Appendix B

Complex Numbers

The ability to manipulate complex numbers is very handy in circuit

analysis and in electrical engineering in general. Complex numbers are
particularly useful in the analysis of ac circuits. Again, although cal-
culators and computer software packages are now available to manip-
ulate complex numbers, it is still advisable for a student to be familiar
with how to handle them by hand.

B.1 Representations of Complex

Numbers
A complex number z may be written in rectangular form as
z 5 x 1 jy (B.1)
where j 5 121; x is the real part of z while y is the imaginary part
of z; that is,
x 5 Re(z), y 5 Im(z) (B.2) The complex plane looks like the
The complex number z is shown plotted in the complex plane in two-dimensional curvilinear coordinate
space, but it is not.
Fig. B.1. Since j 5 121,
1 Im
5 2j z
j jy
j2 5 21 r
y
j3 5 j ? j 2 5 2j (B.3)
j4 5 j2 ? j2 5 1 0 x Re
j5 5 j ? j4 5 j Figure B.1
o Graphical representation of a
n14
complex number.
j 5 jn
A second way of representing the complex number z is by speci-
fying its magnitude r and the angle u it makes with the real axis, as
Fig. B.1 shows. This is known as the polar form. It is given by
z 5 0 z 0 lu 5 rlu (B.4)
where
y
r 5 2x2 1 y2, u 5 tan 21 (B.5a)
x
or
x 5 r cos u, y 5 r sin u (B.5b)
that is,
z 5 x 1 jy 5 rlu 5 r cos u 1 jr sin u (B.6)

A-9
A-10 Appendix B Complex Numbers

In converting from rectangular to polar form using Eq. (B.5), we must

exercise care in determining the correct value of u. These are the four
possibilities:
y
z 5 x 1 jy, u 5 tan21 (1st Quadrant)
x
y
z 5 2x 1 jy, u 5 1808 2 tan 21 (2nd Quadrant)
x
(B.7)
y
z 5 2x 2 jy, u 5 1808 1 tan 21 (3rd Quadrant)
x
y
z 5 x 2 jy, u 5 3608 2 tan 21 (4th Quadrant)
x
assuming that x and y are positive.
In the exponential form, z 5 re ju so The third way of representing the complex z is the exponential
that dzyd u 5 jre j u 5 jz. form:
z 5 re ju (B.8)
This is almost the same as the polar form, because we use the same
magnitude r and the angle u.
The three forms of representing a complex number are summa-
rized as follows.

z 5 x 1 jy, (x 5 r cos u, y 5 r sin u) Rectangular form

ar 5 2x2 1 y2, u 5 tan 21 b

y
z 5 rlu, Polar form
x

ar 5 2x2 1 y2, u 5 tan 21 b Exponential form

y
z 5 re ju,
x

(B.9)
The first two forms are related by Eqs. (B.5) and (B.6). In Section B.3
we will derive Euler’s formula, which proves that the third form is also
equivalent to the first two.

Example B.1 Express the following complex numbers in polar and exponential form:
(a) z1 5 6 1 j8, (b) z2 5 6 2 j8, (c) z3 5 26 1 j8, (d) z4 5 26 2 j8.

Solution:
Notice that we have deliberately chosen these complex numbers to fall
in the four quadrants, as shown in Fig. B.2.
(a) For z1 5 6 1 j8 (1st quadrant),
8
r1 5 262 1 82 5 10, u1 5 tan 21 5 53.138
6
Hence, the polar form is 10l53.138 and the exponential form is 10e j53.138.
(b) For z2 5 6 2 j8 (4th quadrant),
8
r2 5 262 1 (28)2 5 10, u2 5 3608 2 tan 21 5 306.878
6
 Appendix B Complex Numbers A-11

so that the polar form is 10l306.878 and the exponential form is Im

z3 j8 z1
10e j306.878. The angle u2 may also be taken as 253.138, as shown in
Fig. B.2, so that the polar form becomes 10l253.138 and the j6
exponential form becomes 10e2j53.138. r3 j4 r1
3
(c) For z3 5 26 1 j8 (2nd quadrant),
j2 1
4
8
r3 5 2(26) 1 8 5 10,
2 2
u3 5 1808 2 tan 21 5 126.878 0 2 4 6 8 Re
6 −8 −6 −4 −2
−j2
Hence, the polar form is 10l126.878 and the exponential form
2

r4 −j4 r2
is 10e j126.878.
−j6
(d) For z4 5 26 2 j8 (3rd quadrant),
z4 −j8 z2
21 8
r4 5 2(26) 1 (28) 5 10,
2 2
u4 5 1808 1 tan 5 233.138 Figure B.2
6
For Example B.1.
so that the polar form is 10l233.138 and the exponential form
is 10e j233.138.

Convert the following complex numbers to polar and exponential forms: Practice Problem B.1
(a) z1 5 3 2 j4, (b) z2 5 5 1 j12, (c) z3 5 23 2 j9, (d) z4 5 27 1 j.

