Energies: Ffects of Flame Propagation Velocity and Turbulence

energies
Article
Effects of Flame Propagation Velocity and Turbulence
Intensity on End-Gas Auto-Ignition in a Spark
Ignition Gasoline Engine
Lei Zhou *, Xiaojun Zhang, Lijia Zhong and Jie Yu
State Key Laboratory of Engines, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China; xjzhang@tju.edu.cn (X.Z.);
zhonglijia@tju.edu.cn (L.Z.); yujie@tju.edu.cn (J.Y.)
* Correspondence: lei.zhou@tju.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-22-27402609

Received: 30 August 2020; Accepted: 22 September 2020; Published: 24 September 2020
Abstract: Knocking is a destructive and abnormal combustion phenomenon that hinders modern
spark ignition (SI) engine technologies. However, the in-depth mechanism of a single-factor influence
on knocking has not been well studied. Thus, the major aim of the present study is to study the effects
of flame propagation velocity and turbulence intensity on end-gas auto-ignition through a large eddy
simulation (LES) and a decoupling methodology in a downsized gasoline engine. The mechanisms of
end-gas auto-ignition as well as strong pressure oscillation are qualitatively analyzed. It is observed
that both flame propagation velocity and turbulence have a non-monotonic effect on knocking
intensity. The competitive relationship between flame propagation velocity and ignition delay of the
end gas is the primary reason responding to this phenomenon. A higher flame speed leads to an
increase in the heat release rate in the cylinder, and consequently, quicker increases in the temperature
and pressure of the unburned end-gas mixture are obtained, leading to end-gas auto-ignition. Further,
the coupling of a pressure wave and an auto-ignition flame front results in super-knocking with a
maximum peak of pressure of 31 MPa. Although the turbulence indirectly influences the end-gas
auto-ignition by affecting the flame propagation velocity, it can accelerate the dissipation of radicals
and heat in the end gas, which significantly influences knocking intensity. Moreover, it is found that
the effect of turbulence is more pronounced than that of flame propagation velocity in inhibiting
knocking. It can be concluded that the intensity of the pressure oscillation depends on the unburned
mixture mass as well as the local thermodynamic state induced by flame propagation and turbulence,
with mutual interactions. The present work is expected to provide valuable perspective for inhibiting
super-knocking of an SI gasoline engine.
Keywords: knocking mechanism; flame propagation velocity; turbulence; auto-ignition;

pressure oscillation
1. Introduction
The increasing severity of the current energy crisis and environmental pollution are leading to
technical downsizing and turbocharging in spark ignition (SI) engines due to their superior economy
and power performance [1]. Theoretically, the engine performance, such as the torque and fuel
consumption rate, is positively related to the fuel compression ratio; however, knocking, which is a
devastating and abnormal combustion phenomenon, occurs under critically constrained conditions
in the development of high-efficiency engine [2]. This trade-off makes it difficult to achieve the
theoretical maximum combustion efficiency in practical engines. Finding a balance between improved
engine performance and knocking inhibition has thus become a perpetual challenge to the engine
manufacturing industry and researchers.
Energies 2020, 13, 5039; doi:10.3390/en13195039 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2020, 13, 5039 2 of 23
Because end-gas auto-ignition is the first stage of knocking, whose subsequent development
determines the knocking occurrence and intensity, in general, it can be concluded that knocking in SI
engines is induced by auto-ignition occurring in the end gas [3,4], which has been extensively and
comprehensively investigated. Many excellent studies have contributed to exploring the method of
inhibiting such knocking, and several potential means have been discovered, including changing the
flame propagation speed [5], increasing the in-cylinder turbulence [6,7], split injection strategies [8],
octane number [9,10], and EGR (Exhaust Gas Recirculation) strategies [11]. For instance, Yang et al. [12]
found a higher tumble rate can lead to the increase of flame speed through by facilitating the interaction
between the fuel spray and air flow and the heat-mass transfer between the unburnt and burnt
zone. Kim [13] studied the effects of hydrogen on a gasoline direct injection engine and found that
hydrogen addition can inhibit the propensity of knocking combustion under high-load conditions
because of its high flame velocity. However, the decelerated flame propagation velocity induced by
cooler EGR [11] accompanied by reduced end-gas temperature could also mitigate knock occurrence.
Yue et al. [14] found that increasing flame speed shows a negative impact on knock mitigation,
but provides improvement on thermal efficiency by shortening the combustion duration. However,
some research [15,16] shows that relatively low turbulence intensity gives the longer residence time for
end-gas auto-ignition occurrence, thus knock is intensified. This contrast manifests that the underlying
mechanism of the effects of flame propagation speed on auto-ignition is unclear.
In fact, there are disagreeing opinions among researchers regarding whether an increase in the flame
speed is capable of inhibiting knocking. Kee et al. [5] developed a rapid compression/expansion device
to explore the essential phenomenon of knocking. Their results indicate that increasing the laminar flame
speed inhibits the knocking because a fast propagation decreases the time required for low-temperature
reactions in the end gas. Hirooka et al. [17] believe that increasing the burn rate is also effective in
improving the knocking characteristics. However, many studies have indicated the opposite [18,19].
For instance, Chen and Raine [19] proposed a multi-step adiabatic constant-volume zero-dimensional
(MACZ) model to calculate the chemical reaction of an unburned air-fuel mixture and pointed out that
increasing the burning rate promotes knocking through two factors, namely, “pre-dominant” steps and
“post-dominant” steps. Furthermore, Yu et al. [20] conducted a 1D simulation regarding the effects of
the flame propagation velocity on the end-gas auto-ignition in a constant volume combustion chamber
by introducing artificial mass diffusivity. They found that increasing the flame propagation can
suppress the knocking occurrence if the chamber size is sufficiently small. In our previous work [21],
the knock phenomenon under the influence of different acceleration flame is investigated by conducting
a series of 2D DNS (Direct Numerical Simulation) investigation. Three modes were found to exist,
namely auto-ignition promoted by strong flame acceleration, auto-ignition suppressed by weak flame
acceleration, and auto-ignition independent of flame acceleration. Such studies clearly show how our
understanding of the effect of the flame propagation velocity has changed, whereas the knock mode
transition from inhibition to promotion has not been understood, which is very important to suppress
knock in SI engines.
It is generally accepted that turbulence intensity influences the end gas properties.
Mastorakos et al. [22] conducted a two-dimensional direct numerical simulation on the auto-ignition of
laminar and turbulent mixing layers. They found that the auto-ignition time in the turbulent flows is
longer than the ignition delay time of homogeneous mixtures. Juan et al. performed an experimental
investigation regarding the turbulence intensity on knock tendency in a SI engine. It was found
that increased turbulence intensity increased the knocking tendency. Besides, the turbulent flame
propagation investigations associated with pressure oscillation [23], flame-shock interaction [24],
and flame acceleration [25] were wildly conducted. Those work observed the auto-ignition process
visually, yet the fundamental auto-ignition mechanism of how the turbulence influences the end gas
auto-ignition is still less understood.
Therefore, the major objective of the present study is to comprehensively study the effects of
the flame propagation velocity and turbulence intensity on the end-gas auto-ignition in a downsized
Energies 2020, 13, 5039 3 of 23
SI gasoline engine, as well as the pressure oscillation through a large eddy simulation coupling
with a decoupling methodology. The SAGE solver coupling with a detailed chemistry mechanism
of the PRF (Primary Reference Fuel) is employed to capture the detailed reaction process as the
end-gas auto-ignition occurrence. Note that, using flame models such as G-equation model to mimic
laminar flame comprise the ability to mutually decouple flame propagation and end-gas auto-ignition.
By modifying the coefficient in the G-equation, the flame speed is changed. Consequently, a quantitative
analysis regarding the effects of the flame propagation velocity on the knocking occurrence was
conducted in this study. Furthermore, the turbulence intensity is achieved by rescaling the in-cylinder
flow velocity. The effects are further understood in terms of the pressure wave, HCO, flame front
velocity, and unburned temperature distributions. The present study will deliver valuable and new
perspectives for inhibiting the knocking and improving the performance in SI gasoline engines.
The remainder of the present paper is structured as follows: The experimental setting is briefly
presented in Section 2. The numerical settings including the LES equations, combustion model,
numerical model, model validation, and parameter setting are provided in Section 2. The effects of the
flame propagation velocity and turbulence are discussed in Section 3. Finally, the concluding remarks
are given in Section 4. The model validation is presented in Appendix A.
2. Numerical Setting
2.1. Combustion Model

The G-equation-based turbulent combustion model [26] is utilized to capture the turbulent flame
propagation in the partially pre-mixed combustions. SAGE solver coupling with detailed chemistry
mechanism of the PRF [27] is used to capture the detailed reaction process as the end-gas auto-ignition
occurrence. Here, a simple description of G-equation is listed below.
The G-equation is [28]:
∂G e = ρu st ∇G

e →
e →
+ (v f − v vertex )·∇G e − Dte
kM ∇Ge, (1)
∂t ρ
where G e is the Favre-averaged G, v→e →

f is the Favre mean bulk fluid velocity in the flame front, v vertex is
the mesh vertex velocity, ρu is unburned mixture density, ρ is the mean gas density of a turbulent flame,
Dt is the turbulent diffusivity, e
kM is the mean flame curvature, and st is the turbulent flame speed.
Here, st is the function of the laminar flame speed (sl ), and is expressed as follows [28]:
  2  12 
2 2
 
a b a b
  
4 4
  
3 3
st = sl + v0  Da + a4 b23 Da 
    
− Da +  , (2)
     



