Contemporary Social Science

Journal of the Academy of Social Sciences

ISSN: 2158-2041 (Print) 2158-205X (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rsoc21

Grandparenting and adolescent well-being:

evidence from the UK and Israel

Shalhevet Attar-Schwartz & Ann Buchanan

To cite this article: Shalhevet Attar-Schwartz & Ann Buchanan (2018): Grandparenting and
adolescent well-being: evidence from the UK and Israel, Contemporary Social Science, DOI:
10.1080/21582041.2018.1465200

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/21582041.2018.1465200

Published online: 25 Apr 2018.

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CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL SCIENCE, 2018
https://doi.org/10.1080/21582041.2018.1465200

Grandparenting and adolescent well-being: evidence from the

UK and Israel
Shalhevet Attar-Schwartza and Ann Buchananb
a
Paul Baerwald School of Social Work and Social Welfare, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem,
Israel; bDepartment of Social Policy and Intervention, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

This article reviews the major findings of two large-scale studies on Received 12 November 2017
adolescent–grandparent relationship conducted in the UK and in Accepted 10 April 2018
Israel. The Israeli study followed the UK study, deepening the
KEYWORDS
investigation of some of the major themes uncovered in the Grandparenting;
British study. Both studies reveal that grandmothers and intergenerational
grandfathers are highly involved in adolescents’ lives and that this relationships; adolescents;
involvement is associated with increased adolescent well-being. parental divorce; well-being;
The studies focus on the role of grandparents in times of parental culture
divorce and other stressful events, as well as the weaker status of
the paternal grandparents in post-divorce families and the
correlates of the adolescent’s relationship with the paternal
grandmother. Both studies highlight the role of intergenerational
relationships, including parent–grandparent and parent–
adolescent bonds, in the adolescent–grandparent relationship, in
line with the intergenerational solidarity model. The Israeli study
deepens our understanding of the possible contributions of
cultural affiliation to the child–grandparent relationship by
comparing Arab and Jewish adolescents’ self-reports of their
relationships with their grandparents. These studies bring to light
the possible positive role of grandparent involvement. Family
psychology should pay greater attention to this role and its
contribution, especially in times of transition and distress in
adolescents’ lives.

Introduction
In recent decades, we have been witnessing several sociodemographic trends that have
made the role of grandparents more significant in adolescents’ lives. Among these
trends are increased life expectancy, changing family structure and higher rates of
divorce and remarriage among parents (see Attar-Schwartz & Buchanan, 2017). Most
research on adolescent family relationships, however, still focuses on adolescents’ relation-
ships with parents and the informal role of grandparents in adolescents’ lives remains
poorly studied (see Attar-Schwartz, 2015). This article reviews the findings of two large-
scale studies of adolescents’ relationships with their grandparents in the UK and in
Israel. The Israeli study replicated the UK study, expanding the investigation of some of
the major themes uncovered in the British study, mainly the role of socio-cultural

CONTACT Shalhevet Attar-Schwartza shalhevet@mail.huji.ac.il

© 2018 Academy of Social Sciences
2 S. ATTAR-SCHWARTZA AND A. BUCHANANB

context in such a bond. Among the issues investigated were the contribution of the
parent–grandparent relationship to adolescent well-being in times of adversity, including
parental divorce; the intergenerational relationship context of the adolescent–grandpar-
ent bond; the role of culture in such bond and grandfathering and its contribution to ado-
lescent well-being. These studies shed light on the possible positive role of grandparent
involvement and call for further research on this role and its contribution especially in
times of transition and distress.

