected by the olfactory (smell) receptors within the
nose.
What does pheromones influence, and common functions in animals?
Pheromones influence the behaviour and physiology of the receiving individual. Common functions
of pheromones in animals include triggering alarm and aggressive responses, marking territory,
marking food trails and attracting mates.
What is the receiving individual of the pheromone most likely to be?
The receiving individual is usually a member of the same species as the signalling organism.
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
What are neurotransmitters?
Neurotransmitters are a group of hydrophilic signalling molecules produced and secreted by
neurons.
What are neurons?
Neurons are highly specialised cells that use electrical signals to trigger the release of
neurotransmitters, allowing for rapid transmission of messages around the organism.
How are neurotransmitters released?
Neurotransmitters are released in three steps:
1. The neuron is excited by a stimulus.
2. An electric current passes along the neuron.
3. This leads to the production and release of neurotransmitters.

What type of transport do neurotransmitters use?

Neurotransmitters act via paracrine signalling so, after release via exocytosis, they diffuse across the
synapse before reaching complementary receptors on a target cell.
What is the synapse?
Synapse is the junction between a neuron and a target cell where neurotransmitters cross.
What is a neuromuscular junction?
If the target cell is a muscle cell, the gap is called a neuromuscular junction.
What does the neurotransmitter reception depend on?
Depending on the target cell, neurotransmitter reception leads to a variety of responses:
Examples of neurotransmitters.
Examples of neurotransmitters include serotonin (which contributes to mood, sleep, and feelings of
happiness) and dopamine (which plays a role in reward-motivated behaviour).
CYTOKINES
What are cytokines?
Cytokines are a group of hydrophilic signalling molecules typically released by cells of the immune
system that communicate with a variety of cell types throughout the body.
What is the general function of cytokines?
Specialised cells of the body’s immune system release certain cytokines that bind to and guide other
immune cells to a site of infection or injury. Some cytokines are involved in regulating inflammation
and other responses to infection.
How are cytokines transmitted?
Cytokines cause a number of different responses and are typically transmitted via autocrine or
paracrine signalling.
How do cytokines differ from hormones?
• Cytokines differ from hormones as all cytokines are protein-based.
• They are made by a variety of cells rather than specialised glands.
• They circulate in lower concentrations than hormones.
SUMMARY

Define the terms: tropism, positive tropism, negative tropism.

What is tropism?
A tropism is a biological phenomenon, indicating growth or turning movement of a biological
organism, usually a plant, in response to an environmental stimulus. In tropisms, this response is
dependent on the direction of the stimulus.
What is positive tropism?
Positive tropism is movement or growth of a plant towards a stimulus.
What is negative tropism?
Negative tropism is the movement or growth of plant away from the stimulus.
Explain what happens during phototropism and geotropism.
What is phototropism?
Phototropism is the ability of a plant, or other photosynthesising organism, to grow directionally in
response to a light source.
Which way do certain parts of the plant move in response to light?
Shoots usually move towards the light; roots usually move away from it.
What is the process of phototropism?
1. When sunlight falls straight on the plant, the auxin hormone synthesised at the tip of the
stem spreads uniformly down the stem and due to equal concentration of auxin, stem grows
straight.
2. When sunlight fells on only one side of the plant, the auxin diffuses towards the shady side
of shoot. The concentration of auxin stimulates the cells to grow longer. Therefore, the stem
appears to bend towards the source of light.