 2b 1  2b 1  



where v0 is the turbulence intensity; a4 , b1 , and b3 are constants; and Da is the Damköhler number,
which establishes the relationship between the chemical kinetic and flame development. In the present
work, a4 , b1 , and b3 are optimized trying to well reproduce the combustion characteristic such as
cylinder pressure and heat release rate.
To obtain the laminar flame speed, the Metghalchi and Kech correlation [29] is adopted in
this study:
!α !β
Tu P
sl = sl−re f (1 − 2.1Ydil ). (3)
Tu,re f Pre f
Here, Tu is the unburnt mixture temperature, Tu,re f is 298.0 K, P is the unburnt mixture pressure,
Pre f is 1.01 bar, Ydil is the mass fraction of the dilution species, and α and β are the temperature and
pressure exponents:
α = 2.18 − 0.8(φ − 1), (4)
Energies 2020, 13, 5039 4 of 23
β = −0.16 − 0.22(φ − 1), (5)
where s is obtained using the Gülder correlations [30]:

l−re f13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Energies 2020, 4 of 23
sl−re f = ωφη exp −ξ(φ − σ)2 .

h i
(6)
𝑠 = 𝜔𝜙 𝑒𝑥 𝑝 −𝜉 𝜙 − 𝜎 . (6)
Here, ω, η, ξ, and σ are the modeling constant coefficients for an iso-octane–air mixture.
Here, 𝜔, 𝜂, 𝜉, and 𝜎 are the modeling constant coefficients for an iso-octane–air mixture.
To reproduce the experimental and suitable length and time scales of laminar flames, the model
To reproduce the experimental and suitable length and time scales of laminar flames, the model
coefficients are calibrated and optimized, as shown in Table 1. It can be seen from Figure 1 that,
coefficients are calibrated and optimized, as shown in Table 1. It can be seen from Figure 1 that, for
for primary reference fuels with octane numbers varying from 85 to 95, the laminar flame speeds
primary reference fuels with octane numbers varying from 85 to 95, the laminar flame speeds are
are quite close under different equivalence ratios. It is reasonable to speculate PRF92 behaves a
quite close under different equivalence ratios. It is reasonable to speculate PRF92 behaves a similar
similar curve in the laminar flame speed—equivalence ratio diagram. Comparing with Guler line
curve in the laminar flame speed—equivalence ratio diagram. Comparing with Guler line and
and Metghalchi line, we can conclude that by adopting the revised coefficients, agreement with the
Metghalchi line, we can conclude that by adopting the revised coefficients, agreement with the
experimental data can be obtained.
experimental data can be obtained.
Table 1. Fitting coefficients of the laminar flame speed.
Table 1. Fitting coefficients of the laminar flame speed.
ω η ξ σ γ β
ω η ξ σ γ β
Gülder 0.4658 −0.326 4.48 1.075 1.56 −0.22
Gülder 0.4658 −0.326 4.48 1.075 1.56 −0.22
Present workwork0.35 0.35 0.1 0.1 4.54.5
Present 1.075
1.075 −0.22
1.8 −0.22
1.8
0.6
Iso-octane, Davis, 1998
T0 = 298 K, P0 = 1 atm n-heptane, Davis, 1998
Iso-octane, Huang, 2004
0.5 PRF85, Huang, 2004
PRF90, Huang, 2004
Laminar flame speed (m/s)
PRF95, Huang, 2004

0.4 Iso-octane, Kumar, 2007
Metghalchi, 1982
Gulder, 1984
present work
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
equivalence ratio Φ
Figure
Figure1.1.Comparison
Comparisonof
ofthe
thefitting
fittingcurves
curvesand
andexperimental
experimentaldata
dataof
oflaminar
laminarflame
flamespeed.
speed.
2.2.Numerical
2.2. NumericalModelsModels
The 3D
The 3D methodology
methodology of ofaaLES
LEScoupled
coupledwithwitha G-equation
a G-equation andanda chemical
a chemical kinetic model
kinetic for the
model for PRF
the
oxidation in the CONVERGE CFD code is applied to the simulation used
PRF oxidation in the CONVERGE CFD code is applied to the simulation used in this study. The in this study. The reacting
flow problems
reacting are described
flow problems in terms ofinthe
are described mass,ofenergy,
terms species
the mass, conservation,
energy, and the Navier–Stokes
species conservation, and the
Navier–Stokes equations [31–33]. The detailed numerical models can be foundThe
equations [31–33]. The detailed numerical models can be found in Ref. [34–36]. geometry
in Ref. [34–36].model,
The
which consists of a combustion chamber, an inlet port, and an outlet port, together
geometry model, which consists of a combustion chamber, an inlet port, and an outlet port, together with its grid splitting,
can be
with itsfound in Figure 2.
grid splitting, The
can beignition
found in process
Figureis2.initiated by a spark
The ignition located
process oppositeby
is initiated thea spray,
spark which
locatedis
supposed to ignite a flame core at ST −18. A base grid size of 1 mm is utilized,
opposite the spray, which is supposed to ignite a flame core at ST −18. A base grid size of 1 mm iswith a fixed embedding
around the
utilized, with spark plug and
a fixed spray to around
embedding meet thethe
required
spark mesh
plug resolution.
and spray Meanwhile,
to meet theanrequired
adaptivemeshmesh
resolution. Meanwhile, an adaptive mesh refinement (AMR) is adopted. During combustion, mm,
refinement (AMR) is adopted. During combustion, the average grid size in the flame front is 0.5 the
and is on the order of 0.125 mm around the spark plug during the spark process
average grid size in the flame front is 0.5 mm, and is on the order of 0.125 mm around the spark plug and 0.25 mm near
the spray
during theduring the injection.
spark process and 0.25A maximum
mm near the of spray
4 million cellsthe
during is achieved.
injection. A Note that, according
maximum to a
of 4 million
cells is achieved. Note that, according to a previous study, the present grid resolution can predict the
occurrence of super-knocking [37]. The time step adjusts itself according to the CFL (Courant–
Friedrichs–Lewy) number, which varies from 1 × 10 to 1 × 10 s.
Energies 2020, 13, 5039 5 of 23
previous study, the present grid resolution can predict the occurrence of super-knocking [37]. The time
step adjusts itself according to the CFL (Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy) number, which varies from 1 × 10−8
to 1 × 10−6 s.
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 23
Figure 2. Schematic
Figure 2. Schematic of
of the
the model
model structure
structure and
and grid splitting.
grid splitting.
2.3. Different Case

2.3. Different Case Settings
Settings
2.3.1. Effects of
2.3.1. Effects of Flame
Flame Propagation
Propagation Velocity
Velocity
In
In practical
practical engines, the flame
engines, the flame propagation velocity is
propagation velocity is physically under the
physically under the joint
joint action
action ofof the
the
laminar
laminar flame speed, turbulent flame speed, and in-cylinder turbulent flow. Hence, it is tricky to
flame speed, turbulent flame speed, and in-cylinder turbulent flow. Hence, it is tricky to
directly
directly change
change flame
flamepropagation
propagationvelocity.
velocity.Keeping
Keepingininmind
mindthat
thatturbulent
turbulent flame speed
flame speedis aisfunction
a functionof
laminar flame speed and turbulence intensity as Equation (3) implied, we find
of laminar flame speed and turbulence intensity as Equation (3) implied, we find a solution. a solution. Furthermore,
according
Furthermore,to anaccording
Equation to(6)an
proposed
Equation by(6)
Gülder [30], the
proposed by laminar
Gülder flame speed
[30], the has a flame
laminar linear speed
relationship
has a
with
linear relationship with coefficient ω, which means that a monotonically increasing of laminarwould
coefficient ω, which means that a monotonically increasing of laminar flame speed flame
be observed
speed wouldwhen other parameters
be observed when other areparameters
identical. Thus, we can Thus,
are identical. decouple the flame
we can velocity
decouple from
the flame
the end-gas auto-ignition. Table 2 lists the operating parameters for studying the effects
velocity from the end-gas auto-ignition. Table 2 lists the operating parameters for studying the effects of flame
propagation velocities.velocities.
of flame propagation
Table 2. Operating parameters.

Table 2. Operating parameters.
Parameter
Parameter Value
Value
Onset of
Onset of calculation
calculation time
time −30
−30CAD
CADaTDC aTDC
Spark
Spark timing
timing −18CAD
−18 CADaTDCaTDC(ST-18)
(ST-18)
Baseline
Baselinecase:
case: ω
ω 0.36
0.36
Cases:
Cases: ω ω 0.4, 0.5,
0.4, 0.5, 0.6,
0.6, 0.7,
0.7, 0.8
0.8
2.3.2. Effects of Turbulence Intensity

