A

Report
On Topic
Solar energy: Potential and future prospects
Submitted In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement For
S.Y.B.Tech in Mechanical Engineering
By
Mr. Dhiraj Narendra Patil
Under The Guidance of
Prof. YOGESH VANJARI
Submitted to

Department of Mechanical Engineering

GF’s Godavari College of Engineering, Jalgaon.

As per Curriculum of

Dr.Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological University, Lonere.

2020-2021
 Certificate
GF’s
Godavari College of Engineering, Jalgaon
Department of Mechanical Engineering

This is to certify that,

Mr. Dhiraj Narendra Patil

Has successfully completed his Task in Lieu of Internship
On the topic

OPTIMUM DESIGN

Under the guidance of

Prof. YOGESH VANJARI

Towards the partial fulfilment of

S.Y.B.Tech in Mechanical Engineering
As per Curriculum of

Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological University, Lonere.

During academic year 2020-2021

Prof.YogeshVanjari Prof.T.A.Koli Dr.V.H.Patil

[Guide] [H.M.E.D.] [Principal]
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
 Abstract

The development of novel solar power technologies is considered to be one of many key
solutions toward fulfilling a worldwide increasing demand for energy. Rapid growth
within the field of solar technologies is nonetheless facing various technical barriers,
such as low solar cell efficiencies, low performing balance-ofsystems (BOS), economic
hindrances (e.g., high upfront costs and a lack of financing mechanisms), and
institutional obstacles (e.g., inadequate infrastructure and a shortage of skilled
manpower). The merits and demerits of solar energy technologies are both discussed in
this article. A number of technical problems affecting renewable energy research are
also highlighted, along with beneficial interactions between regulation policy
frameworks and their future prospects. In order to help open novel routes with regard to
solar energy research and practices, a future roadmap for the field of solar research is
discussed.
 INDEX

Sr.No. Content PageNo.

1 Introduction 1

2 Potential of solar energy technologies 3

and comparisons between locations

3 Limitations and benefits of solar energy 11

technologies

4 Future prospects of solar technology 16

5 Conclusions and remarks 18

6 References 19
 Solar energy: Potential and future prospects

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The sun is a major source of inexhaustible free energy (i.e., solar energy) for the planet Earth.
Currently, new technologies are being employed to generate electricity from harvested solar
energy. These approaches have already been proven and are widely practiced throughout the
world as renewable alternatives to conventional nonhydro technologies. Fig. 1 shows a
comparison of the non-hydro renewable energy capacities between countries for 2012.
Theoretically, solar energy possesses the potential to adequately fulfill the energy demands of
the entire world if technologies for its harvesting and supplying were readily available . Nearly
four million exajoules (1 EJ = 1018J) of solar energy reaches the earth annually, ca. 5 × 104
EJ of which is claimed to be easily harvestable. Despite this huge potential and increase in
awareness, the contribution of solar energy to the global energy supply is still negligible.

Another major prospect with regard to solar research is associated with the current drive
toward reducing global carbon emissions, which has been a major global environmental, social,
and economic issue in recent years . For example, 696,544 metric tons of CO2 emissions have
been reduced or avoided via the installation of 113,533 household solar systems in California,
USA. Therefore, the adoption of solar technologies would significantly mitigate and alleviate
issues associated with energy security, climate change, unemployment, etc. It is also
anticipated that its use will play an important role within the transportation sector in the future
as it does not require any fuel transportation.

Policies, investment, and supports (such as research funding) from various

governmental and non-governmental organizations for solar technologies have helped build up
a solid foundation for the exploitation of this renewable energy system. While incentives and
rebates can be effective motives for the development of these markets, there are also growing
efforts to reduce the fiscal burden of these policy incentives. However, solar power subsidies
have already faced sharp cuts in many countries, which may retard growth within the industry.
To revert this potential decline, policies are changing to support the deployment of solar power
systems for large-scale power generation. Furthermore, greater subsidies should be provided
for residential solar generators over utility-scale generators. In this article, we provide a global
scenario with regard to solar energy technologies in terms of their potential, present capacity,
 Solar energy: Potential and future prospects

prospects, limitations, and policies. This will help us expand our understanding on how much
further we can count on solar energy to meet the future energy demand.
 Solar energy: Potential and future prospects

CHAPTER 2

POTENTIAL OF SOLAR ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES AND

COMPARISONS BETWEEN LOCATIONS

Fig. 1. Comparison of non-hydro renewable energy capacities between countries.