The UK and Israeli studies on grandparenting and adolescent well-being

The UK study, conducted in 2006, was based on a random sampling of British schools. It
included the reports of 1569 secondary school students across England and Wales in
grades 7–11. The resulting sample was broadly representative, by age, gender, ethnic
origin, family background and family socioeconomic background, of young people in
England and Wales. The study also included qualitative in-depth interviews with 30 young
people who were a subsample of the total sample (for more information about the UK
study, see Attar-Schwartz, Tan, Buchanan, Flouri, & Griggs, 2009; Tan & Buchanan, 2016).
The Israeli study was based on the reports of 2751 Israeli and Arab middle- and high-
school students in grades 7–11. The sample was a convenience quota non-proportionate
sample stratified by ethnic affiliation (Arab or Jewish) in order to enable a meaningful com-
parison between the two groups in their bonds with their grandparents (for more infor-
mation about the Israeli sample, see Attar-Schwartz, 2016; Attar-Schwartz & Khoury-
Kassabri, 2016). The Israeli study was purely quantitative. Despite some changes in
recent decades, the Arab community in Israel is still considered to be generally more col-
lectivistic, traditional, hierarchical and patriarchal than the Jewish population, which, as a
whole, is more egalitarian, individualistic and Western-oriented (Lavenda, 2011). The Arab
population in Israel suffers from higher rates of poverty and unemployment and signifi-
cantly lower government expenditure for educational, health and social services than
the Jewish majority (Hammack, 2010).
In both studies, information was collected via anonymous structured questionnaires
that were completed by the adolescents in their classrooms (for full details on the data
collection process and the measures used in both studies, see Attar-Schwartz, 2016;
Flouri, Buchanan, Tan, Griggs, & Attar-Schwartz, 2010; Tan & Buchanan, 2016). The adoles-
cents were asked to report on a range of demographic details; the nature and quality of
their relationships with all their living grandparents (using Elder and Conger’s Grandpar-
ent–Grandchild Relationship scale, 2000) and their parents’ relationships with the adoles-
cents’ living grandparents. In the Israeli study, the adolescents were also asked about their
emotional closeness to their parents. Adolescents in both studies were also asked to report
on their adjustment difficulties and prosocial behaviours (using the Strengths and Difficul-
ties Questionnaire; Goodman, 1997) and on adverse life experiences (using the Adverse
Life Events measure by Tiet et al., 1998). When translating the English measures for the
Israeli study, some slight adaptations were made to adapt them to the Israeli popu-
lation/context.
In both studies, as mentioned above, adolescents were asked to report on the nature
and quality of the relationships they had with each of their living grandparents. But
some of the analyses focused on the background characteristics and relationship factors
 CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL SCIENCE 3

only of the grandparent the adolescents reported feeling emotionally closest to (referred
to as the closest grandparent). With some variations between the UK and Israeli studies, in
cases where adolescents indicated more than one close grandparent, the grandparent
who received the highest score on the emotional closeness scale was chosen. In cases
where adolescents indicated more than one significant grandparent, and identical
emotional closeness scores were present for those grandparents, one grandparent was
selected randomly from those with the highest identical emotional closeness scores
(see Attar-Schwartz, 2015; Attar-Schwartz, Tan, & Buchanan, 2009).

