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Volume - I: Study Material with Classroom Practice Questions

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 Page
S,No, Name of the Chapter
No"
t Precipitation 01-06

2 Mean Precipitation Calculation 07 -09

Frequency of Point Rainfall & 10-L2
3
Frobability
4 Evaporation & Transpiration 13-16
:n5 Infiltration t7 -2L

6 Runoff 22-22

7 Hydrographs 23-32

rB Maximum Flood Estimation 33-36

9 Flood Routing 37 -39

'10 Well Hydraulics 40-46
Ll River Gauging 47 -49

!
 Precipitation
1. trIydrologic Cycle: 4. Cyclone:
o Various components are precipitation, o It is a large low pressure region with
runoff, infiltration, evaporatron, circular wind motion.
transpiration etc. . Isobars are closely spaced and winds are
o Sun is the main source of energy for this unticlockwise in the northern hemisphere.
cycle. o The centre of the storm is called 'eye',
o The total water resource of the earth is which will be relatively quiet.
constant. o Outside the eye, very strong winds with
speed decreasing towards outer edge.
2. Precipitation: o Pressure increases outwards.
o Denotes all forms of water that reach the o Rainfall will be heavy over larger area.
earth from atmosphere (rainfall, snowfall,
dew, hail etc.)
f,. Anticyclone:
o Rainfall is used synonymously with o It is a region of high pressure.
precipitation.
The term "rainfall" is used to describe
o Cause clockwise wind in the northern
hemisphere.
precipitations in the form of water drops
of sizes larger than 0.5mm. The
o At outer edges precipitation exists.

maximum size of a raindrop is about

6mm.
6. Convective Precipitation: Due to heat,
wanner air rises, undergoes cooling and gives
Type Intensity precipitation. This type is called as convective
1. Light rain trace to 2.5 mm/h Precipitation.
2. Moderate rain 2.5 mmlhto I .5 mm/h
3. Heavy rain > 7.5 mmlh 7. Orographic Precipitation: Moist air mass
gets lifted up due to the presence of mountain
Drizzle: Size of drop is less than 0.5mm and barriers and consequently undergoes cooling
intensity is very small. Drops float in air. and gives precipitation. This type is called as
Orographic precipitation. The wind ward
Snow: Ice crystals, combine to form flakes.
slope gets heavy precipitation and leeward
Hail: Lumps of ice more than 8mm in size. slope gets light rainfall.
Sleet: It is in the form of ice crystals of size
lmmto5mm 8. South-West Monsoon:
o It is principal rainy season in India. -
3. Types of Precipitations: Originates in Indian Ocean, appears first
a) Cyclone b) Convective in Kerala.
c) Orographic d) Frontal
9. The average annual rainfall for the entire
country (India) is 119.4 cm and average
runoff is 55 cm

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 q

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Engio€€riogAcademy 2 Hydrolory

10. Measurement of Precipitation: By rain the rain gauge density gives the average area
gauges. served by each gauge. From the view point of
o The rain gauge is also known as accurate hydrological analysis and
Pluviometer, Ombrometer, hyetometer. forecasting, therefore, the raingauge density
c No object should be nearer to the should be as small as possible. The actual
instrument than 30 m or twice the height gauge density to be adopted, however, will be
of obstruction. governed by many factors such as
o Snowfall is measured by an equivalent topography, climate, the state of development
depth of water. of the region and largely by the finances
available to install and maintain the network.
11. Types ofrain gauges: From practical consideration of the Indian
1. Non Recording Type conditions, the Indian Standard Code, has
2. Recording Type recommended the following densities :
(i) One gauge per 520 km2 in plain areas,
l1.l Non Recording type Rain gauge: It gives with denser network for the areas lying in
total depth of precipitation. the path of low pressure systems.
Ex.' Symon's rain gauge (commonly used in (ii) One gauge per 260 to 390 km2 in regions
India). with an average elevation of
o Diameter of Symon's gauge is I2.t cm 1000m above the mean sea level.
and the rim of the collector is at a height (iii) One gauge per 130 km2 in predominantly
of 30cm above G.L. hilly regions with heavy rainfall,.
It is also recoinmended that atleast 10% of the
ll.2Recording Type Rain Gauge: It gives
gauges are of recording type. The network
rainfall depth with respect to time. (i.e.,
arrived at based on these recommendations
intensity of rainfall, mass curve of rainfall.)
may be located that all the gauges will have
Ex: Tipping Bucket type, weighing bucket
more or less equal Thiessen weights.
type, natural siphon's type.
. Tipping bucket type gives intensity of
13. Adequacy of rain gauge stations :
rainfall.
The optimum number of^rain gauges required,
o Weighing bucket type and natural siphon
type give mass curve of rainfall.
Natural siphon type also called float type
n is given by: n: {+i'
LEJ
and it is the standard recording type gauge Where,
adopted by Indian standards. e: allowable degree of error in the
Tipping bucket type (Telemetric gauge) is
measurement, inYo.
ideally suitable for mountainous and other
inaccessible places. Cu : coefficient of variation of rainfall, ino/o.

12. Rain gauge network: The ratio of total area

If there are 'm' stations with rainfall values
of the catchment to the total Pt,Pz, ....., p-.
number of
gauges in the catchment is defined as the rain c": {oo
gauge density or the network density. Thus P
,'---4Nt ACEAcaacnv Precipitation
:fl D;Enginccring 3

Where.
Optimum no. of rain gauges
'P' is average rainfall
:LP lm. 'o' is Standard Deviation. '--- fI =11.95=12
n-l-| 17.28s
Lsl
No. of additional gauges required
:fOptimum no. - existing gauges]
: 12 -7 :5.
14. Normal Annual Precipitation: It is the
A catchment area has 7 rain gauge stations. In a average annual precipitation at a particular
year the annual rainfall recorded by the gauges station based on a specified 30 years of
are as follows record.

Rain gauge station Rain fall (cm) 15. Calculation of missing rainfall: 'Normal
Pr 130.0 ratio Method' is used.
a t42.1 If annual precipitation values PbP2,...., P'n at
R I 18.2 neighboring 'm' stations are known, then the
S 108.5 missing annual precipitatiofl 'P*' at a station
T t65.2 'x' not included in
the above 'm' stations. is
U t02.r calculated by
V 146.9 Px (t)|'P, T-T.........-r-
,P2 P,)
Nx m(N, N.
|

N.J
For a 5o/o enor in the estimation of mean rain fall
calculate the minimum number of additional Where.
stations required to be established in the Nr, Nz, ----- N,o are normal annual precipitates at
catchment. the above 'm' stations.

Sol: Existing no. of rain gauges :7,8: 5%o

'\' is normal annual precipitations at station 'x'.

130.4 +142.1+ 118.2 + 108.5 + 165.2 +102.1+146.9

P:
The normal annual precipitation of five rain
: 130.428 cm. gauge stations P, Q, R, S and T are I25, I02,76,
/ _\. 113 and 137 cm respectively. During a particular
I(p, -pI stotm the precipitations recorded by stations P, Q,
m-l R, and S are 13.2, 9.2, 6.8, and I0.2 cm
|---------------- respectively. The instrument at station T was
inoperative during that storm. Estimate the
-\ /0ro -
130.428)2 +...... + (+a.s -r30.428)2
,- rainfall at station T during the storrn.
Sol: \ :125 cm, Pn: 13.2 cm
:22.545 cm
Nq: 102cm, Pq:9.2 cm
100o 10Ax22.545 Np: 76 cm, Pp:6.8 cm
'P r30.428
=17.285
Ns: 113 cm, Ps: 10.2 cm
N1: 137 cm, Pr: ?
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 ACE
ineeringA€deury :4: Hydrology

N, r---
lo%
'
*- it5o'7(uPPerunit)
'"^'' i
1t25.3(Lowerunit) :{
.'. Np: Ne: N*: Ns ;r Nr + l0% Nr >3
h

Normal ratio method is used. (.)

tr,)
,, =\|-&* to * o* * tr'l
.LN, Na NR Nrl L
16 18 20 22
time in hr. -------+l

* 2 *u.8 *'
lo.2l=rz.ro.,n
=rylY
4 lt2s ro2 76 l 13 | '2'vv\
Rainfall Hyetograph
The area under the hyetograph of a storm
represents the total rainfall received during
16. Double Mass Curve: Used to check the period of that storm.
inconsistency of rainfall record and to check
Mass curve: A graph showing the cumulative
arithmetical errors in transferring rainfall data
depth of rainfall against time is known as the
from one record to another.
rainfall mass curve.
Accumulated
A float type or weighing type recording rain
annual rainfall at 'x' gauge provides the information on rainfall
mass curye. The cumulative rainfall is usually
denoted by P, and expressed in mm .If any
two points on the rainfall mass curve are
joined by a straight line, the slope of that line
gives the average intensity of rainfall for the
Accumulated annual rainfall
time period between those two points.
of 'm' station mean

Rainfall hyetograph and mass curve: Find the maximum intensity of rainfall by
The rate at which rainfall is accumulating at constructing the rainfall hyetograph from the
any given instant of time is called the rainfalt rainfall mass curye given below
intensity at the time. The instantaneous
rainfall intensity is usually denoted by i and Time interval (min) Cum Rainfall (mm)
expressed in mm/hr or cm/hr etc. 7 0
7.30 7
8 l0
Hyetograph: A graph showing the variation 8.30 20
of rainfall intensity with time is called a 9 35
rainfall hyetograph 9.30 45
l0 50
10.30 54
tl 56
I 1.30 57
t2 57
 :5: Precipitation

Sol: existing network in the estimation of average

t'. do P. -P,
depth of rainfall over the basin is
Cum rainfall (a) 14.76% (b) 8s.24%
Time
(mm) ar,?(mm/hr) (d) 67.36%
(c) 10 %
2
7 0 t4
7.30 7 6 03. The coefficient of variation of the rainfall for
8.00 l0 20 six rain gauge stations in catchments was
8.30 20 30 found to be 29.54 oh. The optimum number
9.00
9.30
35
45
20
10
of stations in the catchments for an
10.00 50 8
admissible l0% error in the estimation of the
10.30 54 4 mean rainfall will be' (rES - 2010)
I 1.00 56 2 (a) 3 (b) 6
I 1.30 57 0 (c) e (d) 12
12.00 57
Max intensitv of rainfall: 30 mmAr 04. The normal annual rainfall at stations A, B
and C are 170.6, 180.3 and 165.3 cffi,
17. Depth-Area-Duration (DAD) Analysis. respectively. 1987, station B was
In
Used to derive max. depth of rainfall over an inoperative and stations A and C recorded
area in a given duration.
annual precipitations of 153.0 and 145.0 cm,
Pu:Po.exp (-K.A') respectively. The annual rainfall at B in that
year could be estimated as
Where,
(a) 160 cm (b) 180 cm
Pu: Average depth of precipitation;
(c) 106.7 cm (d) 149 cm
Po: Highest amount of rainfall at storm
centre. K & n are constants depend on
storm duration. 05. In a water shed, four rain gauges I, II, III and
IV are installed. The depths of normal annual
rainfall at these stations are 60,75,80 and 100
Class Room Practice Questions cm respectively. The rain gauge at station III
went out of order during a particular year.
The annual rainfall for that year recorded at
01. In a catchment there are six rain gauge
the remaining three stations was 90,60 and70
stations with average depth of rainfall of 92.8
cm and standard deviations of the rainfall
cm. The rainfall at station III can be
considered as (rES - 2002)
values recorded in these rain gauge stations is (b) 70 cm
(a) 60 cm
30.7 cm. For a 10% degree of error in the (c) 80 cm (d) 120 cm
,rr;"_f\
measurement of mean rainfall, the optimum
number of stations required is tud'i
06. In a catchment, there are four rain - gauge
(a) 5 nos. (b) 6 nos.
stations, P,Q,R, and S. Normal annual
(c) l0 nos. (d) 11 nos.
precipitation values at these stations are 780
rnln, 850 ffiffi, 920 Inrn, and 980 tnm,
02. In a catchment there are five rain gauge respectively. In the year 2013, stations Q,R,
stations with a coefficient of variation of and S, were operative but P was not. Using
33%o. Then the percentage of accuracy of the the normal ratio method, the precipitation at

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!..l|||ffi-
6 Hydrolory

station P for the year 2013 has been

estimated as 860 mm. If
the observed 01. (d) 02.(b) 03. (c) 04. (d) 05, (c)
precipitation at stations Q and R for the year
2013 were 930 mm and 1010 lnm, 06.1093.4s 07. (b)
respectively, what was the observed
(in mm) at station S for that
yeat? (GATE-1s)

07. By DAD analysis the maximum average

depth over an area of 10" km' due to one -
day storm is found tsbe 47 cm. For the same
area the maximum average depth for a three
day storm can be expected to be
(a)<47 cm
(b)> 47 cm
(c):47 cm
uate information to conclude

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 Mean Precipitation
Calculation
1. Arithematical - Mean Method: Sol:
(i) Arithmetic mean method
+Pz +P3 +..........*P. YD
Pu= & 5_"^i
m n
150+ 168+158+ 135 +156 + 207 + 138+162 +114 +132
2. Thiessen - Polygon Method: l0
Rainfall recorded at each station is given a
P=152mm
weightage on the basis of an arca closest to
the station.
(iD Theissen polygon method
D &Ar +PrAr+.......P.A," - IPrn,
- d-
A.
A, + .A2 +......... * A- P=)'P, x^^'
Ia, Ll] A
the ratio Ar/XAr is called 'Weightage : 50 x 0.1+1 68 x 0.06+ 158 x 0.11+
135 x 0.07 + 156 x 0.08 + 207 x 0.09 +
factor'.
138 x 0.11 + 162 x 0.12+ ll4 x 0.16 +
Where Pt,Pz,.. are rainfalls 132 x 0.1
Ar, Az, ...are respective theissen polygons, : 149.08 mm
I surrounding the stations.
3. Isohyetal Method: Accurate method
Ig Steps: compared to the above two.
(a) Join all the raingauge stations with straight o Suitable for hilly regions.
lines so that hiangles are formed. . Ari 'Isohyet' is a line jointing points of
(b) Erect peqpendicular bisectors to each side equal rainfall.
of the triangle such that a polygonal area If P1, P2, ... P. are values of isohyets,
(Theissen's polygon) is
formed ar, a2,..... am - y zfa the inter isohyet -
tp
surrounding each station. areas (arca between any two adjacent
fr
6 isohyets)
F
The average rainfall of the catchment is
The network of 10 sections in and around a river
basin have the Theissen weights of 0.1, 0.06,
0.11, 0.07, 0.09, 0.09, 0Jl, 0.12,0.16 and 0.1 Pu=
ar+a2+
respectively. Ifthe rainfall recorded at these
gauges during a storm are 150, 168, 158, 135,
156,207, 138, 162, Il4 and I32mm respectively.
Determine the average depth of rainfall over the
basin by
(i) Arithmetic mean method
(ii) Theissen polygen method.