Only three renewable energy sources (i.e., biomass, geothermal, and solar) can be
utilized to yield sufficient heat energy for power generation. Of these three, solar energy
exhibits the highest global potential since geothermal sources are limited to a few locations and
the supply of biomass is not ubiquitous in nature [6,7]. A number of factors (e.g., latitude,
diurnal variation, climate, and geographic variation) are largely responsible for determining the
intensity of the solar influx that passes through Earth's atmosphere [8]. The average amount of
solar energy received at Earth's atmosphere is around 342 W m−2 , of which ca. 30% is
scattered or reflected back to space, leaving ca. 70% (239 W m−2 ) available for harvesting
 Solar energy: Potential and future prospects

and capture [9]. The annual effective solar irradiance varies from 60 to 250 W m−2 worldwide
[10]. Fig. 2 depicts the annual average intensity of solar radiation over the surface of the earth.
Research has shown that “black dot” areas could provide more than the entire world's total
primary energy demand, assuming that a conversion efficiency as low as 8% is achieved

Fig. 2. Annual average solar irradiance distribution over the surface of the Earth

In comparison, the sunniest places of the planet are found on the continent of Africa.
As theoretically estimated, the potential concentrated solar power (CSP) and PV energy in
Africa is around 470 and 660 petawatt hours (PWh), respectively [12]. However, in the regions
other than Africa (like south-western United States, Central and South America, North and
Southern Africa, Middle East, the desert plains of India, Pakistan, Australia, etc.), such
potential is only limited to generate 125 gigawatt hours (GWh) from a 1 km2 land area [13].
Hang et al. [14] estimated that around 6300 km2 of the wasteland located in the northern and
western regions of China (where solar radiation is among the highest in the country) has around
1300 GW electricity generation capacity. In contrast, the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory (NREL) in the United States has estimated that the solar energy potential within
 Solar energy: Potential and future prospects

the USA is capable enough to provide 400 zettawatt-hours annually (ZWh) [15], hugely
exceeding the current electrical generation capacity (22,813 terawatt-hours (TWh) [16]).
Morocco, a northern African country that enjoys about 3000 h of sunshine per year has recently
launched one of the world's largest solar energy projects (including both PV and CSP
technologies), targeting the generation of 2000 MW (MW) by the year 2020 [17]. Such a plan
is ideal due to their suitable atmospheric conditions (such as high altitudes, low fugitive dust,
high transparency, and low humidity). Similarly, the Tibetan plateau in Northern China has
been reported to receive a very high solar radiation of ca. 195 kCal cm-2 y−1 [18] (Fig. 3). In
a similar environment, the yearly duration of sunshine in Lhasa was reported to be 3021 h,
while those in Chengdu and Shanghai were 1186 and 1932 h, respectively

Fig. 3. Annual mean distribution of direct solar radiation in China (unit: kWh/m2 )

Australia has the highest solar radiation per square meter of all continents and is
estimated to have the best solar energy resource in the world. On the Australian continent, a
relatively high daily solar irradiance of 4–6 kW h m−2 has been reported [20]. Comparable
levels of solar radiation were also observed in the desert areas of northern and southern Africa,
 Solar energy: Potential and future prospects

the southwestern United States, adjacent areas of Mexico, and regions of the Pacific coast off
South America [

The whole solar energy concept is regarded as the harvesting and utilization of light
and/or heat energy generated by the Sun and technologies (passive and active) involved in
achieving such goals [21]. A classification of present solar energy technologies is shown in
Fig. 4. By definition, passive technology involves the accumulation of solar energy without
transforming thermal or light energy into any other form (for power generation, for instance)
[22]. Solar energy collection, storage, and distribution in the form of heat for the heating of
homes (especially during the winter season) exemplifies a form of passive solar technology.
On the other hand, active solar system collects solar radiation and uses mechanical and
electrical equipment (e.g., pumps or fans) for the conversion of solar energy to heat and electric
power. The most well known application of this system is the solar water heater system.

Fig. 4. Classification of the present solar energy technologies.