Major findings and discussion

The role of grandparents in adolescents’ lives in the face of adversity and
paternal divorce
There is evidence in both the Israeli and the UK study that grandparents are highly
involved in adolescents’ lives and that adolescents see them as important figures in
their lives to whom they feel emotionally close (Attar-Schwartz, 2015, 2016; Attar-Schwartz
& Khoury-Kassabri,2016; Attar-Schwartz, Tan, & Buchanan, 2009; Griggs, Tan, Buchanan,
Attar-Schwartz, & Flouri, 2010; Tan & Buchanan, 2016; Tan, Buchanan, Flouri, Attar-
Schwartz, & Griggs, 2010).
The UK study, for example, found that grandparent involvement among British adoles-
cents was significantly linked with fewer emotional problems and more prosocial beha-
viours (Attar-Schwartz, Tan, Buchanan, Flouri, et al., 2009). These empirical findings were
reinforced by qualitative interviews with the adolescents (Griggs et al., 2010), in which
they explained that spending time with grandparents gave them opportunities for fun
and relaxation as well as time to share their thoughts and problems and seek advice
from committed adults. Some adolescents also reported that it was easier for them to
open up to their grandparents than to their parents, and that they felt grandparents
were more sensitive and open to the young person’s concerns. In addition, it is possible
that grandparents who are involved in their grandchildren’s daily lives help reduce parental
stress, which might positively affect their parenting, which in turn might lead to better out-
comes among the adolescents (Attar-Schwartz & Buchanan, 2017). It seems, therefore, that
grandparent involvement may be linked to grandchildren’s well-being either directly (for
example, by guidance) or indirectly (for example, by reducing parents’ stress). However,
it should be noted that one of the limitations of the Israeli and the UK studies described
here is that they were based on cross-sectional design and therefore causality cannot be
concluded. It is especially important to be cautious when interpreting the results of the
UK and the Israeli studies, as well as other cross-sectional studies, because some recent
findings show that there might not be causal associations between grandparent involve-
ment and child outcomes (Tanskanen & Danielsbacka, 2017).
Werner and Smith (1982) identified contact with grandparents as being a protective
factor for children who are at risk for maladjustment (see also Flouri et al., 2010), in part
because of the continuity that such a relationship provides during times of stressful
events and family changes. Evidence for grandparenting as a buffer against the risk of mal-
adjustment in the face of adversity (such as being a victim of violence/assault, frequent
parental conflicts, etc.) was found in the UK study (Flouri et al., 2010). The UK study
4 S. ATTAR-SCHWARTZA AND A. BUCHANANB

examined whether closeness to the most significant grandparent moderated the associ-
ation between contextual stress (proximal life stress relating to life events occurring in
the last year, distal life stress relating to life events occurring before the last year and
area stress) and total adjustment difficulties and prosocial behaviour among UK adoles-
cents. The findings showed that emotional closeness to the closest grandparent was posi-
tively related to adolescent prosocial behaviour and that it also buffered the effect of
proximal life stress on adolescent hyperactivity and broad psychopathology. In addition,
it moderated the effect of how distal life stress impacted the effect of proximal life
stress on adolescent broad and externalizing psychopathology. Such findings suggest
that the role of grandparents deserves further attention in future research on the develop-
ment of resilience among children and youth (Flouri et al., 2010).
In addition to various adversities that young people may possibly experience in their
lives, one of the major challenges for children and youth nowadays is experiencing
family transitions, especially parents’ separation. In recent decades, increasing numbers
of children experience parental separation or divorce at some point in their childhood.
Children of divorced parents were found on average to have poorer academic, social,
emotional and behavioural adjustment outcomes than children growing up in families
with two biological parents (Hetherington & Stanley-Hagan, 1999; O’Connor, Dunn,
Jenkins, Pickering, & Rabasah, 2001). Grandparents can be one of the buffers against
the risk of maladjustment among adolescents in the face of family transition.
The UK study examined whether the association between grandparent involvement
and adolescent well-being varied across different family structures (Attar-Schwartz, Tan,
Buchanan, Flouri, et al., 2009). Our findings showed, first, that there were no differences
in the level of grandparent involvement between two-biological-parent families, step-
families and separated-/divorced-parent families (see also Lussier, Deater-Deckard,
Dunn, & Davies, 2002). This finding might imply that grandparents can continue to
serve as important figures in their grandchildren’s lives regardless of changes in family
structure (Lussier et al., 2002). Grandparent involvement was found to moderate the
relationship between family structure and adolescent well-being. For adolescents from
single-parent and step- families, involvement of the closest grandparent was more
strongly associated with reduced adjustment difficulties than for those from two-parent
biological families (Attar-Schwartz, Tan, Buchanan, Flouri, et al., 2009). This finding is con-
sistent with studies showing that close bonds with grandparents following parental sep-
aration were associated with fewer difficulties among young people (Lussier et al., 2002;
Ruiz & Silverstein, 2007). It may indicate that grandchildren in single-parent and step-
families are the main beneficiaries of grandparent contact, which is an important protec-
tive resource in their lives. In the face of parental separation, single parenthood and the
challenges imposed by forming a step family, together with a variety of developmental
challenges faced by adolescents, grandparents may serve as functional substitutes lessen-
ing adolescent distress (Attar-Schwartz, Tan, & Buchanan, 2009; Ruiz & Silverstein, 2007).
One common effect of divorce is a weakening of the relationship between grandchil-
dren and their paternal grandparents, especially when the mother is awarded custody
of the children (e.g. Danielsbacka & Tanskanen, 2012; Hagestad, 2006; Lussier et al.,
2002; Matthews & Sprey, 1985). However, the literature shows that there is considerable
variation in the quality of grandchildren’s relationships with their paternal grandparents
following parental divorce (e.g. Fingerman, 2004). The Israeli study examined the
 CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL SCIENCE 5