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 03. Find the mean precipitation for the area
shown a side by Theissen's method. The area
The isohyets drawn for a storm which occurred
is composed of a square plus an equilateral
over a drainage basin of area 950 km2 yielded the
triangular plot of side 4 km. Rainfall recorded
following information.
in 'cm' at the various stations are also Given
Isohyet in the figure
interval 85-75 75-65 65-55 5s-45 45-35 3.2 p,
in mm
(a) 7.35 cm
Area
between (b) 11.30 cm <td
t25 236 264 t75 150 !4.8
isohyets
in km2 (c) 8.8 cm a
9.4
Determine the average depth of rainfall over (d) 6.22 cm gb '13
the basin
P'-t + I
2 04. The area between the two isohvets 45 cm and
Sol:
55 cm is 100 km2 and that between 55 cm
and 65 is 150 km2. What is the average depth

,,(T).,,,(T). (T)t'^(T).,'Fi') of annual precipitation over the basin of 250

km2? (ESB - 200s)
(trr*rru*ze+*rsrrso) (a) 50 cm (b) 52 cm
(c) 56 cm (d) 60 cm
P = 60.115mm

05. For a drainage basin of 600 km' isohyetals

Class Room Practice Questions drawn for a storm gave the following data.
Isohyetals
l5-12 t2-9 9-6 6-3 3-l
01. The theissen polygonal areas of the four rain (intervals) cm
gauge stations A, B, C, D in a catchment are Inter isohyet
75, 125, 150 and 150 km2 respectively and 92 r28 t20 t75 85
area (kmz)
the rainfall recorded at A, B, C and D are 3, 5,
4 and 6 cm. , then the average depth of Then the average depth of precipitation over
rainfall over the catchment in cm. is the catchment is
@) a.7 (b) 4 (c) 6 (d) 7 (a) 5.5 cm (b) 7.4 cm

02. Four rain gauge stations A, B, C, and D in a
catchment area have recorded 10, 15, 20 and
25 cm respectively. If their Theissen weights
at stations A, B and C are 0.1, 0.2, 0.3
respectively, the average depth of rainfall on
the catchment is
(a) 15 cm (b) 20 cm
(c) 18 cm (d)22 cm
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(c) 6.8 cm (d) 4.2 cm
06. The isohyets due to a storm in a catchment
were drawn and the area of the catchment
bounded by isohyets were tabulated below.
Estimate the mean precipitation due to the
storm
I
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Isohyetals 08. Match the following: (IES-07XGATE-03)
(cm) Station-12 12-r0 l0-8 8-6 6-4
Parameter
Inter
P. Rainfall intensity Q. Rainfall excess
isohyet 30 140 80 t80 20
area(km2) R. Rainfall averaging S. Mass curye

(a)12cm (b) 8.84cm

Relatable Term
cm
(c) 7.8 (d) 12.2 cm
l. Isohyets
07. Match the following 2. Cumulative rainfall
3. Hyetograph
Hydrological Terms
4. Direct runoffhydrograph
P. Theissen Polygon Q. Mass curve
R. Hyetograph S. DAD Curve
Codes:
Relationship/ Nature of curve P aRS
1. Average depth ofrainfall over anarca (a)1324
2. Relationship of rainfall intensity and time (b)3 4 | 2
"(.)13 4 2
3. Relationship of
accumulated rainfall
(d)3 4 21
and time
Relationship of river runoff and time.
Always a falling curve.

Codes:
01. (a) 02. (b) 03. (a) 0a. (c) 0s. (b)
P aRS 06. (b) 07; (a)
(a) 13 25
(b) l5 32
(c) 4325
(d) 4 5 3 2
 Frequency of Point Rainfall
& Probability
1. Recurrence interval or Return Period (T): 6. The probability of the event occurring at least
. Represents average time interval between once in'n' successive years,
the occurrence of a rainfall of magnitude pr:l-qn
equal to or greater than a specified
magnitude (X).
o if
For example, the return period of
rainfall of 12 cm in 24 hours is 10 years at From the analysis of rainfall data at particular
a certain station, it implies that on an station it was found that a rainfall of 400mm had
average, rainfall of magnitude equal to or a return period of 20 years. What is the
greater than 12 cm in 24 hours occur once probability of rain fall equal to or greater then
in l0 years. i.e., in a long period say 100 400mm occurring at least once in 10 successive
years, trO such events can be expected. years.
How ever, it does not mean that every l0
years one such event is likely, i.e., Sol: T:20 yrs,
periodicity is not implied.
-ll
.'.P- - ' =0.05
T20
2. The probability of a rainfall whose magnitude
equal to or in excess of a specified magnitude n: l0 yrs
(X) and having a recrilrence interval 'T',
occurring in a given year, is given by
g:1_P:1_0.05:0.95
I Probability of occurring at least once
p:
T :l-(q)n:1-(0.95)to
p is called exceedence probability
:0.4412: 40.12o/o
3. If the probability of an event (Rainfall)
occurring is p, then the probability of the 7. Isopl|vial: Lines connecting points of equal
event (Rainfall) not occuruing in a given year
particul
is q : 1 -O a particular return period.
a

4. The probability of occurrence of the event 'r'

o Isopluvial maps of maximum rainfall of
various durations and of different return
times in 'n' successive vears is
: oC..p' .d-t periods have been prepared by Indian
p.,o
Metrological Department.
n! r rn-rr
Pr,n= r!.(n
.-P.9r)! 8. Intensity - Duration - tr'requency Curves:
-
o Intensity of storm decreases with increase
5. The probability of the event not occarring at in storm duration.
all in'n' successive years is o For a given duration of rainfall, intensity
Po,n
: gn increases with increase of refurn period.

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 Frequency of PointRainfall & Probability

!
* 4oo Class Room Practice Questions
-
:
a\
300
01. Recorded annual maximum 24 h rainfall
ff 2oo magnitudes at stations KTX are as under:
y 100
Year Rainfall (cm)
1960
123 12.0
Duration t96l 6.0
1962 4.8
9. For an annual flood series arranged in 1963 7.9
decreasing order of magnitude, the return 1964 12.0
period (T)for a magnitude listed at position z 196s 14.2
in a total of 'n'entries is 1966 13.6
n+1 t967 6.0
T: 1968
m
1969 2.9
California's formula: T :
n
m What is the return period, in year, for a 6.0
cm annual rainfall according to
10. Frobable Maximum Precipitation (PMP):
(i) I{azen formula and (ii) Weibull formula;
o Defined as the greatest (extreme) rainfall
respectively? (rES - 2006)
for a given duration that is physically .. l0
possible over a basin/station. (a)
l1 ..,
(D)
20 22

o It is the upper limit of the physically -.-

7'7 -.-
13'13
possible precipitation depth. It is used to _. 5
(c)
ll ..
(d) 20 rl
estimate -.-
)t rt'
-.- 6
o Probable maximum flood which have no
risk of being exceeded.
o Used for design of major hydraulic 02. The observed annual peak flood of river in
structures. m3lsec for a period of 9 yeurs are given
Ex: spillways in large dams, etc.
below: 100, 80, 120, 70, 6A, 75,50, 130 &
40. F'ind the return period of floods (i) 80
mtlsec, (iD 75 m'/sec, (iii) 50 m'lsec.

03. A rainfall of certain high intensity is expected

to occur once in 20 years. What is the
probability that rt may occur in the next 12
years.
(a) 6s.88 % (b) 34"12%
(c) s4% (d) 46%
04. The return period for the annual maximum 08. A flood of 4000 m'lsec in a certain river has
flood of a given magnitude is 8 years. The a return period of40 years
probability that this flood magnitude will be (D What is its probabilify of exceedenc
exceeded once during the next 5 years is (iD What is^ the probability that a flood of
(GArE-e8) 4000 m'/sec or greater magnitude may
(a) 0.625 (b) 0.e66 occur in next 20 years.
(c) 0.487 (d) 0.52e (iii) What is the probability of occurring of
flood of maenitude less than 4000
7,
05. A bridge has an expected life of 50 years and m-i sec.
is designed for a flood magnitude of return
period 100 years. What is the risk associated 09. Which one of the following is a method of
with this hydrologic design? extending the length of record for a frequency
(a) 39.50% (b) 60.50% curve at a station ? (IES-07)
(c) 30.55% (d) 0.62s% (a) Double rnass curve
(b) The station year method
06. The return period that a designer must use in (c) Theissen method
the estimation of a flood for a hydraulic (d) Isohyetal method
structure, if he is willing to accept 20 o/o nsk
that a flood of that or higher magnitude will
occur in the next 10 years, is
(a) 95 years (b) 75 years 01.(d) 02.(i) 2.s, (it) 2,(iii) 1.2s

(c) 45 years (d) 25 years 03. (d) 0a. (c)

(a) 0s. 06. (c) 07. (d)

08. (i) 0.02s (ii) 0.397 (iii) 0.975

07. The hydrologic risk of a 100 year flood
occurring during the 2 year service life of a 0e. (b)
project is (IES-2012)
(a)e.8% (b) e9%
c\ 19.9% r.99%

Hydenbad ! Delhi j Bhopal j hme I Bhubaneswar i Bengalm I Lucknow j Patn I Chemi i

Viiayawada I
Vias Tirupali l Gmur
I I Itukatrally(H,vd)
 Ev ap or ation & Transpiration
Evaporation: Evaporation is the process by 3. Reservoir evaporation volume rate, V=A$ Co
which water from liquid or solid state passes into Where,
the vapour state and is diffirsed into atmosphere. A: average reservoir area (exposed)
Evaporation is expressed as the depth of water in En: Pan evaporation loss (depth) rate
mm escaped from a unit area in a given time. Co: pan coefficient
Thus it may be expressed as mm/h, mmlday,
mm/month. etc.

Factors affecting evaporation: A number of A class-A pan was set up adjacent to a lake. The
factors, both meteorological and physical, affect depth of water in the pan at the beginning of a
the rate of evaporation from a water body, as certain week was 195mm. In tlpt week there was
given below. Radiation, Temperature, Wind, a rainfall of 45mm and 15 mm of water was
Atmospheric pressure, Quality of water, Size of removed ftom the-yafr-to keep the water level
water surface, Nature of evaporating surface etc. with in the spbdified depth range. Calculate pan
Evaporation is estimated by using. evaporation. If Cp: 0.7 estimate the lake
D Evaporimeters evaporation in mm in that
iD Empirical equations
iii) Analytical methods Sol:E:P tZ
E= 45 - 15 :30
Measurement of evaporation: Evaporafion is Rainfall P : 45 mm depth of water removed '_ t4-q+.3p
usually measured either by atmometers or by the ie: Z: -15 mm
evaporation pans which is also known as the Pan evaporation in that week, E:30 mm
evaporimeters.
Lake evaporation
l. Types of Evaporimeters: :
Cp X Pan evaporator in that week
(a) Class A Evaporation Pan (used by US :0.7 x 30:21 mm.
weather Bureau)
(b) ISI standard Pan (Modified class A pan) 4. Empirical equations: Meyer's formula,
Rohwer's formula etc.
2. Pan coefficient, Cn:
Lake evaporation 5. Analytical methods:
(1 - Lake evaporatior Ex: Water budget method, energy balance
"o Pun.*pooti- method and mass - hansfer method.