Intensity
Figure 3 illustrates the variations of the cold flowflow at

at −18
−18 CAD aTDC (after top dead center) and
TDC after amplifying the flow velocity at −30 −30 CAD aTDC. It can be seen that present setting has the
to capture
ability to capturethe
theturbulence
turbulencedissipation
dissipationas as
thethe vortex
vortex structure
structure breaks
breaks up and
up and disappears
disappears over
over time.
time.vortex
The The vortex structure
structure becomes
becomes moremore obvious
obvious and complicated
and complicated as 0𝑢/𝑢
as u/u increases,
increases, and and remains
remains to
to the
the TDC.
TDC. These These results
results indicate
indicate thatmethod
that the the method of amplifying
of amplifying the flowthevelocity
flow velocity
enhancesenhances the in-
the in-cylinder
cylinder turbulence
turbulence intensity. intensity. The of
The evolution evolution
the TKEof the TKE kinetic
(Turbulent (Turbulent kinetic
energy) afterenergy) afterflow
scaling the scaling the
velocity
flow velocity at different times is illustrated in Figure 4. It can be seen that the TKE increases first as
the flow velocity increases, but subsequently decreases owing to the viscous dissipation. However,
the TKE maintains a proportional relationship with 𝑢/𝑢 . Figure 5 shows the variation of TKE with
𝑢/𝑢 at −18 CAD (spark timing) and TDC. At −18 CAD aTDC, the TKE and 𝑢/𝑢 basically exhibit a
linearly positive relationship regardless of the timing of the scaling; however, the situation at the TDC
Energies 2020, 13, 5039 6 of 23
at different times is illustrated in Figure 4. It can be seen that the TKE increases first as the flow velocity
increases, but subsequently decreases owing to the viscous dissipation. However, the TKE maintains
a proportional relationship with u/u0 . Figure 5 shows the variation of TKE with u/u0 at −18 CAD
(spark timing) and TDC. At −18 CAD aTDC, the TKE and u/u0 basically exhibit a linearly positive
relationship regardless of the timing of the scaling; however, the situation at the TDC is different. At the
TDC, owing to viscous dissipation, the attenuation of TKE is positively related to the flow velocity
and mapping
Energies
Energies
2020, 13,timing.
x FOR PEER
2020, 13, x FOR PEER instance, in the case of map −120 CAD and map −60 CAD, the TKE
ForREVIEW
REVIEW
6 ofis
6 of 23not
23
linearly related to u/u0 , whereas in the case of map −30, this linear relationship remains well owing to
the
the TKE
lesser
the is
is not
TKEdecay. linearly
linearly related
not Therefore, to 𝑢/𝑢
to
map −30
related 𝑢/𝑢
CAD,, whereas in
in the
is utilized.
whereas case
case of
Detailed
the map
map −30,
operating
of −30, this
this linear
parameters relationship
linearcan be found in
relationship
remains
3. well owing to the lesser decay. Therefore, map −30 CAD is utilized. Detailed operating
remains
Table well owing to the lesser decay. Therefore, map −30 CAD is utilized. Detailed operating
parameters
parameters can can bebe found
found in
in Table
Table 3.
3.
Figure
Figure 3.
3. Evolution
Evolution of different initial velocity fields.
Figure 3. Evolutionofofdifferent
differentinitial
initialvelocity
velocityfields.
fields.
50
50
u/u
u/u00=1
=1
u/u
u/u0=2
=2
40
40 0
u/u
u/u00=3
=3
u/u =4
u/u0 =4
0
30
30
TKE
TKE
20
20
10
10 map
map -120
-120
map
map -60
-60 map -30
map -30
00
-120
-120 -90
-90 -60
-60 -30
-30 00 30
30
Crank
Crank Angle
Angle (CAD)
(CAD)
Figure
Figure4.4. Evolution
Evolution of
4.Evolution of averaged
averaged TKE
TKE after scaling the flow velocity at different times.
Figure of averaged TKEafter
afterscaling
scalingthe
theflow
flowvelocity at at
velocity different times.
different times.
Energies 2020, 13, 5039 7 of 23
26
-18 CAD 18 0 CAD
24
22 16
map -120 CAD map -120 CAD
20 map -60 CAD 14 map -60 CAD
map -30 CAD map -30 CAD
18
12
TKE
16
TKE
10
14
12 8
10 6
8
4
6
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
u/u0 u/u0
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure5.5.Values
ValuesofofTKE
TKEfor different 𝑢/𝑢
fordifferent at the
u/u0 at the instant
instant of
of (a)
(a) −18
−18 CAD
CAD aTDC
aTDC and
and (b)
(b) TDC.
TDC.
Operatingparameters
Table3.3.Operating
Table parametersin
inthe
theanalysis
analysisof
ofthe
theeffects
effectsof
ofturbulence
turbulence intensity.
intensity.
Parameters
Parameters Value
Value
Onset
Onset of calculation
of calculation timing
timing −30
−30 CADaTDC
CAD aTDC
Sparking
Sparking timing
timing −18
−18 CADaTDC
CAD aTDC(ST-18)
(ST-18)
Base case: 𝒖/𝒖
Base case: u/u𝟎0 1.0
1.0
Ratios: 𝒖/𝒖
Ratios: u/u𝟎0 1.5,
1.5,2.0,
2.0,2.5,
2.5,3.0,
3.0,4.0
4.0
3.
3.Results
Resultsand
andDiscussion
Discussion
3.1.
3.1.Effects
EffectsofofFlame
FlamePropagation
PropagationVelocity
Velocity
3.1.1.Analysis
3.1.1. Analysisof
ofCylinder
CylinderPressure
Pressureand
andHRR
HRR
Figure 66 demonstrates
Figure demonstratesthe thepressure
pressureprofiles
profilesand and
filtered pressure
filtered oscillations
pressure affectedaffected
oscillations by different
by
laminar flame
different laminar speeds.
flameIn addition,
speeds. Figure 7 Figure
In addition, demonstrates the MAPO
7 demonstrates the(Maximum
MAPO (Maximum Amplitude Pressure
Amplitude
Oscillation)
Pressure and onsetand
Oscillation) of auto-ignition with different
onset of auto-ignition with flame speeds.
different flame The peak pressure
speeds. The peakand amplitude
pressure and
of the pressure oscillation first increase and then decrease as increasing
amplitude of the pressure oscillation first increase and then decrease as increasing the flame the flame propagation velocity.
However, the velocity.
propagation onset of auto-ignition
However, the advances
onsetasof increasing the flame
auto-ignition propagation
advances velocity. The
as increasing strongest
the flame
knocking intensity
propagation velocity.with
Theastrongest
peak pressure knockingof 35 MPa appears
intensity with a peak = 0.5, whereas
at ω pressure another
of 35 MPa appearspressure
at ω
=oscillation
0.5, whereas of high
anotheramplitude
pressurewith a peak value
oscillation of highofamplitude
approximately with a25peak
MPavalueappears at ω = 0.6. Thus,
of approximately 25
it canappears
MPa be impliedat ω that
= 0.6.super-knocking
Thus, it can be occurs impliedunder both conditions.occurs
that super-knocking A further
under increase in the flame
both conditions. A
propagation
further increasevelocity leads propagation
in the flame to a cliff-likevelocity
decrease in the
leads to apressure
cliff-like profile
decrease and knocking
in the pressure intensity;
profile
for instance,
and knockingthe pressurefor
intensity; oscillation
instance,amplitude
the pressure is below 0.5 MPa
oscillation at ω = 0.7
amplitude is and
below ω= 0.50.8,
MPawhichat ωmeans
= 0.7
the knocking
and or pressure
ω = 0.8, which meansoscillation
the knocking disappears. This oscillation
or pressure in-depth mechanism
disappears. canThis
be demonstrated
in-depth mechanism through
3D images,
can as discussed
be demonstrated throughlater.3D The evolutions
images, of HRR (Heat
as discussed Release
later. The Rate) and
evolutions BMF (Heat
of HRR (burned mass
Release
fraction)
Rate) and with
BMF different
(burned mass flamefraction)
propagation speeds are
with different flameplotted in Figure
propagation 8a. At
speeds = 0.36 in
areωplotted and ω = 8a.
Figure 0.4,
theωprofile
At = 0.36ofandtheω HRR exhibits
= 0.4, a bimodal
the profile of theshape.
HRR Meanwhile, as the flame
exhibits a bimodal shape.propagation
Meanwhile, speed increases,
as the flame
the onset of AI
propagation (autoincreases,
speed ignition) advances
the onset and of AIthe(auto
peakignition)
value of HRR increases,
advances and the whereas
peak the
valueheatofrelease
HRR
duration decreases.
increases, whereas theThese resultsduration
heat release indicate decreases.
that two individual
These results AIsindicate
occur inthat an two
unburned
individualmixture.
AIs
The higher
occur in an the flame speed
unburned mixture. is, the
Thecloser
higher is the
the flame
overallspeed
combustion process
is, the closer is to
thethe TDC,combustion
overall resulting in
higher average
process to the TDC,temperature
resultingand pressure.
in higher As a temperature
average result, auto-ignition in the end-gas
and pressure. region
As a result, is prone to
auto-ignition
occur.
in In addition,
the end-gas regionhigher thermodynamics
is prone to occur. In provides
addition, favorable conditions for a provides
higher thermodynamics higher combustion
favorable
rate after the occurrence of AI. However, pressure oscillation is weak.
conditions for a higher combustion rate after the occurrence of AI. However, pressure oscillation Furthermore, a unimodal shapeis
of HRR
weak. with higher
Furthermore, peak pressure
a unimodal shapeisofexhibited
HRR withwith higher anpeak
increase in the
pressure flame propagation
is exhibited speed.
with an increase
The
in theunimodal shape of HRR
flame propagation implies
speed. Thethat an individual
unimodal shape hot spot implies
of HRR or auto-ignition occurs in the
that an individual unburned
hot spot or
auto-ignition occurs in the unburned gas. Consequently, the auto-ignition flame completely
consumes the residual unburned gas in the end-gas region at a speed close to the CJ velocity.
Energies 2020, 13, 5039 8 of 23
gas. Consequently, the auto-ignition flame completely consumes the residual unburned gas in the
Energies
Energies 2020,
2020, 13, 13, x FOR
x FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 9 of923
of 23
end-gas region at a speed close to the CJ velocity.
20 20
40
40
ω =ω0.36
= 0.36
30 30 ω =ω0.4
= 0.4
ω =ω0.5
= 0.5
15 15 20 20
ω =ω0.6
= 0.6
Pressure (MPa) 10 10
ω =ω0.7
= 0.7
Pressure (MPa)
0 0 ω =ω0.8
= 0.8
-10 -10
-5 -50 05 510 10
15 15
20 20
10 10
5 5
0 0
-20 -20 -10 -10 0 0 10 10 20 20
Crank
Crank Angle
Angle (CAD)
(CAD)
(a)(a) Pressure
Pressure
6 6
ω = 0.36 ω =ω0.4
= 0.4
3 3ω = 0.36
Knocking Onset
Knocking Onset
0 0
Pressure Oscillation (MPa)
-3 -3
-6 -6
30 30 ω = 0.5
ω = 0.5 ω =ω0.6
= 0.6
20 20
10 10
0 0
-10-10
6 6
ω =ω0.7
= 0.7 ω =ω0.8
= 0.8
3 3
0 0
-3 -3
-6 -6
-30-30-20-20-10-10 0 0 10 10 20 20 30 30-20-20-10-10 0 0 10 10 20 20 30 30
Crank
Crank Angle
Angle (CAD)
(CAD)
(b)(b) Pressure
Pressure oscillation
oscillation
Figure
Figure
Figure Pressure
6. Pressure
6.
6. Pressure profiles
profiles
profiles and
andand filtered
filtered
filtered pressure
pressure oscillations
oscillations with
with different
different flame
flame
flame velocities.
velocities.
velocities.
30 30 Super knocking 12 12
Super knocking
25 25 MAPO 10 10
Onset of auto-ignition (CAD)
MAPO
Onset of auto-ignition
20 20 8 8
MAPO (MPa)
MAPO (MPa)
15 15 6 6
10 10 4 4
General
General
5 5 combustion2
combustion 2
0 0 0 0
0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8
ω ω
Figure
Figure 7. MAPO
7. MAPO andand
MAPO and onset
onset
onset of
of auto-ignition
auto-ignition
of auto-ignition with
with
with different
different flame
flame velocities.
velocities.
Energies 2020, 13, 5039 9 of 23
1.0
ω = 0.36
0.8 ω = 0.4
ω = 0.5
0.6 ω = 0.6
BMF
ω = 0.7
0.4 ω = 0.8
0.2
0.0
750
600
HRR (J/CAD)
450
300
150
0
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
Crank Angle (CAD)
(a) HRR and BMF profiles
200 HRR
Onset of Onset of End of
first AI Second AI Second AI
150
Second AI
HRR (J/CAD)
heat release
100 First AI
heat release
50
Heat release Heat release Heat release
before during first AI during second AI
end-gas AI
0
First AI duration Second AI duration
2CAD 1.8 CAD
10 12 14 16
Crank Angle (CAD)
(b) HRR at ω = 0.36
800
HRR
600
Onset of AI End of AI
HRR (J/CAD)
400
Heat release by AI
200 HRR peak in ω = 0.5
Heat release before AI