What is geotropism?
Geotropism (also known as gravitropism) is a coordinated process of differential growth by a plant in
response to gravity pulling on it.
Which way do certain parts of the plant move in response to gravity?
Roots are positively geotropic, that is, they will bend and grow downwards, towards the centre of
the Earth. In contrast, shoots are negatively geotropic, that is, they will bend and grow upwards, or
away, from the surface.
What is the process/causes geotropism?
Geotropism is also caused by an unequal distribution of auxin. In a root placed horizontally, the
bottom side contains more auxin and grows less - causing the root to grow in the direction of the
force of gravity. The opposite happens in a stem. When a stem placed horizontally, the bottom side
contains more auxin and grows more - causing the stem to grow upwards against the force of
gravity.
Define the term signal transduction.
What is signal transduction?
Signal transduction is the name of the process which involves the conversion of an extracellular
signal to an intracellular signal to elicit a specific response.
Identify when a cell membrane receptor is required and when a receptor in the cytosol is used –
which types of signalling molecules use each receptor and why!
When are cell membrane receptors required?
Cell membrane receptors are required when the signalling molecule is hydrophilic as it cannot
directly diffuse through the plasma membrane and requires the assistance of a transmembrane
protein.
When are receptors in the cytosol used?
Receptors in the cytosol are used when the signalling molecules are hydrophobic as it can directly
diffuse through the plasma membrane without the help of a transmembrane protein.
Which types of signalling molecules use cell membrane receptors?
 Animal hormones:
o Peptide and protein (hydrophilic – only have receptors on the cell membrane).
o Amino acid derived (hydrophilic – receptors on the cell membrane).
 Cytokines – use membrane receptors, with intra-cellular signalling domains intact, can
transmit signals to the target cell nucleus.
Which types of signalling molecules use receptors in the cytosol?
 Animal hormones:
o Steroid/lipid derived – lipophilic (hydrophobic – receptors found inside the cell).
Explain what a second messenger is, when they are used and how a second messenger can lead to
signal amplification.
What are secondary messengers?
Secondary messengers are a group of small molecules that relay a signal from a transmembrane
receptor during signal transduction. Second messengers are usually hydrophilic and water soluble
and function in a sequence, one after another. There are typically many second messengers involved
in transmitting a signal from the plasma membrane to the cytosol or nucleus.
Why are secondary messengers able to quickly diffuse through the cytosol?
The size and solubility of secondary messengers enables them to diffuse quickly through the cytosol
and to then trigger and amplify a response from multiple parts of the cell at once.
What is signal amplification?
Signal amplification is a process during signal transduction whereby a single signal carried by
a molecule is converted into many signals carried by many molecules. When one signal results in the
activation of many secondary messengers simultaneously, it is known as signal amplification.
How can a secondary messenger lead to signal amplification?
The activation of multiple effector pathways by a single plasma membrane receptor and the
production of multiple second messengers by each effector can generate a high degree of
amplification in signal transduction.
Identify typical responses in cells when hydrophilic signalling molecules are used and when
hydrophobic signalling molecules are used.
Hydrophobic
Are hydrophobic signalling molecules able to passively diffuse across the plasma membrane?
Hydrophobic signalling molecules are usually lipid-based molecules and therefore are lipid soluble
hence able to passively cross the plasma membrane and bind to intracellular receptors, initiating a
response in the target cell.
What do hydrophobic signalling molecules bind to after crossing the plasma membrane?
Hydrophobic signalling molecules bind to intracellular receptors (forming a molecule-receptor
complex) in the cytosol or in the nucleus. Only cells that have the specific intracellular receptor for a
given signalling molecule will respond to its stimulus.
What are the two common modes of action for hydrophobic signalling molecules?
To initiate a response in a cell, there are two common modes of action for hydrophobic signalling
molecules after binding to receptors:
1. The molecule-receptor complex travels to the DNA and binds to regulatory regions to
amplify or repress gene expression. In this case, the signalling molecule acts as a
transcription factor.
2. The molecule-receptor complex may repress or activate enzymes in the cell.

Hydrophilic
Are hydrophilic signalling molecules able to passively diffuse through the plasma membrane?
Hydrophilic signalling molecules cannot readily cross the plasma membrane, so they bind to
transmembrane receptors and rely on secondary messengers to pass the signal through a
transduction cascade to bring about a cellular response.
What are the receptors of hydrophilic signalling molecules?
The receptors for hydrophilic signalling molecules are transmembrane proteins embedded in the
plasma membrane. Each type of receptor has a binding site that is complementary to a particular
signalling molecule, so only cells that have the specialised receptor can respond to the signal.
What happens to the plasma membrane when signalling molecules binds to receptors?
Because the receptors span the plasma membrane, when a signalling molecule binds to the
receptors outside of the cell, this can cause a change within the cell. The change is typically a
conformational change of the transmembrane protein, which results in the activation of molecules
within the cell.
What are the steps of hydrophilic signalling molecules?
In summary, the steps involved in signal transduction of a hydrophilic signalling molecule are:
1. A signalling molecule binds to a specific transmembrane receptor and causes the receptor to
undergo a conformational change.
2. Second messengers are activated within the cell, leading to a transduction cascade and
signal amplification or G proteins are activated.
3. Second messengers deliver the signal to the destination within the cell, causing a cellular
response.
What type of response does hydrophilic signalling molecules give?
 In the nucleus, gene transcription is induced or repressed.
 In the cytosol, where the activation or inhibition of enzymes regulates most cellular
activities.
 On the membrane, the opening and closing of ion channels, initiating action potentials and
the release of signalling molecules by exocytosis.
Define the term apoptosis.
What is apoptosis?
Apoptosis is the controlled death of cells in the body. Also known as programmed cell death.
When does apoptosis occur?
When a cell begins to malfunction, is damaged, or has become unnecessary it will receive signals
that initiate apoptosis, causing the eventual death of the cell.
Can apoptosis be reversed?
Apoptosis cannot be reversed once it has begun.