In solar thermal technology, solar energy is harnessed into thermal energy for domestic
and/or commercial applications such as drying, heating, cooling, cooking, etc. [28,29].
 Solar energy: Potential and future prospects

However, on the industrial scale, concentrated solar thermal (CST) technologies are being used
to fulfill such heating requirements while concentrated solar power (CSP) technologies are
being employed to generate electricity. The latter involves the use of high-magnification
mirrors to concentrate solar energy prior to converting it into heat energy to power a steam
turbine [30]. Four types of CSP technologies are currently available on the open market: (i)
parabolic troughs (these concentrate sunlight onto a receiver tube containing a working liquid);
(ii) Fresnel mirrors (use multiple flat mirrors to concentrate solar sunlight onto a receiver tube);
(iii) power towers (an array of thousands of sun-tracking reflecting mirrors positioned in a field
to concentrate solar radiation to a single point), and (iv) solar dish collectors (concentrate power
by focusing ST energy onto a single point situated above a reflector dish).

In general, active solar energy technology can be further grouped into two categories:
(i) photovoltaic technology and (ii) solar thermal technology [23]. In recent years, photovoltaic
technology involving the use of semiconductors to convert sunlight directly into electrical
energy has become a highly desirable option [24]. The intense research efforts of energy
scientists with regard to solar options have helped to yield an improved efficiency of
photovoltaic technology; in case of hybrid perovskite solar cells ((CH3NH3)PbI3), a promising
achievement (e.g., an efficiency increase of ca. 18%) has been reported [25,26]. Currently,
photovoltaic technology involving wafer-based cells (traditional crystalline silicon or gallium
arsenide), commercial thin-film cells (cadmium telluride, amorphous silicon, copper indium
gallium diselenide), and new thin-film technologies (perovskites, organic materials, quantum
dots) are progressing with the advent of intense R & D efforts

In solar thermal technology, solar energy is harnessed into thermal energy for domestic
and/or commercial applications such as drying, heating, cooling, cooking, etc. [28,29].
However, on the industrial scale, concentrated solar thermal (CST) technologies are being used
to fulfill such heating requirements while concentrated solar power (CSP) technologies are
being employed to generate electricity. The latter involves the use of high-magnification
mirrors to concentrate solar energy prior to converting it into heat energy to power a steam
turbine [30]. Four types of CSP technologies are currently available on the open market: (i)
parabolic troughs (these concentrate sunlight onto a receiver tube containing a working liquid);
(ii) Fresnel mirrors (use multiple flat mirrors to concentrate solar sunlight onto a receiver tube);
(iii) power towers (an array of thousands of sun-tracking reflecting mirrors positioned in a field
to concentrate solar radiation to a single point), and (iv) solar dish collectors (concentrate power
by focusing ST energy onto a single point situated above a reflector dish)
 Solar energy: Potential and future prospects

2.1. Current global status for solar energy

The availability of most renewable energy sources (i.e., wind, solar, tidal wave, hydro,
etc.) tends to vary widely throughout the course of a day, season, year, even from one
geographical

location to another [32]. A comparison of the global power capacities between different
renewable energy sectors is listed in Table 1. In many countries, the use of renewable energy
has been pursued competitively along with conventional energy sources, thereby making a
significant contribution to the national generation of power [33]. For example, solar PV
contributes an estimated 7.9%, 7.6%, and 7.0% of the electricity demand in Italy, Greece, and
Germany, respectively [34]. Solar PV capacities have grown at phenomenal rates, from ca. 3.7
in 2004–225 GW in 2015 [35]. In 2015, with a total of $161 bn investment and additional 59
GW (a 34% increase over 2014's total) on solar energy led to cumulative installations of total
solar capacity 256 GW worldwide at the end of the year [36]. However, with nearly 100 GW
of installed capacity, Europe is still the most solarized continent. In 2015, the solar capacity for
Europe increased by 8 GW, while the United Kingdom, Germany, and France achieved an
increase of only 5.3 GW (75%) [37]. However, China has excelled with a total installed solar
power capacity of ca. 43 GW as of December 2015, thereby replacing long-time table topper
Germany in the global rankings [36]. Moreover, China also has plans to increase its solar power
capacity to 150 GW by 2020.