differences in emotional closeness to paternal grandmothers between adolescents from

post-divorce custodial-mother families compared with two-biological-parent families
(Attar-Schwartz & Fuller-Thomson, 2017). It examined the key correlates of adolescents’
emotional closeness to their paternal grandmothers in each type of family structure,
including grandmother’s involvement and father’s and mother’s relationships with the
paternal grandmother. The findings showed that adolescents from custodial-mother
families reported lower levels of perceived emotional closeness to paternal grandmothers
than adolescents from married-parent families (see also Lussier et al., 2002). In addition, it
was found that adolescents from custodial-mother families reported having less frequent
face-to-face contact with their paternal grandmothers and lower levels of paternal grand-
mother involvement in their daily lives. These findings are in line with previous studies (e.g.
Danielsbacka & Tanskanen, 2012; Lussier et al., 2002). However, once adolescents’ reports
of the mother–paternal grandmother relationship were added to the regression equation,
the effect of family type on emotional closeness to the grandmother disappeared. This
finding might imply that despite the importance of family structure in explaining vari-
ations in adolescent grandchildren’s emotional closeness to their paternal grandmothers,
the relational context in which this relationship takes place, especially in terms of the cus-
todial mother’s relationship with the paternal grandmother, can be even more critical (see
the discussion of the intergenerational context of the grandparent–adolescent relation-
ship below for further elaboration).
The findings also showed that the positive contribution of good mother–paternal
grandmother relationships to grandchild–paternal grandmother relationships is as impor-
tant in post-divorced custodial-mother families as in two-biological-parent families. This
finding can potentially be interpreted in terms of kin-keeper theories that consider
women to be generally more involved than men in sustaining kin relations (Dubas,
2001; Eisenberg, 1988). Apparently, mothers have a key role in shaping intergenerational
relationships, whether it is in a two-biological-parent family or a post-divorce family that
the child is raised in (Attar-Schwartz & Fuller-Thomson, 2017).
At the same time, the findings of the Israeli study showed that fathers also have a con-
tribution to the grandchild–grandparent bond. Similar to the contribution of the mother–
paternal grandmother relationship, a good father–paternal grandmother relationship was
found to be linked with more emotional closeness to paternal grandmothers among ado-
lescents. This finding may indicate that, although there is more evidence of women’s kin-
keeping, men perform kin-keeping as well (see Attar-Schwartz & Fuller-Thomson, 2017;
Bahr, 1976; Monserud, 2008). Unlike the mother–paternal grandmother relationship,
which had the same statistical effect on adolescents in custodial-mother and two-biologi-
cal-parent families, the father–paternal grandmother relationship was found to have a
positive association with adolescents’ perceived emotional closeness to the paternal
grandmother in two-biological-parent families but had an insignificant association in cus-
todial-mother families (Attar-Schwartz & Fuller-Thomson, 2017). This finding might poss-
ibly indicate that residency is important in the ability of fathers to act as mediators
between the generations and to provide opportunities for their child’s contact with the
paternal grandmother (see also Connidis, 2001).
The findings also showed that paternal grandmothers’ involvement in adolescent
grandchildren’s everyday lives is important for maintaining emotionally close relationships
with them (see also Attar-Schwartz, Tan, & Buchanan, 2009; Bridges et al., 2007). Paternal
6 S. ATTAR-SCHWARTZA AND A. BUCHANANB