Explain why apoptosis is important, particularly in relation to cancer.

 Cancers are group of diseases that commonly involve unregulated and abnormal cell growth
and division. Cancer can be caused by genetic mutations in the cells that either increase the
rate of cell division and/or result in the suppression of apoptosis. Either case can lead to the
growth of tumours. In B-cell lymphoma, excessive amounts of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 proteins
are produced. Anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 proteins inhibit the release of cytochrome c from
mitochondria. Without cytochrome c apoptosomes cannot form and apoptosis cannot
continue. As a result, mutated B cells that would normally be removed by apoptosis survive,
replicate and develop into cancer.
 Mutations in caspases that prevent them from functioning, and therefore cause the cascade
to stop can lead to a type of cancer.
 Defects in the adaptor (Apaf) proteins that prevent apoptosomes from forming can lead to
cancer.
 Defects in one or more components of the death receptor pathway can lead to cancer.
 Too much apoptosis can cause neurodegeneration such as Alzheimer’s disease, a disease
characterised by the shrinking of the brain due to loss of neurons associated with excessive
apoptosis.
 Inhibited apoptosis can cause a condition called syndactyly. This is a scenario in which the
skin between two things is not removed (for example between two fingers), as apoptosis did
not occur during embryonic development.
Identify the characteristics of cells undergoing apoptosis.
Identify the five steps in the apoptosis process.
1. Caspase activation – both the mitochondrial and death receptor pathways initiate the
activation of intracellular caspase enzymes by cleaving certain amino acid sequences from
their structure. Once activated, caspase enzymes travel around the cell, digesting specific
proteins.
2. Digestion of cell contents – the caspase–mediated digestion of proteins initiates a cascade of
reactions that cause the digestion of all organelles.
3. Cell shrinks – the cell and nucleus shrink as intracellular material is digested.
4. Blebbing and breakage – as the cytoskeleton is digested, the structural integrity of the cell is
weakened. The membrane warps and detaches from the cell in membrane–enclosed vesicles
known as apoptotic bodies which contain the digested intracellular contents.
5. Signalling of macrophages - as the cell breaks apart, chemicals are released. These chemicals
attract phagocytes such as macrophages to the broken-down cell. Note that it is only after
apoptosis is complete that phagocytes consume apoptoic bodies by phagocytosis.
Identify two ways that apoptosis is signalled and describe what happens in each.
Mitochondrial Pathway
What is mitochondrial pathway (intrinsic pathway)?
Mitochondrial pathway is the pathway of apoptosis which is initiated by the detection of
internal cellular damage by acting directly on the mitochondria of a cell. Also known as the intrinsic
pathway.
What happens during the mitochondrial pathway?
1. Damage triggers called Bcl-2 proteins (protein central to controlling mitochondrial apoptotic
pathway).
2. Bcl-2 proteins that promote apoptosis move to the mitochondria and create pores in the
membrane of the mitochondria.
3. Pores allow the release of cytochrome c from the mitochondria (cytochrome c is protein
involved in electron transport chain).
4. Cytochrome C mixes in the cytoplasm with a protein called Apaf-1 creating an apoptosome.
5. The apoptosome activates a cascade of executioner caspases resulting in apoptosis.
The Death Receptor Pathway
What is the death receptor pathway (extrinsic pathway)?
Death receptor pathway is the pathway of apoptosis which is initiated by the binding of ligands to
cell surface 'death receptors' (DR) which in turn initiates the caspase cascade. Also known as the
extrinsic pathway.
What happens during the death receptor pathway?
1. Ligands binds to protein receptors called Death Receptors on the surface of the plasma
membrane.
2. The receptor triggers the cascade of caspases resulting in apoptosis.