According to the American Solar Energy Industries Association, the total solar PV
capacity of the USA could reach 45 GW by 2017 [38]. In Australia, solar power has become
the foremost source of new power, producing 913 MW against 774 MW derived from wind
power in 2015 [39]. Interestingly, 1300 MW of coal power was decommissioned in Australia
at the same year [39]. This was applauded as a huge drive towards replacing conventional coal-
based power generation and achieving a greener earth.
 Solar energy: Potential and future prospects

2.2. Regulation and policy frameworks

In 2015, the global investment with regard to solar energy experienced an upsurge,
especially in China, the USA, Africa, Latin America, the Middle East, and India. Although
China is projected to retain its leading position, the USA is tipped to exhibit robust growth in
2016, due to the anticipation of the Federal Investment Tax Credit (ITC). It is also assumed
that the USA will replace Japan as the third largest solar market, exceeding the much-
anticipated 10 GW mark in 2016. However, in Europe, slow growth with regard to solar power
investments was observed in 2015, compared to the preceding year. The total global corporate
funding within the solar sector (including venture capital/private equity, debt financing, and
public market financing) was USD 25.3 billion in 2015, compared to USD 26.5 billion in 2014
[42]. In Germany, the 2014 Renewable Energy Act set fixed values to the purchase and
remuneration of PV electricity as well as levies on selfconsumption [43]. From 2016, systems
generating over 100 kW must directly market their electricity. Moreover, the electricity
surcharge was raised to 7.56 €-cts-kWh−1 in 2016, about triple that of the charge in 2014,
which was 2.54 €-cts-kWh−1 [44]. Due to drops in the feed-in tariff among other obstacles,
new imposing laws may substantially decline the number of new PV installations in Germany.
Meanwhile, in the UK, the value of solar-power investments dropped from £5bn (in 2014) to
£3.5bn (in 2015) as a result of cuts to large-scale generators. The UK government cut subsidies
to household solar power systems by 65% with plans to eliminate subsidies by 2020 courtesy
of the EU state rules [45]. Italy is also aiming to truncate all solar power incentives (by 10 2̴ 5%)
on similar grounds [46]. Spain and Greece have also made similar cuts as well. According to
 Solar energy: Potential and future prospects

new policies by the Spanish government, PV systems with capacities of 10–100 kW must add
excess electricity to the grid without compensation, whilst systems with capacities over 100
kW must be registered in order to sell electricity on the spot market [47]. It is suspected that
lobbying efforts made in a desire to secure their bulk investments by the fossil fuel energy
industry are making the governments of some European countries hesitate to maintain the
support for the solar power sector.

According to the American Solar Energy Industries Association, the total solar PV
capacity of the USA could reach 45 GW by 2017 [38]. In Australia, solar power has become
the foremost source of new power, producing 913 MW against 774 MW derived from wind
power in 2015 [39]. Interestingly, 1300 MW of coal power was decommissioned in Australia
at the same year [39]. This was applauded as a huge drive towards replacing conventional coal-
based power generation and achieving a greener earth.

In India, the installed solar power grid reached a capacity of 3743 (March 2015), 6762
(March 2016), and 8062 MW (July 2016) [40]. With such developments, India is currently
planning to increase its solar power capacity to a staggering 100,000 MW by 2022 [40].
Similarly on the European front, France plans to construct a 1,000-kilometer-long solar
roadway, with each kilometer capable of providing enough clean energy to power 5000 homes
[41]. To recap, Table 2 lists the present solar power generation capacities and world rankings
at the end of 2015.
 Solar energy: Potential and future prospects

CHAPTER 3

LIMITATIONS AND BENEFITS OF SOLAR ENERGY

TECHNOLOGIES

Solar energy is a constant power source that could provide energy security and energy
independence to all. Such a propensity is hugely important not only for individuals but also for
the socio-economic prosperity of companies, societies, states, and nations. Nevertheless, solar
power is now being adopted as a natural and substantial part of electricity generation in many
developed and developing countries to fulfill energy needs. However, there are a number of
limitations as well as benefits associated with its use.