.....for class A pan, Co is 0.70 and for ISI pan,

Co is 0.80
 Where,
R : radiation, Watts/m2.
Compute the weekly evaporation from a reservoir L:Latentheat of vapoization (Jlkg)
using the water budget method form the p: mass density of water (kg/m")
following record during the week. Hu
Average in flow into the reservoir: 31.5 ml/sec;
Bowenratio,p - H"
Average outflow from the reservoir: 40.2 rilsec;
Where,
Rainfall during the week: 73.6mm; Average H": Sensible heat transfer from water surface
water spread area (surfacb area of reservoir): to air
15.8km2; Estimated seepage: 0.25 million m3;
H.: Heat energy used up in evaporation -
Storage at the beginning of the week: 9180 ha.m;
used in the energy balance method.
Storage at the end of the week: 8630 ha.m
Radiation is measured by an instrument
called, Radiometer.
Sol: XI - X0: t AS ;$
Change in storage AS 7. Methods to reduce evaporation:

: o by reduction ofsurface area

Final storage - Initial storage . by mechanical covers over water surface
: 8630 - 9180 ( light weight floating particles, temporary
roofs), wherever feasible
: -550 ha.m: -550 x 100 ttt' . by chemical films
XI:I*P X0:0+E+ S Eg: cetyl alcohol, stearyl alcohol

tI-t0:+AS
: Transpiration &
= [+P]- [0+E+5] AS
Evapotranspiration
60 x 7)+
l. Transpiration:
o process by which water leaves the body of
60x60x living plants, and reaches the atmosphere
o essentially takes place during daylight
= -550x 104 hours, whereas evaporation takes place
E: 1151 r20 rr,3. throughout day and night
o Measured by Phytometer
Evaporator loss of that week from the
2. Evapotranspiration or consumptive use: It
reservoir:1151 120flf is the sum of evaporation and transpiration

3. Potential Evapotranspiration (PET) :

R
6. Evaporation rate, E,: o Evapotransipration which occurs when
L.p sufficient moisture is always ava-ilable to
completely meet the needs of vegetation,
fully covering the area.

Hydenbad ! Delhi I Bhopal I Prne I Bhubureswar I Bengahmr i Lucknow I Patn I Chenrni I Viiayawada I
Vizg Tirupati Gunor I ItuftaQally(tlyd)
I I
 + ruese
.VA a
v-ol -r tYl'
A -, vna- Evaporation & Transpiration

4. Actual Evapotransipration (AET) :

Class Room Practice Questions
o the actual Evapotranspiration occurring in
a specific situation.

f,. Measurement of Evapotranspiration :

01. What is the evaporation if 4.2liters of water
(a) Lysimeter : to measure is removed from an evaporation pan of
Evapotranspiratron diameter 1.22 m and simultaneous rain fall
(b) Evapotranspiration equations : ex: measurement is 8.75 mm.
Penman's equation
(c) Empirical equations : ex: Blaney 02. 8.75 liters of water is added to an evaporation
- criddle
pan of I.2 m diameter to bring the water to a
formula.
6. Penman Equation. The evaporation E is
stipulated level. If
nearby Rain Gauge
measure a rainfall of 4.2 mm. What is the pan
multiplied by a coefficient K to yield the
potential evapotranspiration.
evaporation and what is the acfrlal
evaporation if Co:0.7
PET: K.E
Penman developed values of K for short grass 03. A standard, ground-based evaporation pan,
which varied from 0.6 to 0.8 depending on corresponding to Indian Standards, is
the month of the year. For better estimates of installed at the banks of a surface reservoir.
PET it is essential that the values of K for The water surface area on a particular day is
particular crop be developed locally. 100 hectare. The recorded evaporation loss
from the pan, on a certain day, is nearly 4.0
7. Blaney criddle formula: cm. What is the anticipated evaporation loss
from the reservoir for that day ? (IES -2007)
Potential Evapotranspiration,
(a) (1.8 to2)xl}arrf lday
KPnTt
E- =2.54 (b) (2.5 to2.75)xl0a rilday
' 100 (c) (3.0 to 3.25) x10a m3/day
E1 : PET per month , cm
(d) (3.8 to 4.05) x I}a nllday
k: an empirical coefficient, depends on
crop type
p1: monthly percent of annual day time
04. A lake had a water surface elevation of
t:
103.200 m above datum at the beginning of a
hours
certain month. In that month the lake receive
T1: rnooll monthly temperahre in oF an average inflow of 6.0 m'/sec from surface
runoff. In same period the out flow from the
8. Isopleth: Line joining places of equal depths lake had an average value of 6.5 m'/sec.
ofPET. Further in that month the lake received the
rain fall of 145 mm. The water surface
elevation of the lake at the end of the month
found to be 103.258 m. The averbge lake
surface area can be taken as 5000 Hacters.
Assume that there is no contribution from
ground water storage. Find evaporation loss
in that month in mm?
HydenbadlDelhilBhopallPunelBhubaneswiBengalmlllcknowlPatralChemifvljalauadaivizas lTirupati lcmnrl Kukrtrally(tlyd)
 05. The plan area of a reservoir is lkm'. The 0.7 for that month, frnd the consumptive use
water level in the reservoir is observed to of the crop in mm/day.
decline by 20cm in a certain period. During (a) 1.s4 (b) 2.s60
this period the reseryoir receives a surface @)2.74 (d) 3.2
inflow of 10 hectare-meters, and 20 hectare-
meters are abstracted from the reservoir for 08. At a particular area, par evaporation for the
irrigation and power. The pan evaporation January month is 9.5cm. For a stage growth
and rainfall recorded during the same period of 40% of the wheat crop, the consumptive
at a nearby meteorological station are 12 cm use coefficient is 0.52. Then the daily
and 3cm respectively. The calibrated pan consumptive use of the
wheat crop
factor is 0.7. The seepage loss from the corresponding to the 40Yo of stage growth for
reservoir during this period in hectare-meters the January month is
IS (GAT8,2003) (a) 1.6mm/day (b) 0.40mrr/day
(a) 0.0 (b) 1.0 @)2.a (q 4.6 (c) 0.637mm/day (d) amrrlday

06. In a particular area the net radiation is 200

wattlrt and the temperature is 25oC. At the
above temperature the latent heat of
vaporization is 244^l kJ / kg and density of
water is 997 kg/m'.Neglecting sensible heat
or ground heat flux, the evaporation rate by
the energy balance method, will be
(a) 7.10mm/day (b) 6.83 mm/day
(c)7.93 mmlday (d) 8.16 mm/day

. For a particular place in the month of flPvrl,rilr 1:'l

November, the percentage sunshine hours is }{:
l;'/11\it.1'll

7.2 and mean temperature is 18'C. If the

4, ^.gonsumptive use coefficient for the crop
is

/ :r,l ) a'1t) tt
^,j
--;zc;-
g I c, ,u'f y*"

Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I Pme I Bhubmesw I Bengalm I

Iilcknow I Paha I Chemi I Vijalawada I Vizag Tirupati j Gunnu I Kukapally(Hyd)
{
 Infiltration
1. Part of the precipitation is lost largely due to f,. Infiltration Capacity (f*p) :
evaporation and infiltration. In addition to o It is the maximum rate at which a siven
that, other minor abstractions are soil at a given time can absorb water
i) interception loss and o Units: cmlhrormm/hr
ii) depression storage . If i' is intensity of rainfall and 'f is
'Initial loss' : interception loss actual rate of infiltration,
+ depression storage 1: f.ul when i > f.un
f:: i wheni<f.un
2. Interception: The volume of water that is
caught by vegetation and subsequently gets Infiltration measured by 'infiltrometer',
is
evaporated is called interception loss. It is RainJhll simulator.
only due to evaporation and does not include
transpiration. The amount of precipitation " Sandy soil has more infiltration capacity
compared to clayey soil
intercepted by the vegetal cover depends on o Grass cover or vegetation cover increases
many factors such as density and composition
the field capacily (by trapping water and
of vegetation, storm characteristics and the reducing the effect of rain drop
prevailing wind at the time of storm.
compaction)
100 o Infiltration capacity rate for a given soil
t decreases with the time Horton's equation
I

q.J is used to express the decay of infiltration

<.1 80
rnS capacity with tirne.
a*
QZ
z) 60 6. The infrltration rate (f,) at any time 't' is
given by Horton's equation.
f,: f. + (f"-t) e *'',
;\v
!tt
!/ f:1 40
r:]11
20 Where,
zn f": initial rate of infiltration capacity
f.: final constant rate of infiltration at
" 5 10 15 2oz5
0
30
saturation
k: a constant depending primarily upon soil
STORMRAINFALLinmm -* and vegetation
Fig. Interception loss curve :
e base of the Napierian logarithm
t: time from beginning of the storm
3. Depression Storage: The volume of water
that is trapped in the depressions.

4. Infiltration: Process by which water seeps

into the surface strata of the earth.

Hydenbad I
Delhi i Bhopal I Pme I Bhubmesw I Bengalm i Lucknow I Parra j Chemi j Vijayamda i Vizag i Tirupari ! Gmar j Kukatrally(Hyd)
 ___

Total Infiltration : 40.895 mm

Runoff : Rainfalllnfi ltration

: 68 - 40.895 : 19.104 mm

Runoff volume : Runoff depth x Area of

Infiltration Curve (Horton) basin
fi : f" +(fo -f)e-kt 19.104 1

x 850 x (l 000)2
1000 (10)u

16.238 M.m3

7. Infiltration Indicies: They represent average

Infiltration Curve (Horton) rate of infiltration
Types of Indices: i) Q - inde
ii) W- index

8. $ - Index:
The ordinates of a rain fall mass curve of a storm
o It is the average rainfall intensity above
which the rainfall is equal to the runoff.
over a basin of area 850 km2 measured in mm at
one hour intervals are 0, 10,22,30,39,45.5, 50,
o The $-index value is found by treating it
as a constant infiltration capacity.
r9
55.5, 60, 64 and 68. If the infiltration during this
storm can be represented by Horton's equation . The initial loss is also considered as
:
with fo 6.5 mm/tr, f. 1'5 mm/hr and: 0.15 k: infiltration.
lftn. Estimate the resulting runoff volume. o Derived from rainfall hyetograph and by
knowing the runoff volume
Sol: fi: f,+(f"-f.)e-ut The amount of rainfall in excess of O - index
: 1.5+(6.5-1.5)ea.r5t : 1.5+451e4
ls'
is called'rainfall excess'.
For calculation of Q index :
Infinity in 10 hr: It o, --R
0 $ index
: P"

10
t
oP"'\
: [ (t.s + 5e-o
t\
tt') dt P.: total rainfall corresponding to time, t"
0 R: total run off depth
t": :
time of excess total time in which the
: l.s [t]i'-+h-""]i'
L Ju rainfall intensity is greater than
0.15 ' Q
index.
: t.sxlo-3[.-o.rs"ro -.-o
rs'o]
0.15'

: 1 5-33.33 10.223-l) : 40.895 mm

6i,
Total rainfall:68 mm
ffi=**ff^*"-, 19 Infiltration

9. W-index:
a It is a refined version of d index.
o Here initial losses are separated from the
total losses.
It is the average infiltration rate during the
timc in which rainfall intensitv exceeds
the capacity rate.
Class Room Practice Questions
01.If a soil has aninfiltration capacity of fc, the
actual infiltration ratef is given by
(a) f< f"wheni<f" (b) f: iwheni>f"
(c) f:f.wheni< f. (d) f < f"wheni>f.