0
AI Duration(0.9 CAD)
2 4 6
Crank Angle (CAD)
(c) HRR at ω = 0.5
Figure 8. (a)
(a)HRR
HRRandandBMFBMFprofiles
profileswith
withdifferent flame
different velocities
flame and
velocities amplified
and HRR
amplified profile
HRR of (b)
profile of
ω 0.36 and (c) ω
(b) ω = 0.36 and (c) ω = 0.5.
= = 0.5.
Energies 2020, 13, 5039 10 of 23
To clearly demonstrate the heat release process under different conditions, the HRR profiles
at ω = 0.36 and ω = 0.5 are amplified, as shown in Figure 8b,c, respectively. At ω = 0.36, the HRR
increases gradually before the onset of the first AI, after which it experiences a steep lift. Together with
the subsequent decrease, the enclosed yellow area can be plotted to represent the heat release process by
the first AI flame. At 13.8 CAD aTDC, the HRR increases again with a fast growth rate, which indicates
the occurrence of a second AI. Similarly, the green area represents the heat released by the second AI
flame. Durations of 2 CAD aTDC and 1.8 CAD aTDC for the two AIs can be observed. For the case at
ω = 0.5, a single peak of HRR 4-times that of HRR at ω = 0.36 is observed, whereas the fast heat release
duration is approximately half of the heat release for two AIs at ω = 0.36. No obvious peak in the HRR
is observed because of the absence of the AI when the flame propagation speed is further increased by
increasing the coefficient to ω = 0.7 and ω = 0.8. Furthermore, the BMF diagram reveals that the mass
fraction of unburned gas consumed by the AI decreases gradually as the flame propagation speed
increases. For instance, 97.5% of the mixture is consumed by the main flame at ω = 0.7, whereas at
ω = 0.8, the main flame has already swept the entire combustion chamber before auto-ignition occurs
owing to a very fast flame propagation speed, resulting in the absence of auto-ignition at ω = 0.8.
Slight pressure oscillations can still be observed under the two conditions. It is worth mentioning
that Rober et al. [38] presented that the pressure wave intensity is proportional to the burned mass by
AI, and they also suggested that AI location and the coupling between the pressure wave and the AI
flame propagation are also probably factors to control knock intensity. However, the present results
demonstrate the non-monotonic relationship between the flame propagation velocity or BMF and the
knock intensity. Such phenomena can be clearly explained by the detailed flame propagation process
under different conditions, as shown in the latter figures.
To summarize, increasing the flame propagation velocity will first strengthen the knocking intensity
and then weaken it. There are two aspects to this. On the one hand, a higher flame velocity results in an
increase of the heat release rate in the cylinder, consequently obtaining quicker increases of temperature
and pressure at the end-gas region. Therefore, the ignition delay time of the unburned end-gas mixture
is shortened, which can promote a hot-spot formation or the occurrence of auto-ignition. On the
other hand, the higher the flame propagation velocity is, the shorter the time required for the main
flame propagating from the spark to the end-wall. If all fuel-air mixtures are consumed by the main
flame before an auto-ignition occurs, the auto-ignition will not appear. The competitive relationship
between the flame propagation velocity and end-gas auto-ignition brings about a non-monotonic
relationship between the flame propagation speed and knocking intensity. Meanwhile, the intensity of
the knocking does not depend solely on the flame propagation velocity, but also on the mass of the
unburned mixture when auto-ignition occurs. The most intense knocking is observed when both the
flame propagation velocity and mass of the unburned mixture are significant. However, a sufficiently
high flame propagation velocity will decrease the knocking intensity as a result of the absence of the
AI or an insufficient unburned mixture as auto-ignition occurrence. This phenomenon is consistent
with the 1D DNS results from Yu et al. [20].
3.1.2. Analysis of Combustion Process