3.1. Limitations of solar energy technologies

High initial installation cost is one of the most significant flaws of the solar energy
system; for example, the average price per watt for solar energy was $3.70 in the USA in early
2016 [48]. Based on an average solar energy system of 5 kW per household, the system would
cost $13,000 when the Federal solar tax credit is put into consideration (thereby reducing costs
by 30%). However, lengthy payback periods and small revenue streams also reduce the value
of credits for such systems [35]. Furthermore, the efficiencies of most domestic solar panels
are around 10–20% which is another shortcoming of solar technology [12]. However, more
efficient (ca. > 20%) solar panels are also available at higher prices. The performance
limitations of other components such as batteries, inverters, etc. are other areas with
considerable room for improvement. Short battery lifetimes and the safe disposal of spent
batteries are another concern with regard to solar energy systems. Moreover, batteries are often
large and heavy, thereby requiring large storage space. Additionally, as solar panels are made
from rare or precious metals such as silver, tellurium, or indium, insufficient facilities exist
with which to recycle spent panels. Factors associated with the maintenance of systems such
as a shortage of skilled manpower to meet growing demands for installation, maintenance,
inspection, repair, and evaluation of solar power systems are another constraint as well.
Furthermore, a lack of basic technical knowhow on the user's behalf (especially in rural areas
 Solar energy: Potential and future prospects

of the developing world) with regard to solar power systems can result in irregular usage,
overcharging the battery, polarity reversal, by-passing the charge controller, etc. which can all
lead to system damage. Additionally, the plausibility of cracks within the PV module, water
intrusion, exposure to dust, and algal growth can greatly lower the performance of the system.
Poisonous silicon tetrachloride, a byproduct of the polysilicon production process, is costly
(about $84,500 per ton) to process and recycle. To make things worse, silicon tetrachloride is
often dumped by most manufacturing companies without proper pre-disposal treatmen.

orage is nonexistent. When compared with fossil fuel technologies that are primarily
mechanized and capital intensive, solar power technologies are regarded as being more labor-
intensive. A positive aspect of this notion is that solar technologies should improve job
opportunities. On average, more jobs can be created per unit of electricity production with solar
energy as opposed to fossil fuels. The Solar Foundation [59] reported that the solar industry
employed around 208,859 workers in the USA on either a part-time or full-time basis for
manufacturing, installation, and sales. Within a year, a growth rate of 20.2% was reported.
Moreover, the industries responsible for solar energy supply chain systems will also benefit
tremendously, while some unrelated local businesses (due to an increase in shop and restaurant
business hours) would also benefit from an overall increase in income [60]. Furthermore, local
solar energy projects would keep money circulating within the local economy, thereby saving
a substantial amount of money presently being used for the importation of fossil fuels from
other locations. From an economical perspective, solar power is beneficial in a variety of ways
due to tax incentives, an elimination of electricity bills, increased property values, and high
durability.

The efficiency of solar power technologies has increased greatly in recent years and has
been accompanied by a progressively steady decline in costs, which are projected to drop even
further. For instance, the total cost of a PV module has been reduced from USD 1.30 per watt
(in 2011) to USD 0.50 per watt (in 2014) (ca. 60% cost reduction) [61]. As the solar markets
mature and more companies take advantage of the solar economy, the availability and
affordability of solar power will grow at an impressive pace.

Although solar power systems require an upfront investment for their installation, they
otherwise operate at very low costs. Unlike the price of fossil fuels, which are prone to
substantial price swings, the financial demand for solar power is relatively stable over long
periods. Moreover, there are no (mechanically) moving parts in solar panels, making them free
 Solar energy: Potential and future prospects

of noise pollution and durable (no wear and tear), with very little in the way of required
maintenance. Moreover, solar panels can be easily installed on roof tops and mounted onto
building walls, meriting their installation flexibility. Furthermore, solar power systems are less
prone to large-scale failure because they are distributed and composed of numerous individual
solar arrays. Therefore, if any section of arrays were found to be faulty, the rest could continue
to operate. However, additional solar modules could also be added over time to improve the
energy generation capacity. These notions reveal huge advantages in the ruggedness and
flexibility of solar power systems over all other energy sources that have already been
established