grandmother involvement was linked with higher levels of emotional closeness to the
grandmother in custodial-mother families. This might suggest that in custodial-mother
families, paternal grandmothers’ relationships with their grandchildren depend more on
the resources they invest rather than on the mere fact that they are the adolescents’
father’s mothers, as might more frequently be the case in intact families (Attar-Schwartz
& Fuller-Thomson, 2017).
The findings of this study highlight the need to use an ecological perspective to
examine post-divorce adolescents’ relationships with their paternal grandparents, taking
into account not only adolescents’ characteristics and grandparents’ characteristics but
also the parents’ relationships with the grandparents. The study shows that it is important
that paternal grandmothers maintain strong ties with the grandchild’s mother, in post-
divorce families as well as in married-parent families, even when the grandchildren
reach adulthood (see Fingerman, 2004; Monserud, 2008). When paternal grandparents
preserve ties with their ex-daughter-in-law, they may help secure access to and strengthen
their long-term relationships with their grandchildren (Connidis, 2001).

The intergenerational context of the grandparent–adolescent relationship

Grandparent–grandchild relationships do not occur in a vacuum, rather they are depen-
dent on other intergenerational relationships in the family (e.g. Monserud, 2008; Mueller
& Elder, 2003; Tan, Buchanan, Flouri, Attar-Schwartz, & Griggs, 2010), such as those
between parents and grandchildren and between parents and grandparents. According
to the model of intergenerational solidarity, relationship quality between two family
members can depend on patterns of relations between other family members (Monserud,
2008). The parent-as-mediator theory suggests that parents’ relationships with their own
parents impact grandchild–grandparent relationships. Parents can act as gatekeepers and
can help shape the nature of the grandparent–grandchild relationship (Monserud, 2008).
This idea is supported by evidence that shows that parents affect the grandparent–grand-
child bond by setting examples and providing opportunities for interaction between chil-
dren and their grandparents (e.g. Block, 2000; Fergusson, Maughan, & Golding, 2008;
Matthews & Sprey, 1985; Monserud, 2008; Mueller & Elder, 2003).
In the UK study, it was found that adolescents whose parents had good relationships
with the closest grandparents and encouraged the grandparent–grandchild relationship
reported higher levels of importance of their grandparents outside the immediate
family, greater respect of their grandparents’ views and greater emotional closeness.
For these adolescents, a higher level of closest grandparent involvement was also
found (Attar-Schwartz, Tan, & Buchanan, 2009). It is likely that where parents have poor
relationships with their own parents, they may be less enthusiastic about encouraging
contact between children and grandparents. In the absence of close relationships
between the first and second generations, significant bonds between grandparents and
grandchildren seem less likely to form (Mueller & Elder, 2003). Further examination of
the UK data (Attar-Schwartz, Tan, & Buchanan, 2009) indicated that in families with
poorer relationships between the closest grandparent and the parents, grandparent invol-
vement had a stronger contribution to positive grandparent–grandchild relationships.
These findings might possibly indicate that in those families, grandparents’ relationships
with their grandchildren depended more on the resources they invested than on the
 CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL SCIENCE 7

fact that they were the adolescent’s parent’s parent, as might more likely be the case in
families with better parent–grandparent relationships.
Informed by family systems theory and intergenerational solidarity model, the Israeli study
(Attar-Schwartz, 2015) examined the mediating role of emotional closeness to the closest
grandparent in the relationship between emotional closeness to a parent (the offspring of
the closest grandparent) and adolescent adjustment difficulties. The study also examined
the moderating role of emotional closeness to parents in the relationship between emotional
closeness to grandparents and adjustment difficulties (Attar-Schwartz, 2015). Consistent
with the UK study, the Israeli study found that adolescent–grandparent relationships were
positively correlated with parent–grandparent relationship quality. It further found that
emotional closeness to the closest grandparent was more strongly associated with
reduced adjustment difficulties among adolescents with higher levels of emotional closeness
to their parents. These findings may show that the quality of the adolescent–parent relation-
ship is not only linked with adolescents’ adjustment and well-being but may also possibly
contribute to adolescents’ ability to have close bonds with others outside the nuclear
family, such as their grandparents (Engels, Finkenauer, Meeus, & Deković, 2001).