lA/
P-R-initialloss 02. The vertical hydraulic conductivity of the top
=-
l,_
Stormduration soil at certain stage is 0.2 cmlhr. A storm of
intensity 0.5 cm/hr occurs over the soil for an oJ'
indefinite period. Assuming the surface
drainage to be adequate, the infiltration rate
after the storm has lasted for a very long time,
The following are the rates of rain fall ( intensity
shall be
of rainfall) for successive 20 min period of a 140
min storm 2.5, 2.5, 10.0, 7.5, 1.25, 1.25, 5.0
(a) srnaller than}.2 cm/hr (b) 0 2 cm/hr
(c) between 0.2 & 0.5 cm/hr (d) 0.5 cm/hr
cm/hr. Taking the value of $-index at 3.2 cm/hr.
Find out the net runoff in cm, the total rainfall 03. The parameters in Horton's infiltration
and the value of W-index. equation [f(t): f. + (f" - f.) e-kt1 are given
&s, fo: 7.62 cm/hour, f,": I.34 cm/hour
Sol: Total rainfall: Xilt; and k : 4.l92lhour. For assumed pontinuous
: 12.5+2.5+rc+l .5+125+1.25+5lx 4:
'60 10 cm
ponding the'curnulative,,infiltration at the end
-.,, .- -,; _,.-1,
of2 hours is (GATE-OO)
6:3.2 cm/hr (a) 2.68 cm (b) 1.50 cm
(c) 1.34 cm (d) 4.18 cm
P.: x ?:1.,
[0+7.5+5]-60
"
. P _R 3x20 04. Measuredinfiltration rates, f in cm/hour, for
Qtnde*: -. t -60
lc -_ -l every hour from t:0, when the rainfall just
commenced to t:
8 hours are given in the table
. A 7.5-R below. The rainfall lasts over 8 hours Calculate
I the total infiltration quantity durlng 8 hours
R:4.3 cm using Horton constant of k:4 (hr -').
(GATE-97)
'Wyn6ga!
Timeftours) f(cm.hour)
P-R-loss 0 2.00
Wtnde*
t I 1.10
2 0.75
t:140:2.33hr a
J 0.65
60
10-4.3-0 4 0.55
wrnd.* : : 2.442 cm/hr )
l4o 0.50
6 0.50
60
7 0.50
 05. A 24 -hour storm occurred over a catchment 09. In a particular season a catchment was found
of 1.8 km2 area and the total rainfall observed to have a d index of 0.5cm/h. If a rainfall of
was 10 cm. An infiltration capacity curve 2cm occur in that season at a uniform rate
prepared had the in a 6h storm, the resulting direct runoff is
^ (
0 .\,"
l: T
n lcm/hr and attai (a) -1.Ocm (b) -C-
, ,i cm/hr after 15 (c) 5.0cm (d) ,, , 1.0cm
u Horton's constant k : 5l hr. An IUI-Q pa"
4/

r., _;'ljnstalled in the catchment indicated a 10. The total observed run-off volume during a 4
llo.uro'"' decrease of 0.6 cm in the water level (after h storm with a uniform intensity of 2.8 cm/h
" n.tn '.',,.allowing for rainfall) during 24 hours of its is 25.2 x106 m3 from a basin of 280 km2 area.
n-t"l ,., operation. Other losses were found to be
' r What is the averaqe. Infiltration rate for the
negligible. Determine the runoff from the ,r' " basin? (IES-2007),.
catchment. Assume a pan coefficient of 0.7. .:" '' (a) 3.6 mm/h (b) 4.S mm/h I 'r'l1

(c) 5.2 mm/h (d)5.5mm/h ;: ',

06. The Horton's infiltration equation for a basin
:
is given by f 6 + 16 e-2t where f is in mnr/h 11. A 4 h storm had 4cm of rainfall and the
and t is in hours. What are the values of fs, f" resulting direct run-off was 2.0 cm. If
the $-
and k? If a storm occurs on this basin with an index remains at the same value, the run-off
intensity of more than22 mm/h determine the due to 10 cm of rainfall in 8 h in the
depth of infiltration for the first 45 minutes catchment is (IES - 2008)
and the averaqe infiltration rate for first 75 (a) 6.0 cm (b) 7.5 cm
minutes. (c) 2.3 cm (d) 2.8 cm

07. During a 3 hour storm event, it was observed

that all abstractions other than infiltration are Statement for Linked Answer Q.12 & Q. 13
negligible. The rainfall was idealized as 3 one
hour storms of intensity lOmm/hr, At a station, Storm I of 5 hour duration with
2}mmlhr and l0mmlhr respectively and the intensity 2 cmlh resulted in a runoff 4 cm and
infiltraticrn was idealized as a Horton curve, Storm II of 8 hour duration resulted in a
"f
: f
6.8 + 8.7 exp( +) in mmlhr and t in hr). runoff of 8.4 cm. Assume that the {-index is
What is the effective rainfall? (GATE-2006) the same for both the storms. (GATE- 2013)
(a) 10.00mm (b) 11.33mm
(c) 12.43mm (d) 13.63mm 12. The $-index (in cm/h) is
(a) r.2 (b) 1.0
08. If the initial infiltration capacity was 10
(c) 1.6 (d) 1.4
mm/hr and ultimate capacity was 1.2 mm/hr
and a total of 33 mm of rvater infiltrated 13. The intensity of storm II (in cm/tr) is:
during l0 hr interval. Find infiltration rate (a) 2.00 (b) 1.7s
constant. (Assume study state is attained) (c) 1.50 (d) 2.2s

Hydenbad I Delhi j Bhopal i Pme iBhubmesw I

Bengalw I Lucknow I
Parna i Chelmi jVijayarada I Viag I Tirupati I Guur I Kukatpally(Hyd)
 :21; '--'/'Infilration
d nni-
14. A 6-h rainstorm with hourly intensities of ' The is l0mm/tr.
Q index for the catchment
,V,I8,25,IJ, 11 and ?mmlh produced a run- The estimated runoff depth ffiA the
off of 39 mm. Then, the $-index is catchment due to the above storm is
<.ir (IES - 2002) (a) 10mm (b) 16mm
{,C (a) 3 mm/h (b) 7 mmlh (c) 20mm (d) 23mm
(c) 8mmit (.'Ul,lo mm/h
fr:; {Xil" 19. The rainfall on five successive days in a
$5. The rates of rainfall for the successive 3_0min catchment were measured as 3, 8,12,6 and
period of a 3 hour storm are 1.6,3.6, 5,2.8, 2 cms. If the total runoff at the outlet from
. 2.2, l'cm/hr. the corresponding surface runoff the catchment was 15 cm, the value of the
is estimated as 3.6 cm. Estimate the 6 - index. $ - index (in mm4rour) is (GATE-02)
(a) l.50cmftr .ffit.ecntn (a) 0.0 (b) 1.04 (c) 1.s3
(c) 1.650cm/h '(d) lcm/h (d) Sufficient information not available

o16. The rainfall in three srlssive 8h periods is

" 1.6,5.4 and 4.lcm. If the initial loss is 0.6 cm
and, the surface runoff resulting from this 01. (a) 02. (b) 03. (d) 04.4.375 cm
storm is 4.7cm, the $ index for the storm is
05.40320 m'06. 11.31 mm/h 07. (d)
(a) 0.30cmA (b) 0.267cmlh
(c) 0.20cm/h (d) 0.l5cm/h 08.0.42hr-' 09. (b) (d) 11. (a)
10.

17. The rainfall during three successive 2 hour

12. (a) 13. (d) |a. (c) ls. (b)

periods are 0.5, 2.8 and i.6cm. The surface 16. (a) 17. (c) 18. (c) le. (c)
runoff resulting from this storm is 3.2cm. The
Q index value of this storm is(GATE-2004)
(a) 0.20cmlhr (b) 0.28cm/tr
(c) 0.30cm/hr (d) 0.80cmAr

18. An isolated 4-hour storm occurred over a

catchment as follows: (GATE-2007)
I
I
Time fhr 2br 3hr 4hr
I
Rainfall(mm) 9 28 T2 7

HyderabadlDelhilBhopallhmelBhubmewlBengalurulLucknowlPatnalChemailviiayamdaivizag lTirupati lcrmtrrl Kukatralb@yd)

 Runoff
Runoff: Flowing off of precipitation from a o Has limited contribution from ground'
catchment area through a surface channel. water. '
2. Surface runoff: The flow that travels all the (c) Ephemeral stream:
time over the surface as open channel flow o Stream becomes dry soon after end of the
and reaches the catchment outlet. stream flow.
3. Interflow: That part of precipitation that o Does not have base flow contribution.
infiltrates and moves laterally through upper (k): k : lno^fl
8. Runoff coefficient
crusts of the soil and returns to the surface at rain fall
some location.
o Also called through flow, storm seepage, r K depends on characteristic of the
catchment.
subsurface flow, quick return flow.
4. Ground water runoff or ground water
o Strange's tahl5p give values ofk.
flow: That part of precipitation that undergo 9. Flow-Duration !f,}ve
deep percolation, reaches the ground after
o Plot of discharge against percent of time
the flow was equaled or exceeded.
some time (usually delayed flow).
f,. Based on time delay between precipitation
. Used to study the stream flow variation,
and the runoff, the runoff is classified into
o Also known as discharge frequency curve.
(i) Direct runoff (ii) Base flow
(i). Direct Runoff: o
po

o It is that part of runoff, which enters the (€

(.)

stream immediatelY after the a

precipitation.
o Includes surface runoff, prompt interflow
and precipitation on channel surface.
o 10 7-otime 1gg
Alsopalled 'storm runoff .
(ii). Base flow:
o The delayed flow that reaches a stream
essentially as ground water flow.
o Includes ground water flow, delayed
interflow.
6. Water year: In India, June l't to May 31't.
7. Types of streams:
a) Perennial b) Intermittent c) Ephemeral
(a) Perennial stream:
o Always carries some flow'
Has considerable amount of groundwater
flow.
(b) Intermittent stream:
o Stream mav remain drv for some months.
h
10. Virgin flow: A stream flow unaffected by
works of men, such as structures for storage
and diversion on a stream.
11. Another classification of streams:
l. Influent stream
2. Effluent stream
12. Influent stream: When the groundwater table
is below the stream bed, seepage takes place
from the stream into the ground. Such a
stream is called influent stream.
13. Effluent stream: When the groundwater
table is above the water surface elevation in
the stream than the ground water feeds the
stream. Such a stream is called effluent
stream.
 ,I{ydrogrqphs
1. Hydrograph: A plot between discharge in a during thd earlier phases of the hydrograph.
. . stream and time in ihronological order The starting point of the recession'limb, i.e.
. the
point of infl.ection reprosents.the conditipn
of maximurn storage. Since the depletion of
storagg takes place after the cessation of
rainfall, the shape of this pa+ of the
hydrograph is independent of ' storm"
characteristics and dgpends entirely on the .
basin characteristics.
i<- tpl
. The Hydrograph is the response of.a given
catchment to a rainfall r input.
l+:- Ts
e € . The Hydrograph consists of flow in all the
three phases of run off Viz., surface
T.: rainfall duration runoff, inttirflow and base flow, such a
Ts : time base of hydrograph Hydrograph is called 'Storm Hydrograph',
Tpr: time to peak from starting point . flood hydrograph dr 'simply hydrograph'.
AB : risinglimb or concentration curve
BC: Crest segment 2) Factors affecting flood Hydrograph: Size,
CD: reoession limb shape, qlope, drainage density etc.
T; : time interval from centre of mass of (a) Shape of the basin: Fan shaped (nearly
rainfall to centre of mass of Hydrograph, semicircular shape) catchments give high
called 'lag time' or basin lag. peak, ndrrow hydrograph, while fern
Rising Limb :
Basin and storm characteristics control'the'
. shaped (elongated) catchments give broad
and low peaked hydrograph.
shape of the rising limb of a hydrograph.

Crest Segment: a
Generally for large catchments, the peat flow
I
occurs after the cessation of rainfall, the time
interval from the centre of mass of rainfall td
the peak being essentially controlled by basin
and storm characteristics.

Recession Limb:
The recession limb which extends from thti \
point of inflection at the end of the C rest
segment to the commencement of the natural t.
groundwater flow represents the withdrawal (b) Slope: Steeper slope catchments give
of water from the storage built up in the basin large peak discharge.
Hydembad I Delhi I Bhopal i Pune I Bhubanesw j Bengalm I hcknow I Patna I Chennai Viiayamda
I I
Vizg Tirupati
I I
Guntur I KrkaQellvGlyd)

-
 (c) Drainage'Density: It is defined as the Ans: (a).
' ratio of total channel length to the total Sol:
drainage,area. A large drainage density
' . gives quick and
peak discharge.

(d) Stream De4sicy: It is the ratio of number

of stredms to Area of basin. Runoff depth: Rainfall excess
'
Volumeof Runoff
(e) Forrn faqtor: lt is the ,atio of baiin area Areaof catchment
to Square of basin length.
!x30x80x60x60
(t) Land . Use: Veg0tation and forests 2 x100 :5 cm
increases the infiltration and Storage 86.4x(too)'
capacities of soils, thereby rtducing the
peak flow. s) Effective Rainfqll:
o
It is equal to total rainfall minus totf
3) Base flow separation: Base flow is separated' losses. Also called Runoff or Rainfall
from the totll storm 'Hydrograph to obtain excess.
relationship between surface flow hydrograph
and effective rainfall. Interflow is also
considered as a part of the super flow in view
of its <iuick response.
DRH
4) Direct Runoff Hydrograph (DRH):
'tr'he surtace runoff hydrograph obtained after Runoff dep{h or Effective Rainfall or
the base flow separation is called DRH. Rainfall excess.
The total area of DRH gives total runoff Volumeof runoff
volume from the given catohment. ' catchmentarea
Totatr .area of DRH :
time interval of 6) Effective Rainfall Hyetograph (ERH ) :
ordinates x sum of DRH ordinates
: Runoff volume. .
The hyetograph obtained after subtracting
initial loss and infiltration losses
'($ - index is called ERH.
iil )
l-i

The direct runoff hydrograph of a storm obtained

Q
from a catchment is triangular in shape and has a
base.period of 80 hourS. The peak flow rate is ch
d.