To further study the influence of the different flame velocities on the end-gas auto-ignition and
pressure oscillation, the effects of the flame propagation velocities at ω = 0.5 and ω = 0.8 are considered.
(1). Combustion characteristics at ω = 0.5
Figure 9 shows the evolution of the main flame propagation and end-gas auto-ignition at ω = 0.5.
Noted that, the isosurface for G = 0, marked by the red color, indicates the main flame front [28].
The onset of an auto-ignition is localized by the isosurface of HCO with a mass fraction of 3.0 ppm [39],
and the isosurface of the unburned mixture at a temperature of 1600 K at the end-gas region represents
the flame front induced through an auto-ignition. The distribution of the local pressure fluctuation (∆P),
which is calculated by the difference between the local pressure and the average pressure in the cylinder,
Figure 9 shows the evolution of the main flame propagation and end-gas auto-ignition at ω = 0.5.
Noted that, the isosurface for G = 0, marked by the red color, indicates the main flame front [28]. The
onset of an auto-ignition is localized by the isosurface of HCO with a mass fraction of 3.0 ppm [39], and
the isosurface
Energies of the unburned mixture at a temperature of 1600 K at the end-gas region represents
2020, 13, 5039 11 of 23
the flame front induced through an auto-ignition. The distribution of the local pressure fluctuation
(ΔP), which is calculated by the difference between the local pressure and the average pressure in the
is also demonstrated.
cylinder, An obvious
is also demonstrated. Anauto-ignition spot appears
obvious auto-ignition spotat appears
4.5 CADataTDC near aTDC
4.5 CAD the bottom near left
the
wall under a large accumulation of HCO owing to low-temperature reactions,
bottom left wall under a large accumulation of HCO owing to low-temperature reactions, which is which is immediately
consumed
immediately by consumed
the subsequentby thehigh-temperature reactions, forming
subsequent high-temperature a stable
reactions, flame. aUnder
forming stablethis condition,
flame. Under
although
this condition, although only one auto-ignition spot occurs, the mutual interaction betweenfront
only one auto-ignition spot occurs, the mutual interaction between the developed flame the
induced
developed byflame
AI and a pressure
front inducedwaveby AIleads
and atopressure
a much wave higherleads
explosive pressure,
to a much higherwhich finally
explosive results
pressure,
in violent
which knocking
finally resultscombustion. Figure combustion.
in violent knocking 10 shows theFigure distribution
10 shows of the
the pressure
distributionfluctuation, HCO,
of the pressure
and unburned temperature (UT) on a horizontal plane with z = −3 mm.
fluctuation, HCO, and unburned temperature (UT) on a horizontal plane with z = −3 mm. The purple The purple line indicates the
main flame front
line indicates theby the flame
main contour of Gby= the
front 0. Itcontour
can be clearly
of G = seen frombethe
0. It can pressure
clearly seenfluctuation that the
from the pressure
flame front generated
fluctuation that the flameby thefront
AI on the right side
generated is atAIthe
by the onsame position
the right sideasisthe
at pressure
the samewave during
position as the
the
period of 4.9 CAD to 5.1 CAD aTDC. In addition, the pressure fluctuation
pressure wave during the period of 4.9 CAD to 5.1 CAD aTDC. In addition, the pressure fluctuation at the flame front achieves
the peak
at the value.
flame Theachieves
front flame propagation speed on
the peak value. Thetheflameright propagation
side is approximately
speed on1.7 thekm/s,
rightwhich
side is is
close to the Chapman–Jouguet (CJ) detonation velocity and confirms
approximately 1.7 km/s, which is close to the Chapman–Jouguet (CJ) detonation velocity and the occurrence of a detonation
here. Thethe
confirms present result agrees
occurrence with the result
of a detonation by Robert
here. The presentetresult
al. [37], which
agrees confirmed
with the result theby hypothesis
Robert et
proposed in theconfirmed
al. [37], which previous works [40] that super-knock
the hypothesis proposed inis the characterized
previous works by a deflagration to detonation
[40] that super-knock is
(DDT). In addition, recently, the super-knock with DDT phenomenon also
characterized by a deflagration to detonation (DDT). In addition, recently, the super-knock with DDTcan be distinctly observed
by an opticallyalso
phenomenon rapid
cancompression
be distinctly machine
observed(RCM) [41]. Therapid
by an optically present flame propagation
compression machineas shown
(RCM) in
[41].
Figure 9 is similar
The present flame to the detonation
propagation propagation
as shown in Figure in 9[41].
is similar to the detonation propagation in [41].
Figure
Figure 9. Evolution of
9. Evolution of main
main flame
flame propagation
propagation and
and end-gas
end-gas auto-ignition
auto-ignitionat ω=
atω 0.5 by
= 0.5 by 3D
3D isosurfaces
isosurfaces
Energies = 0 13,
of G2020, andx FOR
massPEER of HCO = 3 ppm; the background color indicates the pressure evolution. 12 of 23
REVIEW
fraction
of G = 0 and mass fraction of HCO = 3 ppm; the background color indicates the pressure evolution.
Figure
Figure10. Evolution of
10. Evolution ∆P,mass
ofΔP, massfraction
fractionofof HCO,
HCO, and
and unburned
unburned temperature
temperature afterafter the initial
the initial auto-
auto-ignition at ω =
ignition at ω = 0.5. 0.5.
In [37], a circular 1D profile is extracted from the periphery of the combustion chamber to
quantitatively analyze the cause of knock mechanism by comparing the pressure profile and auto-
ignition reaction rate at every angular degree. This method describes the super-knocking mechanism
well. Therefore, to further investigate the coupling between the flame and pressure wave, a path, as
Energies Figure
2020, 13,10.
5039 12 of 23
Evolution of ΔP, mass fraction of HCO, and unburned temperature after the initial auto-
ignition at ω = 0.5.
In [37], a circular 1D profile is extracted from the periphery of the combustion chamber
In [37], a circular 1D profile is extracted from the periphery of the combustion chamber to
to quantitatively analyze the cause of knock mechanism by comparing the pressure profile and
quantitatively analyze the cause of knock mechanism by comparing the pressure profile and auto-
auto-ignition reaction rate at every angular degree. This method describes the super-knocking
ignition reaction rate at every angular degree. This method describes the super-knocking mechanism
mechanism well. Therefore, to further investigate the coupling between the flame and pressure wave,
well. Therefore, to further investigate the coupling between the flame and pressure wave, a path, as
a path, as shown in Figure 11, is applied by extracting the 1D profiles of the pressure, unburned
shown in Figure 11, is applied by extracting the 1D profiles of the pressure, unburned temperature,
temperature, and mass fraction of HCO, and the profiles along with 2D images are illustrated in
and mass fraction of HCO, and the profiles along with 2D images are illustrated in Figure 12. It can
Figure 12. It can be seen from the 4.7 CAD to 4.8 CAD aTDC that a large amount of HCO is generated on
be seen from the 4.7 CAD to 4.8 CAD aTDC that a large amount of HCO is generated on the right
the right side of the auto-ignition flame, indicating that sequential AIs occur in the region. During this
side of the auto-ignition flame, indicating that sequential AIs occur in the region. During this period,
period, the AI flame propagates with a deflagration velocity of approximately 730 m/s, exceeding
the AI flame propagates with a deflagration velocity of approximately 730 m/s, exceeding the local
the local acoustic speed. In addition, at 4.8 CAD aTDC, the pressure peak at the right side of the
acoustic speed. In addition, at 4.8 CAD aTDC, the pressure peak at the right side of the auto-ignition
auto-ignition flame clearly increases. At this time, the auto-ignition flame speed is approximately
flame clearly increases. At this time, the auto-ignition flame speed is approximately 1.3 km/s, which
1.3 km/s, which is slightly lower than the CJ velocity. Owing to the fast heat release, the intensity of the
is slightly lower than the CJ velocity. Owing to the fast heat release, the intensity of the pressure wave
pressure wave continues to enhance, and the pressure wave reaches a peak of 28 MPa at 4.9 CAD aTDC.
continues to enhance, and the pressure wave reaches a peak of 28 MPa at 4.9 CAD aTDC. It should
It should be noted that, at this time, a coupling between the auto-ignition flame and pressure wave
be noted that, at this time, a coupling between the auto-ignition flame and pressure wave is formed,
is formed, and the combustion mode completes the transitions from auto-ignition to a deflagration
and the combustion mode completes the transitions from auto-ignition to a deflagration flame to
flame to detonation, which consequently generates the occurrence of super-knocking. This process
detonation, which consequently generates the occurrence of super-knocking. This process is
is consistent with the work in [37]. Next, the subsequent detonation combustion wave proceeds to
consistent with the work in [37]. Next, the subsequent detonation combustion wave proceeds to
consume the unburned gas at a speed of 1.7 km/s, and the maximum pressure reaches 31 MPa. It is not
consume the unburned gas at a speed of 1.7 km/s, and the maximum pressure reaches 31 MPa. It is
until the unburned mixture on of left side of the flame is completely consumed at 5.1 CAD aTDC that
not until the unburned mixture on of left side of the flame is completely consumed at 5.1 CAD aTDC
the pressure wave detaches from the flame front, indicating the end of the detonation combustion.
that the pressure wave detaches from the flame front, indicating the end of the detonation
On the left side of the auto-ignition flame, the propagation speed remains at approximately 240 m/s,
combustion. On the left side of the auto-ignition flame, the propagation speed remains at
which is clearly inferior to the speed of the pressure wave, and thus a coupling between the auto-igntion
approximately 240 m/s, which is clearly inferior to the speed of the pressure wave, and thus a
flame and pressure wave does not appear here.
coupling between the auto-igntion flame and pressure wave does not appear here.
Figure 11.Schematic
Figure11. Schematicofoftrace
tracefrom
fromwhich
whichthe
the1D
1Dprofile
profileis is
extracted.
extracted.
(2). Combustion characteristics at ω= 0.8
Figure 13 demonstrates the evolution of the main flame propagation and end-gas auto-ignition
at ω = 0.8. Under this condition, the auto-ignition does not occur. As the figure indicates, the main
flame has already swept the entire combustion chamber at −1 CAD aTDC, leading to the suppression
of the end-gas AI. Similar results can be concluded from the distribution of HCO and UT. No obvious
accumulation of HCO or an increase of UT occurs, as shown in Figure 14. However, the pressure
oscillation with an amplitude of approximately 3 bar can still be observed from the distribution of the
pressure fluctuation. This phenomenon implies that the in-cylinder pressure wave oscillation can not
only be induced by auto-ignition, but can also be caused by a fast heat release or accelerated flame if it
is sufficiently fast to induce a local pressure increase, which was confirmed in previous studies [42–44].
Meanwhile, it can be seen that multiple pressure waves are generated during the flame propagation.
The pressure waves continuously compress the unburned mixture, increasing the local temperature
and pressure, which in turn enhances the flame propagation. It should be noted that the pressure
oscillation induced by the main flame is far lower than that by the end-gas auto-ignition. Therefore,
knocking can be inhibited by increasing the flame propagation velocity; however, it can be reasonably
Energies 2020, 13, 5039 13 of 23
predicted that a further increase in the flame velocity will cause higher pressure oscillations owing
to the increase in HRR. Overall, for a quickly accelerating flame, the interactions between the flame,
compress wave, and auto-ignition dominate the occurrence of knocking combustion.
Figure 12. Evolution of 2D