Answer: (a) 5l306.98, 5e j306.98, (b) 13l67.388, 13e j67.388,

(c) 9.487l251.68, 9.487e j251.68, (d) 7.071l171.98, 7.071e j171.98.

Convert the following complex numbers into rectangular form: Example B.2
(a) 12l2608, (b) 250l2858, (c) 8e j108, (d) 20e2jpy3.

Solution:
(a) Using Eq. (B.6),
12l2608 5 12 cos(2608) 1 j12 sin(2608) 5 6 2 j10.39
Note that u 5 2608 is the same as u 5 3608 2 608 5 3008.
(b) We can write
250l2858 5 250 cos 2858 2 j50 sin 2858 5 212.94 1 j48.3
(c) Similarly,
8e j108 5 8 cos 108 1 j8 sin 108 5 7.878 1 j1.389
(d) Finally,
20e2jpy3 5 20 cos(2py3) 1 j20 sin(2py3) 5 10 2 j17.32

Find the rectangular form of the following complex numbers: Practice Problem B.2
(a) 28l2108, (b) 40l3058, (c) 10e2j308, (d) 50e jpy2.

Answer: (a) 6.928 1 j4, (b) 22.94 2 j32.77, (c) 8.66 2 j5, (d) j50.
A-12 Appendix B Complex Numbers

B.2 Mathematical Operations

We have used lightface notation for
complex numbers—since they are Two complex numbers z1 5 x1 1 jy1 and z2 5 x2 1 jy2 are equal if
not time- or frequency-dependent— and only if their real parts are equal and their imaginary parts are equal,
whereas we use boldface notation
x1 5 x2, y1 5 y2 (B.10)
for phasors.
The complex conjugate of the complex number z 5 x 1 jy is
z* 5 x 2 jy 5 rl2u 5 re2ju (B.11)
Thus, the complex conjugate of a complex number is found by replac-
ing every j by 2j.
Given two complex numbers z1 5 x1 1 jy1 5 r1lu1 and z2 5 x2 1
jy2 5 r2lu2, their sum is
z1 1 z2 5 (x1 1 x2) 1 j( y1 1 y2) (B.12)
and their difference is
z1 2 z2 5 (x1 2 x2) 1 j( y1 2 y2) (B.13)
While it is more convenient to perform addition and subtraction of
complex numbers in rectangular form, the product and quotient of the
two complex numbers are best done in polar or exponential form. For
their product,
z1z2 5 r1r2lu1 1 u2 (B.14)
Alternatively, using the rectangular form,
z1z2 5 (x1 1 jy1)(x2 1 jy2)
(B.15)
5 (x1x2 2 y1y2) 1 j(x1y2 1 x2y1)
For their quotient,
z1 r1
5 lu1 2 u2 (B.16)
z2 r2
Alternatively, using the rectangular form,
z1 x1 1 jy1
5 (B.17)
z2 x2 1 jy2
We rationalize the denominator by multiplying both the numerator and
denominator by z*2 .
z1 (x1 1 jy1)(x2 2 jy2) x1x2 1 y1y2 x2 y1 2 x1y2
5 5 1j 2 (B.18)
z2 (x2 1 jy2)(x2 2 jy2) x 22 1 y 22 x 2 1 y 22

Example B.3 If A 5 2 1 j5, B 5 4 2 j6, find: (a) A*(A 1 B), (b) (A 1 B)y(A 2 B).

Solution:
(a) If A 5 2 1 j5, then A* 5 2 2 j5 and
A 1 B 5 (2 1 4) 1 j(5 2 6) 5 6 2 j
so that
A*(A 1 B) 5 (2 2 j5)(6 2 j) 5 12 2 j2 2 j30 2 5 5 7 2 j32
 Appendix B Complex Numbers A-13

(b) Similarly,
A 2 B 5 (2 2 4) 1 j(5 2 26) 5 22 1 j11
Hence,
A1B 62j (6 2 j)(22 2 j11)
5 5
A2B 22 1 j11 (22 1 j11)(22 2 j11)
212 2 j66 1 j2 2 11 223 2 j64
5 2 2
5 5 20.184 2 j0.512
(22) 1 11 125

Given that C 5 23 1 j 7 and D 5 8 1 j, calculate: Practice Problem B.3

(a) (C 2 D*)(C 1 D*), (b) D2yC*, (c) 2CDy(C 1 D).

Answer: (a) 2103 2 j26, (b) 25.19 1 j 6.776, (c) 6.045 1 j11.53.