-\Om3/sec and catchment area is 86.4 km2. The

C)

rainfall excess that has resulted the above

hyclrograph is (GATE -01) H
(a) 5 cry (b) 8 cm
(c) l0 cm (d) 16 cm
HYETOGRAPH

Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I Pme I Bhubmesw I Bengalm I Lucknow I Pama I Chemi i Vijala*ada |
\rtzg Tirupali Gutu I Kukatrally(Ilyd)
I I

a

ERH
" Also know as 'Hyetograph of rainfall
excess' or 'Supra Rainfall '
o The area of ERH gives total depth of
Rainfall cxcess or Runoff depth.
7) Both DRH and ERH represent the
quantity (i.e., Rainfall excess) but in different
units.
o The area of ERH multiplied by catchment
area gives the total runoff volume.
8) Unit Hydrograph:
oDefined as the direct runoff hydrograph
resulting from one unit depth ( 1 cm) of
rainfall excess occurring uniformly over
the basin and at a uniform rate for
specifred duration (D-hrs)
o The duration, an important characteristic,
is used as a prefix to specific unit
Hydrograph.
Ex: 6-h unit Hydrograph, 4-h unit
hydrograph etc.
Uniform intensity of rain
(lcri/D hr) : ( ll D) cm /hr
The area of unit Hydrograph is equal to
volume of runoff obtained from the
catchment due to rain fall excess of 1 cm,
i.e.,
Area of UH : Catchrnent area xunit depth
Hyderabad Delhi i Bhopal j Prne I Bhubme
:25: Hydrographs
9) Basic assumptions of UH:
a) Time Invariance
b) Linear response
. Time Invariance: Implies that the DRH
for a given effective rainfall in a
catchment is always the same irrespective
of when it occurs
o Linear Response: Enables to use
principle of superposition to derive DRH.
o Most important assumption. It implies that
if the rainfall excess in a duration 'D'
hours is 'r' times the unit depth, then the
ordinates of the resulting DRH will be
equal to 'r' times the ordinates of the
corresponding D-h UH.
same l0) Steps to derive UH:
a) A hydrograph caused by rainfall excess of
a given duration (D-h) is selected.
b) Base flow is separated from the selected
hydrograph to derive DRH.
c) The area under the DRH is calculated,
which will be equal to the runoff volume.
d) The runoff volume is divided by the
catchment areato obtain effective rainfaltr.
e) The ordinates of the DRH are divided by
a the effective rainfatrl (Obtained from step
'd') to get the
ordinates of IJH of D-hr
duration.
11) Application of UH: To derive DRH of a
catchment due to a given storm of rainfall by
choosing appropriate UH.
fall is
The peak ordinate of a flood hydrograph
produced by a 4 hour storm yr.elding 6.7cm of
rainfall is observed to be 832 m'/sec. If the base
flow and {-index are 15rn3/sec and 0.5 crv.'hr
what is peak ordinate of the 4 hour unit
hydrograph.
sw i Bengalm i Lucknow j Patrn I Chemai i Vijalz. mda I Vizag I Tirupati i Gmnu , Kukatpally(Flyd)
Sol: Peak Ord of 4 hr FHG :832 m'/sec
Peak Ord of 4 hr DRH : FHG - Base flow
:832 - 15 The 4 hour unit hydrograph of a drainage basin
:817 m3/sec with an area of 164 km' can be approximated as a
. P" _R triangle with a base period of 80 hour and time to
Q: -a peak of 16 hour. Determine the peak ordinate of a
8 hour unit hydrograph of this basin. (take 4 hour
I

0.5 = "'' --
6.7-R
4.7 cm interval).
4 =R=
Peak Ord of 4 hr UHG Sol:
Peak of 4hr DRFI
R
817 :173.83 m'lrec

12) Unit Hydrographs of different duration: Area of UHG

A D-h UH can be used to develoP UH of :depth of runoff x Area of catchment
different durations (n.D hrs) by two Methods :1" Q"-Px 80 x 60 x 60 =* x764" (too)'
l) Method of superposition 2 100
2)S-Curvemethod Q:53.05 m'/set
o The method of superposition can be used Peak of 4 hr UHG : 53.05 m'/sec.
only when 'n' is an integer (1,2,3.. etc ),
o When 'n' is fraction (112, ll3 etc) this 53.05
method cannot be used. S-curve method 10
can be used for anY value of 'n'.

13) Method of superposition: For example to

derive a 6 hr UH from a given 2 hr UH,
draw 3 UH, of 2 hr dutation as shown in the
fig. with due lagging. The sum of ordinates of 8hr
A, B,C give a DRH of 6 hr and due to a rain
fall excess of 3 cm. The ordinates of the
ffi
0 4 8hr
DRH divided by 3, gives ordinates of 6hr UH. R:lcm R:lcm

6hr UHG
 :27 z Hydrographs

Time 4Hr 4Hr 8hr 8hr

UHG Delayed DRII DRII
Ord 4Hr Ord Ord A 6 hour unit hydrograph of a catchment is
UHG triangular in shape with a base.width of 64 hour
Ord and a peak ordinate of 30 m'/s. Calculate the
0 0 equilibrium discharge of an S-cuuve obtained by
using this 6 hour unit hydrograph.

I2 39.78 Sol:
16 53.05 39.78 92.83
20 49.73 53.05 r02.78 t02.78

Peak Ord of 8 hr DRH: 102.78

(4 hr UHG + 4ltr UHG: 8 hr DRH)
R:2cm
102:78
Volumeof Runoff
Area of catchment:
Peak ord of 8 hr UHG (QP) - depthof Runoff
: st.lgm'/sec I 30 x64x60 x 60
- 2" --345.6krn2
14) S - Curve:
o
1x 1

(roo),
Also known as S-hydrograph 100
o Defined as a hydrograph produced by a
continuous effective rainfall at a constant : 2'778
rate for an infinite period.
Q"qui=2'77t "
* "t#
o Obtained by summation of an infinite : 160 m'/sec
series of D-h UH. spaced at D-h apart.
o Each S-curve is to be specified by the
duration of UH form which it is derived. 15) Derivation of UH from S-curve:
Ex: S-curve due to 4 hr UH To derive a UH of T-hr duration:
o The average intensity of rainfall which a) Draw two S-curves A and B as shown,
produced S-curve is (1/D) cm/hr. with a lagging of T-hr
o The discharge ordinate of S-curve b) Subtract the ordinates of B from that of A.
gradually increases and reaches maximum These ordinates represent ordinates of
value called 'equilibrium discharge ', at a DRH of a rainfall excess of duration T-hr
time equal to 'time base' to the first UH. and magnitude of (T/D) cm
o The equilibrium discharge,
c) If the ordinate differences (Sa - Ss) are
Q' :2.778 ND divided by (T/D), the resulting ordinates
Where,
represent a UH of T-hr duration.
Q. --------- in m'l sec
A: Catchment area in km2
D: Duration (in hours) of UH from
which S - curves is derived.
 28 Hydrolory

03. A DRH due to a storm over a basin has a time

1Sn-Sn) base of 90 h with straight line portions of
hvdrosraph with flow rates of 0, 10, J0,90,
+6 una 0 .'/t at elapsed durations of 0, 10,
20, 30, 50 and 90 h as indicated on the
diagram below, respectively' The catchment
u..i ir 300 km2. What is the rainfall excess in
the storm? eo(mr/s) GES - 2006)

(a) 2.83 cm
T
16) Synthetic unit Hydrograph (SUH): It is a (b) 3.46 cm
UH derived from empirical equations' (c) 3.87 cm
Snyder's method is used to derive'
(d) 4'02 cm Time in h.ur
17) Instantaneous unit Hydrograph (IUH):
o It is a UH of zero duration. 04. A flood hydrographs is shown below due to a
o It is a fictitious, concePtual UH' 4 hrs rainfall.
o It is independent of rainfall duration and Time :0 612 1824 3036
indicates the catchment storage Q(m3/sec): 6 18 30 24 12 8 6
characteristics. Assuming a constant base flow of 6 m3/sec,
calculate the rainfall excess' Take catchment
Class Room Practice Questions area as 50 km2.

05. A 4 h unit hydrograph of a basin can be

01. A clirect run-off hydrograph due to isolated approximated as a triangle with a base period
storm was triangular in thape with a base of #+S h and peak ordinate of 300 mt/s' what
80 h and peak of 200 m'is. If the catchment is the area of the catchment basin ?
(IES - 2006)
area is 1440kmz,the effective rainfall of the
(IES - 2010) (a)1776knf (b) 5134 km2
storm ts
(b) 10 cm (c) 25921sn" (d) l294km"
(a) 20 cm
(c) 5 cm (d) 2 cm

02. A direct runoff hydrograph due to an isolated

storm with an effective rainfall of 2 cm was
trapezoidal in shape as shown in the figure'
The hydrograph corresponds to a catchment
(GArE -ee) (a) 7000 (b) 6000
area(in sq.km) of
(a) 190.2 90 cumecsr -+ (c) s000 (d) 4000

(b) 5ee.4 07. For a catchment, a2ltt UH is in the form of a

(c) 689.5 triangle with base of 40 hr and a peak of
l0mt/sec. For the same catchment, a 6 hr UH
(d) 435.3
l"-70 hours*l |
Hyderabad I Delhi lBhopal I Pme I Bhubmesw ] Bengalm i

-_
 229 z

{t g' is derived which is in the form of a triangle 11. The average rainfall for a 3 hour duration
td-.f with a base of 44 hr. Then what will be the storm is 2.7 cm and the loss rate is 0.3 cmlhr.
peak of the 6 hr - UH. The flood hydrograph has a base flow of 20
,*'' m3/s and produces a peak flow of 210 m3/s.
08. A 3 h unit hydrograph U1 of a catchment of The peak of a 3-h unit hydrograph is
area 235 km' is in the form of a triangle with - ol)
peak discharge 30 m'/s. Another 3 h unit (a) 125.50 m3ls (b) 105.50 -'r[GArn
hydrograph U2 is also triangular in shape and (c) 77 .77 ri ls (d) 170.37 m3/s
has the same base width as Ur but has a peak
flow of 90 m3/s. What is the catchment area 12. The peak of a flood hydrograph due to a 6-h
ofUz? (rys - 2ooe) storm is 470 m'lsec. The mean depth of
(a) 117.5 km2 (b) 235 km' rainfall is 8 cm. Assume an average
(c) 470krf (d) 705 km' infiltration loss of 0.25 cm/hr and a constant
base flow of 15 m'/s. Estimate the peak
09. A 2 hr UH is shown below discharge of a 6-h UH for this catchment.

Time(hr) Dischqrge (mt/sec) Statement for Linked Answer Q. 13 & Q. 14

0 0
A four hour unit hydrograph of a catchment is
I 5
2 l5
triangular in shape with base of 80 hours. The
J t2 area of the catchment is 720 km". The base
+ 10 flow and $-index are 30 m3/s and 1 mm/h,
5 6 respectively. A storm of 4 cm occurs
6 0 uniformly in 4 hours over the catchment.
Ifa storm of 4.2 cm occurs in 2 hr duration (GATE - 2oos)
over the catchment and d - index is 0.8 cm/tr, 13. The peak discharge of four hour unit
Calculate hydrograph is
(i) the maximum discharge of the resulting (a) 40 m'/s (b) 50 m'A
DRH. (c) 60 m'/s (d) 70 m'/s
(ii) the maximum flood discharge if the base
flow is 7 m'/sec 14. The peak flood discharge due to the storm is
(a) 210 m'/s (b) 230 m'/s
10. The successive three hourly ordinates of a 6 (c) 260 m3A (d) t2o r#ls
hr UG for a particular basin are 0, 15, 36,
30,I7.5, 8.5, 3.0 cumec,respectively. The Common Data for Questions 15 & f 6
flood peak observed due to a 6 hr storm is One hour triangular unit hydrograph of a
150 cumec. Assuming a constant base flow of watershed has the peak discharge of
6 cumec and an averaqe storm loss of 60m3/sec.crn at 10 hours and time base of 30
6 mm/hr. hours. The $ index is 0.4 cm per hour and
Determine: base flow is l5m'/sec. (GATE-09)
(i) the depth of storm rainfall
(ii) the stream flow at the 15th hour. 15. The catchment area of the watershed is
1O s.,,s!, sl, 1\l(l @) 3.zar<rfr @) 32.4k#^
(c) 324km' (d) 3240 km'

Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I Pme I Bhubmesw i Benga.luru I hcknow I Patn I Chemi lViiapwada iVizag I Tirupati ] Gmtrr I KukaOallvGlyd)
16. If these is rainfall of 5.4 cm in t hour, the Common Data for Questions 2l & 22
ordinate of the flood hydrograph at 15th hour /-,
is L.... An average rainfall of 16 cm occurs over a
(a) 225m'/se, (b) 240 -'/sec catchment during a period of 1"2 hours with a
(c) 249m'/sec (d) 25S m'ls". uniform intensity. The unit hydrograph (unit
depth : 1 cm, unit duration : 6 hours) of the
Statement for Linked Answer Q. 17 & Q. 18 catchment rises linearly from 0 to 30 cumecs
in six hours and then falls linearly from 30 to
The drainage area of a watershed is 50 km2. 0 cumecs in the.qen_.ll2 hours. $ index of the
The d index is 0.5 cmlhour and the base flow catchment is known to be 0.5 cm/hr. Base
at the outlet is 10 m3/s, One hour unit flow in the river is known to be 5 cumecs.
hydrograph (unit depth : I
cm) of the (GArE - 03)
watershed is triangular in shape with a time
base of 15 hours. The peak ordinate occurs 2l.Peak discharge of the resulting direct runoff
at 5 hours. (GATE-12) hydrograph shall be
(a) 150 cumecs (b)225 cumecs
17. The peak ordinate (in m3/s/cm) of the unit (c) 230 cumecs (d) 360 cumecs
hydrograph is
(a) 10.00 (b) 18.52 22. Area of the catchment in hectares is
(c) 37.03 (d) 18s.20 lafst.zo (b) 270 i
(c) 9720 (d) 27000
18. For a storm of depth of 5.5 cm and duration
of I hour, the peak ordinate (in m'/s) of the Common Data for Questions 23 &24
hydrograph is Ordinates of a l-hour unit hydrograph at
(a) 55.00 (b) 82.60 thour intervals, starting from
(c) 92.60 (d) 102.60 Time t : 0 are, 0,2, 6, 4,2, I and 0m'/s
(GArE-O7)
19. A 252km" catchment area has 6 h UH which
23. Catcl'rnent area represented by this unit
is a triangle with time base of 35 h. What is
hydrograph is
the peak discharge of the DRH due to 5 cm
(a) 1.0km2 (b) 2.0km2
effective rainfall in 6 h from that catchment?
(c) 3.2km2 (d) 5.4km2
(rES-2006)
(a) 45 cumec (b) I 15 cumec 24. Ordinate of a 3-hour unit hydrograph for the
(c) 200 cumec (d) 256 cumec catchment att:3 hours is
(a) 2.0m3/s (b) 3.0m3/s
20. Given the following 2l'r UH for a drainage (c) 4.0m3/s (d) 5.0m'/s
basin, determine the maximum discharge of
the 4 hr UH derived from the data
25. An S-curve hydrograph has been obtained
(GArE - 94) for catchment of 270 krrf from a 3 h unit
hydrograph. The equilibrium discharge for
a the S-curve is (rES - 2010)
Time ftr) 0 2 J 4 ) 6
(a) 750 m3/s (b) 277.8 m3ls
O(m'/sec) 0 20 60 80 50 20 0
(c) 250 m3/s (d) 187 m3/s

Hydembad I Delhi I Bhopal I

Pue Bhubmesw ! Benga.lm I Imknow
I I
Patna I
Chemi Vljayawda iviag Tirupati I Gunr I Kukatrally(Hyd)
I I
 :31 : Hydrographs

26. A6 hour UHG of a catchment is triangular in 3 1. What is the area of the catchment?
shape with a base width of 64 hours. And a (a) 0.01km2 (b) 0.36km2
peak ordinate of 30 m3/sec. Calculate the (c) 1.00km' (d) 1.28km2
equilibrium discharge of an S-Curve
obtained by using 6 h UHG. 32. What will be the ordinate of a 2-hour unit
hydrograph for this catchment at t - 3
27 . The ordinates of 4 hr unit hydrograph are
hour?
eiven below construct S-Curve (a) 0.13m3/s (b) 0.20m34
(c) 0.27m'ls (d) 0.54m'ls
Time t0 t1 t4 16 18 20
0 2 4 6 8
(Hrs)
4Hr 33. A 3 hr UH of a catchment is in the form of a
UHG 0 6 33 90 119 103 79 50 25 7 0
Ordinates triangle with base of 15 hr and peak of 10
m3/s"c occurring at 6th hour. If two rainfalls
28. Ordinates of an t hour UHG @lhr intervals of 3 hr duration each with magnitudes of 3.8
are 5,8,5,3 & I m3lsec calculate cm and 4.8 cm occur in succession, calculate
(a) Watershed area represented by UHG the peak discharge of the resulting DRH.
(b) S-Curve hydrograph derived from UHG. Assume Q -index as 0.6 cm/tr.
(c) 3 Hr UHG for the catchment
Common Data for Questions 29 & 30 34. If two storms, each of 3 cm and 5 cm
The ordinates of 2-h unit hydrograph at 1 rainfalls and each of 6-h duration occured in
r n\tr) succession. Assume base flow to be uniform
hour intervals starting from time 0 are 0, t: o- z \.:{E;: -. .
'ai 10 m'/sec and Q - index of 0.25 cm/hr. The
3,8, 6,3,7 and 0 m'/s. Use trapezoidal rule o\,3
for numerical integration, if required. ordinates of a 6-h UH are given below:
(GArE-11) Time UH
(h') (m3/sec)
29. What is the catchment area represented by
the unit hydrograph? 0 0
(a) 1.00 km' (b) 2.00 km'" 6 20
ic) 7 .92wr? (d) s.64 km2 t2 60
l8 t50
30. A storm of 6.6 cm occurs uniformly over the 24 t20
catchment in 3 hours. If Q- index is equal to 2 30 90
mm/h and base flow is 5 m'/s, what is the 36 66
A1 50
peak flow^due to the storm?
('6) 41.0 m',/s (b) 43.4 m',/s 48 )z
20
(c) 53.0 m3/s
54
(d) 56.2 m3/s
60 l0
66 0
Common Data for Questions 3l & 32
For a catchment, the(or S-curve Calculate the resulting discharge at the 24th
S - hydrograph) due to a rainfall of intensity 1
hour. \'-\'-- ;.1 -- ''
cm/hr is given by \
r''"f \
(t 6 r'l '
Q
:1 - (1 + 0 exp({) (t in hr and Q in m'/s).
(GATE-2006)

HydenbadlDelhilBhopallPmelBhubmeswlBengalmiLucknowlPatralChemiiVliayamdalViz:g lTirupati lGmtrul KukatpalvGlvd)

 :32: Hydrology

35. Ifa 6 h unit hydrograph of a catchment has a 39. A watershed got transformed from rural to
peak ordinate of 30m'/s, the peak ordinate of urban over a period of time. The effect of
a 12 h unit -hydrograph for the same urbanization on storm runoff hydrograph
catchment will be, in m3/s, from the watershed is to (GArE- 11)
(a) > 30 (b) > 30 (a) Decrease the volume of runoff
(c):30 (d) < 30 (b) Increase the time to peak discharge
(c) Decrease the time base
36. The peak discharges in 6 h and 12 h unit (d) Decrease the peak discharge
hydrographs of a catchment occur at te and tn
hours from the start. Then
(a) to > trz (b) to: trz
(c) to < trz
01. (d) 02. (b) 03. (d) 04.2.67 cm
(d) to : t12 for triangular UH. 05. (c) 06. (c) 07.9.09 m'/se. 08. (d)

09.(D 39 m3/sec (ii) 46 *'/sec

37. The ordinate of the instantaneous Unit
Hydrograph (IUH) of a catchments at time t, 10. (i) 7.6 cm(ii) 40 m'/sec
is (GATE -99)
11. (b) 12.70 m'lsec 13. (b) la. (a)
(a) the slope of the l-hour unit hydrograph at
that time
ls. (c) 16. (b) 17. (b) 18. (d) le. (c)
(b) the slope of the direct runoff unit 20. 55 -'/sec 21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (d)
hydrograph at the time
2a. @) 25. (c) 26.160 m'/sec
(c) difference in the slope of the S-curve and
1- hour unit hydrograph 27 m'/sec 28.1 .92 tm2 Zl. 1c;
.256
(d) the slope of the S-curve with effective
30. (a) 31. (b) 32. (c) 33. 43.33 m'/set
rainfall intensity of lcm/hr
34.715 m'lsec 35. (d)
38. An isochrone is a line on the basis map
(GArE -ee) 36. (c) 37. (d) 38. (c)
(a) joining raingauge stations having equal
rainfall duration
(b) joining points having equal rainfall depth
in a given time interval
(c) joining points having equal time of travel
of surface runoff to the catchments outlet
(d) joining points which are at equal distance
from the catchments outlet.
 Muximum Flood Estimqtion
1. Flood peaks ate required to design all Ans: (b)
hydraulic structures.
Sol:A:200 ha,
2. Methods to estimate floods peaks: I:0.5,
(a) Rational method
(b) Empirical method R: 3.6 cm/hr : 36 mm/hr
(c) Flood Frequency Studies
200x0.5x36 :
(d) UnilHydrograph Technique 10 m3/sec
360

3. Rational Method: Applicable for small size

catchments (< 50 km') for urban drainage 4. Kirpich equation to calculate't") i
design, small culverts and bridges. t" : 0.01947 Lo'77 S-o'38s

AIR Where,
Peak Flood Discharse. Q= - 360 t.: time of concentration, in minutes,
Where I:maximum length of travel of water, in
'mt
I or K: coefftcient of run off .

: Run off / Rain fall,

: slope of the catchment : AH / L
S

A: catchment area in Hectare AH: difference in elevation between most

rernote point on the catchment and the
R: mm/hr for
design intensity of rainfall in
outlet.
a duration 't.' and a return period 'T'
(can be found from rainfall-frequency-
duration curves) Isochrone: A line on the catchment map
joining points having equal time of travel of
t.: time of concentration surface runoff (t.).
: time taken for a drop of water from the
farthest part of the catchment to reach 5. Empirical Formulae:
the outlet of the catchment. They are regional formulae.
(a) Dicken's Formulu: Used in Central
and Northern parts of the country.
QP: Co ' A3/a
A catchment of area 200 hectare has a run-off Where,
coefficient 0.5. A storm of duration larger than
Qo: Maximum flood discharge (m'/sec),
the time of concentration of the catchment and of A: Catchment area (km')
intensity 3.6 cm/h causes a peak discharge of Co: Dicken's constant.
(IES - 2010)
The Cn value varies from 6 to 30
(a) 5 m3/s (b) 10 m3/s
For North-Indian plains Cp value is 6 and
(c) 100 m3/s (d) 360 m'/s
coastal Andhra it varies from22 to 28.
 234: Hydrolory

(b) Ryre's Formula: Used in Southern Gumbel's Equation for Practical Use:
states of the country. (T.N., A.P., Xr: x +K.o
Karnataka). Gumbel's distribution has the property which
QP: Cn ' A2l3 gives T :
2.33yrs for the average of the
annual series when record length is very
Where,
large.
Cp:Ryre's coefficient. The value of flood with T -- 2.33yrs is called
The value of Cn varies from 6.8 to I0.2
the mean unnaalflood.
Cn:6.8 for areas within 80km from the east
coast. Floods:
: I0.2 for limited areas near hills (D Design flood: Flood adopted for the
design ofa structure
(c) Ingli's Formula: Used in Western Ghats in (ii) Spill way Design flood: Flood used for
Maharashtra. the specific purpose of designing the
t24A spillway of a storage structure.
rl--_:
r/A + 10.4
(iii) Probable Maximum flood (PMF):
The extreme flood that is physically
possible in a region as a result of sever
6. Flood-Frequency Studies:
most combinations including rare
General equation of hydrologic frequency
combinations.
analysis:
(iv) Standard Project Flood (SPF): The
Xr: x *K.o flood that would result from a severe
Where, combination of meteorological and
X1:Value of the variate X of a random hydrological factors that are reasonably
hydrologic series with a return period T. applicable to the region. Extremely rare
x :Mean of the variate, combinations are excluded. SPF is
about 40 to 60% of the PMF for the
o : Standard deviation of the variate same drainage basin.
K: Frequency factor which depends upon (v) Design storm: Probable maximum
the return period, T and the assumed precipitation (PMP) is used for
frequency distribution. deriving PMF and standard project
storm (SPS) is used for SPF
Commonly used frequency distribution calculations
functions for the prediction of extreme flood (vi) From economic considerations, small
values are: hydraulic storm structures like culverts
l. Gumbel's extreme - value distribution. and storm drainages are designed for
2. Log-Pearson Type III distribution, and floods less than peak. Where as
3. Log normal distribution important large storage structures such
as dams are designed for peak floods.
Gumbel's method: Widely used probability
distribution function for prediction of flood
peaks.

Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I Prne I Bhubmesw I Bengalrm I hcknow I Pama I Chemi i Viiayawada ] Viag I Tirupati I Gmor I KukaOaIyGIyd)
 :35 : Maximum Flood Estimation

CWC (India) guide to select design floods:

Structures Class Room Practice Questions

1) Spillways for major and medium Projects

with storage more than 60 Mm' 01. A catchment area of 90 hectare has a run-off
Recommended design flood coefficient of 0.4. A storm of duration larger
a) PMF than the time of concentration of the
b) If(a) is not possible, flood frequency catchment and of intensity 4.5 cmlh creates a
method with T,return period: 1000 years. peak discharge rate of (IES - 2003)
(a) I1.3 m''ls (b) 0.45 m'/s
2) Permanent barrages and^ minor dams with
(c) 450 m3/s (d) 4.5 m3/s
capacity less than 60 Mm'

Recommended design flccd 02. A catchment area of 60 hectare has a run-off

a) SPF coeffrcient of 0.40. If a storm of intensity 3
b) Flood with T: 100 years
cm/h and duration longer than the time of
which ever is hisher value
concentration occurs in the catchment, then
what is the peak discharge?^ (IES - 2009)
3) Aqueducts (a) 2.0 m'ls (b) 3.5 m'ls
Recommended design flood
a) water way.....Flood with T : 50 Years (c) 4.5 m3ls (d) 1.66 m3ls

4) Project with very scanty or inadequate data

03. A catchment consists of 30% area with run-
Recommended design flood
off coefficient 0.40 with the remaining 70o/o
Empirical formulae.
area with run-off coefficient of 0.6. The
equivalent runoff coefficient will be
(IES - 2010)
(a) 0.48 (b) 0.s4
(c) 0.63 (d) 0.76

04. The time of concentration at the outlet tn an

urban area catchment of 1.5 km2 areawith a
run-off coefficient of 0.42 is 28. min. The
maximum depth of rainfall with a 50 yr
return period for this time'of concentration is
48 mm. What is the peak flow rate at the
outlet for this return period? (IES - 2006)
(a) 12 m3/s (b) 14 m3/s
(c) 16 m3/s (d) 18 m3/s
 S ACE
yEngine€dngArzde,my : 36: Hydrolory

05. The land use of an area and the corresponding 07. While applying the Rational formula for
run-off coefficient are as follows: computing the design discharge, the rainfall
(IES - 200e) duration is stipulated as the time of
concentration because (GATE-03)
S.No. Land use Area Run-off (a) this leads to the largest possible rainfall
fta) Coefficient intensity
I Roads 10 0.70 (b) this leads to the smallest possible
2. Lawn 20 0.10 rainfall intensity
a Residential (c) the time of concentration is the smallest
J. 50 0.30
area rainfall duration for which the Rational
Industrial formula is applicable
4.
atea
20 0.80 (d) the time of concentration is the largest
rainfall duration for which the Rational
What is the equivalent run-off coefficient? formula is applicable
(a) 0.1s (b) 0.36 (c) 0.40
(d) 0.s1

06. An urban area has a run off coefficient of 0.3

and an area of 0.85 km2. The maximum
depth of rainfall with a 25-year return period
", is as below.
,.
\"'
iit' '
Duration
5 10 20 30 40 60
6nin)
Depth of
rain fall T7 26 40 50 57 62
(mm)

Ifa culvert for a drainage at the outlet ofthis

area is to be designed for a return period of25
years, estimate the required peak flow rate.
Take time of concentration for the drainase
area as 30 mins.

Hyderabad I Delhi j Bhopal i Pme I Bhubaneswar I Bensalm I hcknow lPatn Chermai jVijayamda lviza Tirupati I Gunr
J I Kukapally(Hvd)
 Flood Routing
1. Flood routing: It is the technique of 6. Attenuation: When a flood hydrograph is
determining the flood hydrograph at a section routed through a reservoir, owing to the
of a river or channel by utilizing the data of storage effect, the peak of the outflow
flood flow at one or more upstream sections. hydrograph will be smaller than that of the
inflow hydrograph. This reduction in the peak
2. Reservoir routing: In the reservoir routing value is called 'attenuation'.
the effect of a flood wave entering the o When a flood wave passes through a
reservoir is studied to predict the variations of reservoir, its peak is attenuated and the
reservoir elevation and outflow discharge time base is enlarged due to the effect of
with time. storage.
o Flood waves passing down a river have
3. Channel routing: In this the changes in the their peaks attenuated due to friction if
shape of a hydrograph as it travels down a these is no lateral inflow.
channel is studied.
7. Lag: The time difference between peaks of
4. Methods of routing: i) Hydrologic routing inflow and outflow hydrographs.
ii) Hydraulic routing
o Hydrologic routing methods employ the 8. Linear Reservoir or Linear Storage: A
equation of continuity. reservoir in which storage is directly
o Hydraulic routing methods employ the proportional to the outflow discharge.
equation of continuity and equation of s aQ
motion of unsteady flow.
o In hydraulic routing, basic differential 9. Linear channel: It is a fictitious channel in
equations known as St.Venant equations which the timd required to translate a
are used discharge Q through a given reach is constant.
o The hydraulic routing methods give better Ifan inflow hydrograph passes through such a
results than hydrologic methods. channel, there is no attenuation of peak.
Hydrologic reservoir routing (Level pool
5. Basic equation of flood routing is routing): Storage is a function of outflow.
Eg: 1. Modified Pul's method
r-e 1'dt 2. Goodrich method
Where, Hydrologic channel routing: Storage is a
I: inflow, function of both outflow and inflow
discharses.
Q: outflow rate and
10. Muskingum method: Used for channel
: storage, 1:ds
change of storage with time. routing. It is based on hydrologic routing
S
-'dt technique. Muskingum equation,
S:kIx.I+(1-x)Q]

Hydenbad i Delhi I Bhopal j Fme I Bhubueswar I Bengalm I Lucknow i Panra I Chemi I Vijayawada I
\4zg Tirupari i Gmtur I I(ukatrally(Hyd)
I
 : 38: Hydrology

Where, Time l2 l6 20 24 28
0 4 8
S: storage ft)
:
k storage time constant. It is approximately Inflow
(m3/s)
8 l6 30 30 25 20 15 10
equal to the time of travel of a flood
wave through the channel reach. It has The initial outflow discharge from the reach is 8'0
dimensions of time m3/s. Find inflow hydrograph
:
x weighting factor.
k and x are called routing constants, -kx+0.5At -8x0.25+0.5x4 :0
determined based on actual observation of Sol: Co =
k-kx+0.5At 8-8x0.25+0.5x4
floods through a
channel reach.
o For natural channels, the value of x lies kx+0.5At 8x0.25+0.5x4
between 0 to 0.3. cl = = 0.5

o k-kx+0.5At 8-8x0.25+0.5+4
For a given reach the k & x values are
assumed to be constant.
I:
inflow rate. Cz: I- Co- Cr : 1- 0 - 0.5 : 0.5
:
0 outflow rate'
:
If x 0, S :k Q such storage is called linear Qz: CoIz + CrIr + CzQr
storage or linear reservoir. :0+0.5 x 8*0.5 x 8
11. Using Muskingum method, it can be shown
that Time Inflow (m'/sec) Outflow
8
Qz: Co12 * C1I1 + CzQr 0 8
4 t6 8
Where Ir,Iz are inflow rates before and after 8 30 t2
the time intewal of At t2 30 21
t6 25 25.5
Qr, Qz are the outflow rates before and after 20 20 25.25
the time interval of At. 24 l5 22.625
28 10 18.825
Co , Cr ,C2nta called routing coefficients.
- k.x + 0.54t 12. Storage of channel reach with a flood flow:
Co= A. Prism storage
k-kx+0.54t
B. Wedge storage
kx + 0.5At
Cr:
k-kx+0.54t A. Prism Storage: It is the volume that
would exist if uniform flow occurred at
the downstream dePth. i.e., volume
formed by an imaginary lane parallel to
Route the following flood hydrograph through a the channel bottom drawn at the outflow
river reach for which Muskingum coefficient section water surface.
K:Sh &x:0.25.
 ACE
EoginceringArzdenry :39: Flood Routing

B. Wedge Storage: It is the wedge like respectively. If the outflow at 3'o hour were
volume formed between the actual water 15 m'/s then what will be the corresponding
surface profile and the surface of the outflow at the 4th hour.
prisni storage.
At a hxed depth at downstream section, 04. Calculate the peak of the outflow hydrograph
the prism storage is constant. in a river reach using Muskingham method
Wedge storage is *ve for an advancing given the following inflow hydrograph. Take
flood and Wedge storage is -ve during a Cs : 0.048, C1= 0.429, and the starting value
receding flood. of outflow hydrograph as 10 m3ls.
Time (Hours) 0 2 5 4 5 6
Inflow (m'/s) l0 20 40 60 50 40 30
Class Room Practice Questions

01. The wedge storage in a river reach during the

passage of a flood wave is
(a) negative during the rising phase
(b) positive during the rising phase
(c) a constant
(d) positive during the falling phase

02. When the outflow from a storage reservoir is

uncontrolled as in a freely operating
spillway, the peak of outflow hydrograph
occurs at (GATE-0s)
(a) the point of intersection of the inflow and
outflow hydrographs
(b) a point, after the intersection of the inflow
and outflow hydrographs
(c) the tail of inflow hydrographs
(d) a point, before the inter section of the
inflow and outflow hydrographs

03 At a time 3'd hour and 4th hour the inflow

values into a channel are 18 m3/s and 42 m3ls
respectively. The Co and Cr in the
Muskingh am equation are 0.042 and 0.538
 Well Hydraulics
1"':!1?!l

I Aquifer: It is a water bearing formation of Based on the field situation, aquifers are
the earlh. It not only holds the water but classified as
yields it in
sufficient quantitY. a) unconfined aquifer
Ex: Unconsolidated deposits sand and of b) confined aquifer
gravel.
, Aquitard: It is a formation through which Unconfined Aquifer: Also known as 'water
table aquifer'. It has a free surface, i.e., W.T
only seepage is possible and thus the yield is
exists.
insignificant compared to an aquifer. It is
partly permeable. Confined Aquifer: It is also known as
Eg: clay lenses interbedded with sand. 'artesian aqwifer'.An aquifer conltned
3. Aquiclude: It is a geological formation which between
is essentialiy impermeable to the flow of two impervious beds such as aquicludes or
water. It may contain large amounts of water aquifuges. The water in the confined
but it will not allow movement of water aquifer will be under pressure and hence the
through it. Eg: clay piezometric level will be much higher than
4. Aquifuge: It is a geological formation which the top level of the aquifer.
neither contains water nor transmits through GL GL
it. Eg: contpact rock ,o(\ /
lYater Table (W.T): It is the free water ^\
surface in an unconfined aquifer. At all points
on the water table the pressure is atmospheric Unconfined aquifi
6. Vadose zone: T'he zone between the ground Confined aquifer
surface and the water table is called the
unsatutated zone or the vadose zone. In the
vadose zone the soil pores may contain either ffi
air cir water or both. In the zone below the ROCK
water table all the soil pores are completely
filled with water and hence it is called the
zone of saturajionog;rj"[" phreatic zone.

6
^X

NE
-T-
Capillary
Water Table
i "''*t_
zone L F'

:61-(
-51dl
o
!
r\lEl=\ Perched Water Table : The water table
t retained locally in the impervious stratum.
ffi=ro-*t :4L: , Well Hydraulics

8. Specific Yield (Sv): It is the volume of water

that can be extracted by the force of gravity.
Expressed as percent of total volume of
aquifer.

9. Specific Retention (Sil: It is the volume of

water which is held in the aquifer against the
gravity, expressed as percent of total volume
of aquifer.
Sy*Sn: [, n : poroslty.

10. Storage Coefficient: It is the volume of water

that an aquifer releases per unit surface area
of aquifer per unit change in the component r: radius of well,
of head normal to that surface. Used to R : Radius influence or Radius of zero draw
express water yielding capacity of confined down.
aquifer. It is also called 'storativity'. H: thickness of the aquifer measured from
impermeable layer to the initial level of
11. Coefficient of Transmissibility (T): It is the w.T.
rate of flow of water through a vertical strip S: Draw down at the well.
aquifer of unit width (lmeter) and extending H: depth of water in the well measured
to full saturation height under unit hydraulic above the impermeable layer.
gradient. It is also called "Coefficient of hr, hz depths of water in the observation wells
transmissivity" at radial distances of r ; r2as shown,
T : k. b for confined aquifer. Sr, Sz ) draw downs in the observation wells
Where, at radial distances rr, rz
b: thickness ofconfined aquifer
T : k.H for unconfined aquifer Steady state discharge, e- -
frk(n.'z--hil
1og.(R/11)
12. Assumptions in the Dupit's Theory:
Also e- _
nk(hl -hi) _ nk(u: -hi
Velocity of flow is proportional to tangent of
log. (r, I r,) log. (R / r, )
hydraulic gradient, flow is horizontal and
uniform. Aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic,
the well penetrates and receives water from
_ nk(U'z -h'zr)
log" (R /r, )
the entire thickness of aquifer, the coefficient
of transmissibility is constant, flow is laminar h:H-S
and Darcy's law is valid.
h1 =H-51, hz:H-Sz
13. Dupit's Theory for Steady Radial Flow to a
Well: Fully penetrating well in unconfined 'h'also called effective leneth of strainer
aquifer:
A 45-cm well penetrates an unconfined aquifer of
saturated thickness 30 m completely. Under a
steady pumping rate for a long time the
drawdowns at two observation wells 15 and 30 m
form the well are 5.0 and 4.2 m respectively. If
the permeability of the aquifer is 20 mlday,
determine the discharge and the drawdown at the
pumping well.