3.2. Benefits of solar energy technologies

It is well known that nothing can compare with the energy potential of the sun. As solar power
is theoretically abundant enough, it is more than capable of fulfilling the world's electricity
demands. Because solar energy is not only sustainable but also renewable, it is not necessary
to consider the notion that solar energy may eventually be depleted [52]. Global warming is
characterized by cataclysmic potential, thus portending its harmful impact on the climate,
environment (including animals and plants), and human health [53]. Power plants (especially
coal-fired) are a significant source of greenhouse gases (GHG), which are responsible for
approximately 25% of all anthropogenic emissions [54]. Hence, GHG emissions associated
with the generation of solar power (including manufacturing, installation, operation, and
maintenance) are minimal [55]. The range of CO2 emission per kilowatt-h generated from coal,
natural gas, and solar are estimated as 0.64 1̴ .63, 0.27 0̴ .91, and 0.03 0̴ .09 kg (emission ratio of
18:9.5:1), respectively. As such, this comparison again confirms the superior environmental
friendliness of solar power among others [15]. Hence, solar power has become one of the most
feasible solutions to the current global warming crisis, which if left unabated, could be
extremely expensive with its potential ramifications. Thus, mitigating global warming through
the substitution of coal and gas-based power sources with solar power will eventually be
environmentally, economically, and socially beneficial toward achieving sustainable
development.

Solar energy is considered to be a non-polluting, reliable, and clean source of energy.

Unlike other energy sources, its use is not accompanied by the release of harmful gases (e.g.,
oxides of C/N/S and/or volatile organic compounds (VOCs)) and particles (e.g., soot, carbon
 Solar energy: Potential and future prospects

black, metals, and particulate matter (PM)). Such fossil fuel emissions from gas-fired power
plants have been indicted with regard to causing neurological damage, heart attacks, breathing
problems, cancer, etc. [56,57]. Machol [58] reported that the replacement of fossil fuels with
renewable energy could minimize premature mortality rates, lost workdays, and reduce the
overall costs for healthcare. Additionally, fossil fuel power plants require huge amounts of
water for their operation to exert a significant influence on the current water shortage issues. A
limited accessibility to water during droughts and heat waves has hindered the generation of
electricity by limiting its generation from power plants. On the other hand, electricity generated
from solar installations does not require water to operate; additionally, the existence of fuel by-
products or the requirement for radioactive waste storage is nonexistent. When compared with
fossil fuel technologies that are primarily mechanized and capital intensive, solar power
technologies are regarded as being more labor-intensive. A positive aspect of this notion is that
solar technologies should improve job opportunities. On average, more jobs can be created per
unit of electricity production with solar energy as opposed to fossil fuels. The Solar Foundation
[59] reported that the solar industry employed around 208,859 workers in the USA on either a
part-time or full-time basis for manufacturing, installation, and sales. Within a year, a growth
rate of 20.2% was reported. Moreover, the industries responsible for solar energy supply chain
systems will also benefit tremendously, while some unrelated local businesses (due to an
increase in shop and restaurant business hours) would also benefit from an overall increase in
income [60]. Furthermore, local solar energy projects would keep money circulating within the
local economy, thereby saving a substantial amount of money presently being used for the
importation of fossil fuels from other locations. From an economical perspective, solar power
is beneficial in a variety of ways due to tax incentives, an elimination of electricity bills,
increased property values, and high durability

The efficiency of solar power technologies has increased greatly in recent years and has
been accompanied by a progressively steady decline in costs, which are projected to drop even
further. For instance, the total cost of a PV module has been reduced from USD 1.30 per watt
(in 2011) to USD 0.50 per watt (in 2014) (ca. 60% cost reduction) [61]. As the solar markets
mature and more companies take advantage of the solar economy, the availability and
affordability of solar power will grow at an impressive pace.

Although solar power systems require an upfront investment for their installation, they
otherwise operate at very low costs. Unlike the price of fossil fuels, which are prone to
substantial price swings, the financial demand for solar power is relatively stable over long
 Solar energy: Potential and future prospects

periods. Moreover, there are no (mechanically) moving parts in solar panels, making them free
of noise pollution and durable (no wear and tear), with very little in the way of required
maintenance. Moreover, solar panels can be easily installed on roof tops and mounted onto
building walls, meriting their installation flexibility. Furthermore, solar power systems are less
prone to large-scale failure because they are distributed and composed of numerous individual
solar arrays. Therefore, if any section of arrays were found to be faulty, the rest could continue
to operate. However, additional solar modules could also be added over time to improve the
energy generation capacity. These notions reveal huge advantages in the ruggedness and
flexibility of solar power systems over all other energy sources that have already been
established.
 Solar energy: Potential and future prospects