The cultural context of grandparent–adolescent relationship

Much of the existing literature on grandparent–adolescent relationships (e.g. Henderson,
Hayslip, Sanders, & Louden, 2009; Ruiz & Silverstein, 2007) has been based on mostly white,
Western, ethnically and racially homogenous samples of grandchildren from the US and
the UK (for exceptions see, for example, Pallock & Lamborn, 2006; Saxena & Sanders,
2009; Wild & Gaibie, 2014; Yorgason, Padilla-Walker, & Jackson, 2011). However, there is
evidence to suggest that the adolescent–grandparent relationship and its contribution
to adolescent well-being should be examined in the cultural context it takes place (for
review, see Attar-Schwartz & Buchanan, 2017).
Both the UK and the Israeli studies addressed the cultural affiliation of the grandchil-
dren and its contribution to their relationships with their grandparents. In the British
study, consistent with existing literature (e.g. Hirsch, Mickus, & Boerger, 2002; Wiscott &
Kopera-Frye, 2000), it was found that non-white grandchildren generally reported
higher levels of respect for their closest grandparents than white grandchildren (Attar-
Schwartz, Tan, & Buchanan, 2009). This finding is in line with previous studies that
showed the continued importance and higher level of authority of extended family
systems for minorities, such as African-Americans (see, for example, Cherlin & Furstenberg,
1986). However, one of the limitations of the UK study is that it did not compare specific
ethnic groups among non-white participants.
The Israeli study, which was designed to explore differences between Arab and Jewish
adolescent grandchildren’s relationships with their grandparents, aimed to examine the
levels of emotional closeness that adolescents reported to have with their grandparents
and the contribution these relationships had to their well-being (Attar-Schwartz &
Khoury-Kassabri, 2016). The findings showed that cultural affiliation contributed to adoles-
cent–grandparent relationships and to the extent to which adolescents benefitted from
these relationships. First, Arab adolescents were more likely to report a lower level of per-
ceived emotional closeness to the closest grandparent than Jewish adolescents. A possible
interpretation for this finding could be related to the fact that, as mentioned above, the
8 S. ATTAR-SCHWARTZA AND A. BUCHANANB

Arab community is generally more hierarchical and collectivist than the Jewish community
in Israel, who belong, generally speaking, to a more individualised, egalitarian society that
encourages less hierarchical intergenerational relationships (Haj-Yahia-Acu Ahmad, 2006).
As such, there might be less expectation for Arab adults to befriend their children and
grandchildren. Future studies should replicate these findings and examine other aspects
of the grandparent–grandchild relationship in each culture.
The findings of the Israeli study also showed that, despite a lower level of perceived
emotional closeness to the closest grandparent among Arab adolescents, the link
between emotional closeness to grandparents and reduced emotional symptoms and
increased prosocial behaviours was stronger among Arab adolescents than among
Jewish adolescents (Attar-Schwartz & Khoury-Kassabri, 2016). It could possibly be that
given the traditional social context and the significance of older relatives in the Arab com-
munity, emotional closeness to a grandparent has an enhanced meaning and is therefore
of greater benefit to Arab adolescents than to Jewish adolescents (for further discussion,
see Attar-Schwartz & Khoury-Kassabri, 2016). These findings emphasise the significance of
the cultural context when examining intergenerational relationships in the family and their
contribution to grandchildren’s well-being.