Evaluate: Example B.4

j108
(2 1 j5)(8e ) j(3 2 j4)*
(a) (b)
2 1 j4 1 2l2408 (21 1 j6)(2 1 j)2

Solution:
(a) Since there are terms in polar and exponential forms, it may be best
to express all terms in polar form:
2 1 j5 5 222 1 52ltan21 5y2 5 5.385l68.28
(2 1 j5)(8e j108) 5 (5.385l68.28)(8l108) 5 43.08l78.28
2 1 j4 1 2l2408 5 2 1 j4 1 2 cos(2408) 1 j2 sin(2408)
5 3.532 1 j2.714 5 4.454l37.548
Thus,
(2 1 j5)(8e j108) 43.08l78.28
5 5 9.672l40.668
2 1 j4 1 2l2408 4.454l37.548
(b) We can evaluate this in rectangular form, since all terms are in that
form. But
j(3 2 j4)* 5 j(3 1 j4) 5 24 1 j3
(2 1 j)2 5 4 1 j4 2 1 5 3 1 j4
(21 1 j6)(2 1 j)2 5 (21 1 j6)(3 1 j4) 5 23 2 4j 1 j18 2 24
5 227 1 j14
Hence,
j(3 2 j4)* 24 1 j3 (24 1 j3)(227 2 j14)
2
5 5
(21 1 j6)(2 1 j) 227 1 j14 272 1 142
108 1 j56 2 j81 1 42
5 5 0.1622 2 j0.027
925
A-14 Appendix B Complex Numbers

Practice Problem B.4 Evaluate these complex fractions:

6l308 1 j5 2 3
(b) B R
(15 2 j7)(3 1 j2)* *
(a)
21 1 j 1 2e j458
(4 1 j6)*(3l708)

Answer: (a) 3.387l25.6158, (b) 2.759l2287.68.

B.3 Euler’s Formula

Euler’s formula is an important result in complex variables. We derive
it from the series expansion of ex, cos u, and sin u. We know that
x2 x3 x4
ex 5 1 1 x 1 1 1 1p (B.19)
2! 3! 4!
Replacing x by ju gives
u2 u3 u4
e ju 5 1 1 ju 2 2j 1 1p (B.20)
2! 3! 4!
Also,
u2 u4 u6
cos u 5 1 2 1 2 1p
2! 4! 6!
(B.21)
u3 u5 u7
sin u 5 u 2 1 2 1p
3! 5! 7!
so that
u2 u3 u4 u5
cos u 1 j sin u 5 1 1 ju 2 2j 1 1j 2p (B.22)
2! 3! 4! 5!
Comparing Eqs. (B.20) and (B.22), we conclude that

e ju 5 cos u 1 j sin u (B.23)

This is known as Euler’s formula. The exponential form of represent-

ing a complex number as in Eq. (B.8) is based on Euler’s formula.
From Eq. (B.23), notice that

cos u 5 Re(e ju), sin u 5 Im(e ju) (B.24)

and that
0 e ju 0 5 2 cos2 u 1 sin2 u 5 1
Replacing u by 2u in Eq. (B.23) gives
e2ju 5 cos u 2 j sin u (B.25)
Adding Eqs. (B.23) and (B.25) yields

1
cos u 5 (e ju 1 e2ju) (B.26)
2
 Appendix B Complex Numbers A-15

Subtracting Eq. (B.25) from Eq. (B.23) yields

1 ju
sin u 5 (e 2 e2ju) (B.27)
2j

Useful Identities
The following identities are useful in dealing with complex numbers.
If z 5 x 1 jy 5 rlu, then
zz* 5 x2 1 y2 5 r2 (B.28)
2z 5 2x 1 jy 5 2re juy2
5 2rluy2 (B.29)
z n 5 (x 1 jy)n 5 r nlnu 5 r ne jnu 5 r n(cos nu 1 j sin nu) (B.30)
z1yn 5 (x 1 jy)1yn 5 r1ynluyn 1 2 p kyn
(B.31)
k 5 0, 1, 2, p , n 2 1
ln(re ju) 5 ln r 1 ln e ju 5 ln r 1 ju 1 j2k p
(B.32)
(k 5 integer)
1
5 2j
j
e 6 jp 5 21
(B.33)
e 6 j2p 5 1
e jpy2 5 j
e2jpy2 5 2j
Re(e(a1j!)t ) 5 Re(eate j!t ) 5 eat cos !t
(B.34)
Im(e(a1j!)t ) 5 Im(eate j!t) 5 eat sin !t

If A 5 6 1 j8, find: (a) 1A, (b) A4. Example B.5

Solution:
(a) First, convert A to polar form:
8
r 5 262 1 82 5 10, u 5 tan21 5 53.138, A 5 10l53.138
6
Then
1A 5 110l53.138y2 5 3.162l26.568

(b) Since A 5 10l53.138,

A4 5 r4l4u 5 104l4 3 53.138 5 10,000l212.528

If A 5 3 2 j4, find: (a) A1y3 (3 roots), and (b) ln A. Practice Problem B.5
Answer: (a) 1.71l102.38, 1.71l222.38, 1.71l342.38,
(b) 1.609 1 j5.356 1 j2n p (n 5 0, 1, 2, . . . ).