CHAPTER 4

FUTURE PROSPECTS OF SOLAR TECHNOLOGY

Solar energy is one of the best options to meet future energy demand since it is superior
in terms of availability, cost effectiveness, accessibility, capacity, and efficiency compared to
other renewable energy sources [62,63]. For the first time, researchers have successfully
measured in detail the flow of solar energy, in and between different parts of a photosynthetic
organism [64]. The result is a first step in research that could ultimately contribute to the
development of technologies that use solar energy far more efficiently than what is currently
possible. Researchers from the Graphene Flagship showed that the lifetime of perovskite solar
cells can significantly enhanced by using few-layer MoS2 flakes as an active buffer interface
layer [65]. Furthermore, scientists in Hong Kong reported that they have successfully
developed perovskite-silicon tandem solar cells with the world's highest power conversion
efficiency of 25.5% [66]. It is worth mentioning here that the efficiency of perovskite solar
cells was only 3.8% when first appeared in 2009 [62]. Hence, semi-transparent perovskite solar
cells have been created that demonstrate high-power conversion efficiency and transmit visible
light while blocking infrared light, making them great candidates for solar windows [67]. It
was demonstrated that the polymer poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) should have great
potential for cost-effective and highly efficient perovskite solar cells as a hole transporting
material

A team of researchers at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA has developed a

new solar cell that combines two different layers of sunlight-absorbing material to harvest a
broader range of the sun's energy [69]. Using a heat-resistant device, made of tungsten and
alumina layers, researchers have found that the device can absorb the sun's broad spectrum
radiation and convert it to electricity [70]. A green polymer derived from bio-waste was applied
to the dye-sensitized solar cells [71]. Chitosan obtained from the insects and crustaceans chitin
was modified to produce the phthaloylchitosan electrolyte for the dyesensitized solar cells with
efficiency of more than 7% [71]. CdTe and Cu (In,Ga)Se2 thin-film solar cells were also seen
to have high efficiencies of around 16.5% and 20%, respectively [72]. The
CH3NH3Pb0.75Sn0.25I3 perovskite solar cells with inverted structure were consequently
found to have a maximum power conversion efficiency of 14.1% [73]. Freitag et al. [74]
 Solar energy: Potential and future prospects

achieved very high power-conversion efficiencies under ambient light conditions by a dye-
sensitized solar cell. Their photo system was seen to combine two judiciously designed
sensitizers, coded D35 and XY1, with the copper complex Cu(II/I)(tmby) as a redox shuttle
(tmby, 4,4′,6,6′-tetramethyl-2,2′-bipyridine) to feature a high open-circuit photovoltage of 1.1
V.
 Solar energy: Potential and future prospects

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS AND REMARKS

Solar energy technologies have become well-established and popular technologies

throughout the world. To achieve this, billions of US dollars have been invested and much
more are expected to be invested in the near future to overcome the current limitations in the
solar industry. Presently, a number of new large scale solar power (for example CSP) projects
are coming online or are under development in both developed and developing countries. CSP
has been found to be suitable for regions without frequent clouds or haze, although the system
is more expensive than PV technology. PV technologies for the time being may continue to be
the primary source of solar power generation. Moreover, the potential market for off-grid solar
systems remains largely untapped given the limited evolution of supporting policies and
institutions

Despite a rapid decline in solar technology costs in recent years, the overall costs to
generate solar power still remain high. Incentives and rebates which are crucial for the
development of the solar energy market are making it apparent that innovative approaches are
still necessary to reduce the fiscal burden of various policy incentives. However, the solar
industry should focus more on the quality and development of its technology. Additionally,
researchers should also focus on improving the competitiveness of solar power against both
conventional and other renewable energy sources. Hopefully, more research efforts will be
dedicated toward PV technologies in the near future to enhance their efficiency, stability,
manufacturability, and availability, to reduce balance-of-system (BOS) costs and reduce the
costs of modules. In this review, we investigated the global potential of solar energy
technologies, their limitations and benefits, and their future prospects. Accordingly, we
concluded that despite a few drawbacks solar energy technology is one of the most promising
renewable energy sources to meet the future global energy demand.
 Solar energy: Potential and future prospects

CHAPTER 6

REFERENCES

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