Grandfathering in the contemporary family

Studies have often shown that grandmothers, on average, are more involved than grand-
fathers in the daily lives of their grandchildren and that they have closer relationships with
their grandchildren (for review, see Attar-Schwartz & Buchanan, 2017). However, despite
the differences between grandfathers and grandmothers, studies show ongoing involve-
ment, emotional commitment and desire for contact among grandfathers (e.g. Buchanan
& Rotkirch, 2016; Mann, Khan, & Leeson, 2013; Roberto, Allen, & Blieszner, 2001; Sorensen &
Cooper, 2010). Research that includes the perspective of grandchildren shows the impor-
tance of grandfathers in the lives of young people and the varied roles they have in their
lives (e.g. Hakoyama & MaloneBeach, 2012).
Both the Israeli and the UK studies revealed a picture of grandfathers that contradicted
their stereotypical portrayal as distant figures (Attar-Schwartz, 2016; Tan & Buchanan,
2016). The UK study (Tan & Buchanan, 2016) showed that both paternal and maternal
grandfathers were highly involved in their adolescent grandchildren’s lives in various
ways. Maternal grandfathers were more likely to report more involvement with adolescent
grandchildren than paternal grandfathers. Adolescents also were more likely to report
greater emotional closeness to their maternal grandfathers. This may possibly be
explained by the more regular contact they generally had with these grandfathers (Tan
& Buchanan, 2016). These grandfathers played various roles in the lives of their adolescent
grandchildren, including being mentors, supporters and providers of financial assistance
and gifts. In general, the role of men in families today seems to be changing as a result
of increased life expectancy, changes in family structure, evolving gender roles, changing
work patterns and other factors (Sorensen & Cooper, 2010; Wilton & Davey, 2006). The UK
study also found that geographical proximity and frequency of contact were positively
related to grandfather involvement. Finally, adolescents who reported greater emotional
closeness to their grandfathers were also more likely to report greater grandfather invol-
vement (Tan & Buchanan, 2016).
 CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL SCIENCE 9

Among UK adolescents who chose grandfathers as the most significant grandparent, it

was found that the grandfathers’ involvement was linked with the adolescents’ function-
ing in a variety of ways. It was found, for example, that greater grandfather involvement in
school activities was related to fewer conduct or behavioural problems and that adoles-
cents who experienced more peer relationship problems reported more involvement
from closest grandfathers in sharing their problems (for further details, see Tan & Bucha-
nan, 2016).
The findings of the Israeli study support some of the major findings of the UK study
(Attar-Schwartz, 2016). Focusing on adolescents who chose a grandfather as their
closest grandparent, it confirmed the high involvement of grandfathers in young
people’s lives. For example, over 80% of the Israeli adolescents reported that their
closest grandfather gave them money or gifts sometimes or frequently. In line with the
UK study, adolescents’ perceived emotional closeness to the closest grandfather was
also high. For example, almost 80% of the adolescents reported that they felt extremely
appreciated, loved or cared for by their closest grandfather. The findings showed
greater emotional closeness to maternal grandfathers than paternal grandfathers, but
no statistically significant level of involvement among paternal versus maternal grand-
fathers (Attar-Schwartz, 2016).
Like the UK study, the Israeli study showed that adolescents who felt greater emotional
closeness to the closest grandfather reported higher levels of prosocial behaviours and
fewer adjustment difficulties. Involvement of the closest grandfather was positively
linked with prosocial behaviours; however, no statistically significant link was found
between grandfather involvement and adjustment difficulties (Attar-Schwartz, 2016).
These findings might possibly indicate that active and close contact with grandfathers
is an important factor in adolescent adjustment.
The Israeli study examined the cultural context of the adolescent–grandfather relation-
ship and found that more Arab adolescents than Jewish adolescents identify their paternal
grandfather as the closest grandfather (Attar-Schwartz, 2016). This finding may be
explained by the characteristics of the Arab family, which, although it has experienced
some changes in recent decades, is more collectivist, patriarchal and patrilocal than the
Jewish family (Haj-Yahia-Acu Ahmad, 2006). This finding is similar to King and Elder’s
(1995) finding showing the higher status of paternal grandparents in farm families in
rural America, which, they suggested, reflected the more interdependent character of
farm family life.
The study also showed that more Arab than Jewish adolescents lived closer to their
closest grandfather and felt their closest grandfather was more involved in their lives. It
may be that, similar to the farm families in King and Elder’s (1995) study, in Arab families,
contact with grandparents is not limited to occasional visits or holidays, and that, given
their generally greater geographical proximity, they have greater access on average to
Arab grandchildren’s everyday life than Jewish grandparents have to their grandchildren
(Attar-Schwartz, 2016).
However, the findings show a higher level of emotional closeness to grandfathers
among Jewish youth. It may be that emotional closeness, which is commonly seen to
be linked with informality, is less reported among Arab adolescents because of the
greater authority and respect of the grandfather figure in traditional societies (for
review, see Attar-Schwartz & Buchanan, 2017). The UK and Israeli studies’ findings
10 S. ATTAR-SCHWARTZA AND A. BUCHANANB