H:30m

Discharge, Q
_ 2nkb(H-h) = 2nkb(h, -h')
hr:I{-Sr=30-5:25m log.(R/r) 1og.(r, /rr)
hz:H-Sz:30-4.2:25'8m : 2,116 (H - h' ) : 2,rp6 $r- !L
log.(R/q) log"(rr /r)
This is known as Thiem's equatin.
_ 2nT(h, -ht)
log" (r, / rr )

Drawdown in the well:

t2) f2:30 m, f1)fvv :0.4512:0.225 m

A 200 mm diarneter well fully penetrates a
hr +ht:? hz+hz:25.8m confined aquifer of 30 m depth. For a pumpage
of 35 lit/sec the steady draw down at 100m and
300m distances from the well are observed as 3.2
m and 2.5 m respectively' Estimate the 'K' in
mlday and transmissibility of the aquifer in
nf tauy and also estimate draw down at the well.
(GArE - es)
n"zol(za.s)'-h' Sol:r: 100 mm:0.1 m, b:30 m,
3683.90=
Q
: 35 lit/sec : 35 x 10-3m3/sec
rr : 100 !Tr,t2:300 m,
h:19.46 m Sz:2.5 ffi, S1 :3'2m
2nKb (h, - h,)
Drawdown - H - h: 30 - 19.46: 10'54 m
log" (r, / r, )
 :43 z Well Hydraulics

_ 2nKb(S, - S, ) ["'n' =H-S' 17. The ratio of water level change to

log"(r, /r,) L h, =H-S ,] atmospheric pressure head change is called
barometric fficiency.

rc..
{\v n_3 2nx30x(3.2-2.5)xK
rttl-:
18. In a pumping artesian well, the total draw
log" (300 / 100) down at the well ( S ) is made up of two parts
(i) formation loss (ii) well loss
K:2.914 x10+m/sec Formation /oss.. It is the head drop required
K:2.9I x10+m/sec to cause the laminar porous media flow.
:2.91x10+ x60x 60x24 lYell loss: It is the total head drop required to
:25.18 m/day sustain turbulent flow nearest to the well and
head loss through the well screen and casing
T: K.b
:755.35 m'lday 19. Specific Capacity: It is the discharge per unit
zruru(n, draw down at the well (Q/S). It is a measure
- h)
- log. (r, / r)
of the performance of the well.

20. Open Well - Recupenation Test:

2ruKb(S - S, ) Discharge is only from bottom of the well.
log"(r, /r) The well sides are made of imoermeable
material.

.'. S:7.6m

15. Darcy's Law, V:

K. i
:
V Apparent velocity of seepage : Q / A;
i: hydraulic gradient ;
K: permeability
The above law is applicable for laminar flow
conditions. Flow in soils can be taken as : depression
h1 head when pumping stopped
laminar when the Reynolds's number is < I h2: depression head at a time 'T' after
16. Coefficient of Permeability, K: k" Ip pumping stopped.
k: a constant
fro: intrinsic permeability,which is a Specific yield or specific capacity of an open
function of medium onlv. it has well(k lA):C
dimensions cm' or rrt' or in darcv,s.. It is the discharge in to the well per square
where 1 darcy meter of area through which water percolates
:9.87 x 10-13 m2 under one meter depression head.
 k
- A= I.,"*"[Lj
c: T ""[hrJ
It is taken as constant for a given open well'
1.
If I of an open well is known, the discharge
A
collected per unit length of the gallery'
'Q' from an open well under a depression
head 'H' is calculated as :

/t \
a: l+
\A/l'e's:cAH
21. Interference among Wells: h: 0.8m
Due to intersection of draw down curves of
the wells, the discharge from each well gets 150
reduced compared to an individual well'
Sol:H :3.2m,h :0.8m, L: Im
22. Yield from Infilteration Galleries: It is located in bed collects water from
(a)
Gallery constructed within the bed both sides
of the river, water collected from rr-[H' - n']
,^,-
Y-R
both sides of the gallery'

Where,
K = Co-efficient of PermeabilitY
Q:3.2 m'/ duy /meter length
L: Length of gallery
H: Thickness of aquifer
h: Thickness of aquifer at face of
gallery.

R: Radius of influence
(b) Gallery constructed within the bank
of the river, water collected from
one side of the gallery.

dttl$a lTirupari l Gunnu l Kukapallv(Ilvd)

 :45:
Class Room Practice Questions
01. In an aquifer extending over 150 hectare, the
water table was 20 m below ground level.
Over a period of time the water table dropped
to 23 m below the ground level. the If
porosity of aquifer is 0.40 and the specific
retention is 0.15, what is the change in ground
water storage of aquifer? (GATE-2011)
(a) 67.5 ha.m (b) 112.5 ha.m
(c) 180 ha.m (d) 450 ha.m
02. A volume of 3 x 106m3 of ground water was
pumped out from an unconfined aquifer,
uniformly from an area of 5 kttf. The
pumping lowered the water table from initial
level of 102 m to 99 m. The specific yield of
the aquifer is (GATE-CE-08)
(a) 0.20 (b) 0.30 (c) 0.a0 (d) 0.50
03. An unconfined aquifer of porosity 30yo,
permeability 35 mlday and specific yield of
0.20 has anareaof 100 km'. If the water table
falls by 0.25 m during a drought, the volume
of water lost from storage, in million cubic
metre, is (rES - 2010)
(a) 2.0 (b) s.0 (c) 1.0 (d) 4.0
04. A steady ground water flow is -occurring
through an unconfined aquifer ofcoarse sand
under lain by a horizontal impervious
formation as shown in the fig. The depths of
water table below the ground surface in the
two observation wells, fixed at a spacing of
290 m along the direction of flow are
recorded as 5 m and 5.6 m. The sand layer is
20 m thick and its coeff. of permeability is 4
x 10-3 cm/sec. Determine the rate of flow in
m3ldaylm width of the aquifer.
Well Hydraulics
05. Two observation wells penetrating into a
confined acquifer are located 1500 m apartin
the direction of flow. Heads of 50 m and 25
m are indicated at these two observation
wells. If the coefficient of permeability for
the aquifer is 30 m/day and its porosity is
0.25,the time of travel of an inert tracer from
one well to another is (IES - 2012,)
(a) 75days (b) 750 days
days
(c) 1200 (d) 3000 days
06. A confined aquifer is 25 m thick and 2 km
wide. Two observation wells located 2 km
ap34, t!*tbe"diresfi.on p,f.flow indfeale heads of
45 and 39.5 m. If the coefficient of
permeability of the aquifer is 30 m/day,
calculate (i) the total daily flow through the
aquifer and (ii) the piezometric head at an
observation well locatecl- g0O m no* the
upstream well.
07. A 30 cm well completely penetrates an
unconfined aquifer of saturated depth 40 m.
After a long period of pumping at a steady
rate of 1500 lpm, the draw down in two
observation wells 25 m anil 75 m from the
. pumping well were found to be 3.5 m and 2m
respectively. Determine the transmissivity of
the aquifer. What is the draw down at the
pumping well?
08. For a field pumping test a well was sunk
through a horizontal stratum of sand 14.5 m
thick and under lain by a clay stratum. Two
observation wells were sunk at hoizontal
distances of 16 m and34 m respectively from
 Hydrolory

pumping well.. The initial position of the

W.T. was,2.2m below G.L. At a steady state
pumping iate of 925 litlmin the drawdowns 01.O) 02.(a) 03.(b)
in the observation wells were found tobe2'45 04.0.105 rf ldaylm 0s.(b)
m and 1.20 mrespectively. Calculate 'K''
06.(r) 4125 ttf taaY (ii) 4a.175 m
09. A well of diameter 20 cm fully penetrates a 07.270taay
nf 08.12.2 mldaY
confined aquifer.
pumping at a rate 09.(b) 10.0.718 m
the observations of
and i00m distances from the center of the
wall are found to be 3m and 0'5m
respectively. The transmissivity of
the
aquifer is (GATE-CE-IO)
(il ito rrf taay (u) 576 m'tdaY

(c) 526 tt?lduy (d)249 nf nay

10. A horizontal confined aquifer of 10 m

thickness and infinite area extent lies with its

:
down at the well is 12 m. K 48 mldaY'
Assume radius of influence as 500m' Find
effective well diameter. (GATE'87)

' dalvizaslTiruparilGutulKukapalv(Hvd)
 River Gquging
River Gauging involves the measurement of sub surface float remains submerged in water.
discharge of a river and the establishment of The movement of the surface float is guided
gauge post on one of its banks. by the movement of the sub-surface float.
3. The Velocity Rod Method: The velocity rod
Selection of Gauge Site: The following
points should be considered while selecting a is made of hollow metal tube or wood. A
gauge site. weight is provided at the bottom of the rod to
l River width should be minimum at the keep it vertical. The velocity gives the
site.
required mean velocity directly and need not
2. The site should not be selected on the any coefficient.
be multiplied by
curye of the river. 4. The Current Meter Method: The price current
3. There should be no scouring effect on the meter is commonly used for measuring the
riverbank. velocity of flow of the river.
The number of revolutions per second is
Measurement of Discharge by Area- counted by the observer with the help of a
Velocity Method
stop watch. The velocity can be ascertained
In this method, the area of the water section
from the rating table corresponding to the
of the river is calculated by measuring the number of rotations.
depth of water by sounding rod, sounding
The price current meter and Gurley current
cable, etc. and the velocity of flow is
meter are typical instruments under the
measured by floats, sub-floats, current rnetre,
vertical axis type current meters. The normal
etc then the discharge is calculated by
range of velocities is from 0.15 to 4.0 m/s.
Q: A.V A current meter is so designed that its rotation
speed varies linearly with the stream velocity
Measurement of Velocity of Flow: Different
V at the lo.cation of the instrument.
Methods as follows
The velocity of flow is calculated using the
L The surface float method: The surface floats following equation.
are made of cork which can easily float on V:a.N'*b
water. The time taken by the float to cover the Where,
'run' (known distance) is noted. From this the V: stream velocity at the instrument
velocity of flow is calculated. The act;ual location in m/s,
niean velocity of
flow isobtained by Nr: revolutions per second of the meter and
multiplying the surface velocity by a a,b are constants of the meter.
coeffrcient 0.85.
In shallow streams of depth upto about 1.0 -,
2. The Sub-Surface Float Method: The the velocity measu-red at 0.6 times the depth
sub-
surface float is a hollow metal cylinder which of flow below the'water surface is taken as
is attached by a cord to the surface float. The the averag6 velocity. This procedure is known
as the single-point observation method.
 Depends on continuity principle and Steady
In moderately deep streams the velocity is
flow condition. Useful for turbulent sections
observed at two points (two point method)
like in mountains. The tracer(solution of salt)
and their average is taken. i.e at 0.2 and at
with a concentration of C1 is injected into the
0.8 times the depth of flow below the free
stream at a constant rate of Q1m'/sec.
surface the velocities are measured and the
Let Qp be the discharge in the stream which
average velocity is taken .
already contains the same tracer with a

Curve:
concentration of Cp .
If the concentration of
Stage -Discharge - Rating the tracer at the down stream section is C.1*,
then from the mass balance equation.
A curve drawn between stream discharge (Q)
+Q, C,
and gauge height 'h' is called "stage- tt'* =-Q*C*
discharge rating curve" q* ltq, -
Qn: ?

Log H Rating curve

I A 200 gll solution of common salt was

discharged into a stream at a constant rate of
Log Q 25 Us. The background concentration of the
salt in the stream water was found to be 10
Gauge l(ell: Here water level is not subject ppm. At a downstream section where the
to fluctuations caused by wind or waves. solution where the solution was believed to
Gauge post is installed in the well.
have been completely mixed, the salt
concentration was found to reach an
Relation between Stream Discharge (Q) and equilibrium value of 45 ppm. Estimate the
Gauge height: Q
: C. I H-ho]' discharge in the stream.
C, and n are rating curye constants for a given
stream gauging section.
(l r- ,erC,
H: gauge height (stage) Sol: C- - YR"R '

Q* +Qr
Stage is the water surface elevation with x10 +25x10-3 x200x1000
respect to some datum
^E Q*
t x 1o-'
ho:3 constant which represents gauge
reading corresponding to zero discharge.
ep: 142.8rr*';f
Measurement of discharge by "Salt- Moving boat Method:
Concentration method" or "Chemical o Used for large rivers
methoil' or "Dilution method ". o a vertical axis type current motor is towed in
a boat at a velocity Vu at right angles to the
stream flow.
nl
o Due to flow velocity (V) the Current meter
U/S Y* | C-i* D/S align itself in the direction of resultant
g
Cni
 velocity (Vp) making an angle 0 with the 02. A 5009/lit solution of Sodium
dichromate
direction of boat. was used as hacer in
measurement of
o The Current meter will register the velocity discharge of a stream. It was dosed at a
Vn. constant rate of 4 lit/sec and at a D/S the
! equilibrium concentration was measured as
Section line
4 ppm. Thc discharge in the stream is
(a) a50 m'/sec (b) 500 m'lsec
(c) 550 m3lsec (d)5x10sm3/sec

nFl/ Itlr r
,"",1
01.(a) 02.(b)
I

Ve:Vpcos$ iV1:Vxsin0

Class Room Practice Questions

01. While calibrating current meter the following

observations were made.
For 12 revolutions in 48 sec, the velocity is
found to be 0.125mlsec.
For 41 revolutions in 60 sec, the velocity is
found to be 0. 255mlsec.
What will be the velocity of flow when the
current meter records 24 revolutions in
50 sec.
(a) 0.194 m/sec (b) 0.374 m/sec
(c) 0.48 m/sec (d) 0.56 m/sec

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