Figure 12. 2D pattern of ∆P
pattern of ΔP in
in the
the horizontal
horizontal cross-section
cross-section (left),
(left), pressure,
pressure, unburned
unburned
temperature,
temperature, and
and mass
mass fraction
fraction of
of HCO
HCO on on the
the 1D
1D profile
profile (middle)
(middle) and
and 2D2D pattern
pattern of
of unburned
unburned
temperature
temperature in
in the
thehorizontal
horizontalcross-section
cross-section(right)
(right)under
underthe
thecondition
conditionof ω== 0.5.
ofω
(2). Combustion characteristics at ω= 0.8
Figure 13 demonstrates the evolution of the main flame propagation and end-gas auto-ignition
at ω = 0.8. Under this condition, the auto-ignition does not occur. As the figure indicates, the main
flame has already swept the entire combustion chamber at −1 CAD aTDC, leading to the suppression
of the end-gas AI. Similar results can be concluded from the distribution of HCO and UT. No obvious
accumulation of HCO or an increase of UT occurs, as shown in Figure 14. However, the pressure
oscillation with an amplitude of approximately 3 bar can still be observed from the distribution of
the pressure fluctuation. This phenomenon implies that the in-cylinder pressure wave oscillation can
not only be induced by auto-ignition, but can also be caused by a fast heat release or accelerated flame
if it is sufficiently fast to induce a local pressure increase, which was confirmed in previous studies
[42–44]. Meanwhile, it can be seen that multiple pressure waves are generated during the flame
propagation. The pressure waves continuously compress the unburned mixture, increasing the local
pressure oscillation induced by the main flame is far lower than that by the end-gas auto-ignition.
pressure oscillation induced by the main flame is far lower than that by the end-gas auto-ignition.
Therefore, knocking can be inhibited by increasing the flame propagation velocity; however, it can be
Therefore, knocking can be inhibited by increasing the flame propagation velocity; however, it can be
reasonably predicted that a further increase in the flame velocity will cause higher pressure oscillations
reasonably predicted that a further increase in the flame velocity will cause higher pressure oscillations
owing to the increase in HRR. Overall, for a quickly accelerating flame, the interactions between the
owing to the
Energies 2020, 13,increase
5039 in HRR. Overall, for a quickly accelerating flame, the interactions between the
14 of 23
flame, compress wave, and auto-ignition dominate the occurrence of knocking combustion.
flame, compress wave, and auto-ignition dominate the occurrence of knocking combustion.
Figure 13.Evolution
Evolutionofof3D
3Din-cylinder
in-cylindercombustion
combustion process at ω==0.8.
0.8.
Figure
Figure 13.
13. Evolution of 3D in-cylinder combustion process
process at
at ω
ω = 0.8.
Figure
Figure14. Evolution of
ofΔP, massfraction
fractionofofHCO,
HCO, and
and unburned
the initial auto-
Figure 14. Evolution of ΔP, mass fraction of HCO, and unburned temperature after the initial auto-
auto-ignition 0.8.= 0.8.
ignition at ωat= ω
ignition at ω = 0.8.
3.2. Effects of Turbulence Intensity
Unlike the effects of the turbulent flame velocity on the end-gas auto-ignition and knocking
Unlike the effects of the turbulent flame velocity on the end-gas auto-ignition and knocking
Unlike increasing
occurrence, the effects the of the turbulent
turbulence flame velocity
intensity on the end-gas
must simultaneously auto-ignition
change the flameand knocking
propagation
occurrence, increasing the turbulence intensity must simultaneously change the flame propagation
occurrence, increasingstate
and thermodynamic the involving
turbulencethe intensity must simultaneously
temperature and compositions change
in thethe flame region.
end-gas propagation
Here,
and thermodynamic state involving the temperature and compositions in the end-gas region. Here,
and thermodynamic
the effects state involving
of the turbulence intensitytheby temperature
changing theand flowcompositions in end-gas
velocity on the the end-gas region. Here,
auto-ignition and
the effects of the turbulence intensity by changing the flow velocity on the end-gas auto-ignition and
the effectsoscillation
pressure of the turbulence intensity by changing the flow velocity on the end-gas auto-ignition and
are determined.
pressure oscillation are determined.
pressure oscillation are determined.
3.2.1. Analysis of Cylinder Pressure and HRR
3.2.1. Analysis of Cylinder Pressure and HRR
3.2.1.Figure
Analysis of Cylinder
15 shows Pressureprofiles
the pressure and HRR and filtered pressure oscillations with different turbulence
Figure
intensities. 15 shows
Similar to the
the pressure
effects ofprofiles
the andvelocity
flame filtered on
pressure oscillations
the knocking with different
intensity, turbulence
a non-monotonic
Figure 15 shows the pressure profiles and filtered pressure oscillations with different turbulence
intensities. Similar
relationship between tothetheturbulence
effects of the flame velocity on the knocking intensity, a non-monotonic
intensities. Similar to the effects of theintensity and the
flame velocity onpressure oscillation
the knocking is observed
intensity, from the
a non-monotonic
relationship
flame-turbulence between the
interaction.turbulence intensity
The combustion and the pressure
phenomenon oscillation is observed from obtained
the flame-
relationship between the turbulence intensity and the pressureisoscillation
consistent is with the results
observed from the flame-
turbulence
from a 1D interaction.
simulation The
described combustion
in previous phenomenon
studies is
[45,46]. consistent
On the one with
hand, the results
the obtained
increased from a
turbulence
turbulence interaction. The combustion phenomenon is consistent with the results obtained from a
1D simulation
intensity described
can promote in previous
important studies radicals
intermediate [45,46]. and
On theheatone hand, thewhich increased turbulence
1D simulation described in previous studies [45,46]. On the onedispersions,
hand, the increased finally retards
turbulence
the onset of the AI and reduces the AI kernel size [47]. On the other hand, increasing the turbulence
intensity can also increase the wrinkled flame surface and burning rate, which results in an increase
in the flame propagation velocity. As discussed above, the effects of the flame propagation speed on
the end-gas auto-ignition are also non-monotonic. Both causes will ultimately influence the knocking
the first peak by the first AI is gradually inhibited, whereas the second peak first increases and then
decreases. This indicates that the turbulence first leads to a more homogenous reactivity and an
increase in the thermodynamic state in unburned gas for the second AI spot. Thus, the heat release
rate increases. In contrast, a further increase of the turbulence intensity will increase the propagation
velocity2020,
Energies of the main flame as well as the ignition delay of the end gas, which means a reduction 15
13, 5039 ofofthe
23
unburned mixture when an auto-ignition occurs. As a result, the HRR gradually decreases. For instance,
approximately 97.1% of the fuel-air mixture is consumed by the main flame when auto-ignition occurs
tendency and intensity. However, the previous studies neglected the effects of flame propagation and
at 𝑢/𝑢 = 4.0, and therefore the amplitude of the pressure oscillation under this condition is only 0.27
compression wave.
MPa, which is even smaller than the case of ω = 0.8 where no auto-ignition is observed.
10
u/u0 = 1.0
u/u0 = 1.5
8
u/u0 = 2.0
u/u0 = 2.5
Pressure (MPa) u/u0 = 3.0
6
u/u0 = 4.0
-20 -10 0 10 20
Crank Angle (CAD)
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW (a) Cylinder pressure 16 of 23
2
1 u/u0 = 1.0 u/u0 = 1.5
Knocking onset
0
-1
2
-2
1 u/u0 = 2.0 u/u0 = 2.5
0
-1
-22
u/u0 = 3.5 u/u0 = 4.0
1
0
-1
-2
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
Crank Angle (CAD)
(b) Filtered pressure oscillation
Figure 15.15.
Figure Pressure traces
Pressure and
traces filtered
and pressure
filtered oscillations
pressure with
oscillations different
with turbulence
different intensities.
turbulence intensities.
1.6 14
It is worth noting that the MAPO under enhanced turbulence intensity conditions is generally
lower than that under the flame MAPO
speed cases. In addition, none of the
1.4 12 MAPOs here exceeds 1.5 MPa,
as shown in Figure 16. The1.2more intense the turbulence is, the faster the main flame propagates,
10
which promotes the pressure increase and advances the onset of the pressure oscillation. As a result,
MAPO (MPa)
1.0
the mean in-cylinder pressure is also high as a pressure oscillation 8occurs. Compared to the effect
of the flame speed, the effect 0.8 of the turbulence on the pressure oscillation is more complicated, as
6
discussed above. Therefore, 0.6 to further decouple the flame acceleration from the end gas auto-ignition,
4
applying the mean combustion rate (BMF when auto-ignition occurs is divided by the difference of
0.4
auto-ignition timing and spark timing) before the auto-ignition occurrence 2 is proposed to indicate
the main flame propagation0.2speed. Similarly, the effect of different flame speeds on the end-gas
0
auto-ignition is also determined1.0using 1.5 the2.0
same2.5method 3.0 as
3.5 a comparison.
4.0 Figure 17 demonstrates
u/u0
the relationship between the MAPO and the combustion rate before the AI in terms of the increase
in flame speed and16.anMAPO
Figure increase
andin turbulence
onset intensity,
of auto-ignition withrespectively. By comparison,
different turbulence intensities.under the same
mean combustion rate, the MAPO obtained by changing the turbulence intensity is far lower than that
obtained by increasing the flame speed, which indicates that increasing 14 the turbulence can effectively
30 Effect of turbulence intensity
suppress the auto-ignition. 12
Effect of flame speed
25 10
set of auto-ignition (CAD)
20 8
MAPO (MPa)
6
15
4
10
2
0
Pr
Pr
-1
-2
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
Crank Angle (CAD)
Energies 2020, 13, 5039

(b) Filtered pressure oscillation 16 of 23
Figure 15. Pressure traces and filtered pressure oscillations with different turbulence intensities.
1.6
1.6 14
14
1.4 MAPO
MAPO
1.4 12
12
Onset
Onset of
of auto-ignition
auto-ignition
(CAD)
auto-ignition (CAD)
1.2
1.2 10
10
(MPa)
MAPO (MPa)
1.0
1.0
of auto-ignition
88
0.8
0.8
MAPO
66
0.6
0.6
Onset of
44
Onset
0.4
0.4
22
0.2
0.2
00
1.0
1.0 1.5
1.5 2.0
2.0 2.5
2.5 3.0
3.0 3.5
3.5 4.0
4.0
u/u
u/u00
Figure
Figure 16.
16. MAPO
MAPO and
and onset
onset of
of auto-ignition
auto-ignition with
with different
different turbulence
turbulence intensities.
intensities.
14
14
30
30 Effect
Effect of
of turbulence
turbulence intensity
intensity 12
12
Effect
Effect of
of flame
flame speed
speed
25
25 10
(CAD)
10
auto-ignition (CAD)
20
20 88
(MPa)
MAPO (MPa)
of auto-ignition
66
15
15
MAPO
44
10
10
Onset of
22
Onset
55
00
00 -2
-2
0.02
0.02 0.03
0.03 0.04
0.04 0.05
0.05 0.06
0.06
Combustion rate before AI (1/CAD)
Figure 17. Relationship

Figure 17. betweenMAPO
Relationship between MAPOandandthe
thecombustion
combustion rate
rate before
before auto-ignition
auto-ignition as increasing
as increasing the
the flame speed and increasing the turbulence intensity.
flame speed and increasing the turbulence intensity.
The HRR and BMF profiles at different turbulent intensities are plotted in Figure 18. The bimodal
curve of the HRR reveals the occurrence of two individual AIs. As the turbulence intensity increases,
the first peak by the first AI is gradually inhibited, whereas the second peak first increases and then
decreases. This indicates that the turbulence first leads to a more homogenous reactivity and an
increase in the thermodynamic state in unburned gas for the second AI spot. Thus, the heat release
rate increases. In contrast, a further increase of the turbulence intensity will increase the propagation
velocity of the main flame as well as the ignition delay of the end gas, which means a reduction
of the unburned mixture when an auto-ignition occurs. As a result, the HRR gradually decreases.
For instance, approximately 97.1% of the fuel-air mixture is consumed by the main flame when
auto-ignition occurs at u/u0 = 4.0, and therefore the amplitude of the pressure oscillation under this
condition is only 0.27 MPa, which is even smaller than the case of ω = 0.8 where no auto-ignition
is observed.
Energies 2020, 13, 5039 17 of 23
1.0
u/u0 = 1.0
0.8 u/u0 = 1.5
u/u0 = 2.0
0.6 u/u0 = 2.5
BMF
u/u0 = 3.0
0.4
u/u0 = 4.0
0.2
0.0
400
350
300
HRR (J/CAD)
250
200
150
100
50
0
-50
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
Crank Angle (CAD)
Figure 18. HRR