emphasise the importance of acknowledging grandfathers’ contributions and roles in their

adolescent grandchildren’s lives and of taking cultural factors into consideration when
examining that relationship.

Research implications for practice and policy

This article summarises major themes revealed in two large-scale studies in the UK and
Israel on grandparenting and adolescent well-being. Both studies demonstrate that grand-
mothers and grandfathers are significant figures in the lives of their adolescent grandchil-
dren and are important factors in their grandchildren’s developing social lives.
Our investigations emphasise the need to examine adolescents’ well-being from a
social-ecological perspective, taking into account not only the adolescents’ characteristics
and those of their immediate family but also factors outside the nuclear family. Both
studies show that the characteristics of the adolescent, the grandparent and the interge-
nerational context in which adolescent–grandparent contact occurs have a significant
contribution to shaping the adolescent–grandparent bond. The findings also highlight
the importance of the socio-cultural context when examining intergenerational relation-
ships and their contribution to grandchildren’s well-being.
The findings of the UK and Israeli studies indicate that grandparent involvement
matters to adolescent adjustment. This is especially true for adolescents in non-intact
families and those facing adversity. Given the growing numbers of children and adoles-
cents involved in changing life circumstances and family structures, more attention
should be paid to the role of grandparents as supporters for young people raised in
these complex family environments (Attar-Schwartz & Buchanan, 2017). These findings
suggest that the role of grandparents deserves further attention in future investigations
of children’s and adolescents’ development as well as in policy agendas.
The Israeli and UK studies reviewed here have important implications for placing grand-
parents higher in policy agenda planning and in family psychology. Practitioners should
consider working across generations, taking into account the potential benefits that ado-
lescents can accrue from both grandfathers and grandmothers to strengthen the entire
family.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Funding
This work was supported by the Economic and Social Research Council [grant number 00-22-2283]
and The Israel Science Foundation [grant number 343/10].

Notes on contributors
Prof. Shalhevet Attar-Schwartz is an Associate Professor at the School of Social Work and Social
Welfare at the Hebrew University. Her research focuses on the well-being of children and youth.
She is particularly interested in intergenerational relationships in the family and their contribution
to young people’s well-being. Her research work examines the familial and social conditions
 CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL SCIENCE 11

under which informal involvement of grandparents is more beneficial for their grandchildren. She
has examined these issues in a variety of cultural contexts, among young people from the
general population as well as among young people in public care.
Prof. Ann Buchanan is Emeritus Professor and Associate Research Fellow at the Department of Social
Policy and Intervention, University of Oxford. For many years, she directed the Centre for Research
into Parenting and Children. For over 20 years, her research focus has been on family relationships
and child well-being. From 2007 to 2013, she was on the Council of the ESRC. She is a Fellow of the
Academy of Social Sciences and served on their Council from 2011 to 2017. In 2012, she received an
MBE ‘for services to social science’. In 2016, she edited with Anna Rotkirch ‘Grandfathers: Global per-
spectives’, which was published by Palgrave Macmillan.

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