HRR and BMF curves with different turbulence intensities.
3.2.2. Analysis of
3.2.2. Analysis of Combustion
Combustion Process
Process
The
The profile
profile of the HRR
of the HRR under
under different
different turbulence
turbulence intensities
intensities can
can be
be divided
divided into
into two
two categories.
categories.
The
The cases
cases of 𝑢/𝑢0 ==1.5,
of u/u 1.5,2.0,
2.0,and
and2.5
2.5share
sharesimilar
similarbimodal
bimodalcurves
curvesofofthe
theHRR,
HRR,which
whichmeans
meanstheytheyhave
havea
similar combustion process. For u/u = 3.0 and 4.0, the curves of the HRR are unimodal
a similar combustion process. For 𝑢/𝑢 = 3.0 and 4.0, the curves of the HRR are unimodal evolutions.
0 evolutions.
Based on this,
Based on this, the
the two
two turbulence
turbulence intensities
intensities at 𝑢/𝑢0 == 1.5
at u/u 1.5 and 𝑢/𝑢0 == 4.0
and u/u 4.0 are
are adopted
adopted toto analyze
analyze the
the
in-cylinder
in-cylinder combustion
combustion process
process affected
affected by
by the
the turbulence
turbulence intensity.
intensity.
(1). Combustion
Combustion characteristics
characteristics at 𝑢/𝑢0 =1.5
at u/u = 1.5
Figure 19 shows the in-cylinder combustion characteristics for 𝑢/𝑢 = 1.5. In addition, for the
Figure 19 shows the in-cylinder combustion characteristics for u/u0 = 1.5. In addition, for the
evolution of ΔP, the mass fraction of the HCO and the unburned temperature at 𝑢/𝑢 = 1.5 are
evolution of ∆P, the mass fraction of the HCO and the unburned temperature at u/u0 = 1.5 are
illustrated in Figure 20. As the figure indicates, auto-ignition first occurs near the bottom left wall at
illustrated in Figure 20. As the figure indicates, auto-ignition first occurs near the bottom left wall
7.3 CAD aTDC with a large amount of HCO accumulated around the initial auto-ignition kernel,
at 7.3 CAD aTDC with a large amount of HCO accumulated around the initial auto-ignition kernel,
denoting the occurrence of sequential auto-ignitions in this region. The fast heat release generated by
denoting the occurrence of sequential auto-ignitions in this region. The fast heat release generated
the AI results in a local pressure increase and triggers the pressure waves. However, the pressure
by the AI results in a local pressure increase and triggers the pressure waves. However, the pressure
waves have a higher propagation velocity than the AI flame speed. In addition, the limited mass of
waves have a higher propagation velocity than the AI flame speed. In addition, the limited mass of the
the unburned mixture around the AI spots further prevents the coupling between the flame and
unburned mixture around the AI spots further prevents the coupling between the flame and pressure
pressure wave, which does not lead to a strong pressure oscillation according to a previous study.
wave, which does not lead to a strong pressure oscillation according to a previous study. Affected by
Affected by the compression effects of both the main flame and the auto-ignition flame, a second
the compression effects of both the main flame and the auto-ignition flame, a second auto-ignition
auto-ignition appears on the right side of the combustion chamber at 8.3 CAD aTDC. The in-cylinder
appears on the right side of the combustion chamber at 8.3 CAD aTDC. The in-cylinder pressure and
pressure and temperature are further increased compared to the first auto-ignition, which leads to a
temperature are further increased compared to the first auto-ignition, which leads to a more intense heat
more intense heat release, generating stronger pressure waves. As shown in [45,46], the increased
release, generating stronger pressure waves. As shown in [45,46], the increased turbulence intensity
turbulence intensity has the capability of delaying the onset of the AI formation and shrinks the
has the capability of delaying the onset of the AI formation and shrinks the kernel size at the onset of AI
kernel size at the onset of AI because of turbulence stirring and subsequently the enhance localized
because of turbulence stirring and subsequently the enhance localized energy and radicals dissipation,
energy and radicals dissipation, which results in the decrease of unburned mixture amount if AI
which results in the decrease of unburned mixture amount if AI occurs. The in-depth analysis of the
occurs. The in-depth analysis of the similar work is confirmed by the work of Wu et al. [48]. However,
similar work is confirmed by the work of Wu et al. [48]. However, as pointed out by Wei et al. [46],
as pointed out by Wei et al. [46], the increased turbulence stirring results in the increases of mean
the increased turbulence stirring results in the increases of mean temperature and pressure of the
temperature and pressure of the unburnt mixture. Furthermore, the increased turbulence also can
unburnt mixture. Furthermore, the increased turbulence also can promote flame propagation induced
promote flame propagation induced by the AI due to increasing the turbulent flame surface. As a
by the AI due to increasing the turbulent flame surface. As a consequence, although the remaining
consequence, although the remaining unburned mixture when auto-ignition occurs is less than that
unburned mixture when auto-ignition occurs is less than that for the baseline case, noted that, the mean
for the baseline case, noted that, the mean thermodynamic states involving the temperature and
thermodynamic states involving the temperature and pressure are higher, which introduces a more
pressure are higher, which introduces a more intense heat release and strengthens the pressure
intense heat release and strengthens the pressure oscillation ultimately. The present result indicates that
oscillation ultimately. The present result indicates that the thermodynamic states dominate the
the thermodynamic states dominate the combustion intensity and not only the unburned mixture mass.
combustion intensity and not only the unburned mixture mass.
Energies 2020, 13, 5039 18 of 23
Figure19.
Figure 19. Evolution
Evolution of
of 3D
3D in-cylinder
in-cylinder combustion
combustion process
processat 𝑢/𝑢 ==1.5.
atu/u 1.5.
Figure 19. Evolution of 3D in-cylinder combustion process at 𝑢/𝑢0 = 1.5.
Figure
Figure 20.
EvolutionofofΔP, massfraction
fraction
of of HCO,
HCO, andand unburned
the initial auto-
Figure 20. Evolution
auto-ignition at u/u of
= ΔP, mass fraction of HCO, and unburned temperature after the initial auto-
1.5.
ignition at 𝑢/𝑢 = 1.5.
0
(2).
(2). Combustion
Combustion characteristics
characteristics at 𝑢/𝑢0 ==4.0
at u/u 4.0
(2). Combustion characteristics at 𝑢/𝑢 = 4.0
Figure
Figure21 21demonstrates
demonstratesthe theevolution
evolutionof ofthe
themain
mainflame,
flame,auto-ignition
auto-ignitionflame,
flame,andandpressure
pressurewave
wave
Figure 21 demonstrates the evolution of the main flame, auto-ignition flame, and pressure wave
based
basedon on2D2Dimages
imagesas asauto-ignition
auto-ignitionoccurs,
occurs,respectively.
respectively.OnlyOnlyoneoneauto-ignition
auto-ignitionisisobserved
observedon onthethe
based on 2D images as auto-ignition occurs, respectively. Only one auto-ignition is observed on the
right side of the combustion chamber where a second AI was found in previous
right side of the combustion chamber where a second AI was found in previous cases. The absence cases. The absence of
right side of the combustion chamber where a second AI was found in previous cases. The absence
AI
of in
AIthe
in first AI position
the first mentioned
AI position mentionedaboveabove
can be attributed
can to the to
be attributed increase in flame
the increase in propagation speed
flame propagation
of AI in the first AI position mentioned above can be attributed to the increase in flame propagation
and
speedtheand
dissipation of heat and
the dissipation intermediate
of heat radicalsradicals
and intermediate generated by low-temperature
generated reactionsreactions
by low-temperature around
speed and the dissipation of heat and intermediate radicals generated by low-temperature reactions
the AI kernel.
around the AI These impacts
kernel. Thesesubstantially retard the ignition
impacts substantially retarddelay, resultingdelay,
the ignition in the resulting
consumption in theof
around the AI kernel. These impacts substantially retard the ignition delay, resulting in the
the unburned of
consumption mixture by the main
the unburned mixtureflame
by before
the main auto-ignition.
flame beforeCompared to the
auto-ignition. case of u/u
Compared 0 = case
to the 1.5,
consumption of the unburned mixture by the main flame before auto-ignition. Compared to the case
the 𝑢/𝑢 = 1.5,flame
of increased speed dominates
the increased flame speedthe combustion
dominates process and suppresses
the combustion processthe
andend-gas auto-ignition
suppresses the end-
of 𝑢/𝑢 = 1.5, the increased flame speed dominates the combustion process and suppresses the end-
due
gas to the distinct due
auto-ignition effecttoofthe
enhanced
distinct turbulence intensity.
effect of enhanced At 1.5 CAD
turbulence aTDC, the
intensity. AI occurs
At 1.5 CAD aTDC,with thethe
gas auto-ignition due to the distinct effect of enhanced turbulence intensity. At 1.5 CAD aTDC, the
consumption
AI occurs with ofthe
theconsumption
remaining unburned gas during
of the remaining 0.4 CAD.
unburned gasLimited
during 0.4byCAD.
the mass of the
Limited byavailable
the mass
AI occurs with the consumption of the remaining unburned gas during 0.4 CAD. Limited by the mass
unburned mixture,
of the available the auto-ignition
unburned mixture, the does not producedoes
auto-ignition strong
notpressure
produceoscillations. Noteoscillations.
strong pressure that, underNote
this
of the available unburned mixture, the auto-ignition does not produce strong pressure oscillations. Note
condition,
that, undera this
pressure wave awith
condition, a slight
pressure intensity
wave with acan be observed
slight at 1.3
intensity can beCAD aTDC,
observed at even
1.3 CADbefore the
aTDC,
that, under this condition, a pressure wave with a slight intensity can be observed at 1.3 CAD aTDC,
occurrence
even beforeof the auto-ignition.
occurrenceThis phenomenon This
of auto-ignition. can be explained bycan
phenomenon thebe
intense combustion
explained by theprocess
intense
even before the occurrence of auto-ignition. This phenomenon can be explained by the intense
and fast heatprocess
combustion release and
rate fast
induced by the fast
heat release rate propagation
induced by the speed
fast of the main flame.
propagation speed of the main flame.
combustion process and fast heat release rate induced by the fast propagation speed of the main flame.
Energies 2020, 13, 5039 19 of 23
Figure Evolutionofof
21. Evolution
Figure 21. ∆P,
ΔP, mass
mass fraction
fraction of HCO,
of HCO, andand unburned
temperature after after the initial
the initial auto-
auto-ignition at u/u
0 = 4.0.
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
The major objective of the present work is to investigate the effects of the flame propagation velocity
The major objective of the present work is to investigate the effects of the flame propagation
and turbulence intensity on the end-gas auto-ignition as well as pressure oscillation through an LES
velocity and turbulence intensity on the end-gas auto-ignition as well as pressure oscillation through
and a decoupling methodology applied in a downsized SI gasoline engine. The mechanisms of end-gas
an LES and a decoupling methodology applied in a downsized SI gasoline engine. The mechanisms
auto-ignition and a strong pressure oscillation were qualitatively analyzed. In this work, it should be
of end-gas auto-ignition and a strong pressure oscillation were qualitatively analyzed. In this work,
noted that, based on the G-equation model and SAGE solver, a decoupling of the relationship of the
it should be noted that, based on the G-equation model and SAGE solver, a decoupling of the
flame propagation velocity and the thermodynamics of the end-gas mixture was achieved. A validation
relationship of the flame propagation velocity and the thermodynamics of the end-gas mixture was
of the pressure evolution and HRR was conducted under different combustion conditions, and the
achieved. A validation of the pressure evolution and HRR was conducted under different combustion
results indicate that the present model is capable of capturing the combustion characteristics under
conditions, and the results indicate that the present model is capable of capturing the combustion
wide operating conditions. The following remarkable results were found:
characteristics under wide operating conditions. The following remarkable results were found:
1. The knocking intensity or maximum pressure oscillation, as well as the MAPO, first experiences
1. The knocking intensity or maximum pressure oscillation, as well as the MAPO, first experiences
an increase and then a decrease as the flame propagation speed increases, which presents a
an increase and then a decrease as the flame propagation speed increases, which presents a non-
non-monotonic relationship with the flame propagation velocity. The competitive relationship
monotonic relationship with the flame propagation velocity. The competitive relationship
between the flame propagation velocity and the ignition delay of the end gas is responsible for
between the flame propagation velocity and the ignition delay of the end gas is responsible for
this phenomenon. The higher flame speed leads to an increase in the heat release rate in the
this phenomenon. The higher flame speed leads to an increase in the heat release rate in the
cylinder, and consequently, quicker increases in the temperature and pressure of the unburned
cylinder, and consequently, quicker increases in the temperature and pressure of the unburned
end-gas mixture are obtained, leading to an end-gas auto-ignition. However, the sufficiently high
end-gas mixture are obtained, leading to an end-gas auto-ignition. However, the sufficiently
propagation velocity of the flame will reduce the mass fraction of the unburned mixture consumed
high propagation velocity of the flame will reduce the mass fraction of the unburned mixture
by the AI, thus ultimately decreasing the knocking intensity. Furthermore, the coupling of the
consumed by the AI, thus ultimately decreasing the knocking intensity. Furthermore, the
pressure wave and AI flame front results in super-knocking with a maximum peak in pressure of
coupling of the pressure wave and AI flame front results in super-knocking with a maximum
31 MPa.
peak in pressure of 31 MPa.
2.
2. TheThe non-monotonic
non-monotonic relationship
relationship between
between thethe end-gas
auto-ignition and turbulence intensity
and turbulence intensity was
was
also observed. On the one hand, an increased turbulence intensity can accelerate
also observed. On the one hand, an increased turbulence intensity can accelerate the dissipation the dissipation
of the
of the key
key intermediate
intermediate radicals
radicals and
and heat
heat energy,
energy, which
which finally
finally retards
retards thethe AI
AI formation
formation andand
shrinks the kernel size of the AI. On the other hand, increasing the turbulence
shrinks the kernel size of the AI. On the other hand, increasing the turbulence intensity can alsointensity can also
wrinkle the
wrinkle the flame
flame surface
surface andand increase
increase the burning rate,
the burning which results
rate, which results in
in an
an increase
increase inin the
the flame
flame
propagation velocity. It can be concluded that the turbulence intensity has
propagation velocity. It can be concluded that the turbulence intensity has a more complicated a more complicated
effect on
effect on the
the knocking
knocking compared
compared to to the
the flame
flame propagation
propagation velocity.
velocity.
3.
3. The evolutions of the main flame propagationvelocity
The evolutions of the main flame propagation velocityand
andend-gas
auto-ignition andanda profile of
a profile
thethe
of HRRHRRrevealed thatthat
revealed thetheinfluence of both
influence the the
of both flame speed
flame and and
speed the turbulence intensity
the turbulence can lead
intensity can
to two different combustion modes. The unimodal and bimodal shapes
lead to two different combustion modes. The unimodal and bimodal shapes of the heat releaseof the heat release rate
are obtained,
rate whichwhich
are obtained, is strongly dependent
is strongly on the main
dependent on theflame
mainpropagation velocity, unburned
flame propagation velocity,
mixture mass, and thermodynamic state in the end-gas
unburned mixture mass, and thermodynamic state in the end-gas region. region.
In the present work, the LES method is selected to simulate the turbulence evolution. However,
the present work only focuses on the quantitative analysis of effects of turbulence intensity and flame
Energies 2020, 13, 5039 20 of 23
In the present work, the LES method is selected to simulate the turbulence evolution. However,
the present work only focuses on the quantitative analysis of effects of turbulence intensity and flame
propagation velocity on the super-knock by conducting a series of parameter studies under given
settings conditions, thus the effects of the cycle-to-cycle cannot be achieved, which is unignorable in
practical engines. Therefore, the cycle-to-cycle variations should be taken into consideration, and the
simulation should be expanded to multi-cycles conditions. Meanwhile, effects of temperature and
reactivity inhomogeneities on knock combustion are supposed to be conducted as those two parameters
are closely related to the knock phenomenon in practical engines.
Author Contributions: Data curation, L.Z. (Lei Zhou) and X.Z.; formal analysis, L.Z. (Lei Zhou); funding
acquisition, X.Z.; investigation, L.Z. (Lei Zhou) and L.Z. (Lijia Zhong); methodology, L.Z. (Lei Zhou) and J.Y.;
software, X.Z., L.Z. (Lijia Zhong) and J.Y.; writing—original draft, L.Z. (Lei Zhou). All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China, grant number 91741119
and 91641203.
Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos.
91741119 and 91641203). This work is also supported by National Key R&D Program of China (2017YFB0103400).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Abbreviations
aTDC after top dead center
AMR adaptive mesh refine
AI auto-ignition
BMF burned mass fraction
CFD computational fluid dynamics
CFL Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy
CJ Chapman–Jouguet
DNS direct numerical simulation
DDT deflagration to detonation transition
FFT fast Fourier transform
GDI gasoline direct injection
HCCI homogeneous charge compression ignition
HRR heat release rate
KH Kelvin–Helmholtz instability
LEM linear Eddy model
LES large Eddy simulation
MAPO maximum amplitude of pressure oscillation
RT Rayleigh–Taylor instability
PRF primary reference fuels
SI spark ignition
RCM rapid compression machine
UT unburned temperature
TKE turbulent kinetic energy
Appendix A
Model Validation
In our previous works [34–36], we have comprehensively validated the present models in terms
of pressure profiles and heat release rate. The numerical pressure evolution agrees well with the
experimental results, both in ST-10 case and ST-18 cases. Noted that, our present numerical model
not only captures the knocking phenomenon but also captures the combustion mode transition as
spark timing from the ST-10 to ST-18. It should be noted that in the present paper, we only focus
on the quantitative analysis of effects of turbulence intensity and the flame propagation velocity on
Energies 2020, 13, 5039 21 of 23
the super-knock through a series of given settings as a fundamental study of knocking combustion,
and thus the effects of the cycle-to-cycle variations cannot be achieved in the present model.
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© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
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energies

Keywords: knocking mechanism; flame propagation velocity; turbulence; auto-ignition;

Energies 2020, 13, 5039; doi:10.3390/en13195039 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

2.1. Combustion Model

where G e is the Favre-averaged G, v→e →

β = −0.16 − 0.22(φ − 1), (5)

where s is obtained using the Gülder correlations [30]:

sl−re f = ωφη exp −ξ(φ − σ)2 .

PRF95, Huang, 2004

2.3. Different Case

Table 2. Operating parameters.

2.3.2. Effects of Turbulence Intensity

Figure 3 illustrates the variations of the cold flowflow at

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 23

200 HRR peak in ω = 0.5

Heat release before AI

3.1.2. Analysis of Combustion Process

(1). Combustion characteristics at ω = 0.5

(2). Combustion characteristics at ω= 0.8

Figure 12. Evolution of 2D

(2). Combustion characteristics at ω= 0.8

Energies 2020, 13, 5039

Figure 17. Relationship

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 23

Figure 18. HRR

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